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THE 


pim^cir>ii,ES 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE, 


EMBRACING 

THE    THEORY    OF    THE    SOIL  ;     CLEARING    OF    LAND  ;     PLOWING  ;    MANURING  ;    DRAIlTiNQ    AND 

IRRIGATION  ;     HEDGES    AND    FENCES  ;     MANAGEMENT    OF    MEADOW    AND   PASTURE     LANDS  ; 

CULTIVATION   OF   WHEAT,    RYE,  CORN,    OATS,    BARLEY,    BUCKWHEAT,    HOPS,    TOBACCO, 

CLOVER  AND   ALL    THE  VARIETIES  OF  GRASSES  ;      THE     ECONOMY    OF    LIVE   STOCK 

BREEDING   AND  FEEDING  ;    THE  MANAGEMENT   OF   THE    DAIRY  ;    AND  THE  USE 

OF   MARL,    PEAT,    LIME    AND    GYPSUM,    AND   THE   VARIOUS     SYSTEMS   (W 

CULTIVATION  J   KEEPING    JOURNALS    AND    FARM    RECORDS, 

iC,     &0. 


BY   ALBERT    D.    THAER. 


TRANSLATED   BT 

WILLIAM   SHAW,   ESQ., 

OP  THE  COUNCIL  OF  THE  ROYAL  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY  OF  ENGLAND, 
AND  HON.  MEM.  CER.  AGRI.  OF  FRANCE, 

AND 

CUTHBERT  W.  JOHNSON,   ESQ.,   F.  R.  S., 

ADXHOB  OF  THB  "  FARMER'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA,  kO. 


NEW    YORK: 
A.  O.  MOORE,   AGRICULTURAL  BOOK  PUBLISHER, 

(late  O.  M.  8AXT0N  &  CO.,) 

NO.    140    FULTON    STREET. 
18  5  8. 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSTY  GF 
MASSACHUSETTS 

AMHERST,  MASS. 


r 


PREFACE  TO  THE  LONDON  EDITION. 

In  offering  to  the  notice  of  the  Farmers  of  their  country  a  translation  of  the 
great  Agricultural  work  of  M.  Von  Thaer,  its  Editors  have  only  to  request  of 
those  skillful  cultivators  an  extension  of  the  same  kind  feeling  which  they  have 
(01  so  many  former  occasions  exi)erienced  from  them.  The  appearance  of  the 
work  has  been  delayed  much  longer  than  its  Editors  could  have  anticipated,  by 
unavoidable  causes  in  which  the  reader  would  take  tut  little  interest. 
Octoler  1,  1844. 


CONTENTS. 


MEMOIR  OF  THAER page    3 

SECTION  I. 

The  Fundamental  Principles. — Sketch  of  Systematic  Agriculture. — The  Bases  of  the  Sci- 
ence of  Agriculture. — The  Bases  of  Enterprise. — Capital. — The  Farm  and  the  Manner 
(  of  Taking  Possession  of  it. — Leasehold  Estates. — Hereditary  Leases 11 

\  SECTION  11. 

{  The  Economy,  Organization,  and  Direction  of  Agricultural  Enterprise. — Labor  in  General. 
^  — Draught-Labor. — Horses  and  Oxen. — Manual  Labor. — Proper  Method  of  keeping 

?  the  Journals,  Registers,  and  other  Agricultural  Accounts. — Manure. — Fodder. — Cattle. 

S  — ^Various  Systems  of  Cultivation. — Corn  — Alternate  Cultivation. — Rotations. — Pastu- 

/  rage. — Succession  of  Crops. — Stall-Feeding  of  the  Cattle 35 

]  SECTION  III. 

Constituent  Parts  and  Physical  Properties  of  Soil. — Method  of  acquiring  a  Knovs^ledge  of 
different  Earths,  and  ascertaining  their  Value. — Silica,  Alumina,  Clay,  Lime,  Gyp- 
sum, Marl,  Magnesia,  Iron,  Humus,  Peat. — Theory  of  the  Soil 131 

SECTION  IV. 

Agriculture. — Manuring  and  ameliorating  the  Soil. — Vegetable  Manures. — Mineral  Ma- 
nures.— Agricultural  Implements. — Plowing. — Clearing  Land. — Hedges,  Fences,  and 
Enclosures. — Draining  Land. — Draining  Marshes. — Irrigation. — Earthing  and  Warp- 
ing.— Management  of  Meadove-Land. — Hay-Harvest. — Pastures 200 

SECTION  V. 

Reproduction  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Substances. — The  Harvest — Wheat. — Spring- 
Wheat— Spelt.— Smut  in  Wheat.— Rye.— Bariey.— Oats.— Millet.— Cultivation  of 
Grain  in  Rows  or  with  the  Horse-Hoe. — Leguminous  Crops. — The  Pea. — The  Len- 
til.— Beans. — Vetches. — Buckwheat. — Mixtures  of  different  Kinds  of  Grain.— Culture 
of  Hoed  or  Weeded  Crops.— Vegetables  fortheMarket.— Oil-Plants— Rope-Mustard. 
— Oily  Radish.— Gold  of  Pleasure.— Poppy.— Thread-Plants— Flax— Hemp.— Other 
Thread-Plants.— Coloring-Plants.— Madder.— Dyer's  Wood. — Dyer's  Weld.— Saffron. 
— The  Hop. — Tobacco. — Chicory. — Caraway. — F  ennel — Anise — Potato. — Field  Beet. 
— The  Turnip. — Cabbage. — Carrots. — Parsnip. — Indian  Com. — Clovers. — Lucerne. — 
Sainfoin. — Various  other  Fodder-Plants  and  Varieties  of  Grasses 396 

SECTION  VI. 
Economy  of  Live  Stock. — Homed  Cattle. — Breeding  of  Cattle. — Feeding  Cattle. — The 
Dairy. — Cheese-making. — Fattening  Horned  Cattle. — Swine. — Sheep. — Sheep  Man- 
gers and  Racks. — Treatment  of  Sheep. — Horses 500 


MEMOIR   OF    THAER. 


Of  an  agi-iculturist  so  celebrated  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  of  an  author  so  distinguished  as  the  au- 
thor of  these  volumes,  the  English  fanners  wiH  be  glad  to  receive  some  infoi-mation.  The  editors,  -herefore, 
deem  it  unnecessary  to  apologize  for  the  inti-oduction  of  this  sketch,  the  materials  of  which  they  have  chiefly 
obtained  from  his  Life,  published  in  1839,  at  Leipsic,  in  one  volume,  by  his  son-in-law,  M.  Keorte. 

\  

Ai.BKECHT  Daniel  Thaer  was  bom  in  Oelle,  a  neat  little  town  in  Hanover,  on  the  14th  of 
May,  1752.  His  father,  Johann  Friedrich  Thaer,  was  physician  to  the  Court,  and  bom  in  Lieben- 
werda,  in  Saxony  ;  his  mother,  Sophie  Elisabeth,  was  the  daughter  of  J.  SafFe,  receiver  of  rents 
and  taxes  of  the  district  of  Celle.  Albert  was  the  first-born,  and  had  three  sisters,  Christine,  Al- 
bertine,  and  Wilhelmine,  of  which  the  first  died  in  infancy,  the  second  was  married  to  Captain 
Schweppe,  and  the  youngest  to  the  well-known  privy  counsellor,  Doctor  Jacobi. 

Very  little  would  have  been  known  of  his  early  years  of  boyhood,  and  his  academic  life,  were 
it  not  for  some  manuscripts  found  amongst  his  papers  after  his  death,  and  a  letter  addressed  to  his 
future  consort,  headed  "  My  Life  and  Confessions,  for  Fhilippine  ;"  in  which  he  thus  expressed 
himself: — 

"  My  father  was  a  cool -tempered  and  unaffected  man.  Every  one  who  came  in  contact  with 
him  knew  his  straightforward  way  of  acting,  his  scioipulous  honesty  ;  but  iew,  very  few,  of  hia 
friends  knew  his  noble  and  manly  heart.  Indifferent  to  praise  and  fame,  as  well  as  calumny,  he 
■was  ever  anxious  to  do  good  in  silence ;  and  it  can  be  said  of  him,  Avithout  fear  of  contradiction, 
that  during  his  whole  life  he  could  never  reproach  himself  with  having  been  guilty  of  a  bad  or 
mean  action. 

"  My  mother,  as  much  as  I  can  remember  from  my  early  boyhood,  and  from  what  I  heard  of 
her  after  her  death,  -was  of  a  most  lively  temper,  and  possessed  of  a  good  and  noble  heart,  but  a 
little  Inclined  to  sensibility ;  her  greatest  pleasure  was  to  see  every  one  happy  about  her.  She 
loved  me  dearly  and  spoilt  me.  I  adored  her.  Alas  !  I  lost  her  when  only  a  little  boy,  and  never 
shall  I  efface  from  my  memory  the  day  of  her  death  and  funeral.  I  ■was  very  sickly  and  weak 
during  the  first  years  of  my  infancy,  and  ■was,  as  much  as  I  can  remember  of  myself,  a  very  whim- 
sical boy.  Sometimes  I  learned  with  enthusiasm,  and  often  found  myself  in  such  a  kind  of  ecstacy 
that  I  neither  could  see  nor  hear  what  passed  around  me.  In  these  fits  of  thought  I  forgot  play- 
things and  playfellows  ;  I  was  happy  only  in  my  own  musings.  I  always  preferred  the  company 
of  little  girls  to  boj-s.  I  was  not  ten  years  old  when  T  presented  them  ■with  some  poetry  and  little 
verses,  the  effusions  of  my  heated  imagination  ;  some  of  them  fell  into  my  hands  in  riper  years, 
and,  after  reading  them  over,  I  left  off  poetry  altogether.  I  loved  my  first  private  teacher  very- 
much  ;  I  even  can  remember  him  now.  My  second  teacher  ■was  a  simpleton  ;  he  could  never 
understand  me,  nor  enter  into  my  feelings.  My  antipathy  to  this  man  grew  daily  greater ;  I 
could  not  leara  of  him,  nor  could  he  teach  me  anything.  At  last,  when  in  my  thirteenth  year,  I 
got  rid  of  him.  and  he  being  encumbered  with  debts,  I  gave  him  my  saving-box  when  he  left. — 
Whether  I  did  this  for  pity's  sake,  or  joy  to  get  rid  of  him,  T  did  not  know.  My  father  sent  me, 
the  same  year,  to  school,  but  here  I  was  not  in  my  sphere  ;  I  hated  the  low  and  vulgar  conduct  of 
my  school-fellows  as  much  as  the  vulgar  mode  of  correction  of  the  masters.  However,  I  selected 
some  boys  a  little  better  educated  for  my  daily  companions,  especially  one  of  the  name  of  Strauss, 
(227) 


MEMOIR    OF   THAER. 


who  unfortunately  combined  with  his  romantic  ideas  a  ^eat  inclination  to  drink  ;  we  daily  played 
truant,  but  nevertheless  I  applied  myself  in  my  private  lessons  with  great  eagerness  and  perseve- 
rance to  the  study  of  matliematics,  history,  &c.  so  that  I  contrived  to  ingratiate  myself  in  the  good 
opinion  of  my  masters,  who  never  missed  me  during  the  school  hours,  being  always  ready  when 
called  to  my  class.    My  best  friend  amongst  the  masters  was  a' teacher  of  the  French  language, 
named  Ferry,  who  professed  secretly  all  the  principles  of  freethinkers.     He  procured  for  me  all 
the  works  of  Voltaire,  and  other  French  freethinkers,  and,  some  time  after,  when  I  understood 
English,  all  the  vi'orks  of  freethinkers  of  that  nation.     This  was  a  pretty  preparation  for  my  con- 
firmation, which  was  now  at  hand.     The  religious  instniction  I  received  of  the  Lutheran  pastor 
Bode,  preparatory  to  my  confirmation,  produced  no  effect  upon  my  mind  in  favor  of  the  truth  of  ' 
our  divine  religion,  having  studied  all  the  works  written  against  it  with  so  much  energy.     I  often    i 
insinuated  to  pastor  Bode  my  doubts  on  religious  matters,  but  either  he  did  not  or  'would  not  un-    ' 
derstand  me  ;  I  ^vas  wavering  betvi^een  deism  and  atheism — so  much  so,  that  had  it  not  been  for    , ' 
the  love  towards  my  revered  father,  and  the  persuasions  of  Ferry,  I  should  have  avoided  being 
present  at  the  imposing  and  sacred  ceremony  of  confirmation,  w^hich  produced  such  an  effect  up- 

"     on  my  j'oung  mind,  that  I  prayed  sincerely  to  God  to  give  me  faith  ,  and  had  I  not  continued  to 

!    read  \\-ith  Feny  and  one  Belzing  so  many  blasphemous  works,  I  should  have  returned  to  my  for-     i 
mer  religious  principles  much  sooner,  as  I  did  at  a  later  period  of  my  life.     I  continued  for  .some 
time  longer  to  ramble  with  Strauss  and  other  school-fellows,  to  visit  coffee-houses  and  billiard- 
rooms,  but  had  a  great  antipathy  to  other  debaucheries.     The  company  of  comedians  of  Mr.  Sei- 

j  ler  came  just  now  to  Celle,  performing  comedies  and  tragedies.  This  was  a  new  life  for  me  ;  I 
became  acquainted  v/ith  each  individual  of  this  company  ;  they  all  were  fond  of  me  ;  the  beauti- 
ful Madame  Koch  gave  me  lessons  in  daucmg,  and  I  suddenly  deserted  all  my  fonner  compan- 
ions, neglecting  them  to  such  a  degi-ee  tliat  one  Mackphail,  considering  my  conduct  as  an  insult  to 
the  whole  school,  sent  me  a  challenge,  which  ended  in  my  wounding  him  in  the  hand.  My  father 
loved  me  dearly,  but  did  not  much  inquire  into  my  conduct :  he  allowed  me  a  great  deal  of  money, 

'  but  owing  to  my  attachment  to  Ferry,  whose  salary  was  but  small,  I  provided  him  with  money, 
and  having  myself  an  extravagant  taste  for  dress,  I  was  often  in  great  difficulties  to  pay  my  bills, 
of  which  my  father  •w-as  ignorant,  till  my  creditors  became  trouble.some,  and  my  good  father  im- 
mediately discharged  them,  after  giving  me  some  kind  admonition. 

"I  ^vasnow  in  my  sixteenth  year,  and  for  the  first  time  it  occurred  to  me  that,  although  conver- 
sant with  the  most  of  the  modem  languages,  I  did  not  understand  a  word  of  Latin,  and  thought 
the  knowledge  of  this  language  indispensable  to  my  future  prospects  in  life.  I  spoke  to  Rector 
StefFens,  and  got  permission  of  my  father  to  leave  school  entirely,  and  devote  my  whole  time  to  the 
study  of  Latin.  In  less  than  tvk-elve  months  I  was  completely  master  of  a  language  which  is  ^ 
often  the  torment  of  boys  from  their  sixth  to  their  twentieth  years,  and  still  remain  ignorant  of  it. 
Since  then  I  have  v/ritten  several  pamphlets  in  Latin,  which  ^vere  admired  ;  and  in  Gottingen 
my  Discourses  were  generally  delivered  in  that  language.  Doctor  Taube,  physician  to  the  king, 
gave  me  lessons  in  natural  history,  botany,  and  anatomy ;  I  bade  farewell  to  philosophy  and  belles 
letlre^,  and  began  in  earnest,  and  v/itli  gi'eat  perseverance,  to  study  physic  ;  but  still  I  was  in  bad 
odor  amongst  many  of  the  learned,  and  it  was  said,  when  they  heard  of  my  progress,  that  hence- 
forth thej'  should  not  despair  of  making  something  of  the  most  stapid  of  pupils. 

"  In  my  eighteenth  year,  my  father  sent  me  to  the  University  of  Gottingen.  The  first  winter  I 
did  not  leave  the  Anatomical  School,  and  although  I  gave  myself  up  to  the  most  intense  study,  I  will- 
inglj'  entered  into  all  the  gaieties  and  amusements  so  much  sought  by  German  students,  but  avoid- 
ed carefully  debaucheries  of  any  kind  ;  they  gave  me  the  cognomen,  Half  Renommist,  owing  to 
my  puerile  look  and  feeble  and  ^veak  voice.  Unzer  and  Ebeling,  t"wo  students  in  physic,  took  '^ 
me  under  their  powerful  protection,  and  extricated  me  out  of  many  scrapes. 

"  In  the  second  year  of  my  residence  in  Gottingen  I  entered  my  name  for  a  course  of  lectures  on 
practical  phj-sic,  against  the  advice  of  all  my  friends,  but  I  have  never  regretted  so  doing, 
as  there  never  has  been,  and  probably  never  will  be,  a  greater  man  at  the  ixniversity 
than  Doctor  Schroeder,  physician  to  the  king,  who  gave,  at  that  period,  his  celebrated  lec- 
tures on  practical  physic.  Schroeder  himself  was  astonished  at  the  step  I  had  taken  ;  but 
when  he  perceived  that  I  fullj'  understood  him,  I  became  one  of  his  favorite  pupils;  nor  had 
I  the  advantage  alone  of  receiving  private  lessons  gratis,  but  he  took  me  with  him  in  most  of  his 
professional  visits,  where  I  had  all  the  advantages  of  his  great  practice.  Thus  I  caught  a  putrid 
fever  which  ^vas  then  veiy  prevalent ;  Schroeder  attendee?  me  day  and  night,  and,  giving  up  all 
hopes  of  my  reooveiy,  he  observed  to  one  of  his  friends,  not  thinking  that  I  understood  what  he 
said,  '  The  expansion  of  the  sinews  increases.'  'Then,'  answered  I,  in  a  quiet  manner,  'I  .shall 
(228) 


MEMOIK   OF   THAEB. 


die  in  four  days,  according  to  such  and  such  a  rule  of  Hippocrates :  pray  prepare  my  father  to 
receive  the  news  of  my  death.'  However,  immediately  after,  a  sudden  lum  in  the  disorder  talcing 
place,  I  soon  recovered ;  not  so  my  memory,  which  I  lost  for  a  time,  so  that  I  had  forgotten  the 
names  of  my  best  friends  ;  my  nerves  were  so  completely  shaken,  that  I  had  no  wish  to  recover.  , ' 
After  my  recovery,  Professor  Schroeder  being  himself  attacked  with  the  same  fever,  requested  of 
his  wife  that  no  other  physician  than  myself  should  attend  him  ;  but  when  he  became  light-head- 
ed, she  called  in  all  the  physicians  of  (^ttingen,  and  these  gentlemen  not  agreeing  in  opinion 
respecting  the  treatment  of  the  patient,  this  great  and  learned  man  fell  a  victim  to  ignorance  and 
jealousy,  April  21,  1772.  I  cannot  think  of  this  celebrated  and  good  man  without  shedding  tears 
of  regj-et  and  gratitude. 

"  After  his  death  I  did  not  attend  any  more  lectures,  although  I  paid  for  them.  Schroeder  was 
succeeded  by  Ernst  Gottfried  Baldinger,  bom  in  Gross  Vargula,  near  Erfurt,  1738  ;  and  descend- 
ed in  a  direct  line,  on  his  mother's  side,  from  Doctor  Martin  Luther.  He  established  a  dispensary 
for  poor  patients,  and  gave  medicine  gratis,  on  condition  of  his  being  attended  by  about  thirty 
pupils.  Here  it  ■was  that  I  first  began  to  display  the  knowledge  I  had  gained  fi;om  my  friend,  the 
late  Doctor  Schroeder;  and  Baldinger,  not  seeing  me  attend  his  lectures,  naturally  supposing  I 
was  lazy  and  dull  of  comprehension,  exclaimed,  with  astonishment.  "  ^Vhat  will  become  of  this 
boy  ?"  Whereupon,  considering  myself  insulted  by  the  Doctor,  I  wished  to  retire  ;  ^vhen  he 
embraced  me  and  said,  good-humoredly,  '  No,  no  !  such  a  clever  young  fellow  never  came  under 

'     my  observation.'     From  this  time  I  became  his  best  friend  and  daily  visitor  ;  I  passed  whole  days 

'  and  weeks  in  his  valuable  and  extensive  library,  and  almost  in  the  constant  societj'  of  his  amiable, 
highly  gifted,  and  accomplished  wife  ;  his  confidence  was  so  great,  that  he  left  the  entire  direc- 

\ '    tion  of  his  dispensary  to  me,  and  even  entrusted  me  with  the  care  of  his  o^vn  family  when  unwell. 

'  Having  given  up  all  connexion  with  my  former  friends,  the  students,  I  selected  one  Leisewitz, 
the  audior  of  'Julius  de  Tarent.'  We  sympatliised  in  each  other's  feelings,  and  became  insepa- 
rable. His  amiable  qualities  and  inoffensive  wit  drew  around  us  the  best  society ;  but,  to  our 
great  regret,  many  of  them  belonged  to  a  new  school  of  freethinkers,  whose  principles  we  endeav- 
ored, by  the  assistance  of  the  pious  Madame  Baldinger,  to  eradicate  from  their  minds;  and  thus 
it  was  that  Providence  brought  me  over  again  to  the  firm  belief  of  the  truth  of  our  Divine 
religion. 

"  In  the  mean  time  I  paid  the  sQ-ictest  attention  to  my  profession,  and  was  so  completely  suc- 
cessful, that  there  was  no  patient  of  any  consequence  in  Gottingen  that  I  was  not  called  in  to  ; 
but  as  I  was  not  allowed  to  make  up  prescriptions,  not  having  taken  my  degree,  and  in  order  to 
avoid  a  heavy  penalty,  I  was  accompanied  in  my  professional  visits  by  Doctor  ToUe,  a  man  who 
knew  the  lectures  of  Schroeder  by  heart,  but  did  not  understand  them.  I  dictated  to  him  what  to 
prescribe,  he  took  the  fee,  and  was  content.  I  had  nothing  but  the  honor,  and  plenty,  of  good 
dinners.  At  last  I  took  my  degree  as  Doctor  of  Medicine,  and  resigned  my  patients  to  the  care 
of  Dr.  Strohmeyer,  which  was  the  means  of  inti-oducing  him  into  practice.  I  left  Gottingen  full 
of  honor,  with  tears  in  my  eyes,  at  leaving  behind  me  so  many  dear  friends.  Puffed  up  with 
pride,  I  arrived  in  Celle,  but  was  received  with  coldness  and  pity.  This  was  too  much  for  me  ; 
I  could  not  brook  the  insult;  but  said  to  mj-self,  'How  can  I  expect  to  be  othei-wise  received, 
when  I  consider  my  former  conduct,  and  look  back  on  the  heedless  manner  in  which  I  passed 
my  boyish  years  V  My  consolation  was,  that  •  I  should  be  soon  as  happy  here  as  I  was  in  Gottin- 
gen' in  the  choice  of  my  friends.  The  physicians  in  Cellc  were  fifteen  years  behind  in  their 
practice  ;  they  had  heard  of  a  new  style  of  practice,  but  regarded  it  as  a  mere  cliimera.     When 

1 1  I  ventured  to  say  a  word  or  two,  they  did  not  understand  me  :  when  I  appealed  to  some  great 
authority,  they  were  ignorant  of  it :  "when  I  spoke  from  my  own  practical  experience,  they  looked 
at  me,  from  head  to  foot,  and  said  sneeringly,  'Well,  well:  experience  will  come  in  time,'  But 
when  by  chance  I  ventured  to  make  some  proposal,  they  turned  round,  and  wondered  where 
they  should  find  room  enough  in  the  churchyards  to  bury  my  patients.  The  great  applause- with 
which  my  Dissertations  had  been  received  m  all  the  learned  journals,  even  in  England  as  vv^ell 
as  in  France,  gave  me  courage,  hoping  that  this  circumstance  would  make  some  impression  on 
the  mind  of  the  public  ;  but  it  was  generally  thought  I  had  ill  employed  my  time,  and  knew  httle 
or  nothing.  Being  obliged  to  frequent  society,  I  was  so  disgusted  with  the  general  tone 
»nd  the  topics  of  their  conversation,  that  I  was  almost  in  despair  ;  at  last,  some  young  ladies  treated  . 
me  with  more  attention.  I  began  to  reconcile  myself  to  my  forlorn  condition,  but  still  I  was  not  ' 
what  I  wished  to  be  :  the  worst  of  all  -was,  I  had  no  friend ;  not  a  human  being  that  understood  me. 
I  wi-ote  daily  to  my  friend  Leisewitz  ;  he  resided  in  Hanover,  and  was  just  as  unliappj-  as  my- 
self, except  that  he  had  some  friends,  and  plenty  of  money.  In  this  respect  I  was  differently 
(229) 


Vi  MEMOIR   OF   THAER, 

sitaated,  and  although  in  want  of  money  to  bay  books,  I  was  determined  not  to  be  any  expense 
to  my  father.  Some  watches,  snuff-boxes,  and  rings,  presents  I  had  received  in  Gottingen,  soon 
found  their  way  to  the  hands  of  Jews  at  half  price.  I  was  even,  against  my  will,  driven  to  the 
necessity  of  accepting  small  fees  from  mechanics  and  peasants.  This  cut  me  to  the  heart ;  but  I 
could  not  help  myself.  The  follovdng  circumstance,  however,  overcame  me  more  than  all :  My 
father  w^as  a  man  of  great  know^ledge  and  experience,  but,  like  all  old  men,  he  remained  faithful 
to  the  old  method  of  practice.  I  visited  many  of  his  patients,  and  without  telling  me  exactly  what 
mode  of  treatment  I  was  to  pursue,  he  only  observed,  '  You  wiU  act  so  and  so  ;'  however,  I  saw  the 
patients  had  confidence  in  my  father  only,  and  not  in  me  ;  they  wished  me  to  be  his  tool,  and  I  \ 
therefore  followed  his  mode  of  practice,  and  thus  lost  several  of  his  patients,  w^ho  could  have  been 
saved  had  I  followed  my  own  method.  Among  others.  Doctor  Caritens  died  during  a  momeutaiy 
absence  of  my  father,  who  recommended  while  stepping  into  his  traveling  chariot,  to  bleed  the 
Doctor  a  second  time.  I  did  as  he  bid  me,  although  convinced  that  emetics  and  opening  medicine 
would  cure  the  patient  without  fail :  the  Doctor  died,  and  you  may  easily  imagine  the  state  of 
my  feelings.  I  had  just  begun  to  publish  a  work  on  practical  physic,  but  had  no  heart  to  finish  it  ' , 
after  this  sad  catastrophe.  I  betook  myself  again  to  philosophy.  I  v^^ished  daily  to  return  to  Got- 
tingen, if  I  could  do  so  with  honor.  I  passed  three  years  under  such  painful  circumstances,  when 
my  friend  Leisewitz  invited  me  to  go  v^^ith  him  to  Berlin,  for  which  purpose  his  brother-in-lavs^  in 
Brunswick  would  advance  me  money  to  defray  my  expenses.  Without  much  consideration,  I 
accepted  the  invitation,  and  my  portmanteau  v^^as  soon  ready.  Arriving  in  Berlin,  I  found  myself 
in  my  element,  and  began  to  breathe  freely.  Jerusalem  and  Leasing  had  given  us  letters  of  in- 
troduction to  the  greatest  men  in  Berlin  ;  but  they  knew  us  already,  Leisewitz  as  author  of '  Julius 
Von  Tarent,'  and  myself  as  the  author  of  my  Dissertation.  We  had  daily  the  choice  of  the  first 
society ;  covers  were  laid  for  us  La  the  first  families  daily,  for  dinner  as  well  as  supper.  Von 
Zetlitz  sent  a  general  invitation  that  covers  were  laid  for  us  every  day  during  our  stay  in  Berlin. 

,    Most  of  the  time  ^ve  could  spare  w^as  divided  between  physicians  and  philosophers,  of  which  the 

' '  latter  had  the  greater  share.  Spalding,  Mendelssohn,  Eberhaxd,  Engel,  Nicolai,  Reichard,  andMdme. 
Bamberger,  daugliterof  Doct.  Sack,  Bishop  of  Berlin,  honored  us  w^ith  their  most  sincere  friendship 
The  latter,  a  highly  gifted  and  accomplished  lady,  possessed  the  rare  art  of  spreading  over  the 
most  abstract  hypothesis  and  theorem  the  brightest  and  most  charming  light ;  Jerusalem,  the  father 
of  the  ill-fated  Werther  (see  the  '  Sorrows  of  Werther,'  by  Goethe),  used  to  send  her  his  works 
to  con-ect,  and  she  alone  alone  was  able  to  console  and  comfort  him,  when  he  was  infoi-med  of  the 
death  of  his  beloved  son.  This  amiable  lady  assumes  in  common  life  the  character  of  a  plain 
woman,  and  when  at  court,  as  friend  of  the  Queen  and  the  Princess  Amalie,  she  won  all  hearts 
hy  her  truly  noble  manners  and  unconstrained  courtesy  ;  at  court  beloved,  she  was  admired,  nay, 
adored  in  the  philosophical  clubs.  But  do  not  think  that  here  alone  we  spent  all  our  time  ;  Ma- 
dame Bamberger  knew  how  to  blend  study  with  amusement;  she  issued  frequently  cards  of 
invitation  to  select  parties,  for  suppers  and  balLs,  and  her  house  w^as  the  point  of  union  of  all  that 
was  learned,  beautiful,  and  amiable.  Thus  Berlin  became  my  Paradise.  I  had  the  most  tempt- 
ing offers  from  the  Minister  of  State  to  stay  here  ;  hut  the  illness  of  my  father  obliged  me,  after  a 
stay  of  three  months,  to  return  home.  I  visited  Lessing  on  my  journey  back  ;  stayed  two  days, 
which  were  the  most  interesting  of  all  days  I  ever  remember.  It  v^^as  now,  I  thought,  high  time 
to  think  earnestly  of  getting  into  good  practice  as  a  physician.  I  followed,  in  order  to  effect  this, 
my  ovs^n  method  ;  I  cared  not  for  criticism  ;  good  luck  attended  me  ;  I  was  successful  in  many 
cases  given  up  by  others  as  hopeless.  My  father  watched  me  now  closely,  but  let  me  have  free 
sway ;  he  felt  great  pleasure  at  my  success  and  would  now  and  then  say,  '  Well  done,  my  bsy  ;' 
but  nevertheless  entreated  of  me  not  to  offend  a  certain  great  personage  ;  which,  however,  I 
frankly  confessed  I  had  already  done,  not  caring  much  about  it,  as  it  was  my  intention  not  to  stay 
in  Celle.  I  wanted  a  greater  sphere  of  action.  My  father's  weakness  and  infirmity  increa.sed  daily, 
which  prevented  him  from  visiting  his  patients,  and  determined  him  to  give  up  altogether  his 
practice,  ar  d  to  retire  from  a  profession  in  which,  during  many  years,  he  had  so  nobly  done  bis 
duty  ;  he  informed  his  patients  of  it,  telling  them  that  they  were  perfectly  free  and  at  liberty  to 
take  the  advice  of  his  son,  or  any  other  physician,  thereby  insinuating,  that  in  their  choice  they 
must  not  suffer  themselves  to  be  influenced  by  their  feelings  of  friendship  and  regard  towards 
him.  Almost  all  his  patients  honored  me  -with  their  confidence.  Now,  my  dear  Philippine,  a  few 
words  more.  I  am  not  rich ;  but  my  affairs  are  not  in  a  deranged  or  desperate  state,  and  were  I 
to  die  to  day,  and  my  property  sold,  it  would  fetch  5,000  dollars  at  least,  so  that  I  possess  2,000 
dollars  more  than  my  father  gave  me.     I  have  but  400  dollars  salary  ;  my  practice  is  good,  and 

I    becomes  daily  more  lucrative ;  the  income  I  derive  from  it  now  is  more  than  sufficient  ^  keep  a 

I  (230) 


MEMOIR   OF   THAER.  Vll 

good  and  respectable  house ;  my  prospects  are  flattering  ;  but  I  can  and  must  not  name  them  at 
present ;  I  will  not  bring  them  into  account." 

Here  ends  the  letter  addressed  to  his  future  consort ;  he  calls  it  his  confession,  and  surely  the 
writer  proves  throughout  that  he  was  guided  by  a  most  sincere  and  open  heart.  He  was  now 
physician  to  the  parish  and  the  House  of  Correction,  and  shortly  afterwards,  (1780,  without  soli- 
citing for,  or  even  expecting  it,  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  Court  of  Hanover. 

Thaer,  being  now  at  the  summit  of  his  profession,  he  was  called  in  to  all  consultations,  far  and 
near ,  hit  opinion  always  had  weight.  '  His  noble  demeanor,  the  great  kindness  and  affability 
with  vs^hich  he  treated  every  one,  rich  or  poor,  won  all  hearts.  His  talents  were  held  in  the  high- 
est estimation ;  in  short,  he  was  looked  up  to  by  all.  However,  Thaer,  (although  the  learned 
Himly  called  him  the  most  talented  and  most  successful  man  he  ever  knew  in  his  profession,)  1 1 
notwithstanding  his  great  and  lucrative  practice,  got  nevertheless  daily  more  and  more  tired  of  it.  ^ 
This  mast  be  attributed  to  the  sympathy  for  his  patients,  and  a  kind  of  sensibility  which  he  never 
could  conquer,  and  which  induced  him,  several  years  afterwards,  to  relinquish  a  profession  of 
which  he  had  been  the  ornament,  and  still,  at  this  period,  continued  to  be,  to  the  greatest  joy  of 
his  friends  and  admirers.  Thaer  now  thought  seriously  of  his  maniage  ;  he  had  opened  his  heart 
to  Philippine — he  loved  her  dearly,  and  was  loved  in  return.  Her  parents,  however,  and  herself, 
being  very  religious  and  devout,  could  not  forget  his  younger  years ;  a  pamphlet  on  religious 
matters,  written  with  great  freedom  and  wit,  made  a  great  noise  amongst  the  orthodox  clergy 
and  laity ;  it  was  published  by  Lessing,  under  the  title  of  "  Fragments  of  the  Unknown  of  Wolt- 
enbuttel,"  but  presumed  to  be  written  by  Thaer.  This  circumstance  was  foi  a  time  a  great  ob- 
stacle to  his  happiness ;  but,  at  last,  his  great  fame,  and  the  general  esteem  he  enjoyed,  brought 
on  the  happy  day  of  his  union  with  the  object  of  his  affection.  He  was  married  on  the  19th  of 
April,  1786.  His  lady  was  the  daughter  of  a  nobleman,  and  President  of  the  High  Court  of  Ap- 
peal in  Celle.     His  name  was  George  WiUiam  Von  Willich. 

Thaer,  immediately  after  his  marriage,  moved  from  Celle  to  a  little  garden  beautifully  situated 
on  the  river  AUer,  near  the  town.  After  having  bought  this  piece  of  ground,  he  built  a  small  cot- 
tage upon  it,  furnished  it  handsomely,  and  spent  there  the  honeymoon.  He  was  now  happy  ;  but 
became  daily  more  averse  to  his  profession.  In  his  hours  of  relaxation,  he  amused  himself  by  cul- 
tivating flowers,  and  thus  became  a  florist.  The  garden  became  now  too  small  for  him  ;  he  en- 
larged it  considerably,  making  a  purchase  of  sixteen  acres  of  ground,  and  enclosing  the  whole. 

Thaer's  garden  soon  became  the  admiration  of  the  inhabitants  of  Celle  ;  and  w^hen  he  began  to 
lay  out  plantations  and  orchards,  to  cultivate  herbage  and  vegetables,  the  whole  countiy  were  as- 
tonished at  his  science  in  the  art  of  cultivation.  But  Thaer  was  not  the  man  to  stop  here  ;  he  now 
seriously  contemplated  the  improvement  of  Agriculture,  and,  in  order  to  carry  out  his  plans,  he 
purchased  a  considerable  tract  of  land.  He  followed  his  agi'icultural  pursuits  with  heart  and  soul, 
at  the  same  time  not  neglecting  his  patients.  He  was  daily  seen,  -when  coming  home  fi-om  his 
\ '  visits,  running  to  the  plow,  or  occupying  himself  in  his  fields,  orchard,  or  garden.  Just  about  this 
I ,  time,  (1 796,)  when  he  seriously  contemplated  the  relinquishing  his  profession,  could  he  do  so  with 
'  honor,  he  received  from  London  his  patent  as  physician  to  his  Majesty  George  the  Third.  This 
honor  was  unexpected,  not  having  been  solicited  ;  he  could  not  well,  under  these  circumstances, 
withdraw  himself  at  once  from  his  profession,  but  began  by  degrees  to  resign  his  practice,  and 
recommend  those  professional  men  he  thought  most  clever.  Thaer,  having  now  more  time  on 
hand  to  pursue  his  favorite  occupation  of  the  improvement  of  Agriculture,  kept  pi-incipally  m 
view  the  establishing  an  experimental  husbandry,  and  the  improvement  of  bad  and  ungrateful 
soils  to  such  a  degree  as  to  yield  a  good,  or,  at  least,  a  proportionate  return  for  the  money  laid 
out.  Ee  likewise  studied  the  best  works  on  Agriculture :  Bergen's  work,  published  1781,  on 
Improvement  of  Breeding  Cattle  and  Stall-feeding,  was  very  useful  to  him,  of  which  work  a  new 
edition  was  published  in  Berlin,  1800,  by  Thaer  himself,  who  enriched  the  same  with  his  own 
remarks  and  experimental  observations.  He  took,  likewise,  the  advice  of  his  friend,  Schubard 
von  Kbefeld,  so  celebrated  as  an  enthusiastic  freemason,  introducing  the  system  of  strict  observ-  [ : 
ance,  or  reestablishing  the  system  of  Templars.  Thaer  gave  Schubard  the  name  of  '•  The  ardent 
apostle  of  the  culture  of  clover  and  stall-feeding ;"  he  little  thought  then  that  he  himself  would 
soon  excel  him.  He  combined  with  the  culture  of  herbage  fodder,  the  growth  of  carrots,  cab- 
bages and  potatoes — ^which  latter  root  he  most  vehemently  defended  against  its  numerous  adver- 
saries and  assailants.  His  agricultural  implements  were  of  the  most  ingenious  kind,  and  mostly 
made  in  England.  His  work  on  English  Husbandry  was  so  well  received  in  England,  that  die 
Board  of  Agriculture  sent  him  unanimously  their  thanks.  The  letter  was  dated  Whitehall,  June 
6th,  1797 : 
(231) 


^ 


MEMOIR    OF   THAER. 


"  Resoli-ed,  That  the  thanks  of  this  Board  be  given  to  Dr.  Thaer,  D.  M.,  of  Celle,  in  Germany, 
and  physician  to  his  Britannic  Majesty,  Elector  of  Brunswick  Lunebourg,  for  his  late  valuable 
commuuicatiou,  as  well  as  for  the  intended  treatise  he  promises  to  send  to  the  Board,  as  soon  as 
prmted,  comprehending  a  comparative  view  of  the  British  and  German  Husbandry. 

[L.  S.J  (Signed)        "JOHN  SINCLAIR,  President." 

Thaer's  fame  was  now  known  from  one  end  of  Europe  to  the  other.  The  most  celebrated  agii- 
culturists  of  England,  Pi-ance,  Denmark,  Germany,  &c.  courted  his  friendship ;  his  works  were 
studied  everywhere,  when,  curious  to  relate,  the  farmers  in  his  immediate  neighborhood  called  , 
him  the  English  farmer,  and  called  his  fai-m  a  toy  to  play  with.  Thaer  now  set  out  on  a  tour 
through  Denmark  and  German^',  visiting  all  the  great  landed  proprietors  ;  he  made  a  long  stay  at 
Essenrode,  with  his  most  intimate  ii-iend.  Director  Von  Bulow.  "  To  him,"  he  says  in  a  letter  to  a 
friend,  "  I  owe  my  success  in  agricultural  pursuits  ;"  and  w^hen,  in  1802,  he  was  informed  of  his 
death,  he  wrote  again,  "  In  Bulow  1  have  lost  my  best  friend,  my  teacher  and  benefactor.  I  shall 
ever  remember  this  truly  noble  man,  and  shall  ever  be  gi-ateful  to  him." 

Thaer  received  a  great  many  visitors  of  distinction,  anxious  to  see  his  establishment  and  visit 
his  school  for  the  study  of  Agi-iculture,  which  he  had  lately  formed.  Amongst  the  first  was  Baron 
Von  Hardenburg,  afterwards  so  well  known  as  first  Minister  and  gi-eat  Chancellor  of  the  King  of 
Russia,  with  the  title  of  Prince  Hardenburg;  he  was  accompanied  by  the  talented  Benjamin  Con- 
stant, w-ho  had  married  the  Countess  Hardenburg.  These  frequent  visits,  and  the  immense  num- 
ber of  letters  he  received  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  many  of  which  he  was  obliged  to  answer, 
took  up  much  of  his  time  ;  so  that  he  was,  although  reluctantly,  obliged  to  request  his  numerous 
con-espondents,  through  most  of  the  continental  newspapers,  to  spare  him  as  much  as  possible. 
and  not  to  write  him  on  trivial  matters.  The  j'ear  1803  was  fatal  to  him — the  French  occupied 
Hanover  ;  he  immediatel}'  sent  his  wife  and  two  children  to  Prussia,  where  they  were  most  heart- 
ily received  by  the  Countess  Von  Hzenplitz  in  the  Mark,  and  stayed  there  till  the  Trench  army 
evacuated  Hanover.  The  French  Generals  Moi-tier,  and  afterwards  Bemadotte,  treated  Thaer 
with  great  kindness  and  respect.  His  property  was  protected  ;  he  continued  his  pursuits  quite 
unmolested,  as  well  in  his  school  as  in  the  field  :  but  his  heart  ached ;  he  saw  his  countiy  wasted ;  \ ' 
he  feared  the  French  would  keep  possession  of  Hanover  for  a  length  of  time  ;  or,  should  they  be 
obliged  to  evacuate  it,  a  war,  in  which  Prussia  and  Russia  would  take  part,  must  ensue,  and  the 
whole  country  would  be  ruined.  He  had  received  several  letters  from  Hardenburg,  inviting  him 
to  settle  in  Prussia,  and  although  the  offers  were  tempting,  he  declined  accepting  them ;  till  at  last 
he  received  a  pressing  letter  from  the  King  himself,  invifftig  him  to  come  and  reside  in  Prussia. — 
The  following  advantages  were  granted:  ' 

1.  Thaer's  nomination  as  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  | 

2.  A  grant  of  400  acres  of  land  in  the  district  of  Wollup ;  but, 

3.  Should  this  land  not  suit  for  agricultural  experiments,  or  the  situation  of  Wollup  not  be  eli-   ' 
gible  for  the  establishment  of  an  Agricultural  Academy,  Thaer  was  at  liberty  to  sell  the  land  and 
buy  a  freehold,  granting  him  all  the  privileges  attached  to  a  landed  estate  belonging  to  a  noble- 
man. 

4.  Protection  granted  to  his  academy,  and  such  privileges  as  are  requisite  for  obtaining  the  ob-   - 
ject  for  which  it  is  established. 

5.  Entire  liberty  of  the  press  in  regard  to  the  Agi-icultural  Journal,  of  which  Thaer  was  the 
editor. 

6.  Pel-mission  to  practice  his  profession  as  physician. 

7.  His  nomination  as  privy  counsellor. 

Thaer  set  out  for  Berlin  in  June,  1804,  accepting  the  offers  of  the  King;  took  po.ssession  of  the 
400  acres  of  land,  sold  it  immediately,  and  bought  a  landed  estate  called  Moglin,  with  all  the  privi- 
leges of  a  nobleman  attached  to  it,  and  added  to  it  a  large  farm  called  Konigshof,  not  far  off'. — 
This  property  is  situated  in  the  Mittel  Mark,  about  five  German  miles  distant  from  Berlin.  He 
took  possession  of  Moglin  on  the  30th  of  June,  1804,  and  returned  once  more  to  his  native  towTi 
in  order  to  an-ange  his  aff"airs  and  take  leave  of  his  numerous  friends.  He  did  not  lose  time,  but 
immediately  sold  by  public  auction  all  his  property ;  even  his  valuable  library  and  medical  appa- 
ratus were  assigned  to  the  hammer.  He  closed  his  school  at  Michaelmas,  took  an  affectionate 
leave  of  his  pupils  and  friends,  and  left  Celle  on  the  first  of  October,  accompanied  by  his  family, 
his  friend  Einhoff,  and  his  gardener  and  family — in  all,  twentj*three  persons.  On  his  (uiival  in 
Prussia,  Thaer  was  not  idle ;  he  immediately  took  such  measures  as  would  best  ensure  tht;  object  , 
of  his  undertaking.  In  the  purchase  of  Moglin,  he  had  not  consulted  his  own  interest,  the  soil  be-  j 
ing  rather  poor  ;  bat  his  establishment  being  experimental,  his  sole  aim  was  to  improve  the  soil,    3 


MEMOIR    OF   THAER.  II 

and  to  bring  it  to  such  a  state  of  cultivation  as  to  ensure  a  commensurate  return  in  proportion  to 
tlie  capital  and  labor.  The  first  years  of  his  residence  in  Moglin  proved  unfortunate  to  him  ;  the 
rot  destroyed  most  of  his  flock  of  sheep  ;  then  came  the  preparation  for  the  war  of  1806,  so  unfor- 
tunate for  Prussia ;  the  occupation  of  the  whole  kingdom  by  the  French  for  some  years;  the  great 
want  of  money,  and  impoverishment  of  the  middle  and  laboring  classes,  and  the  devastation  of 
the  greatest  part  of  the  countrj-.  Thaer  could  not  foresee  the  great  calamities  which  assailed  him 
almost  on  his  entrance  in  Prussia ;  but  notwithstanding  all  those  untoward  circumstances,  he  stood 

,  firm,  devoting  most  of  his  time  to  study,  hoping  that  soon  he  might  be  enabled  to  establish  his 
academy.  He  considered  it  as  his  duty  towards  the  King  and  the  whole  country,  to  keep  his 
promise  as  soon  as  circumstances  of  a  more  favorable  nature  would  enable  him  so  to  do.  The 
building  vs^as,  indeed,  finished  by  June,  1806,  and  the  opening  of  the  academy  was  fixed  to  take 
place  on  the  16th  of  October  ;  but  then  came  tlie  battle  of  Jena  and  its  consequences.  Thaer  still  , ' 
despaired  not,  and  to  his  great  joy  he  received  twenty  pupils  during  tlie  followng  year;  this 
number  increased  yearly,  and  at  length  he  had  the  gi-eat  satisfaction  and  unspeakable  pleasure  of 
seeing  his  great  work  finished.     It  is  needless  to  say  that  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  \vhen  Prussia 

'    recovered  from  the  deep  wounds  that  the  war  had  inflicted,  Thaei-  was  not  idle  in  tlie  cultivation 
of  his  estate,  which  he  brought  at  last  to  the  highest  state  of  perfection  ;  but,  above  all,  he  distin- 
guished himself  more  than  any  one  before  bj' improving  the  quality  of  sheep's  wool.     He  stood 
now  on  the  pinnacle  of  his  glory  ;  almost  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  complimented  him  on  his 
great  success.     Those  of  Prussia,  Russia,  Saxony,  Hanover,  Bavaria,  and  Wirteraberg,  sent  him 
their  orders  of  knighthood  ;  noblemen  from  all  parts  of  the  world  came  to  visit  him,  especially 
from  England.     They  always  met  with  a  truly  cordial  and  ho.spitable  reception  ;  he  made  no  dis- 
tinction between  high  or  low,  nch  or  poor,  provided  they  conversed  with  him  on  Agi'iculture  or 
breeding  of  cattle,  and  had  some  knowledge  of  it.     Thaer  enjoyed  good  health  till  1824,  when  he 
EufTered  much  from  rheumatism  and  a  troublesome  cough.     He  visited,  during  the  summer,  the 
watering-place,  Obersalzbrunn  ;  but  deriving  little  benefit  from  drinking  the  waters,  and  not  be- 
ing accustomed  to  an  idle  life,  he  soon  returned  home  ;  the  chief  reason,  however,  was,  that  the 
etiquette  of  the  place  would  not  allow  him  the  smoking  his  pipe,  of  which  he  was  very  fond. — 
He  made  a  last  purchase  of  the  united  freeholds  of  Ludersdorf  and  Biesdorf,  which  he  destined 
for  his  younger  son,  Albrecht,  \vho  was  entirely  devoted  to  agricultural  pursuits.     His  strength 
now  began  to  fail  daily,  and  he  kept  his  bed  during  the  winters  of  1826  and  1827,  and  had  his  pu- 
pils called  m  for  instruction.     However,  as  the  disease  under  which  he  labored  increased,  no 
hope  for  his  recovery  could  be  any  longer  entertained.     His  mental  faculties  remained  in  full 
force,  but  his  eye-sight  failed  entirely,  and  one  of  his  children  \vas  always  with  him  and  reading 
to  him.     His  sufferings  were  great,  but  he  bore  them  with  great  fortitude  and  resignation.     The 
most  celebrated  medical  men  in  the  kingdom  visited  him,  and  paid  the  greatest  attention  to  his   i 
complaint.    Doctor  Dieffenbach  was  in  constant  attendance  ;  but  he  sunk    gradually,  till  at  last,    ' 
on  the  26th  October,  1828,  death  put  an  end  to  his  sufferings,  deeply  lamented  by  his  family.     He   , 
left  a  wife  and  six  children,  and  a  circle  of  numerous  friends.     He  was,  according  to  his  desire,    ' 
buried  in  his  garden,  close  to  the  church,  without  any  display.     No  monument  marks  the  spot   , 
where  the  ashes  of  this  great  man  lie  ;  and  if  you  pass  by  and  inquire  after  the  grave  of  Thaer,    ' 
you  are  shown  a  little  hillock  covered  with  flowers. 

Thaer  was  the  author  of  a  great  many  useful  works.     It  is  to  be  regretted  tliat  most  of  his  man- 
uscripts and  journals  were  lost  on  his  moving  from  Celle  to  Koglin  ;  they  were  packed  in  two 

',  boxes  and  sent  up  the  Elbe ;  the  winter  setting  in  verj' early  and  being  very  severe,  the  ship 
was  frozen  in,  and  on  amving  at  the  place  of  destination  in  the  following  spring,  these  two  boxes 
could  never  be  found,  although  Thaer,  assisted  by  the  Government,  did  all  he  could  to  recover 

,    them. 

: 


CHRONOLOGICAL  LIST 

OF 

THAER'S  AGRICULTURAL  WRITINGS. 


[    1798.  An  Introduction  to  a  Knowledge  of  English  Agkicultuke  ;  containing  the  latest  Practical  and 
'  Theoi-etical  Intelligence,  with  a  view  to  the  improvement  of  German  Agi-iculture ;  3  vols.,  published 

ki  parts,  betveeen  1798  and  1804  :  third  edition,  1806. 

1799.  Annals  of  Lower  S^vxon  Agricvlture,  3799  to  1804;  four  parts  to  each  year,  (whether  published 

quarterly  not  stated ;)  idea  taken  fi-om  Young's  work ;  substiuice  republished  under  the  following 
tide  :  "Miscellaneous  Writings  on  AgriculrureV'  ^  prata  :  Hanover,  1805-6. 

1800.  Bergen's  Introduction  to  Breeding  of  Cattle,  or  rather  to  Fonder  Culture,  vnth  remarks,  cor- 

rections, and  additions,  by  A.  T.  Thaer  :  Berlin,  1800. 

1803.  A  Description  of  the  most  useful  Agricultural  I.-viplbments,  with  drawings  to  scale  ;  3  parts  : 

Hanover,  by  Hahn,  1803,  4to. 

[Publication  interrupted  by  the  war.] 

1804.  Benjamin  Bell's  Agricultural  Essays  ;  translated,  with  Explanatory  Notes,  by  A.  T.  Thaer,  1  part : 
Berlin.  1804  ;  together  -n-ith  Rhapsodical  Observations  on  the  above  Essays,  1804. 

[Publication  inteiTupted  by  the  war.] 
,     1805.  Annals  of  Agriculture,  (6  years,  1805  to  1810 ;)  in  12  vols. 

,     1807-S.  Thaer  edited  a  work  by  Meyer  on  Imgation,  and  Einhof  s  Chemistry  of  Agriculture. 
, '    1810.  Principles  of  Rational  Agriculture  ;  1st  vol.  in  4to.,  and  3  more  vols,  between  1810  and  1812. 

[The  first  three  volumes  have  the  signature  of  Thaer  on  the  title-page,  as  a  security  against  pi- 
rated editions.    But,  before  the  second  pait  appeared,  the  first  was  already  issued  by  some 
German  pirates.] 
1811.  Annals  of  the  Theoretical  and  Practical  Progress  of  Agriculture,  1811  and  1812 ;  4  vols. 
I  8vo..  contained  under  the  title  of  "  MogUnischen's  Annals  of  Agriculture,"  from  1817  to  1823,  when  the 

editorship,  on  account  of  the  weakness  of  Thaer's  sight,  was  transferred  to  Professor  Korte,  his  son- 
in-law. 

1811.  Text-Book  for  the  Breeding  of  Fine-Wooled  Sheep.    Published  by  desire  of  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior  :  Berlin,  1811.     (Superseded  by  another  work  in  1825 ;  see  that  year.) 

1812.  Essay  on  Large  and  Small  Farms,  and  Valuation  of  the  Land  :  Berlin. 

1813.  An  Attempt  to  Ascertain  the  Net  Produce  of  Far.ms. 
1815.  Introduction  to  a  General  System  of  Agricultural  Knowledge  :  Berlin,  1815. 

[This  work  is  said  to  have  been  that  on  which  Thaer  most  prided  himself.    He  often  called  it 
"the  quintessence  of  the  first  two  parts  of  the  'Rational  Agriculture.'  "] 
1815.  History  or  My  Farming  :  Berlin.    This  book  contains  an  account  of  Thaer's  experiments  at  the 

model-farm  at  Moglin. 
1815.  Sketch  of  a  Circular  to  obtain  more  Correct  Information  as  to  the  Net  Produce,  to  serve 

AS  A  basis  for  correct  TAXATION  OF  THE  LaND. 

1825.  On  Wool  and  Sheep-Breeding  ;  by  P6rault  de  Jotemps,  Fabry,  and  Girod.    Translated  from  the 
'  French,  and  rendered  confoiTnable  to  the  Present  State  of  Knowledge  ''f  the  Subject  in  Germany  : — 

Berlin,  1825. 


(234) 


r 


THE 

PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Section  I. 
THE  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES. 


A  SKETCH  OF  SYSTEMATIC  AGRICULTURE* 

Agricxtlttjre  is  the  art  of  deriving  from  the  earth  the  most  valuable  organic 
productions.  He  who  exercises  this  art  seeks  to  obtain  profit  by  causing  to  groAv, 
and  by  using,  its  animal  and  vegetable  productions.  The  more  considerable  the 
gain  derived,  therefore,  the  better  is  the  object  accomplished.  The  most  perfect 
Agriculture  is,  evidently,  that  which  produces,  by  the  application  of  labor,  the 
largest  and  the  most  permanent  profit  in  comparison  with  the  means  employed. 
Systematic  Agriculture  ought,  then,  to  teach  us  all  the  circumstances  by  means 
of  which  we  may  derive  the  most  considerable  profit  by  the  practice  of  the  art. 
Now,  there  are  three  methods  of  teaching  or  of  learning  the  practice  of  Agri- 
culture. 

1.  As  an  occupation,  by  the  manual  exercise  of  it.  2.  As  an  art.  3.  As  a 
science. 

The  skillful  practice  of  Agriculture,  as  an  occupation,  is  limited  to  the  imita- 
tion of  certain  operations,  and  the  observation  of  events  and  circumstances.     It 
is  nothing  more,  when  thus  pursued,  than  a  simple  mechanical  art :  for  the  prac- 
tical farmer  can  only  imitate  and  repeat  the  ordinary  operations  of  Agriculture,    > 
occasionally  modified  by  times  and  circumstances;  and  often,  perhaps,  without  / 
i\  considering  or  even  knowing  the  motives  by  which  he  is  governed. 

The  art  of  Agriculture  is  the  realization  of  some  ideal  object.  He  who  prac- 
tices it  has  received  from  others,  without  considering  the  reasons  on  which  it  is 
founded,  the  idea  or  rule  by  which  he  proceeds.  The  skillful  practice  of  an  art 
consists,  therefore,  in  the  adoption  of  new  ideas,  in  the  study  of  new  rules,  and 
in  judging  the  fitness  of  their  being  carried  into  practice. 

The  science  of  Agriculture  does  not  lay  down  any  positive  rules,  but  it  devel- 
ops the  motives  by  which  the  best  possible  method  of  proceeding  may  be  discov- 
ered and  successfully  pursued.  In  fact,  the  art  executes  some  law  given  and  re- 
ceived, but  it  is  from  science  that  law  emanates. 

Science  alone  can  be  of  universal  utility,  embrace  the  whole  extent  of  a  sub- 
ject, and  enable  us  to  devise  the  best  execution  of  it  under  every  possible  circum- 
,  stance.  Every  positive  direction  is  applicable  only  to  some  determinate  case, 
and  each  case  requires  a  special  rule  which  science  alone  can  supply.  That  sys- 
tem of  Agriculture  can  only  be  called  the  most  perfect  which  is  the  most  reason- 
able— for  these  are  synonymous  terms. 

*  In  the  translation  of  this  admirable  work  of  M.  Von  Thaer,  the  editors  have  adhered  as  closely  to  the 
text  of  the  lamented  author  as  possible — they  have  only  omitted  those  portions  which  seemed  but  little  in- 
teresting to  the  £nglish  farmer. 
(23.-,) 


12  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

The  manual  exercise  and  study  of  the  art  can  never  be  useless  to  the  agricul- 
turist who  Avishes  to  elevate  it  to  the  rank  of  a  science,  and  to  the  mental  con- 
sideration of  which  it  is  deserving.     It  will  be  advantageous  to  him  to  have  ex- 
I    perieuced  the  labor  and  the  energy  Avhich  are  necessary,  in  order  that  he  may 
I    judge  of  the  mechanical  execution  of  the  various  portions  of  it. 

A  purely  practical  agriculturist  is  compelled  to  follow  the  rule  which  has  been 
laid  down  for  him,  although  it  may  not  be  wholly  applicable  to  the  peculiar  case 
which  presents  itself.  He  cannot  depart  from  it  without  adopting  some  other 
rule,  which  may,  perhaps,  deviate  entirely  from  the  first. 
(|  This  is  the  reason  that  so  many  agriculturists,  who  have  practiced  with  suc- 
'  cess  in  other  countries,  and  under  other  circumstances,  on  being  removed  else- 
where, have  committed  very  deplorable  blunders. 

Thus,  the  man  who  has  not  studied  the  science  of  Agriculture  can  make  little 
use  of  books,  or  even  the  best  of  them.  He  knows  not  how  to  arrange  the  new 
ideas  which  they  unfold,  and  he  cannot  follow  them  in  their  fullest  extent.  All 
that  he  dares  do  is  to  read  those  books  which  have  the  closest  relation  with  the 
circumstances  in  which  he  is  placed. 

THE  BASES  OF  THE  SCIENCE  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  science  of  Agriculture  rests  on  experience  ;  and  nothing  else  should  be 
required  or  expected  from  it  but  that  which  appertains  to  a  practical  science. — 
The  first  principles  arise  from  the  perceptions  of  the  senses ;  but  if  experience 
wholly  and  entirely  Mowed  from  these  perceptions,  the  development  would  not 
be  less  the  offspring  of  science  and  the  work  of  the  understanding. 

From  the  frequent  union  and  the  succession  of  objects,  we  conclude  that  a  cer- 
tain fact  is  the  consequence  or  result  of  another  ;  and  it  is  the  source  of  a  vast 
number  of  errors  that  we  are  so  much  disposed  to  regard  the  occurrences  which 
take  place  as  the  eft'ects  of  those  by  which  they  were  preceded.  Unfortunately 
we  have  not,  as  yet,  any  positive  or  general  indications  which  will  enable  us  to 
distinguish  between  that  which  is  simply  the  eflect  of  a  mere  succession  of  time 
and  that  Avhich  is  produced  by  another  motive  power. 

A  frequent  and  repeated  union  alone  can  authorize  us  to  presume  on  the  con- 
nection of  two  objects,  as  cause  and  eflPect.  The  often er  this  union  is  repeated, 
the  greater  is  the  probability  of  this  relation  being  founded  on  fact.  This  proba- 
bility may,  at  length,  become  a  moral  certainty ;  but  this  certainty  ceases  entire- 
ly if  one  of  these  objects  ever  appear  without  the  other,  for  then  we  should  more 
or  less  presume  that  the  one  is  not  the  only  cause  of  that  which  is  regarded  as 
the  effect. 

The  greater  number  of  facts,  however,  when  we  view  them  in  their  whole 
extent,  will  be  found  to  be  the  result,  not  of  one  sole  cause,  but  of  the  union  of 
several.     If  we  have  nine  of  these  present  and  the  tenth  is  wanting,  the  effect    i 
will  not  be  produced,  and  even  the  contrary  often  takes  place — for  instance: 

In  order  to  produce  a  perfect  ear  of  wheat,  we  require: 

1.  A  sound  grain  of  wheat,  with  the  germ  entire. 

2.  Some  soil,  carefully  plowed  and  prepared. 

3.  A  proper  degree  of  moisture,  neither  too  much  nor  too  little. 

4.  A  proper  degree  of  heat. 

All  this  is  generally  known,  but  it  is  also  known  that  we  require, 

5.  Atmospheric  air  ;  for  no  germ  will  vegetate  in  a  vacuum. 

6.  A  proper  proportion  of  oxygen ;  for  in  air  which  contains  no  oxygen  the 
germ  will  never  grow. 

7.  Carbon ;  for  without  it  a  plant  will  only  flower,  and  cannot  produce  any 
grain. 

8.  Light ;  without  which  the  plant  exhausts  itself,  is  always  weak,  and  per- 
ishes before  it  arrives  at  maturity. 

All  these  different  substances  or  agents,  and  perhaps  many  others,  must  be 
united  in  order  to  produce  this  effect — this  ear  of  corn ;  and  must  all  unite  in 
iheir  just  proportions  in  order  to  bring  it  to  perfection.  Should  the  effect  not  be 
produced,  it  arises  from  some  defect  in  one  or  other  of  these  causes.  ) 

We  can  experiment  either  by  means  of  simple  observation — by  examining  the  ^ 
subjects  and  agents  placed  in  relation  with  each  other,  and  by  considering  their  \ 
reciprocal  action  and  observing  its  results  ;  or  by  means  of  trials,  or  experiments  ^ 

(236)  j 


r 


THE  BASES   OF  THE  SCIENCE.  13 


—by  placing  some  well-known  plant  in  certain  situations  determined  with  pre- 
cision, observing  their  reciprocal  action,  and  preventing,  as  much  as  we  possibly 
can,  any  foreign  or  unknown  body  from  influencing  the  results  of  our  experiment. 

A  trial  is  a  question  addressed  to  nature  :  when  such  a  question  is  properly 
put,  Nature  will  necessarily  reply  either  yes  or  no. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  century  that  the  art  of  making  experiments  has  been 

clearly  apprehended.     It  is  on  this  art  that  the  principal  power  of  man  over  the 

material  world  is  founded  ;  and  that  power  will  become  more  extended  in  pro- 

i  portion  as  he  brings  this  art  nearer  to  perfection  and  carries  it  into  full  practice. 

It  is  not  ofteir  that,  in  an  isolated  situation,  under  the  very  hand  of  the 
naturalist,  or  in  the  lalaoratory  of  the  chemist,  any  complete  and  satisfactory 
experiments  can  take  place.  They  are  beyond  the  active  sphere  of  the  agricultu- 
rist, properly  so  called.  Nevertheless,  the  manner  of  recognising  them,  of  inves- 
tigating them,,  and  disposing  of  them,  is,  as  we  shall  see,  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  the  science  of  Agriculture. 

There  is  a  particular  kind  of  agricultural  experiments  which  have  arrived 
almost  at  perfection,  and  which  can  be  regulated  with  a  degree  of  precision  equal 
to  that  which  is  attained  in  the  other  practical  sciences :  these  are  comparative 
trials  in  the  open  air. 

It  is  true  that  experiments  of  this  kind  are  not  easily  made  ;  but,  nevertheless, 
they  are  in  the  power  of  every  reflecting  agriculturist.  Whoever  has  accom- 
plished one  experiment,  whatever  may  be  the  peculiarity  of  the  circumstances 
under  which  it  was  made,  and  has  given  a  faithful  account  of  it,  has  Avell  con- 
tributed to  the  advancement  of  science,  and  consequently  to  useful  practice,  and 
has  entitled  himself  to  the  gratitude  of  his  contemporaries  and  of  posterity.  It 
would  surpass  the  power  of  any  single  individual  to  accomplish  any  considerable 
number  of  these  experiments,  and  could, not  be  expected  from  him.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  Government  to  place  some  well-educated  men  in  a  position  to  em- 
ploy their  time  and  talents  in  investigating  the  secrets  of  nature  for  the  advance- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  the  general  good. 

Agricultural  societies,  which  are  instituted  for  the  advancement  of  science, 
should  especially  engage  in  the  preparation  of  such  experiments,  and  divide  the 
execution  of  them  among  the  several  members.* 

The  number  of  these  special  experiments  being  as  yet  far  too  small,  we  are 
compelled  to  draw  on  the  large  collection  of  individual  observations,  imperfect 
as  they  are,  to  adopt  them  as  the  principles  of  our  science. 

Science  would  have  made  much  greater  progress  if  the  false  shame  with 
which  agriculturists  conceal  every  unsuccessful  experiment,  and  the  exaggerated 
maimer  in  which  they  often  relate  all  those  in  which  they  have  succeeded,  had 
not  retarded  its  progress.f 

Natural  history,  which  of  late  years  has  been  brought  to  such  perfection,  ren- 
ders very  valuable  assistance  in  laymg  the  fundamental  principles  of  our  science  ; 
it  affords  a  clue  by  which  we  may  extricate  ourselves  from  a  labyrinth  of  im- 
perfect experiments,  and  serves  as  a  touchstone  by  which  to  judge  of  their  truth 
and  their  value.  Nature  acts  everywhere  on  uniform  and  eternal  rules  ;  and  the 
ain-iculturist  can  only  employ  those  means  which  she  places  at  his  disposal.  It 
is  this  disposition  which,  with  reference  to  Agriculture,  enables  us  to  derive  a 
physical  and  chemical  knowledge  of  the  precise  rules  by  which  it  is  governed, 
or  at  least  to  obtain  indications  of  the  course  which  we  must  pursue  in  all  our 
researches.  If  natural  history  only  taught  us  to  understand  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  the  varieties  of  its  composition,  and  of  what  substances  it  is  composed,  that 
alone  would  have  been  sufficient  to  throw  some  valuable  light  on  the  numer-  ^ 
ous  diff'erences  which  are  observed  in  the  results  of  certain  operations.  These  '> 
sciences  have  long  exercised  an  influence  on  Agriculture.  Latterly,  chemistry  in 
particular  has  been  employed  to  enrich  the  science  of  Agriculture  ;  and  very  great 
benefit  has  been  derived  from  this  union.  We  are  now  enabled  to  discard  sev- 
eral extensively  received  prejudices,  through  our  more  extended  observations  on 
the  surface  of  the  country,  and  in  rural  economy,  and  to  establish  the  truth  of 

*  This  plan  is  adopted  by  the  Royal  Agricixltural  Society  of  England. 

t  The  author  very  justly  animadverts  on  the  "exaggerated  manner  "in  which  practical  men  have  pub- 
lished the  results  of  their  experience,  which  have  never  been  realized  in  continued  practice  even  by  the 
puolishers  themselves,  and  have  not  failed  to  throw  doubts  on  all  similar  propositions.     Moderation  and 
caution  cannot  be  too  much  recommended  in  such  cases. 
(•237) 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


several  facts  which  heretofore  were  merely  probable.  It  is  on  this  account  that 
scientific  instruction  in  Agriculture  should  always  be  based  on  sound  notions  of 
physics  and  chemistry,  and  that  we  should  endeavor,  by  means  of  these  sciences, 
to  penetrate  as  far  as  possible  into  the  principles  and  foundation  of  things  ;  for, 
the  want  of  success  in  our  researches,  and  the  reason  that  we  do  not  arrive  at 
more  numerous  and  more  sound  conclusions,  is  to  be  attributed  to  our  imperfect 
knowledge  of  the  phenomena  of  nature. 

The  agriculturist  is  principally  employed  m  the  reproduction,  the  vegetation, 
and  in  maturing  and  perfectmg  the  growth  of  plants.  A  knov/ledge  of  the  or- 
ganization and  nature  of  vegetables,  called  fhysiology,  is  indispensable  to  the 
study  of  Agriculture  ;  and  also  a  knowledge  of  their  distinctive  characteristics, 
their  natural  and  scientific  classification  and  their  nomenclature,  or,  in  other 
words,  botany. 

And  as  it  is  a  part  of  the  business  of  the  agriculturist  to  multiply  animals  and 
animal  substances,  some  knowledge  of  the  animal  economy,  and  of  the  diseases 
to  which  it  is  subject,  would  be  greatly  conducive  to  his  success. 

No  science  can  be  said  to  be  complete  without  the  aid  of  mathematics,  pro- 
perly so  called.  But  Agriculture  requires  the  application  of  several  branches  of 
the  mathematics  ;  it  demands  a  knowledge  of  arithmetic  in  its  most  extensive 
meaning  ;  a  calculation  for  the  detailed  accounts,  and  book-keeping. 

It  is,  then,  evident  that  Agriculture  ought  to  borrow  from  every  science  the 
principles  which  she  employs  as  the  foundation  of  her  own  ;  and  although  the 
sciences  do  not  form  an  indispensable  part  of  the  farmer's  education,  he  ought, 
nevertheless,  to  have  a  general  knowledge  of  them. 

THE  BASES  OF  ENTERPRISE. 

An  agricultural  enterprise  requires  ;'  1st,  a  suitable  person  ;  2d,  capital ;  3d, 
an  estate. 

Every  person  who  seeks  to  practice  Agriculture  with  the  full  success  which  it 
admits — and  that  is  the  natural  aim  of  every  one  who  engages  in  it- — must  pos- 
sess energy,  activity,  reflection,  perseverance,  and  a  knowledge  of  all  the  kin- 
dred and  accessory  sciences. 

It  is  true  that  it  was  once  considered  that  the  inaptitude  which  many  yoting 
men  evince  for  all  other  undertakings,  is  a  kind  of  pledge  that  their  proper  voca- 
tion is  Agriculture ;  and  we  have  seen  such  persons,  although  continuing  in  a 
state  of  mediocrity,  yet  deriving  much  happiness  from  rural  life.  But  this  re- 
quires a  concurrence  of  fortunate  events  that  formerly  might  frequently  occur, 
but  which  at  the  present  day  can  rarely  take  place. 

The  practice  of  Agriculture  is  composed  of  an  infinite  number  of  different 
operations,  each  of  which  appears  easy  in  itself,  but  is  the  more  difficult  to  exe- 
cute, inasmuch  as  they  frequently  seem  to  interfere  with,  and  run  counter  to  one 
another.  In  order  to  regulate  them  according  to  the  circumstances  and  powers 
that  are  at  our  disposal,  so  that  no  single  one  shall  be  neglected,  but  each  per- 
formed properly  and  in  its  due  order,  there  is  required  the  greatest  attention  ; 
activity  without  anxiety ;  promptitude  without  precipitation  ;  a  care  of  the  whole, 
united  with  the  strictest  attention  to  the  most  minute  details  ;  a  judicious  appre- 
ciation of  all  that  is  more  or  less  necessary,  and  of  that  which  belongs  to  differ- 
ent periods  of  time ;  an  unremitting  perseverance  in  whatever  is  undertaken,  but 
which,  however,  does  not  lead  to  the  neglect  of  more  pressing  duties  ;  a  prudent 
estimate  of  the  value  of  labor  ^aad  of  time,  so  as  to  employ  them  to  the  best 
advantage. 

As  it  is  impossible  that  an  enterprise  like  that  of  Agriculture  can  be  exempt 
from  casualties  and  accidents,  a  certain  tranquillity  of  mind  must  be  united  with 
the  necessary  activity  in  order  to  secure  a  happy  life.     Whether  this  be  attamed 
by  the  consolations  of  philosophy  or  religion,  the  agriculturist  must  learn  to  sup- 
port misfortune  with  resignation  ;  he  must  forgqt  all  the  evils  which  it  was  im- 
possible for  him  to  foresee,  all  those  hopes  which  have  ended  in  disappointment, 
so  soon  as  he  has,  by  the  adoption  of  prudent  regulations,  diminished  as  much 
as  possible  their  annoying  consequences. 
[       Rural  life,  in  despite  of  the  pleasures  that  attend  it,  has  so  much  uniformity 
I   about  it,  and,  with  all   its  occupations,  has  so  many  hours  of  idleness,  that  it 
I   scarcely  satisfies  an  active  mind,  that  possesses  no  other  object  of  employment. 


THE   BASES   OF  ENTERPRISE,  15 

In  choosing  an  accessory  study,  the  accomplished  agriculturist  will  not  find  any 
one  that  will  be  more  consonant  with  his  feelings  than  natural  history.  He,  bet- 
ter than  any  other  person,  can  abandon  himself  to  the  consciousness  of  living  in 
the  bosom  of  Nature,  and  investigating  her  sublime  laws  ;  and  so  far  from  inter- 
ruptmg  his  usual  occupations  by  this  pursuit,  he  will  almost  always  be  able 
pleasingly  and  usefully  to  unite  them. 

If  the  moral  world  and  the  relations  of  society   too   often   present  us   only 

la 


with  the  painful  spectacle  of  a  resistance  to  the  laws  of  reason  which 
grief  and  misery  over  the  earth,  Nature,  on  the  contrary,  unfolds  to  us  more 
striking  proofs  of  order  and  unity  in  proportion  as  we  penetrate  into  her  mysteries. 
The  beauties  which  we  discover  not  only  gratify  our  taste,  but  they  also  aflFord 
us  a  demonstration  that  the  Eternal  Wisdom  who  unfolds  to  our  view  His  opera- 
tions in  the  material  world — who  is  ever  reproducing  matter  under  new  and 
admirable  forms — will  also  in  the  moral  world  pursue  an  equally  harmonious  plan, 
the  full  completion  of  which  is  reserved  for  the  ages  of  eternity.  This  feeling, 
although  vague,  is  far  more  vivid  in  the  inhabitant  of  the  country  than  in  the 
person  who  passes  his  time  in  populous  towns.  It  is  on  this  account  that  more 
true  religion  is  generally  found  among  agricultural  people,  than  among  those 
devoted  to  war  or  to  commerce. 

The  man  who  feels  within  himself  sufficient  talent  united  with  such  inclination 
and  taste,  or  who  has  manifested  such  a  disposition  from  his  youth,  may  devote 
himself  to  the  pursuit  of  Agriculture  with  a  good  prospect  of  success  ;  and,  if 
he  acquires  a  complete  knowledge  of  it  may  attain  the  summit  of  his  ambition. 
Let  us  now  see  how  this  knowledge  is  to  be  acquired. 

It  is,  doubtless,  most  easily  and  most  naturally  acquired  when  the  scientific 
instruction  has  been  preceded  by  that  which  is  derived  from  actual  observation, 
from  mechanical  and  practical  instruction,  or  from  an  agricultural  education,  pro- 
perly so  called.  Nevertheless,  we  have  many  examples  of  men  who  united  in- 
clination with  distinguished  talents,  who,  having  received  a  good  education,  and 
havuig  previously  pursued  occupations  diametrically  opposed  to  Agriculture,  have 
become  distinguished  agriculturists  by  means  of  scientific  instruction  alone,  and 
have,  in  a  very  short  time,  acquired  a  superiority  over  persons  who  had  practised 
the  art  for  many  years  and  with  great  success.*  Science  had  opened  to  them 
many  ways  which  had  been  overlooked  by  those  who  had  pursued  the  old  routine, 
and  had  revealed  to  them  with  clearness  and  precision  what  years  of  practice  had 
merely  shown  to  others  in  a  vague  and  obscure  manner. 

It  is  true  th*t  by  far  the  greater  number  have,  in  the  beginning,  committed 
some  errors  in  particular  cases  ;  they  have  to  pay  for  their  experi^ence  ;  but  these 
errors  are  attributable  to  the  hitherto  defective  system  of  scientific  instruction. 

With  equal  instruction  and  equal  talent,  that  person  will  always  have  the  supe- 
riority, whose  education,  good  in  other  respects,  has  been  directed  towards  Agri- 
culture from  his  early  youth. 

A  young  man,  fifteen  years  of  age,  will  obtain  the  requisite  education  in  an 
establishment  which  unites  considerable  activity  in  the  difi'erent  branches  with 
the  eiriployment  of  the  various  means  of  obtaining  the  produce  of  the  earth, 
although  this  establishment  may  not  have  attained  the  perfection  of  which  it  is 
susceptible.  There  the  pupil  will  have  all  the  objects  and  operations  of  Agricul- 
ture brought  under  the  cognizance  of  his  senses  ;  he  will  acquire  a  practical 
knowledge  of  all  the  details  ;  he  will  learn  to  select  the  proper  season  for  each 
operation  ;  he  will  form  in  his  own  mind  a  kind  of  intellectual  admeasurement 
of  the  nature  and  value  of  soils,  the  seasons,  and  of  the  requisite  labor.  He  will 
also  there  be  taught  all  that  has  relation  to  the  general  management  and  direction 
of  business,  and  he  will  carefully  observe  the  manner  m  which  it  is  conducted  as 
often  as  opportunity  permits.  Lastly,  he  will  not  fail  to  acquire,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, a  certain  tact  in  buying  and  selling. 

During  more  than  a  century  the  possibility  and  advantage  of  a  scientific  edu- 
cation for  the  practice  of  Agriculture  has  been  maintained,  and  an  agricultural 

*  The  author  alludes  to  persons  who  have  not  heen  bred  to  the  art  of  Agriculture,  and  having  adopted 

that  profossion,  have  much  excelled  the  old  practitioners,  who  follow  the  old  routine.     Many  such  instances  i 

occur,  not  only  in  Agiiculture,  but  in  manj'  other  professions.     The  mind  is  free  from  the  bias,of  early  pre-  f 

judices  ;  exertion  is  necessai-y ;  and  when  a  man  is  determined  to  teach  himself,  it  is  surprising  what  the  ,- 

human  mind  can  accomplish.    The  first  step  is  a  conviction  that  he  is  in  want  of  learning ;  the  rest  will  ^ 

loon  follow.  ) 
(239) 


16  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

chair  has  been  established  in  almost  every  university.     In  so  far  as  it  is  the  duty 

of  these  institutions  to  aflord  the  public  functionary,  the  lawyer,  and  even  the 

theologian  and  the  medical  man,  a  clear  idea  of  agricultural  practice  and  its  im- 

,    portance,  I  admit  the  utility  of  these  appointments,  and  only  desire  that  the  in- 

I   struction  shall  be  directed  to  the  sole  end  which  it  can  possibly  attain. 

These  professorships,  however,  do  not  appear  to  me  necessary  or  even  useful 
to  the  agriculturist  who  seeks  instruction  there,  because  the  nature  of  the  life 
which  is  led  there,  and  the  usages  of  the  university,  and  the  general  tendency  of 
afiairs  in  such  places,  seem  to  possess  something  altogether  foreign  to  his  habits 
and  pursuits,  and  are  calculated  to  unfit  him  for  the  peculiar  species  of  activity 
and  the  peculiar  kind  of  life  to  v/hich  he  is  destined.  Besides,  it  is  scarcely  to 
be  expected  that  an  agriculturist,  who  unites  practice  with  science,  will  accept  a 
professorship  of  this  kind  at  a  university  :  and  he  who  does  not  possess  both  these 
requisites  is  by  no  means  fitted  for  such  a  situation. 

Nothing  can  contribute  more  to  the  acquisition  of  an  enlightened  knowledge  of 
Agriculture  than  traveling  in  those  countries  which  are  distinguished  for  the  per- 
fection of  their  Agriculture.  The  contemplation  of  practices  and  institutions  so: 
various  among  difierent  people  destroys  that  prejudice  encouraged  from  our  child- 
hood, which  leads  us  to  believe  that  nothing  can  be  done  in  a  better  or  in  a  dif- 
ferent manner  from  our  own  mode  of  performance.  The  customs  of  different 
'  provinces  and  of  entire  nations,  as  well  in  the  general  proceedings  of  Agriculture 
'  as  in  the  performance  of  individual  operations,  are,  with  every  thinking  man,  so 
many  experiments  on  a  grand  scale,  if  he  knoAvs  how  to  place  them  on  a  level 
with  each  other,  and  to  compare  their  results.  But  it  requires  a  great  deal  of 
perseverance,  and  the  surmounting  of  many  difficulties,  to  derive  real  advantage 
from  such  travels,  and  to  extend  the  observation  to  the  actual  and  true  principles 
of  things.  They  who  have  only  run  through  a  country  as  it  were  by  post,  and 
who  stop  only  at  the  inns,  will  report  very_  little  that  can  be  in  any  way  useful. 
Besides,  there  would  be  required  a  correct  judgment,  and  penetration  founded  on 
preliminary  and  long-continued  study,  and  an  impartiality  altogether  free  from 
prejudice,  in  order  to  derive  true  and  positive  results  from  the  observations  which 
are  made.  Without  such  acquirements,  so  far  from  being  divested  of  our  pre- 
conceived notions,  we  shall  only  bring  back  others  still  less  suited  to  our  climate, 
and  the  circumstances  in  which  we  are  placed. 

We  shall  presently  have  occasion  to  add  something  on  the  direction  of  agri- 
cultural travels,  the  best  route  to  be  pursued,  and,  in  fact,  on  the  geography  of 
Agriculture. 

"The  cultivation  of  the  land  attached  to  a  model  farm,  or  other  institution  for 
teaching  practical  Agriculture,  ought  to  be  a  pattern  for  agricultural  practice, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  it  should  be  perfect.  It  is  far  better  that 
this  model  should  be  advancing  towards  perfection,  without  having  yet  attained 
it,  in  order  the  better  to  show  the  difficulties  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  It  is 
also  necessary  that  this  cultivation  should  be  carried  on  in  the  usual  manner,  and 
that  it  should  not  possess  or  employ  any  extraordinary  resources  which  might 
cause  it  to  advance  more  rapidly  than  would  otherwise  be  possible.  It  ought  not 
to  employ  in  the  attempts  of  improvement  any  disproportionate  or  an  unusually 
large  capital,  nor  any  resources  which  would  not  be  generally  available. 

It  ought  neither  to  purchase  manure  from  towns  in  the  neighborhood,  nor  to 
make  use  of  too  expensive  means  of  improving  the  soil,  such  as  an  extensive  use 
of  the  spade,  the  destruction  of  peremiial  crops,  or  anything  of  that  kind ;  but 
the  proceedings  should  be  regulated  by  the  strictest  economy. 

A  very  limited  space  of  ground  would  be  sufficient  to  demonstrate  what  can 
be  effected  by  the  above-mentioned  operations. 

Such  an  establishment  ought  to  possess  a  complete  collection  of  implements 
and  machinery,  and  every  arrangement  necessary  for  the  demonstration  of  the 
accessory  sciences  which  would  be  ta.ught  there. 

The  conduct  of  the  pupils,  their  intercourse  with  each  other,  and  their  proceed- 
ings in  every  respect,  should  be  directed  to  the  great  end  of  the  objects  of  the 
establishment ;  not  by  means  of  coercion,  or  by  special  rules,  but  by  that  interest 
and  charm  which  the  subject  itself  necessarily  inspires. 

It  is  in  free  and  unrestrained  conversation  where  the  best  interchange  of  ideas 
and  opinions  is  effected,  where  these  opinions  undergo  the  profoundest  investiga- 

(240) 


CAPITAL.  17 


tion,  and  where  they  are  best  freed  from  the  prejudices  by  which  they  may  have 
been  enveloped.  These  conversations  ought  to  be  encouraged  and  rendered  fre- 
quent by  every  possible  means,  for  nothing  would  contribute  more  to  he  li^cov- 
ery  and  establishment  of  the  truth  than  the  opposition,  not  of  personal  feelmg, 
but  of  legitimate  reasoning,  and  which  will  naturally  lead  to  a  correct  conclu- 
sion.* 

As  scientific  education  will  not  from  its  very  nature  admit  of  any  external  con-  '  | 
.   straint,  and  can  only  be  consistent  with  an  unfettered  spirit — and  as  it  is  also  to  ■[ 
be  supposed  that  those  who  attend  such  an  institution  come  to  it  of  their  own 
free  will,  and  with  the  firm  determuiation  of  acquiring  in  the  most  complete  man 
net  a  thorough  knowledge  of  everything  that  has  relation  to  Agriculture — con-  ' 
straint  would  be  at  once  prejudicial  and  useless.     On  the  other  hand,  those  who 
come  or  are  sent  there  with  any  other  view  should  be  removed  so  soon  as  it  is 
perceived  that  they  are  not  identifying  themselves  with  the  spirit  of  the  institu- 
tion, and  that  constraint  alone  prevents  them  from  infringing  the  regulations. — 
Nevertheless,  in  such  an  establishment  there  must  be  certain  defined  rules  Avhich 
I    must  be  strictly  observed,  if  only  to  ensure  the  general  good,  and  for  the  liberty 
'    and  comfort  of  every  one.     However  great  the  advantage,  and  certamly  these  so- 


cial communications  may  forward  the  general  object  of  the  institution,  they  must 
not  interfere  with  private  application  or  diligence  ;  and  therefore  each  pupil 
should  have  a  chamber  to  himself,  and  his  retirement  should  be  undisturbed*. 


Next  to  the  mental  capacity  of  the  person  who  practices  Agriculture,  capital 
is  the  most  important  consideration  ;  for,  with  persons  of  equal  talent,  the  advan- 
tage and  success  are  always  in  proportion  to  the  capital  employed.  Therefore, 
next  to  the  mcapacity  of  the  agriculturist,  the  insutficiency  of  the  capital  em- 
barked in  Agriculture  is  the  principal  cause  of  its  imperfection. 

By  capital  we  understand  everything  that,  from  the  special  use  by  the  individ- 
ual, or  from  its  bemg  placed  at  the  disposal  of  others,  produces  a  revenue  or  rent. 
We  do  not  inquire  into  its  origin,  or  ask  whether  it  has  been  acquired  by  inherit- 
ance or  by  labor. 

It  is  true  that  generally  the  term  capital  is  only  applied  to  the  possession  of 
certain  means  produced  or  amassed  by  labor,  but  it  is  sometimes  diflicult  to  de- 
termine the  share  which  Nature  or  Industry  has  had  in  the  production  of  certain 
property — as,  for  example,  in  the  working  of  mines  and  quarries,  or  of  tracts  of 
land  recovered  from  Nature  by  Art,  and  put  under  cultivation  ;  at  other  times  it  ' 
is  more  in  relation  with  the  actual  state  of  civilization,  or  where  the  land  is  no 
longer  possessed  in  right  of  the  first  occupant,  but  only  in  exchange  for  some 
other  equivalent  capital  or  property,  to  consider  the  soil  and  the  produce  of  the 
earth  as  a  species  of  capital.  This  latter  acceptation  of  the  term  will  give  us 
the  clearest  idea  of  agricultural  industry. 

The  immortal  Teraus,  in  his  "  Political  Economy,"  (Staatswirthschaft,)  pub- 
lished by  the  President  of  Auerswaldt,  establishes,  in  my  opinion,  the  most  cor- 
rect distinction,  when  he  regards  the  value  of  the  products  of  the  earth  as  the 
wealth  of  a  nation,  but  as  a  wealth  of  which  she  has  not  the  management.  No- 
where have  the  reciprocal  relations  of  the  state  of  Agriculture  and  of  national  ' 
wealth  been  treated  in  a  more  lucid  and  practical  manner;  and  I  should  have 
entirely  founded  my  ideas  on  his  if  I  had  read  that  work  before  this  chapter  was 
composed.  It  Avill,  hovv^ever,  be  easy  for  every  reader  to  adopt  his  system.  As 
for  the  results,  Ave  shall  judge  better  of  them  as  we  proceed. 

According  to  this  ariangement,  the  capital  invested  in  Agriculture  is  of  three 
kinds.  1.  Funded  property.  2.  Capital  invested  in  the  farm.  3.  Circulating 
capital. 

The  funded  prop'-rti/  is  that  by  means  of  which  the  agriculturist  is  put,  or 
may  put  himself,  in  possession  of"  landed  property.     It  is  the  value  of  the  soil, 
or  of  property  already  in,  or  to  be  taken  into  possession.     According  to  general    [ 
usage,  and  very  properly,  it  includes  the  buildings  and  all  the  other  things  apper- 
taining to  the  soil,  as  well  as  the  rights  attached  to  the  domain,  and  whether  or  . 
not  relating  to  Agriculture. 

*  These  remarks  of  the  author  may  be  quoted  In  favor  of  Farmers'  Clubs — certainly  the 
schools  of  improvement  for  the  farmer 
(241) a 


ml 


18  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

The  landed  capital,  or  the  value  of  an  estate,  does  not  ahvays  continue  the 
same.  It  is  frequently  varied,  either  by  external  circumstances  connected  vpith 
the  value  of  money  and  of  other  things,  or  principally  by  internal  circumstances 
relating  entirely  to  itself.  The  modifications  of  this  latter  variation  in  value  are 
called  ameliorations  and  deteriorations.  The  capital  employed  on  a  farm  is  aug- 
mented by  the  amelioration  in  the  same  manner  as  by  the  addition  of  new  funds. 

The  capital  invested  in  the  fa"  m  consists  in  the  value  of  the  things  which  are 
necessary  for  the  exercise  of  agr  .cultural  industry,  and  is  employed  in  their  pur- 
chase. It  is  usually  called  the  inventory.  Under  this  denomination  are  ranged 
the  liA^e  stock,  and  all  kinds  of  agricultural  implements  and  utensils.  In  some 
countries  they  include  in  the  inventory  the  value  of  the  crops  sown,  and  the  ad- 
vances made  for  the  culture  of  the  following  year,  aiid  the  provisions  which  re- 
main to  be  consumed  from  one  harvest  to  the  next.  Properly  speaking,  this  lat- 
ter ought  to  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  capital  which  we  are  next  to  describe. 

The  circulating  or  current  capital  is  that  with  which  the  domestics  and  labor- 
ers are  paid,  necessaries  of  every  kind  are  purchased,  the  cattle  fattened,  &;c. ; 
and  it  consists  in  a  sum  of  money  kept  for  that  purpose,  or  in  an  accumulation  of 
produce  which  is  kept  to  be  converted  into  money. 

It  is  by  this  capital  that  the  diminution  of  that  which  is  invested  in  the  farm 
is  supported,  and  which  from  its  very  nature  is  always  deteriorating  ;  and,  lastly, 
from  this  capital  must  be  derived  the  necessary  surplus  for  enlarging  the  funded 
capital,  and  for  the  improvement  of  the  land. 

This  current  capital  forms  the  motive  power  of  the  whole  concern  ;  it  is  by  its 
means  that  all*  the  labor  is  effected,  and  it  is  from  this  labor,  properly  speaking, 
/  that  the  profits  of  agricultural  enterprise  arise.  Hence  it  happens  that,  all  acci- 
dental successes  or  misfortunes  excepted,  and  supposing,  above  everything,  that 
the  necessary  talent  and  assiduity  are  employed,  the  products  will  always  be  in 
direct  proportion  to  this  capital. 

The  funded  capital  or  value  of  an  estate  can  only  be  considered  as  a  sum 
placed  out  at  interest,  and  on  the  best  security ;  and  it  ought  to  produce  the 
proper  rent  which  can  be  derived  from  a  capital  thus  securely  placed.  Beyond 
I    this,  nothmg  more  is  to  be  expected. 

The  capital  of  stock  or  of  the  inventory,  although  we  admit  that  it  ought  al- 
ways to  be  kept  up  to  the  same  amount  by  the  circulating  capital,  is  neverthe- 
less exposed  to  more  dangers  than  the  former,  inasmuch  as  it  is  subject  to  cer- 
tain accidents,  by  which  the  owner  runs  a  great  risk  of  losing,  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  and  which  has  given  rise  in  Germany  to  the  custom  of  insurance.* 

If  the  interest  on  the  landed  capital  amounts  to  four  per  cent.,  that  of  capital 
employed  in  the  farm  ought  to  be  at  least  six  per  cent. 

The  circulating  capital  is  exposed  to  very  great  risks  ;  it  is  the  motive  power 
of  the  whole  enterprise,  and  it  requires  in  the  proper  administration  of  it  the 
greatest  caution  and  the  most  extensive  knowledge.  For  this  reason  it  ought, 
as  the  motive  power  of  the  whole  enterprise,  to  receive  a  very  high  interest,  at 
least  12  per  cent.  ;  for  it  is  in  this  fund  that  the  real  profit  derived  from  Agricul- 
ture consists. 

Consequently,  if  a  farmer  cultivates  his  own  land,  he  should  calculate  accu- 
rately between  the  produce  of  the  different  funds  whence  his  gross  income  is  de- 
rived. He  should  derive  an  income  equal  to  the  value  of  the  money  which  he 
expends  on  his  farm^  or  which  he  would  derive  if  he  sold  the  farm  and  placed 
the  money  on  other  securities.  It  will  be  the  same  with  the  capital  on  his  farm 
if  he  parts  with  it  to  any  .other  person  on  the  same  risks. 

It  is  impossit)le  to  fix  any  general  rule  as  to  what  ought  to  be  the  just  propor- 
tion of  these  diviswns  of  capital  relatively  to  each  other.  That  can  only  be  de- 
termined in  certain  particular  cases,  and  by  taking  all  the  local  circumstances  in- 
to consideration.  The  following  only  can  be  received  as  a  general  rule :  that 
the  .person  who  possesses  only  a  small  capital  will  succeed  much  better  as  an 
agriculturist  if  he  keeps  the  greater  part  of  it  in  circulation  for  the  current  ex- 

*  Insurance  offices  for  cattle  are  well  known  in  France  ;  and  the  agriculturist,  in  some  of  the  provinces  of 
Gei-many,  owesto  them  a  security  which  essentially  conti-ibutes  to  render  the  practice  of  his  profession  se- 
cure, and  more  easily  procures  for  him  the  capital  requisite  for  his  purposes.  The  advantages  of  these  in- 
stitutions appear  to  me  incontestible,  if  certain  pi-udent  and  well-advised  regulations  preve;;:  th;  too  frequent 
negligence  in  feeding  an^  'n  the  general  treatment  of  these  animals.  Tlie  Mutual  Cattle  Insurance  Society 
of  London  n«  w  oilers  the  same  security  to  the  farmers  of  England. 
(242) 


THE  FARM,  ETC. 


!    penses  of  his  undertaking,  and,  consequently,  does  not  invest  too  much  of  it  in 
'    land  or  stock  ;*  for  the  net  produce  of  the  enterprise  has  less  relation  to  the  ex- 
tent of  capital  than  to  the  means  employed  in  the  profitable  application  of  it. 

In  England,  where  mercantile  calculation  and  gkill  are  carried  to  their  great- 
est extent,  and  pervade  every  branch  of  industry  and  commerce,  it  is  considered 
that  the  capital  in  circulation,  in  which  is  always  included  the  stock,  should  be 
from  seven  to  nine  times  the  amount  of  the  rent.  Whoever  takes  a  farm  of  £125 
rent,  should  command  a  circulating  capital  of  from  £875  to  £1,125.  The  profits 
of  his  speculation,  consequently,  are  not  to  be  reckoned  by  the  rent  which  he 
pays,  but  according  to  the  capital  which  he  can  employ  ;  from  which  it  is  con- 
sidered that  he  ought  to  derive  12  per  cent,  profit,  which,  for  £1,125,  would  be 
£135  beyond  the  rent  of  the  farm.  If  he  is  the  proprietor,  he  will  first  deduct 
the  amount  of  the  rent  which  he  would  receive  from  his  tenant  if  he  did  not  cul- 
tivate the  farm  himself,  and  then  he  reckons  the  surplus  as  the  net  profit  of  his 
speculation.  But  he  will  never  draw  this  false  conclusion,  that  since  the  culti- 
vation of  his  estate  produces  him  £260,  the  actual  value  of  his  property  is  twen- 
ty-five times  this  amount.  This  example  shows  the  error  of  imagining  that  any 
conclusions  can  be  formed  of  the  actual  value  of  any  property  from  its  mere  pro- 
duce, although  it  enters  too  much  into  the  estimates  of  most  persons.  In  fact, 
they  endeavor  to  conceal  this  error  by  another,  of  estimating  this  produce  at  a 
much  lower  rate  than  it  should  be  valued  at  if  under  good  culture.  Neverthe- 
less, this  vague  and  deceptive  valuation  is  too  frequently  adopted,  and  the  conse- 
quences of  it  are  extremely  injurious  to  the  agricultural  interest. 

Even  the  capital  invested  in  stock,  although  its  augmentation,  generally  speak- 
ing, adds  greatly  to  agricultural  produce,  may  be  extended  too  far,  if,  by  so  do-  '  i 
\r\cr.  the  p.irf.nlatino-  canital  he  too  much  diminished.  ' 


ing,  the  circulating  capital  be  too  much  diminished. 

THE  FARM,  AND  THE  MANNER  OF  TAKING  POSSESSION  OF  IT. 

He  who  possesses  the  necessary  inclination,  talents,  knowledge,  and  capital, 
and  has  devoted  himself  to  the  practice  of  Agriculture,  ought  in  the  first  place 
to  obtain  possession  of  a  farm. 

Whoever  wishes  to  obtain  a  farm  ought,  in  order  to  obtain  it  as  advantageous- 
ly as  possible,  not  to  confine  himself  to  any  one  district,  or  province,  or  State,  but 
to  look  around  him  in  every  direction.     The  more  numerous  the  situations  which  ' 
present  themselves,  the  better  will  be  the  chance  of  making  an  advantageous 
selection. 

That  farm  should  always  be  selected  which,  when  every  circumstance  is  care- 
fully weighed,  promises  the  greatest  net  produce  in  proportion  to  the  available 
means  of  the  person  who  is  about  to  take  possession  of  it.  We  shall  never,  at 
least  very  rarely,  find  that  a  perfectly  unexceptionable  spot  will  present  itself,  or 
which  in  every  respect  will  realize  the  anticipations  which  have  been  formed. 
The  chief  thing  is  to  be  able  to  judge  how  far  its  good  qualities  surpass  the  bad 
ones,  and  to  form  a  right  estimate  of  the  whole,  balancing  the  one  against  the 
other.  In  order  to  make  this  comparison  in  a  clear  and  satisfactory  manner,  the 
following  method  may  be  adopted.  The  attention  of  the  young  agriculturist 
having  been  directed  to  a  particular  spot  of  ground,  he  must  make  a  satisfactory 
estimate  of  its  value,  by  applying  to  it  certain  general  and  invariable  principles. 
Afterwards  he  must  study  and  duly  estimate  all  the  accessory  circumstances  ; 
he  must  put  a  determinate  value  on  the  peculiar  advantages  which  may  exist 
independent  of  the  soil ;  he  must  value  each,  on  as  exact  an  estimate  as  possi- 
ble.    On  the  other  hand,  all  the  inconveniences  which  are  attached  to  the  do- 

*  The  author  very  judiciously  recommends  a  sufficient  circulating  capital  to  be  reserved  for  the  expenses 
of  cultivation,  and  a  less  quantity  of  land  to  be  rented,  as  protit  will  more  generally  depend  on  the  mode  and 
success  of  cultivation,  rather  than  on  an  extent  incapable,  or  beyond  the  reach  of  being  properly  managed. 
This  is  a  very  general  and  fatal  mistake.  The  mode  of  estimating,  by  the  rent  of  land,  tne  quantity  of  capi- 
tal that  will  be  necessary  for  the  cultivation,  appears  very  uncertain ;  for  land  may  be  worth  20s.  or  40s.  an 
acre,  and  the  farmer  will  require  the  same  implements  and  animal  sn-ength;  the  same  expense  to  seed  an 
acre  of  land,  the  same  farming  accommodations,  and,  very  often,  more  expense  in  mimy  respects.  Some 
differences  will  occur  in  particular  points  ;  but  a  direct  ratio  between  the  rent  of  land  and  the  capital  re- 
quired to  stock  and  cultivate  it,  has  not  obtained  in  our  country  ;  and  it  would  lead  to  the  supposition  that 
good  land  requires  more  capital  applied  to  produce  a  greater  result ;  whereas  it  is  known  that  the  same 
means  produce  the  greater  result  from  the  intrinsic  quality  of  the  soil  Inferior  lands  of  certain  kinds  re- 
quire more  capital  than  rich  soils ;  and  the  allowance  of  seven  to  nine  times  the  rent  for  capital  would  fall 
below  any  average  calcijlation  yet  made  ;  and  in  other  cases  would  far  exceed  it,  except  where  an  extraor- 
dinai-y  outlay  was  required. 
(243) 


20  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

main  must  be  considered  in  every  point  of  vieAV,  and  the  difficulties  which  will 
present  themselves  in  every  great  agricultural  enterprise.  These  must  also  be 
estimated,  and  the  sum  total  found.  Then,  by  deducting  one  sum  from  the 
other,  i\  will  be  seen  how  far  the  actual  value  of  the  land,  according  to  its  extent 
and  to  the  quality  of  the  soil,  is  augmented  or  diminished  by  these  accessory 
circumstances. 

While  money  continues  to  experience  so  many  changes  in  value,  it  will  consti- 
tute a  very  uncertain  guide  in  determining  the  positive  value  of  the  soil.  A  much 
more  certain  and  stable  guide,  and  one  of  universal  application,  will  be  found  in 
the  produce  ;  which,  because  it  is  of  universal  consumption,  always  maintains  a 
uniform  and  permanent  relation  Avith  every  other  commodity.  This  produce  is 
the  grain  ;  in  Germany  principally  the  rye,  and  in  France  the  wheat.*  Thus, 
in  order  to  determine  the  precise  value  of  a  farm,  it  will  be  much  more  correct 
to  say  that  it  is  worth  so  many  measures  of  rye  and  wheat,  than  so  many  pounds 
or  shillings.  Or  if  we  wish  to  reduce  this  fixed  value  to  a  numerical  one,  which 
may  be  modified  by  circumstances,  we  must  ascertain  the  medium  value  of 
wheat  with  money  in  ordinary  years  ;  and  thus  we  shall  be  able  easily  to  calcu- 
late the  sum  that  a  portion  of  landed  properly  is  worth,  according  to  the  actual 
value  of  money. 

The  value  of  a  farm  consists  :  1.  In  the  extent  of  the  whole  and  of  each  of  its 
divisions.  2.  In  the  quality  of  the  soil.  This  latter  quality  can  only,  properly 
speaking,  be  demonstrated  in  a  precise  manner  by  an  analysis  of  the  different 
substances  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  of  their  physical  properties ;  this,  how- 
ever, may  perhaps  be  done  provisionally,  or  to  a  tolerably  satisfactory  extent,  by 
careful  observation  of  the  appearance  and  of  the  produce  of  the  soil.  3.  In  the 
situation,  and  in  the  reciprocal  relations  of  its  appurtenances.  4.  In  the  exterior 
circumstances,  the  prerogatives,  the  rights,  and  the  charges  of  the  property  ;  or, 
in  fact,  in  all  its  accessory  and  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages. 

In  the  general  examination  of  the  land,  the  growth  of  the  trees  and  copses,  if 
there  be  any  on  the  land,  their  species,  their  soundness,  the  elevation  of  their 
branches,  and  the  cleanness  of  their  bark,  are  among  the  surest  marks  of  the 
quality  of  the  soil.  The  plants  which  grow  spontaneously  there,  even  those  that 
are  injurious,  afford  also  a  valuable  indication  ;  but  it  is  not  sufficient  that  they 
grow  isolated  and  slowly,  but,  on  the  contrary,  their  increase  should  be  rapid  and 
abundant.  Thus  the  corn  or  field  thistle  [serratula  arvensis),  indicates  a  rich 
and  productive  soil ;  the  butter-bur  or  great  petasites,  {tussilago  petasites),  an 
argillaceous  soil;  the  colt's  foot,  {tussilago  farfara,)  and  the  bramble,  a  marly 
soil ;  the  common  chickweed  and  pimpernel,  [alsine  media),  the  common  sow 
thistle,  [sonchus  oleraceus),  the  charlock,  (sinapis  arvensis),  grow  on  soft  and 
tenacious  lands  ;  while  the  wild  radish  {raphanus  raphanistrwn),  grows  in  dry 
and  poor  lands.  The  black  medick  or  nonsuch  (medicago  lupulina),  is  a  sure 
sign  of  the  marly  quality  of  the  soil  in  which  it  is  found.f 

An  abundant  growth  of  grass,  by  which  persons  who  value  estates  often  sufler 
themselves  to  be  too  much  influenced,  is  a  very  deceptive  indication,  as  it  is  often 
occasioned  by  a  humid  atmosphere  or  by  recent  manuring,  and  sometimes  even 
by  the  bad  state  of  the  cultivation. 

The  appearance  of  the  crops  in  an  early  stage  is  a  no  less  deceptive  sign  ;  for, 

when  they  are  sown  thickly,  and  in  the  early  part  of  autunm  or  in  the  spring,  on 

a  bad  soil,  they  may  appear,  on  a  superficial  inspection,  to  be  superior  to  those 

which  grow  on  a  better  soil.     Sometimes,  indeed,  the  corn  is  sown  in  a  much 

;  greater  quantity  than  it  ought  to  be,  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  the  unwary 

'    purchaser.  \ 

A  far  more  correct  judgment  of  the  quality  of  the  soil  may  be  formed  by  ex-  i 
amining  the  com  in  the  ear,  or  the  stubble,  provided  the  examination  extends  to 
the  whole  of  the  farm,  and  is  not  confined  to  one  particular  field,  on  which,  per 
haps,  an  abundant  crop  has  been  produced  by  extravagant  manuring,  or  by  som 

•  *  In  Maryland  and  Vir^nia  it  used  to  be  tobacco.  The  Editor  remembers  that  when  a  boy,  his  father's 
favorite  roan  saddle-horse  was  wantonly  shot  by  a  neighbor  on  his  premises,  and  the  verdict  of  the  jury  was 
for  several  thousand  pounds  of  tobacco — as  many  as  were  worth  $200.  lEd.  Farmers'  Library. 

t  Every  step  indicates  the  advantage  of  knowing  something  of  botany.  \Ei.  Farmers'  Library. 

(244) 


extraordinary  mode  of  culture  which  has,  perhaps,  caused  the  neglect  of  some 
other  fields  of  the  farm. 

A  dark  color  of  the  soil  after  recent  ploughing  is  one  of  the  surest  signs  of  fer- 
tilit}',  except  in  heaths  and  marshy  lands.  A  dark  color  of  the  waters  in  the 
furrows  and  of  the  deposits  taken  from  them  is  likewise  an  indication  of  a  rich 
soil. 

Practice  will  soon  distinguish  by  pressure  of  the  foot,  or  by  thrusting  a  stick 
mto  the  soil,  or  even  by  the  sensation  which  is  experienced  in  passing  over  the 
ground  on  horseback,  the  degree  of  tenacity  in  the  soil ;  whether  it  consists  of 
tenacious  clay,  or  if  it  be  a  yielding  soil,  or  whether  sand  be  the  principal  ingre- 
dient. We  may  also  readily  judge  of  the  quality  by  the  state  of  the  clods  after 
recent  plowing,  and  from  noticing  the  degree  of  divisibility  or  tenacity  when  they 
have  been  some  time  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere  ;  but  more  par- 
ticularly the  proportions  of  the  soft  clay  to  the  gravel  may  be  easily  ascertained 
by  rubbing  a  portion  of  the  mould  between  the  fingers. 

The  thickness  of  the  layer  of  vegetable  mould  may  be  easily  ascertained  by 
thrusting  a  stick  into  it,  or  by  examining  the  sides  of  ditches  where  the  ground 
has  been  lowered.  These  last,  and  also  mole-hills,  discover  the  nature  of  the 
lower  strata  of  the  soil. 

The  scientific  agriculturist,  who  possesses  the  most  precise  and  accurate  ideas 
of  the  classification  and  goodness  of  the  land,  and  who  understands  the  different 
relations  according  to  which  it  should  be  examined,  ought  not  the  less  to  be  ac- 
quainted with  their  ordinary  classification,  and  with  the  names  by  which  prac- 
tical men  are  in  the  habit  of  ranging  and  distinguishing  them,  whether  generally, 
or  m  particular  districts,  in  order  that  he  may  not  be  at  a  loss  when  he  is  treat- 
ing for  the  purchase  of  property  of  this  description. 

The  division  of  land  into  good,  middling,  and  bad,  is  general  and  natural ;  but 
it  is  purely  relative. 

Tenacious  clay  has  been  often  ranked  in  the  first  class  ;  and  a  lighter  soil,  and 
even  calcareous  earth,  in  the  second.  Other  persons  have  given  the  preference, 
and  very  justly,  to  the  latter,  because,  in  the  cultivation  which  is  associated  with 
pasturage,  more  regard  is  paid  to  the  soil  which  best  promotes  the  spontaneous 
growth  of  the  herbage  ;  while  in  the  former  the  growth  of  corn  is  the  only  object 
regarded. 

Sometimes  a  signification  similar  to  the  above  is  given  to  the  comparative  ex- 
pressions, heavier  and  lighter  ;  but  these  terms  are  then  merely  used  to  denote 
the  tenacity  of  the  soil  and  the  degree  of  resistance  which  it  oifers  to  the  plow 
and  the  harrow. 

Sometimes  the  land  is  classed  according  to  the  number  of  times  the  seed  is 
multiplied  by  vegetation  in  the  course  of  tillage  followed  in  that  part  of  the 
country  ;  and  thus  it  is  called  3,  4,  5,  or  6  seed  land.  Sometimes  the  seed  itself 
is  included  in  this  calculation  ;  at  other  times  it  is  necessary  to  become  acquamted 
with  the  relative  quantity  of  seed  that  is  sown  and  whether  equal  qtiantities 
are  sown  on  equal  areas  of  different  lands,  in  order  to  be  able  to  draw  some  con- 
clusion from  these  data  ;  but  the  produce  generally  depends  more  on  the  quantity 
of  the  manure  than  on  the  nature  of  the  soil. 

One  of  the  most  useful  modes  of  classification  relates  to  the  description  of 
gram  which  the  land  has  produced  in  the  course  of  the  established  succession  of 
crops,  and  that,  generally,  in  a  period  of  three  years ;  and  likewise  to  those 
whicli  it  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  produce  with  the  greatest  advantage.  The 
following  is  the  classification  usually  adopted  in  Germany : — 

1.  Wheat  land  ,  that  which  after  a  fallow  produces  wheat  with  more  profit 
than  rye.  If,  in  the  course  of  the  triennial  rotation,  it  cannot  bear  wheat  twice 
m  six  years  without  being  manured  more  than  once,  it  is  called — 

(a).  Rich  Wheat  land  ;  which  is  found  only  in  places  of  alluvial  deposits  and 
HI  low  situations,  where  the  rivers  have  deposited  the  mud. 

[b).  Ordijiary  Wheat  land,  if  it  can  produce  wheat  only  after  having  been 
manured,  and  after  having  Iain  fallow  ;  and  the  second  time,  without  manuring, 
rye  only. 

2.  Barley  land,  la  this  and  the  following  class  no  attention  is  pai-d  to  the  first 
or  winter  crop,  but  only  to  the  second  or  spring  crop.  Here  are  also  distinguished —  / 

(a).     Rich -Barley  land  ;  that  which  twice  m  six  years  produces  barley  after  I 


22 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


the  winter  crop,  with  only  one  manuring.  Many  persons,  believing  that  land  of 
this  nature  can  produce  wheat  equally  well  for  the  first  crop,  include  it  in  the 
same  class  with  the  wheat  land.  Others,  with  more  reason,  draw  this  distinc- 
tion, that  a  soil  is  often  exceedingly  well  adapted  for  the  production  of  barley 
without  being  well  suited  to  the  growth  of  wlieat,  and  will  often  bear  rye  with 
more  advantage.  On  the  contrary,  an  argillaceous  soil,  which  is  better  adapted 
for  wheat  than  for  rye,  is  not  so  proper  for  barley,  and  will,  with  much  greater 
advantage,  be  cropped  with  oats  for  some  one  of  the  second  crops. 

(5).  Poor  Barley  land  ;  land  in  which  barley  Avill  not  thrive  as  a  second  crop 
without  manure,  but  which,  in  the  second  rotation  of  crops,  may  be  made  to  pro- 
duce oats,  though  not  very  abundantly. 

Where  the  large  and  the  small  kinds  of  barley  are  both  cultivated,  the  lands 
which  produce  the  first  are  called  large  barley  lands  ;  and  the  others,  the  small 
harley  lands. 

3.  Oat  land  is  that  which  produces  oats  after  the  harvest  of  the  winter  grain. 
Strictly  speaking,  only  cold  and  heavy  land  may  be  included  in  this  class ;  and 
every  other  soil  which  yields  oats  Avith  advantage  might,  with  good  tillage,  be 
made  to  produce  barley  "with  equal  profit.  In  general,  however,  we  include  un- 
der this  class,  lands  which  are  considered  too  light,  or  which  have  too  little  con- 
sistence for  the  growth  of  barley.     This  class  includes — 

[a).  Rich  Oat  land,  which,  with  only  one  manuring  in  nine  years,  yields  oats 
after  each  winter  crop,  and,  therefore,  three  times  during  each  succession  of 
crops. 

(h).  Middling  Oat  land  which  is  allowed  to  lie  fallow  the  eighth  year  after 
it  has  been  manured. 

(c).  Poor  Oat  land,  which,  under  the  same  circumstances,  yields  but  one  crop 
of  oats. 

4.  Rye  land,  which,  in  the  three  years'  succession  of  crops,  produces  rye  every 
third  year  only,  and  which  has  not  sufficient  strength  to  produce  another  kind  of 
grain,  and,  consequently,  must  lie  fallow  for  two  years. 

The  names  of  sixth,  ninth,  and  twelfth  years''  rye  land  is  applied  to  that  kind 
which  produces  this  grain  only  every  sixth,  ninth  and  twelfth  year,  and  lies  fal- 
low during  the  rest  of  the  time.  To  this  class  belong  those  exterior  and  distant 
parcels  of  laud  which  are  never  manured,  where  bad  quality  does  not  arise  so 
much  from  the  nature  of  the  soil  as  from  the  want  of  manure.  The  substance 
which  nature  affords  to  such  lands  by  the  growth  of  the  grass  and  from  the  dung 
of  the  sheep  that  eat  the  herbage,  is  quickly  absorbed  by  the  rye  crop,  and  thus 
the  land  returns  to  the  original  exhausted  state.* 

However  vague  this  classification  may  be,  it  is,  nevertheless,  the  most  precise 
and  definite  of  those  which  are  in  general  use  ;  it  is,  likewise,  that  which  is 
employed  as  the  basis  of  most  valuations.  The  agriculturist,  whose  judgment 
is  guided  by  the  most  accurate  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  soil,  ought  not  to 
be  ignorant  of  it ;  and  he  ought,  also,  in  every  country  to  which  his  fortune  may 
call  him,  to  examine  most  minutely  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  every 
soil,  and  arrange  them  under  their  respective  classes. 

Every  intelligent  farmer  will  be  guided  in  the  choice  of  land  rather  by  the 
quality  of  the  soil  than  by  the  extent  of  the  property  ;  for  the  want  of  fertility 
can  seldom  be  compensated  by  an  increased  number  of  acres.  There  are  farms 
which  are  absolutely  worth  nothing,  and  which,  when  every  thing  is  taken  into 
account,  never  repay  the  expenses  of  cultivation  ;  and,  consequently,  for  the 
growth  of  corn,  a  thousand  acres  of  such  land  are  not  worth  so  much  as  a  single 
acre  of  good  land. 

The  greater  the  general  fertility  of  a  country,  the  less  is  the  value  of  the  bad 
land  it  contains ;  for  the  produce,  or  the  yearly  value  of  the  richer  land,  will  di- 
minish the  rent  of  the  poorer  lands  in  the  neighborhood.  Where  the  produce  of 
the  fertile  portion  of  the  land  satisfies  every  want,  the  soils  which  are  less  pro- 
ductive can  scarcely  be  cultivated  with  advantage.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  more 
fertile  lands  do  not  produce  a  sufficient  supply  for  the  usual  consumption  of  the 
district,  the  cultivation  of  the  others  will  become  more  profitable;  and  conse- 

By  land  lying  in  fallow,  the  author  here  means  a  state  unoccupied  by  arable  culture;  for  he  mentions 
the  grass  sward,  and  the  dung  of  sheep  as  being  absorbed  by  the  triennial  crops  of  lye,  and  that  the  ? 
returns  to  its  originally  barren  state.    This  mode  resembles  the  old  out-field  system  of  Scotland. 
f246) 


THE   FARM. 


quently,  a  higher  price  may  be  given  for  inferior  laud  m  a  poor  country  than  in 
one  which  is  highly  productive. 

Next  to  the  arable  portion  of  the  farms,  the  meadow  land  should  come  into 
serious  consideration.  A  due  proportion  of  meadow  and  arable  land  has  hitherto 
been  considered  as  an  essential  requisite  in  a  good  farm  ;  and  that  a  quantity  of 
land,  although  composed  of  the  richest  and  best  soil,  Avould  be  defective  if  it  was 
not  accompanied  by  a  sufficient  extent  of  meadow  ground.  This  opinion  is 
founded  on  the  acknowledged  fact  that  without  a  sufficient  supply  of  green  food 
no  good  tillage  can  exist ;  and  also  on  the  acknowledged  axiom,  that  Avithout 
meadow^s  there  can  be  no  forage.  Yet,  when  it  shall  come  to  be  generally  known 
that  by  cultivating  the  various  grasses,  and  by  aliernately  using  the  different 
portions  of  the  land  as  arable  land  and  as  artificial  meadows,  three  or  four  times 
as  much  nourishment  can  be  obtained  for  the  cattle  as  on  the  same  extent  of  nat- 
ural meadows,  the  deficiency  of  natural  meadow  laud  will  no  longer  be  regarded 
as  a  defect  in  an  estate,  the  soil  of  which  is  tolerably  fertile,  and  in  which  the  i 
rotation  of  crops  is  at  the  disposal  of  the  farmer.*  Nevertheless,  this  circum-  ' 
stance  ought  only  to  be  considered  as  placing,  some  limits  to  the  supposed  value  \ 
of  good  meadow. 

The  value  of  meadows  is,  perhaps,  more  difficult  to  be  determined  than  that  of  \ 
arable  land  ;  and  fixed  rules  for  the  determination  can  only  be  laid  down  when  in  / 
a  portion  of  this  work  the  cultivation  of  pasture  land  is  taken  into  consideration.  \ 
In  most  valuations  they  are  divided  into  three  classes — good,  middling,  and  bad  ;  ; 
but  this  division  is  not  sufficiently  precise  for  the  correct  valuation.     The  known 
or  estimated  produce,  and  the  quantity  and  value  of  the  hay,  would  be  a  better 
guide  ;  but  both  the  quantity  and  value  vary  exceedingly  in  diflferent  times  and 
places.     Therefore,  the  meadow  land  is  divided  into  five  classes  ;  the  produce  of 
the  first  and  best  being  calculated  at  30,  the  second  at  20,  and  the  third  at  14,  the 
fourth  at  10,  and  the  fifth  at  6  hundred  weights  of  hay  per  acre.     Particular  at- 
tention must,  however,  be  paid  to  the  more  or  less  frequent  occurrence  of  cir- 
cumstances ;  meadows  usually  the  best  watered,  being  exposed  to  inundations 
just  at  the  very  time  when  such  an  accident  will  effect  the  greatest  damage. 
According  to  the  ordinary  mode  of  valuation,  meadows  are  estimated  at  a  price 
improperly  compared  with  the  quantity  of  hay  which  they  are  known  or  believed 
to  produce.     This  value  arises  from  the  charge  for  grazing  cattle  being  likewise 
fixed  at  too  low  a  rate.     Thus,  as  frequently  happens,  an  attempt  is  made  to  con- 
ceal one  fault  by  another  and  a  worse. 

The  purchaser,  agreeably  to  the  knowledge  which  he  has  acquired  of  meadow 

lands,  and  of  the  ameliorations  of  Avhich  they  are  susceptible  at  a  certain  expense, 

should  make  an  estimate  for  himself  of  the  advantage  which  he  believes  he 

may  derive  from  it  according  to  his  peculiar  mode  of  using  it,  and  from  the  ordi- 

-  nary  market  price  of  the  country.     He  should  carefully  and  personally  inquire 

(    whether  the  meadows  are  exempt  from  the  right  of  pathway   through  them  ; 

'    whether  they  are  subject  in   sprins:  or  in    autumn  to  any  right  of  grazing  upon 

\    them,  or  any  other  ancient  servitudes  ;  and  also  whetherhe  can,  at  his  pleasure, 

.    irrigate  any  and  what  portion  of  his  meadows,  or  whether  he  is  subjected  to  any 

restrictions  on  this  point. 

Cattle  may  be  fed  :    1.  On  open  spaces,  or  spots  but  thinly  covered  with  trees.  ' 
2.  On  fallow  lands  or  in  the  stubble  of  corn-fields.     3.  On  meadow  lands  in  the 
spring,  and  after  the  first  and  second  mowing.     4.  In  woods  and  forests.     5.  On  < 
marshes.  |, 

The  valuation  of  woods  is  attended  Avith  great  difficulties.  This  valuation 
I  may  be  made  under  very  different  circumstances,  and,  consequently,  may  be  at- 
tended with  very  different  results  :  it  may  have  relation  to  the  return  which  the 
woods  might  yield  if  kept  in  good  order,  according  to  the  principles  of  forest 
cultivation  ;  or  to  the  sum  Avhich  might  be  realized  from  the  quantity  of  timber 
actually  grooving  on  the  land,  supposing  that  the  whole  cr  a  part  of  this  timber 
could  be  profitably  disposed  of;  and  also  taking  into  consideration  the  profit  which 
I  might  be  derived  from  the  land  thus*cleared  by  converting  it  to  a  different  use.  / 

'  *  The  author  steers  a  middle  course  in  opinion  between  arable  and  meadow  lands  in  point  of  utilitj'.  He 
thinks  a  knowledge  of  the  alternate  system  ought  to  set  a  limit  to  natural  meadows,  but  not  to  annihilate  the 
value,  or  rather  the  supposed  value.  That  system  will  require  much  time  to  force  its  way  even  with  prt. 
lightened  minds. 
(247^ 


24  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

The  difference  between  the  results  of  these  modes  of  valuation  is  enormous, 
especially  if  the  calculation  be  made  according  to  the  method  adopted  with  those 
which  are  national  property.  According  to  the  principles  adopted  ia  many  esti- 
mates, the  value  of  the  land  would  be  increased  by  entirely  clearing  it  of  wood 
and  converting  it  into  pasture  grounds  for  sheep. 

Timber  for  building,  for  other  purposes,  or  for  fire-wood,  always  adds  to  the 
value  of  an  estate  ;  particular  attention  should  therefore  be  paid  to  it  in  the  pur- 
chasing of  land. 

Many  persons,  when  about  to  purchase  an  estate,  place  great  reliance  on  the 
information  which  they  collect  from  the  occupiers  of  neighborhig  farms,  or  from 
persons  knoAvn  in  the  neighborhood,  and  even  on  that  which  they  obtain  from 
the  laborers,  shepherds,  and  tenants.  Such  persons  may,  it  is  true,  be  capable 
of  furnishuig  useful  information  ;  but  it  would  not  be  prudent  to  place  too  much 
reliance  on  their  reports  without  testing  the  correctness  of  them  by  actual  obser- 
vation. He  who  seeks  to  spare  himself  the  trouble  of  personal  examination,  runs 
great  risk  of  being  deceived.  Such  reports  as  those  referred  to  are  so  much  the 
more  suspicious  in  proportion  as  landed  property  has  become  an  object  of  traffic 
in  the  country,  and  has  passed  into  the  hands  of  speculators,  particularly  those 
who  are  connected  with  mercantile  or  agricultural  companies.  The  tricks  Avhich 
have  been  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  purchasers  are  almost  incredi- 
ble, falling  not  lar  short  of  those  practised  by  horse-dealers.  In  countries  of  this 
character,  it  will  be  prudent  to  regard  all  those  who  furnish  yon  with  informa- 
tion as  tools  of  the  seller.  Even  written  documents,  leases,  and  registers,  can 
scarcely  be  trusted  Avithout  some  convincmg  evidence  of  the  truth  of  their  contents. 
Sometimes  the  last  owners  have  sunk 'large  sums  of  money  on  an  estate,  and 
have  considerably  augmented  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  but  they  have  not  had  suffi- 
cient perseverance  or  suflBcient  good  fortune  to  enable  them  to  reap  the  benefit 
of  their  exertions  ;  and  there  have  been  instances  in  which  the  improvements 
have  been  made  on  a  farm,  but  it  has  been  left  to  the  successors  to  enjoy  them. 
1 1  On  the  other  hand,  the  last  occupiers  may  have  contrived  to  reap  considerable 
>  pecuniary  advantage  from  the  use  of  the  property  by  exhausting  the  land,  and 
thus  improved  their  own  fortunes  at  the  expense  of  the  estate.  A  farm  may  thus 
I  acquire  a  good  or  a  bad  reputation  in  the  opinion  of  those  who  only  take  a  cur- 
I  sory  view  of  it ;  and  this  will,  in  the  former  case,  attract  a  great  number  of  pur- 
chasers to  the  sale,  or,  in  the  latter,  keep  them  away,  and  thus  cause  the  estate 
to  be  sold  at  a  price  considerably  above  or  beloAv  its  actual  value.  This  must 
not,  hoAvever,  be  taken  as  a  general  rule;  for  a  needy  or  a  careless  occupier  may 
have  derived  only  a  scanty  amount  of  produce  from  the  land,  and  yet  have  im- 
poverished it  to  an  extent  which  Avill  render  the  employment  of  a  very  large  cap- 
ital necessary  to  restore  it  to  a  state  of  fertility. 

Estates  often  possess  considerable  resources  v/hich  have  escaped  the  notice  of 
lazy  or  ignorant  farmers,  and  have,  consequently,  never  been  turned  to  account ; 
and  such  estates  are  likely  to  yield  much  more  than  those  which  have  been  in 
the  hands  of  competent  persons. 

The  gross  produce  of  each  harvest  on  a  given  extent  of  land  having  been  de- 
<\  termined,  the  net  produce  may  be  calculated  from  it,  and  for  this  purpose  the 
I    quantity  of  seed  sown  must  first  be  deducted. 

When  a  calculation  of  the  total  amount  of  the  produce  has  been  followed  by 
that  of  the  expenses  attendant  upon  each  harvest,  it  is  also  customary  to  deduct 
the  price  of  the  quantity  of  each  grain  consumed  on  the  estate,  (such",  for  exam- 
ple, as  the  quantity  of  wheat  and  rye  for  bread,  and  of  barley  for  beer,  &c'.)  as 
also  the  wages  paid  for  threshing  the  corn.  There  appears  to  me  to  be  an  unne- 
cessary prolixity  about  this,  since  the  value  of  the  corn  required  for  consumption 
on  the  farm  might  be  more  correctly  joined  Avith  the  other  expenses  of  the  house- 
hold, and  the  result  thus  obtained  Avould  give  a  much  clearer  idea  of  the  whole. 
Besides,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  purchase  certain  kinds  of  grain,  such  as  oatsj 
for  other  purposes. 

_  In  order  to  avoid  the  very  troublesome  calculation  of  tlxe  expenses  of  cultiva- 
tion, attempts  have  frequently  been  made  to  subtract  a  quantity  of  grain  from  the 
gross  produce,  in  order  to  cover  these  expenses  and  also  those  of  the  home  con- 
sumption. It  is  evident  that  this  method  is  exceedmgly  indefii^ite,  and  that  it 
must  be  considerably  modified  by  time  and  place. 

(248) 


THE   FARM.  25 


The  term  of  "  rent  or  farm  grains  "  is  given  to  that  portion  of  every  kind  of 
seed  which  remains  after  deducting  the  seed  sovpn  and  the  expenses  of  cultiva- 
tion, and  they  are  valued  in  money  as  constituting  the  net  produce  of  the  culture. 

Or,  again,  the  lands  comprised  in  the  same  class  in  the  register  of  mensuration 
or  cultiv-ation,  may  be  collected  together,  divided  into  three  equal  parts,  and  their 
value  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  table. 

When  there  are  fields,  enclosed  by  hedges,  near  the  house,  they  are  usually 
valued  separately,  not  according  to  the  quantity  of  seed  sown  m  them  or  the  crop 
which  they  yield,  but  according  to  their  extent.  Thus,  an  acre  of  such  land  is 
valued  at  a  much  higher  rate  than  an  acre  of  unenclosed  land.  In  the  official  re- 
turns it  has  even  been  raised  as  high  as  from  three  to  six  rix-dollars,  although 
the  soil  in  itself  cannot  be  considered  as  much  better  than  that  of  the  rest  of  the 
land.  The  more  careful  tillage,  the  large  quantity  of  manure  with  which  they 
are  enriched,  the  right  of  enclosure,  that  is  to  say,  the  being  able  to  dispense 
with  herdmg,  and  the  greater  quantity  of  produce  which  they  afford,  give  a  high 
value  to  these  enclosures  in  the  opinion  of  most  persons. 

Kitchen  gardens  are  also  valued  in  proportion  to  their  extent,  and  at  rather  a 
high  rate.  The  great  produce  derived  from  them  is,  however,  for  the  most  part 
due  to  superior  cultivation.     The  same  remarks  also  apply  to  hop  gardens. 

Vineyards  are  valued  according  to  the  amount  of  the  produce.  The  knowledge 
of  this  produce  is  acquired  by  practice,  and  m  a  manner  which  it  is  hardly  possi- 
ble to  teach  by  rule  ;  because  the  properties  of  the  vine  and  of  the  soil,  and  the 
influences  of  climate  and  aspect,  have  not  as  yet  been  satisfactorily  ascertained. 

Orchards  and  fruit-gardens  require  particular  attention  in  point  of  climate  and 
soil  most  suitable  to  fruit.  In  some  countries  a  good  crop  may  be  reckoned  in 
every  two  years,  while  in  others  a  good  crop  can  scarcely  be  obtained  once  in  nine 
years.  In  the  former  there  are  usually  large  plantations  of  fruit  trees,  and  their 
average  produce  indicates  with  sufficient  exactness  the  price  which  should  be  put 
upon  them  ;  in  the  latter,  after  having  determined  the  value  of  the  soil,  the  trees 
should  be  estimated  only  in  proportion  to  their  size,  vigor,  and  kind,  unless  the 
plantation  possesses  a  certain  aspect  and  situation,  be  protected  from  hurtful 
wuids,  and  contain  only  trees  of  a  choice  kind  and  of  good  quality  ;  under  such 
circumstances  an  orchard  may  be  particularly  valuable,  even  in  a  climate  other- 
wise unfavorable  to  fruit  trees. 

As  to  the  expenses  of  cattle  feeding,  the  principles  by  which  it  is  determined 
must,  of  necessity,  be  uncertain  and  subject  to  variation.  In  estimates  founded 
on  the  triennial  succession  of  crops,  it  is  reckoned  at  scarcely  half  the  value  here 
assigned  to  it. 

In  ordinary  estimates,  the  annual  cost  of  a  cow  is  reckoned  at  from  three  to 
ten  rix-dollars.  But  it  seldom  reaches  ten  rix-dollars  on  estates  managed  accord- 
ing to  the  triennial  succession  of  crops  ;  and  is  only  found  in  places  where  the 
meadows  lie  low,  are  fertile,  and  vvell  watered.  A  third  part  of  the  stock  are 
considered  as  Sieves,  (young  cattle,)  and  each  of  these  is  valued  at  the  sixth  part 
of  the  price  of  a  milch  cow.  It  is,  however,  admitted  that  pastures  beyond  the 
estate  are  available  for  the  nourishment  of  young  cattle,  and  then  the  produce  of 
one  out  of  two  is  only  taken  into  account. 

Sheep  are  valued  at  from  twenty  to  thirty  rix-dollars  per  hundred,  and  their 
grazing  on  sheep  walks  is  not  taken  into  account.  Although  the  profit  of  sheep 
husbandry  has  been  allowed  to  be  infioaitely  greater,  it  has  not  been  thought 
necessary  to  raise  the  estimate,  on  account  of  the  great  risks  from  mortality  that 
have  hitherto  occurred.  And  in  the  net  produce  of  sheep  feeding,  much  is  un- 
doubtedly attributable  to  care  and  industry. 

The  profit  of  pigs  is  sometimes  estimated  according  to  the  number  of  cows, 
and  sometimes  according  to  the  extent  of  the  grain  crops.  In  the  former  case, 
it  is  considered  that  for  every  cow  a  pig  may  be  kept,  which  is  valued  at  from 
eight  to  ten  groschen  ;*  in  the  latter,  one  groschen  is  reckoned  for  every  bushel 
of  winter  grain  as  the  value  of  the  feeding  of  pigs  on  the  stubble.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  expenses  of  feeding  poultry  are  estimated  by  the  extent  of  the  spring 
sowings  ;  and  six  groschen  for  every  bushel  of  seed  are  allowed  for  that  purpose. 

Hunting  and  fishing  can  only  be  estimated  according  to  the  locality,  or  from 


*  A  groschen  is  IJd.  English  money. 
(249) 


26  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

■  experience,  or  from  general  usage.  The  valuation  of  fish  ponds  requires  a  pecu- 
liar kind  of  knowledge,  which  we  cannot  explain  in  this  place. 

Lastly,  we  have  to  estiinate  the  value  of  the  statute  labor — or  that  which  the 
tenant  is  obliged  to  perform  for  his  landlord  without  remuneration.  This  is  di- 
vided into — 

First,  statute  labor  performed  by  draught  cattle  and  by  manual  labor.  The  first 
kind  of  statute  labor  is,  for  the  most  part,  due  only  from  those  estates  which  were 
originally  sufficiently  extensive  to  require  a  team  of  cattle  or  horses.  The  other 
kind  is  due  from  small  farms,  which  either  are  not  or  were  not  sufficiently  laige 
to  maintain  teams.  Statute  labor,  by  hors'es,  is  divided  into  that  which  is  per- 
foriiied  by  four  horses,  and  that  which  is  performed  by  two  or  only  one.  As  for 
manual  statute  labor,  it  is  sometimes  due  from  persons  who  do  not  possess  any 
arable  land,  but  merely  a  house  or  garden,  or  some  pasture  grounds. 
Secondly,  into  fixed  and  variable  statute  labor. 

The  former  is  usually  limited  to  a  certain  period  of  time,  so  that  the  person 
from  whom  it  is  due  is  obliged  to  furnish  a  certain  number  of  days'  work  per 
annum.  The  choice  of  the  time  when  the  Avork  must  be  performed  does  not  often 
rest  with  the  owner  of  the  right ;  the  days  are  more  generally  fixed  in  some  par- 
ticular weeks  in  each  period  of  tillage  ;  sometimes  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 
each  kind  of  labor  appointed  for  the  day,  and,  at  others,  the  amount  is  left  indefi- 
nite. In  the  latter  case  the  owner  of  the  right  derives  a  very  trifling  advantage 
from  it,  which  is  much  reduced  if  he  has  not  the  power  of  enforcing  the  perform- 

i'  ance  of  the  wo-k,  as  is  the  case  in  places  where  hereditary  service  and  vassal- 
age have  been  abolished  ;  and  which  will  be  still  more  the  case  when  hereditary 
jurisdiction  shall  have  ceased.  This  statute  labor  is,  in  such  cases,  far  more  in- 
jurious than  any  other  species  of  servitude,  both  to  the  individual  who  is  subject- 
ed to  it,  and  to  the  public  good  ;  because  it  creates  idleness  and  carelessness,  in- 
tentionally bad  performance  of  work,  and  a  highly  reprehensible  degree  of  insub- 
ordination ;  and  is  thus  destructive  of  morality,  and  occasions  the  loss  of  much 
valuable  time  and  labor.  The  servant,  or  the  son  of  a  peasant,  is  encouraged  by 
his  master  or  his  father  to  be  idle,  negligent,  and  deceitful  ;  he  considers  it  as  a 

,  point  of  honor  to  cheat  the  landlord  ;  he  thus  becomes  habituated  to  idleness,  and 
then  goes  on  to  deceive  his  master  or  his  father,  and  himself,  by  losing  the  habit 
or  the  power  of  working  up  to  his  strength. 

From  this  cause  men  are  found  to  be  more  idle  in  situations  where  statute 
labor  is  established  than  elsewhere  ;  and  the  servants  in  such  places  imitate  the 
idleness  and  dishonesty  of  those  who  are  subjected  to  this  right.     For  the  same 

I  reason  greater  profit  is  derived  from  that  statute  labor,  the  amount  of  which  is 
fixed  for  each  day  ;  and  it  is  advantageous  to  relinquish  a  considerable  number  of 
the  days  of  service  in  order  to  obtain  this  fixed  mode. 

Sometimes  the  statute  labor  consists  in  a  certain  quantity  of  work  of  a  partic- 
ular description,  without  specifying  the  number  of  days.  Under  this  arrange- 
ment the  work  is  certainly  more  quickly  done,  but  it  is  not  done  nearly  as  well. 
When  all  the  fields  appertaining  to  an  estate,  or  only  a  portion  of  them,  are  cul- 
tivated by  statute  labor  of  this  kind,  they  may  easily  be  distinguished  by  the 
scanty  crops  even  from  the  lands  of  the  peasants  ;  and  notwithstanding  the 
advantages  resulting  from  considerable  tithes  and  extensive  pasturages,  they  often 
yield  a  very  poor  return.  In  such  districts,  lands  thus  cultivated  may  be  distin- 
guished, even   by  a  very  casual  observer,  from  those  cultivated  by  the  servants 

'  and  teams  of  the  proprietor.  The  difi'erence  in  the  produce  amounts  to  far  more 
than  the  value  of  the  statute  labor. 

If,  then,  the  amount  of  the  labor  is  to  be  fixed,  either  by  the  day  or  by  the 
aggregate,  the  best  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  make  choice  of  work,  the  manner 
of  executing  which  shall  not  cause  any  sensible  diiFerence  ;  and  thus,  as  far  as 
possible,  it  is  desirable  to  use  carts  and  wagons,  the  loading  of  which  can  be 
determined  with  tolf^rab'e  precision. 

<  Jnd^jfinei  statute  lab(  r  appear,  to  Le  only  compatible  witn  tho  corditi(,n  of  the 
peasant,  whose  house,  farm,  and  cattle,  are  the  property  of  his  landlord  ;  who 
has  thus  the  right  of  continuing  or  withdrawing  them  at  his  pleasure.  In  this 
case  the  peasant  must  be  literally  regarded  as  a  servant,  who  is  allowed  the  use 
of  the  farm  in  lieu  of  board  and  wages.  The  landlord  will  not,  of  course,  over-work 
either  the  peasant  or  his  cattle  for  fear  of  injuring  his  own  property.     This  ar-  , 


THE    FARM.  27 

rangement  may  take  place  independent  of  vassalage  or  hereditary  servitude,  the 
parties  having  the  option  of  canceling  their  mutual  engagements  at  the  termina- 
tion of  a  specified  time,  if  they  find  it  advantageous  to  be  done.  Statute  labor 
of  this  nature,  still  exists  in  places  where  the  peasant  is  really  the  owner 
of  his  farm.  In  such  cases  unreasonable  demands  are  restrained  by  the  principle 
that  the  peasant  ought  to  have  sufficient  time  allowed  him  to  sow  his  own  land, 
and  cultivate  his  own  farm ;  but  as  the  decision  of  disputes  Avhich  may  arise  on 
these  points  is  attended  with  infinite  difficulty,  law-suits  and  misunderstand- 
ings without  end  arise,  the  annoyance  of  which  is  scarcely  compensated  by  the 
advantages  which  may  be  derived  from  such  services.  Personal  statute  labor  is 
sometimes  regulated  by  the  day,  and  sometimes  by  the  quantity  and  nature  of 
the  work.  To  the  latter  kind  belong,  particularly,  the  seed  time  and  harvest 
statute  labor,  in  which  any  certain  person  has  to  execute  a  fixed  quantity  of  work. 
In  daily  statute  labor,  it  is  frequently  not  specified  whether  the  work  is  to  be 
done  by  a  man  or  a  woman,  by  a  strong  or  a  weak  person.  But  as  it  is  generally 
performed  by  persons  who  are  otherwise  most  frequently  employed  on  the  estate, 
and  who  are,  consequently,  more  dependent  upon  it,  and  sometimes  also  by  ten- 
ants, who  pay  their  rent  in  this  manner,  greater  advantage  may  be  expected  from 
it  than  from  statute  labor  by  horses  ;  and  it  may,  without  risk  of  error,  be  esti- 
mated at  the  value  of  a  woman's  day's  work.  This  kind  of  service  is  likewise 
less  burdensome  to  the  individual  from  whom  it  is  due.  In  some  places  it  is  the 
established  custom  to  have  the  entire  harvest  gathered  in  by  labor  of  this  kind, 
m  return  for  which  the  laborers  receive  a  certain  portion  of  the  crop,  and  after 
the  threshing,  a  second  remuneration  in  grain. 

However  advantageous  this  practice  may  have  appeared,  the  inconveniences 
are  now  fully  appreciated  in  Lower  Silesia  ;  not  so  much  on  account  of  the  ex- 
cessive quantity  of  the  produce  which  the  laborers  receive,  as  from  the  irregu- 
larity and  carelessness  with  which  the  harvest  work  is  performed.  These  hered- 
itary harvest  laborers  are  now  regarded  rather  as  a  burden  than  an  advantage 
to  an  estate.* 

Another  important  point  to  be  attended  to  in  the  purchase  of  an  estate,  is  the 
relative  position  of  the  lands  of  which  it  is  composed.     In  some  countries  the  di- 
vision and  mingling  together  of  properties  of  various  kinds,  and  belonging  to  dif- 
ferent parties,  is  almost  universal.     When  the  partitions  were  first  made,  the 
method  of  dividing  a  given  extent  of  surface  into  any  number  of  equal  portions 
was  unknown  ;  that  ignorance  was  undoubtedly  the  cause  of  this  dismemberment 
of  estates  ;  it  may,  however,  have  arisen  partly  from  other  considerations,  which 
were  then  of  more  consequence  than  the  appropriate  situation  of  a  field.     At  the 
present-day,  where  this  excessive  division  of  the  estates  cannot  be  modified,  it  to- 
tally precludes  the  possibility  of  bringing  the  land  to  any  degree  of  fertility.    The 
cultivation  of  such  land  is  subjected  to  a  number  of  difficulties  and  annoyances, 
and  the  small  portions  of  it  can  never  be  so  well  cultivated  as  the  larger.     Great 
loss  of  time  is  occasioned  by  the  fields  lying  apart  from  one  another  ;  and  besides, 
such  a  division  of  the  land  renders  it  impossible  properly  to  overlook  the  work- 
men, or  maintain  a  fitting  control  over  them  ;  neither  can  an  exact  account  be 
kept  of  the  work  that  is  done  ;  nor  can  the  time  and  labor  which  will  be  required 
i    for  tilling  and  sowing  the  land  be  previously  determined.     The  separation  of  the 
\  fields  by  ditches  occasions  the  loss  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  land  ;  and  yet 
J    these  ditches  are  necessary  if  we  wish  to  have  the  boundaries  preserved  invio- 
\    late.     Moreover,  without  the  concurrence  of  his  neighbors,  the  farmer  is  unable 
I    to  effect  the  destruction  of  noxious  weeds  ;  and  proper  enclosures,  which  are  often 
'    so  useful,  become  impracticable.! 

On  this  account,  detached  portions  of  land,  as  those  in  question,  are,  in  the 

I  opinion  of  experienced  agriculturists,  scarcely  of  half  the  value  of  those  estates 

where  lands  lie  together,  and  which  the  proprietor  can  use  without  restriction. 

A.n  rxpeienr  ed  ?gric' Jtmst  v  ill,   her'  fore  alv  ays  dec\ne   -urc  lasi-  g  a  .  esUte 

conbisting  ol  detached  portions,  unless  he  has  a  fair  prospect  of  being  able  to 

*  The  disadvantages  of  statute  labor  of  any  kind  are  here  treated  at  length,  and  the  total  abolition  is  very 
earnestly  urged.  The  late  commutation  of  road  labor  in  England  may  be  regarded  as  the  last  vestige  of  that 
injurious  system.  Many  remnants  of  it  yet  remain  in  the  northern  paits  of  the  kingdom,  but  are  gradually 
falling  into  disuse. 

t  How  perfect  a  picture  of  the  evils  of  our  common  field  system  ! 
{251) 


28 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


1 


make  some  exchange,  and  so  unite  a  considerable  part  of  his  land  in  one  tract ; 
id  enclose  it,  and  enjoy  the  full  and  entire  control. 

When  an  estate  is  composed  of  contiguous  portions  of  land,  or,  at  least,  con- 
tains enclosures,  or  considerable  pieces  thus  united,  it  is  then  necessary  to  con- 
sider it  as  a  whole.  The  nearer  it  approaches  to  a  circular  or  a  square  form,  the 
more  commodious  it  will  be  ;  a  long  and  narrow  strip  of  land  is  very  inconve- 
nient, and  is  not  easily  and  suitably  apportioned  to  the  successive  crops. 

Another  important  subject  of  observation  is,  that  the  buildings  belonging  to 
the  farm  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the  centre  of  the  property,  and  at  an 
equal  distance  from  each  portion  of  it,  if  the  lands  can  be  so  divided  that  they 
shall  all  immediately  surround  the  buildmgs,  and  that  the  remotest  part  of  one 
field  shall  not  be  more  distant  than  the  remotest  part  of  another. 

Injudiciously  situated  farm-houses,  barns,  &c.  &c.  are  but  too  frequenllj  met 
with  on  estates,  because,  at  the  time  of  the  erection  of  the  ancient  cliateaus,  con- 
venience in  tillage  was  the  last  thing  that  occupied  attention  ;  and,  latterly,  en- 
tire farm-houses  have  rarely  been  erected,  but  merely  a  few  isolated  buildings, 
which  have  been,  for  the  most  part,  placed  on  the  same  spot  as  the  old  ones,  in 
order  to  be  in  accordance  with  those  already  erected.  This  evil  can  seldom  be 
remedied,  except  by  the  erection  of  entire  new  farmsteads  ;  and  there  are  not 
often  sufficient  motives  to  induce  such  a  determination.  This  is  a  point  to  which 
particular  attention  should  be  paid  when  purchasing  an  estate. 

The  rt.ads  which  lead  from  the  buildings  to  the  land,  or  from  one  part  of  the 
estate  to  another,  should  also  be  carefully  noticed ;  since,  if  they  are  badly  con- 
trived, rough,  and  circuitous,  they  will  occasion  a  great  waste  of  labor  and  of 
time.  The  purchaser  of  an  estate  must  not  forget  to  calculate  the  alterations 
and  repairs  which  these  roads  may  require. 

A  judicious  arrangement  and  due  proportion  of  farm  buildings  is  a  valuable 
feature  in  an  estate. 

The  farm  buildings  are  generally  omitted  in  a  valuation,  being  regarded  as  a 
necessary  part  of  an  estate.  But  the  purchaser  should  not  fail  to  regard  their 
being  out  of  repair,  badly  situated,  &c.  and  the  expenses  necessary  to  remedy 
these  evils,  as  very  disadvantageous  circumstances. 

Good  and  substantial  buildings  should  always  be  considered  as  having  a  cer- 
tain value,  although  he  who  calculates  the  interest  and  compound  interest  of  his 
outlay,  may  not  be  inclined  to  include  them  in  his  valuation. 

A  plentiful  supply  of  good  water  ui  the  farm-yard,  and  in  every  place  where  it 
can  be  turned  to  good  account,  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  ;  and  the  advan- 
tage of  which  is  rarely  appreciated,  excepting  where  it  is  wanting. 

Perfect  equality  or  resemblance  in  the  arable  lands,  provided  that  the  soil  is 
tolerably  moist,  and  easily  worked  at  all  times,  facilitates  the  distribution  of  the 
poriioiis  of  land  appropriated  to  the  different  crops,  and,  consequently,  the  whole 
management  of  the  farm.  Numerous  and  considerable  variations  in  the  nature 
of  the  soil  create  and  give  rise  to  considerable  difficulties  in  the  choice  and  distri- 
bution of  thfe  various  successions  of  the  crops,  and  which  require  more  than  ordi- 
nary experience  and  sagacity  to  overcome.  If,  however,  the  soil  be  of  a  bad 
quality,  it  is  desirable  that  the  defects  should  be  in  opposite  extremes.  If  one 
part  of  the  land  consist  of  clajs  which  is  so  tenacious  as  only  to  admit  of  tillage 
in  that  dry  state  of  the  atmosphere  v/hich  is  never  of  long  duration,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  possess  a  proportionate  extent  of  light  soil,  which  may  be  worked  in  any 
state  of  the  weather-,  and  this  land,  in  such  cases,  acquires  a  peculiar  value,  be- 
cause it  affords  employment  for  the  laborer  and  the  teams  when  the  state  of  the 
argillaceous  land  will  not  admit  its  being  tilled ;  and,  therefore,  when  the  favor- 
able degree  of  temperature  arrives  for  working  these  latter  portions,  the  farmer 
:s  able  to  expend  on  them  a  greater  proportion  of  labor  and  care. 

Among  the  circumstances  which  determuie  the  relative  value  of  an  estate,  the 
commercial  relations,  and  every  thing  connected  v^rith  them,  demand  especial  at- 
tention. In  this  respect,  the  geographical  position  is  of  great  importance.  The 
neighborhood  of  large  towns  may  double  or  triple  the  value  of  the  soil  to  an  agri- 
culturist who  is  inclined  to  speculate,  and  who  knows  how  to  turn  it  to  account. 
The  greater  or  less  distance  of  the  principal  market-towns  and  sea-ports  may  also 
considerably  affect  the  value  of  the  land.  In  most  valuations,  the  price  of  corn 
is  usually  regulated  by  these  circumstances.     Communication  with  these  mar- 

f252) 


.     THE  FARM.  29 

kets  and  sea-ports,  by  means  of  canals  and  navigable  rivers,  or,  at  all  events,  by 
good  roads,  which  are  always  passable  and  not  encumbered  with  heavy  t  ills,  di- 
minishes, as  it  were,  the  distance  of  an  estate  from  them,  by  lower  ng  the  ex- 
pense of  transporting  the  produce. 

,       The  demand  for  different  kinds  of  produce  is  infinitely  more  advantageous  to 

'  an  experienced  agriculturist  than  that  which  is  confined  to  a  limited  number  of 
varieties.  He  is  then  able  to  apply  his  land  to  the  growth  of  all  the  various 
kinds  of  produce  for  which  it  is  adapted — to  intermix  them  and  let  them  succeed 
one  another  at  more  distant  intervals ;  whereas  he  is  much  more  restricted  if  the 
demand  be  limited  for  grain  alone.     In  most  cases  a  high  price  of  live  stock  is 

!  far  more  advantageous  to  the  farmer  than  a  high  price  of  corn,  because  he  can 
raise  a  proportionally  greater  quantity  of  live  stock  than  he  can  of  vegetable  pro- 
duce for  the  market ;  the  latter  being  in  part,  at  least,  consumed  on  the  land,  and 

i  the  price  of  labor  is  regulated  by  the  price  of  corn  rather  than  by  that  of  flesh, 
wool,  &c.  But  special  attention  must  always  be  paid  to  the  most  economical 
way  of  procuring  the  manure  which  so  materially  affects  the  growth  of  plants 
and  of  vegetable  produce. 

The  constitution  of  a  country,  and  the  principles  by  which  it  is  governed,  have 

likewise  an  important  influence  on  the  value  of  an  estate.     A  firm,  precise,  and 

intelligible  code  of  laws,  a  simple  and  expeditious  form  of  conducting  law  suits, 

and  a  rigidly  impartial  administration  of  justice,  tend  to  raise  the  value  of  prop- 

I  erty  in  the  opinion  of  every  reasonable  man. 

A  well  devised  and  efficient  system  of  domestic  and  rural  magistrates  and  po- 
lice, which  affords  protection  against  thieves,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  guards 
against  every  kind  of  danger  ;  which  lightens  the  duty  of  assisting  the  poor,  and 
although  obliged  fb  supply  the  want  of  public  spirit  by  coercive  measures,  yet 
abstains  from  the  imposition  of  vexatious  imposts  ;  which,  disregarding  all  anti- 
quated prejudices,  acts  upon  reasonable  principles  and  not  upon  ancient  forms  ; 
and  which  is,  finally,  more  solicitous  for  the  establishment  of  order  than  for  the 
profit  arising  from  the  settlement  of  disputes  ;  such  a  magistracy  and  police  can- 
not be  too  highly  valued.  A  consistent  and  rigorously  observed  system  for  the 
regulation  of  servants  is  also  peculiarly  important. 

A  government  which  recognizes  and  adopts  this  principle,  viz  ;  that  the  im- 
provement and  culture  of  the  soil  to  the  highest  possible  degree,  contributes 
more  than  any  thing  to  the  welfare  of  the  country,  and  to  the  strength  and 
riches  of  the  State  ;  and  that  all  other  considerations  of  political  economy  must, 

/  therefore,  yield  in  importance  to  the  necessity  of  promoting  the  increase  of  pro- 
duce ;  a  government,  which  recognizes  and  acts  upon  this  principle,  will,  by  so 
doing,  add  considerably  to  the  value  of  land,  and  induce  foreigners  to  invest 
their  capital  in  it. 

The  more  numerous  the  population  of  a  country,  the  greater  is  the  value  of 
the  profit  to  be  derived  from  the  cultivation  of  the  land.  These  advantages  are, 
however,  greatly  influenced  by  the  nature  of  the  population,  the  power  and  rela- 
tive proportions  of  the  classes  of  which  it  is  composed.  A  large  population  in 
towns  is  highly  advantageous  to  the  agriculturist  in  a  mercantile  point  of  view, 
as  it  ensures  the  demand  for  a  great  quantity  and  variety  of  provisions. 

Property,  or  land,  is  either  absolute,  acquired  by  inheritance,  or  purchase,  and 
is  then  called  patrimonial,  or  freehold  ;  or  it  is  limited,  as  is  the  case  with  that 

I    in  which  the  occupier  has  a  life  interest,  or  holds  by  a  long  lease,  or  an  heredita- 

\  ry  lease,  or  in  various  other  ways  sanctioned  by  custom.  The  restrictions  on  the 
free  disposal  of  property  of  the  latter  description  are  many  and  various  ;  in  differ- 
ent countries,  and  in  different  provinces  of  the  same  country,  they  will  be  found 
to  be  more  or  less  burdensome  and  oppressive.  Before  deciding  on  the  purchase 
of  an  estate,  all  possible  information  should  be  obtained  respecting  the  origin  of 
these  restrictions,  and  the  laws  and  usages  which  relate  to  them.     But  since,  at 

\  the  present  day,  most  governments  seem  to  be  aware  of  the  great  inconveniences 
that  arise  from  restrictions  on  property,  there  is  a  prevailing  disposition  to  abolish 
them  and  to  enfranchise  all  estates  by  the  substitution  of  fixed  duties.  Such  a 
measure  will  restore  a  value  to  many  properties  which  they  had  almost  totally 
los>t,  and  which  will  contribute  greatly  to  general  convenience. 

There  are  a  number  of  particular  rights  to  which  an  estate  may  be  entitled, 

(253) 


30  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture, 

or  to  which  it  may  be  subject,  and  which  must,  therefore,  be  taken  into  consider- 
ation in  forming  a  valuation  of  it ;  as,  for  example  : — 

The  right  of  cutting  timber  (droit  de  bocherage,)  or  of  taking  wood  for  build- 
ing, repairs,  or  firing,  from  the  forest  of  another  party.  This  right  is  sometimes 
unlimited,  as  regards  the  extent  to  which  the  owner  may  avail  himself  of  it ;  at 
other  times  it  is  more  or  less  restricted. 

The  right  of  mast  [droit  de  glandee,)  or  that  of  feeding  pigs  in  another  man's 
forest.  This  right  is  also  frequently  unlimited  ;  but  it  is  generally  restricted  to 
a  certain  number  of  animals.     It  usually  does  great  damage  to  the  forest. 

The  right  of  way  [droit  de  passage,)  which  confers  the  privilege  of  demand- 
ing a  road  or  path  through  the  estate  of  another,  the  direction  of  which  may 
either  be  fixed,  or  removable  by  the  will  of  the  proprietor  of  this  right.  The 
breadth  of  the  carriage  road  -should  be  eight  feet,  and,  where  any  windings  oc- 
cur, ten  feet ;  and  it  must  be  wide  enough  to  give  a  free  passage  to  a  harvest 
wagon. 

There  are  also  simple  rights  of  pathway  [droits  de  sentier.)  which  are  some- 
times very  expensive  and  burdensome  to  the  proprietor,  and  the  establishment 
of  which'ought,  therefore,  to  be  strongly  opposed. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  rights  of  pasturage,  and  of  watering  cattle  on  . 
another  man's  estate  [droits  de  pacage  et  d^abreuvage,)  which  often  hinder  or  ' 
prevent  the  cultivation  of  a  considerable  extent  of  ground. 

The  rights  of  conducting  and  using  water  [droits  de  passage  et  d^usage  d^eaux,)   j 
give  to  the  owner  the  privilege  of  making  arrangements  for  water-courses,  drains,  ' 
ditches,  and  sluices  on  the  lands  belonging  to  another,  and  care  ought  to  be  used 
that  they  shall  not  occasion  greater  damage  or  inconvenience  to  the  proprietor  of 
the  estate  than  the  nature  of  the  case  renders  indispensable.     With  regard  to 
the  right  of  turning  waste  water  upon  a  neighbor's  land,  the  provincial  regula-  - 
'    tions  vary  exceedingly.     This  often  makes  a  very  great  difference  in  the  value 
of  an  estate,  because  it  may  be  rendered  healthy  or  unhealthy,  according   to 
the  manner  in  which  the  right  is  exercised." 

The  most  minute  examination  of  all  the  details  of  these  privileges  and  restric- 
tions would  be  inadequate  to  the  determination  of  the  exact  pecuniary  value  of 
an  estate ;  such  an  examination  laay,  however,  serve  as  a  guide  respecting  the 
expediency  or  inexpediency  of  purchasing  some  particular  estate.  After  having 
determined  the  value  of  the  land,  independent  of  all  other  or  secondary  consider- 
ations, it  will  be  best  to  proceed  according  to  the  method  proposed  in  a  previous 
page,  to  estimate  every  other  advantage  or  disadvantage,  in  order  to  add  or  de- 
duct its  value ;  and  an  opinion  may  then  be  formed  with  regard  to  the  expedien- 
cy of  giving  more  or  less  for  an  estate  than  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  land. 

Leasehold  Estates. 
The  second  manner  in  which  a  person  may  get  possession  and  hold  an  estate, 
is  by  lease.     This  is  the  purchase  of  an  estate,  or  of  its  produce,  for  a  certain 
number  of  years  ;  it  relates  to  purchase  in  several  ways.     The  search  for  an  es- 
tate suitable  to  the  means  and  industry  of  the  farmer,  and  the  examination  and 
estimate  of  its  qualities  and  value,  should  be  conducted  in  the  same  manner.   , 
But  there  are  considerations  relative  to  farming,  which  are  not  only  different,    ' 
but  totally  opposed  to  these  directions.     There  the  proprietor  directs  or  ought  to 
direct  all  his  efforts  to  the  obtaining  and  continually  increasing  the  quantity  of   i 
<    produce,  or  to  the  constant  augmentation  of  its  real  value.     The  farmer  can 
\'  have  no  aim  beyond  obtaining  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  produce  during 
,    the  term  of  his  lease,  without  troubling  himself  about  the  value  of  the  land  af-    I 
\  ter  its  expiration.     While  the  proprietor  may  content  himself  with  a  scanty 
produce  during  the  first  few  years,  with  the  view  of  securing  a  larger  and  more    I 
permanent  crop  in  future,  the  farmer  must,  on  the  contrary,  endeavor  to  obtain 
the  largest  possible  crop,  even  at  the  risk  of  diminishing  the  amount  of  produce 
during  the  latter  part  of  his  lease.     The  proprietor  who  acts  the  part  of  a  pru- 
dent agriculturist,  derives  both  pleasure  and  profit  from  applying  all  the  capital 
and  means  which  are  at  his  disposal,  to  his  estate  ;  whereas  the  farmer  draws 


'  The  different  rights  and  burdens  on  landed  property  enumerated  by  the  author  as  being  hurtful  and 
injurious,  aie  as  many  remnants  of  feudal  ignoranae,  and  are  now,  or  ought  to  be,  abolished  in  all  enlight- 
ened States. 
(2541 


LEASEHOLD  ESTATES.  31 


from  the  estate  all  the  capital  and  profit  that  he  can,  in  order  to  employ  it  else- 
where, or  place  it  out  at  interest. 

The  proprietor  delights  in  improving  his  estate  ;  the  farmer  only  endeavors  to 
augment  his  fortune. 

The  longer,  therefore,  the  term  of  a  lease,  the  more  nearly  will  the  interest  of 
the  farmer  coincide  with  that  of  the  proprietor  ;  and  the  shorter  the  term,  the 
more  widely  will  the  interests  of  the  two  parties  diverge.*  A  farmer  who  holds 
a  lease  for  twenty-four  years  will,  if  he  acts  prudently,  follow  the  same  course 
for  at  least  the  first  two-thirds  of  his  lease,  as  would  he  pursued  by  the  proprie- 
tor. But  the  time  will  arrive  when  he  will  be  guided  by  totally  opposite  consid- 
erations, and  will  be  obliged  to  draw  from  the  land  precisely  in  proportion  to  the 
money  Avhich  he  has  previously  expended  upon  it. 

Besides,  we  must  recollect  that  the  farmer  has  not  the  means,  even  if  he  has 
the  will  to  do  so,  of  expending  so  much  upon  the  land  as  the  proprietor  himself. 
He  must  pay  his  rent  every  year ;  while  the  landlord  who  enters  with  spirit  into 
the  undertaking,  can  save  something  from  the  net  profit  to  expend  upon  his  land. 
The  former  may  be  compared  to  a  merchant  who  trades  with  borrowed  money  ; 
the  latter  to  one  who  speculates  with  his  own  capital.  The  former  must  make 
his  being  able  to  pay  the  interest  of  what  he  has  borrowed,  the  first  considera- 
tion ;  the  latter  may  think  of  extending  his  commerce  and  undertakings  by  new 
speculations. 

It  is  not,  then,  to  be  expected  from  a  farmer  whose  tenure  is  very  short — nor, 
[  according  to  the  principles  of  his  occupation,  can  it  be  required  of  "him — that  in 
^  the  cultivation  of  an  estate  he  should  act  as  if  it  were  his  own  property,  or  sacri- 
fice any  part  of  his  profits,  even  for  the  sake  of  improving  the  land  very  consid- 
erably. 

For  these  reasons  it  has  been  thought  necessary  to  impose  certain  conditions 
on  the  farmer,  which  may  restrict  him  in  the  management  of  his  farm,  and  com- 
pel him  to  conduct  it  in  such  a  manner  as  shall  contribute  to  the  improvement  of 
the  land.  But  the  drawing  up  of  such  contracts  is  an  exceedingly  difficult  mat- 
ter ;  so  much  so,  that  there  is,  perhaps,  some  reason  in  the  assertion,  that  if  all 
the  most  skillful  lawyers  and  best  agriculturists  in  the  country  were  to  meet  to- 
gether, and  be  employed  for  a  month  in  the  formation  of  one  single  farming  lease, 
'  they  would  not  be  able  to  concoct  one  which  would  secure  the  estate  from  the 
deteriorations  caused  by  a  bad  farmer,  without  making  ihe  contract  such  as  an 
honest  man  could  not  accept.  If  the  conditions  were  too  precise  and  binding,  a 
man  v/ho  united  prudence  with  honesty  would  reject  them:  he- would  leave  the 
farm  lo  be  leased  by  some  simple-minded  individual,  or  by  one  who  has  his  own 
peculiar  mode  of  going  to  work. 
.  Even  if  the  rent  of  the  farm  should  be  such  as  to  enable  him  to  observe  these 
conditions,  the  farmer  would,  nevertheless,  find  all  his  exertions  fettered,  even 
those  which  he  might  be  willing  to  engage  in  with  a  view  to  the  improvement 
of  the  land  ;  for  in  every  undertaking,  even  the  most  useful,  which  might  devi- 
ate in  the  slightest  degree  from  the  line  of  conduct  marked  out  for  him,  he  would 
be  in  danger  of  subjecting  himself  to  censure  and  legal  processes. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  farmer  who  is  satisfied  that,  by  keeping  to  the  letter  of 
his  contract,  he  can  save  himself  from  being  prosecuted  in  a  court  of  law  or  con- 
demned to  pay  damages  greater  than  his  profits,  will  always  be  able  to  evade 
the  conditions  of  a  lease  filled  Avith  legal  precautions,  especially  if,  in  laying 
down  the  conditions,  the  greatest  possible  care  has  not  been  taken  to  attend  to 
the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  estate.     He  will  always  find  the  means  of  eva- 

iding  oppressive  conditions  and  restrictions,  or  of  securing  compensation  for  the 
fulfilment  of  them  in  some  manner  still  more  detrimental  to  the  property. 
With  the  view  of  placing  in  a  clearer  light  the  maxims  by  which  dishonest 
farmers  are  in  the  habit  of  regulating  their  practice,  and  of  putting  those  who  let 
farms  on  lease  on  their  guard  against  them,  we  shall  here  transcribe  the  golden 
alphabet  of  the  farmers  who  have  placed  themselves  above  the  laws  of  duty  and 
honesty. 

_  1.  Above  all  things,  look  out  for  a  farm  which  has  been  brought  into  good  con- 
dition by  proper  and  improving  cultivation,  or  by  having  had  its  resources  but 

*  The  author^s  views  of  leasing  land  are  most  just  and  liberal ;  for  the  nearer  the  holding  of  land  by  the 
farmer  is  assimilated  to  that  of  the  land-owner,  the  closer  will  the  interest  of  both  parties  be  associated. 
(255) 


32  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

little  exhausted.  For  such  a  farm  you  may,  in  proportion  to  its  extant,  pay 
double  the  rent,  for  a  small  number  of  years,  which  you  Avould  give  for  one 
•which  has  been  impoverished  by  an  avaricious  agriculturist  or  by  industrious 
farmers.  In  the  former  you  may  employ  the  utmost  refinements  of  the  art  of 
exhaustion  ;  whereas,  iir  the  latter,  you  will  be  obliged  to  adhere  to  the  ordinary 
mode  of  proceeding. 

2.  If  possible,  cultivate  no  grain  except  for  sale  ;  do  not  raise  anything  for  the 
consumption  of  cattle,  because  they  do  not  immediately  pay  the  expenses  of  bet- 
ter feeding,  and  you  would  not  be  able  to  derive  the  full  advantage  of  the  quan-  i 
tity  of  manure  which  you  would  have  put  on  the  ground  during  the  short  term 
of  your  lease. 

3.  Among  the  fallow  crops,  cultivate  those  only  which  produce  the  greatest 
profit  in  money,  as  flax,  tobacco,  seeds  Avhich  produce  oil,  &c. ;  and  if  you  cannot 
undertake  their  cultivation  yourself,  let  the  ground  to  the  poor  people  in  the  neigh- 
borhood who  will  pay  you  partly  in  money  and  partly  in  produce.  Never  mind 
if  they  do  not  give  you  any  straw,  for  the  farmer  is  generally  prohibited  from 
selling  it,  and  at  all  events  you  could  not  venture  to  sell  it  openly  in  large  quan- 
tities. "  ' 

4.  As  these  crops  require  a  great  deal  of  manure,  and  you  will  every  day  ob- 
tain a  smaller  quantity  of  that  article,  content  yourself  with  raising  them  on  those 
fields  which  are  in  the  best  state  of  cultivation  and  at  the  smallest  distance  ;  and 
thus  the  cartage  will  occupy  less  time.  Even  if  the  other  fields  should  be  unable 
to  produce  anything  during  "the  latter  years  of  your  lease,  you  will  be  sufliciently 
indemnified  for  this  miscalculation  ;  and  you  will  have  a  right  to  complain  of  the  \ 

a  reduction  of  rent.     Besides,  the  nearer  por- 


sterility  of  the  soil,  and  to  demand  a  reduction  of  rent.  Besides,  the  nearer  por 
tions  of  the  land  are  most  likely  to  be  noticed  by  the  landlord  and  by  strangers  ; 
and  if  any  one  should  say  that  flax,  rape  and  tobacco  exhaust  the  land,  you  have 
only  to  appeal  to  the  fine  wheat  growing  close  by.  Never  expend  manure  upon 
the  fields  which  are  most  in  need  of  it,  for  poor  land  never  pays  the  expense  of 
J  the  first  manuring  ;  you  can,  however,  put  a  little  on  the  sides  of  the  fields,  and 
near  to  the  pathAvays.  In  the  last  year  of  your  lease,  apply  the  manure  a&  much 
as  possible  to  the  spring  crops,  because  you  will  reap  those,  but  you  Avill  not  reap 
the  autumnal  crop. 

5.  During  the  first  fcAv  years,  give  the  land  the  best  possible  tillage  with  the 
plow,  the  harrow,  and  the  roll,  in  order  to  destroy  all  noxious  weeds,  to  bring  the 
manure  which  the  soil  may  already  contain  into  action,  and  to  divide  the  clods 
so  that  the  roots  of  the  plants  shall  find  nourishment  in  them.  Therefore,  in- 
crease your  teams,  and  you  will  be  repaid  for  the  outlay  before  the  expiration  of 
your  lease.  But  towards  the  end  of  the  lease  you  must  relinquish  this  perfection 
of  tillage,  so  as  to  be  able  to  diminish  your  teams,  or  to  employ  them  in  other  oc- 
cupation v/hich  will  yield  greater  profit.  As  far  as  possible,  at  this  time,  sow 
your  seed  after  one  or  two  plowings  ;  and  let  your  plowshares  be  very  broad,  so 
that  you  may  be  able  to  make  furroAvs  tAvelve  inches  AA'ide.  You  need  not  trouble 
yourself  about  plowing  the  land  to  sow  seed  from  which  you  will  not  gather  the 
crop  ;  it  Aviil  be  much  more  to  your  advantage  to  make  merely  a  secondary  ope- 

\    ration  of  it. 

6.  It  is  a  great  adA^antage  to  be  alloAved  to  plow  up  old  grass  land  and  root  up 
plantations.     In  seeking  for  a  farm,  you   should  always  endeavor  to  obtain  this 
privilege.     But  in  such  a  case,  from  the  very  commencement,  direct  all   the  ! 
means  and  pov/ers  you  have  at  command  to  the  undertaking.     The  lands  thus  - 

'    brought  into  a  state  of  cultivation  Avill  produce  at  first  fine  crops  of  com  for  mar-  J 
ket,  and  Avill  afterwards,  without  manuring,  continue  to  produce  inferior  kinds  i 
of  grain  until  the  end  of  your  lease :  it  will  matter  little  to  you  if  they  should 
then  be  completely  exhausted. 

7.  Do  not  trouble  yourself  about  the  meadow  land,  excepting  so  far  as  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  obtain  fodder  for  your  teams ;  for  it  does  not  repay  the  expense  1 
of  management.  If,  towards  the  latter  end  of  your  lease,  the  meadows  should 
have  become  marshy  from  want  of  drainage,  or  from  the  ditches  being  choked, 
or  should  be  covered  with  thorns  and  bushes,  or  broken  by  mole-hills,  and  on  ac- 
count of  these  defects  yield  a  small  quantity  of  hay,  and  of  an  inferior  quality, 
you  need  not  concern  yourself  much  about  it — it  will  make  little  difierence  to 
you,  as  vou  would  othenvise  be  prevented  from  disposing  of  your  hay. 

(•256) 


LEASEHOLD    ESTATES. 


8.  If  you  have  taken  the  stock  upon  lease  at  a  valuation,  and  have  to  return  it 
in  the  same  manner,  remove  all  the   best  horses,   oxen,  and  cows,  and  replace 
them  by  inferior  animals,  or  otherwise  pay  the  deficiency  in  money.     In  valua- 
tions of  this  description,  good  slock  are  always  estimated  at  a  proportionably 
lower  rate  than  bad,  and  the  latter  look  less  miserable  when  the  good  are  not 
placed  by  their  side.     Towards  the  end  of  the  lease,  do  not  put  the  bull  to  the 
.   cows,  or,  at  least,  do  not  let  it  be  done  until  a  very  late  period,  in  order  that  the 
I  cows  may  not  have  calved  before  the  time  of  returning  the  stock  ;  they  will  then 
'.■  appear  to  be  in  much  better  condition,  even  if  they  have   been   badly  fed.-    The 
['  continuance  of  the  profit  of  the  cows  Avhich  are  not  in  calf,  will  fully  compensate 
\  you  for  the  loss  of  the  surplus  that  those  which  recently  calved  would  have  af- 
'i  forded  you.     You  should  likewise  include  all  the  old  harness  and  farming  imple- 
/  ments  in  the  valuation,  keeping  all  that  which  is  no  longer  serviceable  for  this 
!  purpose,  and  having  it  repaired  and  put  in  order  ;  as  to  the  new,  you  may  put  i1 
:    on  one  side.     A  miserable-looking  stock  often  inspires  those  who  value  it  with 
-    compassion  for  the  farmer,  and  inclines  them  to  treat  him  leniently. 
\       9.  It  is,  of  course,  understood,  that  you  must  not  go  to  any  expense  in  order  to 
'    keep  the  gardens,  ponds  and  buildings  in  order ;  the  landlord  generally  takes 
i    upon  himself  all  the  larger  repairs  at  the  end  of  the  lease  ;  it  is,  therefore,  your 
'    interest  to  allow  the  small  dilapidations  to  become  larger  ones. 
\        10.  Exact  all  that  the  laws  and  customs  will  allow  from  those  who  owe  you 
(    statute  labor  ;  it  will  not  matter  to  you  if  they  are  ruined. 

]        11.  If  the  landlord  should  reserve  any  part  of  the  produce  for  himself,   and  fix 

\    a  high  price  on  it,  because  it  is  the  growth  of  his  own  land,  and,  consequently, 

i    oflFer  you  a  considerable  reduction  of  rent  in  return  for  it,  agree  to  his  proposal  by 

'    all  means.     It  is  true  that  you  will  the  sooner  be  at  issue  with  him  ;  but  that  would 

]    happen  under  all  circumstances,  especially   if  he  resided  upon  the  estate  ;  and, 

besides,  it  can  be  of  little  importance  to  you  if  your  lease  is  properly  drawn  up. 

If  it  should  prove  injurious  to  you  at  first,  you  have  only  to  contrive  to  enlist  on 

your  side  the  servants  who  receive  the  produce  for  the  landlord. 

There  are,  undoubtedly,  farmers,  Avhose  known  character  is  a  sufficient  secu- 
rity to  the  landlord  that  they  will  not  be  guided  by  such  maxims  as  those  just 
quoted.     There  are  some,  too,  who  are  such  enthusiasts  in  agriculture  that  they 
I  will  even  sacrifice  their   own  profits  for  the  sake  of  attaining   perfection.     But 

I'  men  of  this  class  are  not  very  numerous  ;  indeed,  it  is  unreasonable  to  expect, 
even  from  an  honest  man,  that  he  should,  as  a  farmer,  expend  money  upon  an 
estate  unless  he  has  a  very  fair  prospect  of  being  able  to  recover  it.  That  which 
does  not  improve,  will  certainly  degenerate ;  it  is,  therefore,  very  seldom  that  a 
/  farmer  does  not  leave  an  estate  ki  a  worse  condition  than  when  "he  took  posses- 
'[  sion  of  it.* 

The  case  is  different  with  regard  to  lands  which  are  government  property  ;  in 

some  states  these  domains  are  farmed  out  for  very   short  periods,    but  upon  very 

|i  liberal  terms.     According  to  the  system  pursued  by  these  governments,  the  farm- 

'   ers  are  sure  of  a  renewal  of  their  leases,   provided  they   act  honestly  and  submit 

I   to  the  new  valuations,  which  are  aivN^ays  conducted  on  very  equitable  principles, 

and  with  a  due  regard  to  the  improvements  which  the  farmers  have  made  upon 

i    the  land.     Sometimes,  indeed,  a  more  than  ordinarily  good  management  of  their 

\  farm  may  justify  the  tenant  in  expecting  to  receive  a    better  one,  and  to  be  able 

to  leave  it  as  an  inheritance  to  his  family.     A  man  who  holds   his  farm   upon 

such  terms  may  regard  it  almost  as  his  own  property,  and  act  accordingly  in  all 

the  departments  of  his  management. 

Under  such  conditions,  the  government  lands  have,  no  doubt,  been  saved  from  de- 
terioration, although  at  the  sacrifice  of  a  considerable  portion  of  their  net  produce. 
In  those  states,  on  the  contrary,  in  which  the  lands  have  been  let  to  the  high- 
est bidder,  without  regard  to  his  personal  character,  and  a  higher  rent  obtained 
in  consequence,  all  the  contracts,  all  the  clauses   introduced  into  leases,  and  all    I 
I  the  restrictions  to  which  the  tenants  have  been  subjected,  have  not  been  suffi- 
'   cient  to  preserve  the  land  from  serious  deterioration,  and,  in  spite  of  the  continu- 
I  ance  of  the  high  price  of  corn,  occasions  a  considerable  diminution  of  rent  as    ' 
well  as  of  product;. 

*  The  editors  feel  that  happily  for  the  character  of  the  great  mass  of  the  farmers  of  England,  these  re- 
marks do  not  apply  to  tfuim. 
(257) 3 


It  is  quite  out  of  the  question  to  expect  that  the  farmer  will  undertake  those 
more  extensive  improvements  which  tend  to  produce  a  permanent  increase  in  the 
value  of  the  land.  Nevertheless,  the  opportunity  of  making  them  occurs  so  of- 
ten, and  the  advantage  attending  them  is  so  obvious,  that  both  parties  ought  to 
be  disposed  to  favor  the  adoption.  It  might  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  the  land- 
lord should  furnish  the  necessarj^  capital,  which  should  be  fixed  at  a  certain  sum  ; 
and  that  the  farmer  should  pay  him  interest  for  it,  at  the  rate  of  ten  per  cent., 
during  the  remainder  of  his  lease.  Under  such  an  arrangement,  the  farmer  would 
never  propose  any  improvement,  of  the  utility  of  which  he  was  not  well  con-  \ 
vinced  ;  and  the  landlord  would  only  have  to  consider  whether  the  improvements 
were  likely  to  be  permanently  beneticial  to  the  estate. 

With  respect  to  repairs,  it  seems  the  most  equitable  manner  would  be  for  the 

landlord  to  furnish  the  materials,  and  the  farmer  the  labor.     The  most  absurd 

regulation  which  could  well  have  been  adopted,  was  that  by  which  all  the  small 

',  repairs  should  be  made  at  the  expense  of  the  farmer,  and  the  large  ones  at  the 

expense  of  the  landlord. 

Hereditary  Leases.* 
An  hereditary  lease  has  the  peculiarity,  that  it  ensures  to  the  tenant  as  much 
freedom  in  the  use  of  the  land  as  if  it  were  his  freehold  property  ;  and  to  the 
landlord,  mider  certain  proper  conditions,  a  certain  rent,  independent  of  all  risks, 
and  subject  to  no  diminution  whatsoever. 

The  most  important  point,  with  regard  to  this  system,  is  an  accurate  deter- 
mination of  the  value  of  the  land,  or  of  its  produce,  after  having  deducted  all  the 
necessary  expenses  and  a  fair  profit  for  the  farmer.      But  as  money  has  only  a 
nominal  value,  and  that  value  is  constantly  varying,  it  is  most  important  that  the 
I  value  of  the  land,  or  its  rent,  should  be  determined  not  by  money  but  by  corn,  the 
I  average  value  of  which,  Avith  regard  to  other  things,  has  for  some   time  been 
'  fixed  and  will  long  continue  in  that  value.     It  is  true  that  this  standard  varies 
from  year  to  year,  and  is  for  a  short  time  even  more  variable  than  the  value  of 
money,  but  never  for  a  long  continuance  ;  the  value  of  grain  preserves  a  constant 
I  ratio  with  that  of  all  the  real  necessaries  of  life,  because  it  is,  in  a  great  measure, 
!  the  standard  by  which  the  price  of  labor  is  regulated.  I 

For  this  reason  the  rent  of  hereditary  farms,  and  of  those  which  are  held  on 
long  leases,  should  be  calculated  according  to  the  quantity  of  corn  usually  grown 
in  the  country.     It  should  not,  however,  be  paid  in  kind,  because  then  the  rent 
would  sometimes  be  very  high  and  sometimes  very  low  ;  but  it  should  be  paid    ' 
^  in  money,  by  the  average  rate  of  a  number  of  previous  years.  ^ 

Moreover,  a  deduction  should  be  made  for  those  years  in  which  the  crop  has 
/  failed,  or  in  which,  from  this  circumstance  or  others,  the  corn  has  risen  to  anun- 
•\  usually  high  price ;  because,  in  spite  of  the  high  price  of  corn  in  those  years,  the 
agriculturist  must  have  incurred  some  loss,  and  the  recurrence  of  similar  circum- 
stances is  neither  to  be  expected  nor  desired.     Thus,  it  would  be  absolutely  un- 
just to  fix  the  average  price  according  to  those  which  have  been  obtamed  daring 
1  the  last  ten  years,  in  which  the  various  crops  have  been  below  the  usual  average, 
/  or  the  prices  have  been  still  further  increased  by  other  accidental  circumstances. 
I   By  such  a  mode  of  reckoning  it  is  more  than  probable,  that  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  the  farmers  or  tenants  would  soon  be  brought  to  ruin. 

The  folloAving  objection  has  been  made  to  the  system  of  valuing  the  rent  of  a 
farm  according  to  the  produce,  that  as  the  price  of  produce  is  liable  to  increase 
and  diminution,  it  is  impossible  to  be  certain  of  a  fixed  rent.  But  this  objection 
is  altogether  unfounded  :  the  real  value  of  corn  remains  the  same — it  is  the  nom- 
inal value  only  which  is  liable  to  variations  and  change. 

The  advantages  of  hereditary  leases  are  manifold  and  striking  ;  hence  there  is 
I  no  doubt  that  at  the  present  day,  when  more  enlarged  views  are  becoming  preva- 
lent, this  system  Avill  soon  be  universally  adopted,  especially  in  those  districts  in 
which  estates  of  considerable  extent  have  been  preserved  ;  and  also  that  othei 
estates  which  have  hitherto  been  farmed  out  for  uncertain  periods,  and  oa  condi- 
tions more  or  less  burdensome  to  both  landlord  and  tenant,  will  speedily  bf 
brought  under  the  same  system, 

■*  A  kind  of  emphyteose.  [French  Trant. 

(258) 


Ftrf^i'*^ 


THE  ECONOMY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Section  II 


THE   ECONOIVIY,  ORGANIZATION  AND   DIRECTION  OF 
AN  AGRICULTURAL  ENTERPRISE. 

The  word  "  economy  "  has  latterly  been  used  in  various  senses 
give  it  a  very  indefinite  signification. 

Judging  from  its  etymology  and  original  signification,  the  Greeks  seem  to  have 
understood  by  it  the  establishment  and  direction  of  the  menage,  or  domestic  ar- 
rangements, 

Xenophon,  in  his  work  on  economy,  treats  of  domestic  management,  the  recip- 
rocal duties  of  the  naembers  of  a  family  and  of  those  who  compose  the  household  ; 
and  only  incidentally  mentions  Agriculture  as  having  relation  to  domestic  afiairs. 
This  word  is  never  applied  to  Agriculture  by  Xenophon,  nor,  indeed,  by  any  Greek 
author  ;  they  distinguish  it  by  the  terms,  georgic  geoponic. 

The  Romans  give  a  very  extensive  and  indefinite  signification  to  the  Avord 
"  economy."  They  understand  by  it,  the  best  method  of  attaining  the  aim  and 
end  of  some  particular  thing  ;  or  the  disposition,  plan  and  division  of  some  par- 
ticular work.  •  Thus,  Cicero  speaks  of  ceconomia  causae,  ceconomia  orationis  ; 
and  by  this  he  means  the  direction  of  a  law  process,  the  arrangement  of  a  ha- 
rangue. Several  German  authors  use  it  in  this  sense  when  they  speak  of  the 
CBkonomie  eines  schauspiels,  or  eines  gedichtes — the  economy  of  a  play  or  poem. 
Authors  of  other  nations  have  adopted  all  the  significations  which  the  Romans 
have  attached  to  this  word,  and  understand  by  it  the  relation  of  the  various  parts 
of  any  particular  thing  to  each  other  and  to  the  whole — that  which  we  are  ac- 
customed to  term  the  organization.  The  word  "  economy  "  only  acquires  a  real 
sense  when  applied  to  some  particular  subject:  thus,  we  hear  of  "the  economy 
of  Nature,"  "  the  animal  economy,"  and  "  the  economy  of  the  State,"  spoken  of. 
'  It  is  also  applied  to  some  particular  branch  of  science  or  industry ;  but,  in  the 
latter  case,  the  nature  of  the  economy  ought  to  be  pointed  out,  if  it  is  not  indi- 
cated by  the  nature  of  the  subject. 

In  speaking  of  agricultural  management,  the  French  say,  Veconomie  rurale, 
and  the  English,  rural  economy ;  and  yet  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  intend 
thereby  to  signify  the  absolute  execution  of  agricultural  operations,  but  only  the 
division  and  circumstances  or  appurtenances  of  Agriculture.  In  Germany,  where 
a  Latin  or  Greek  name  has  lately  been  thought  to  give  dignity  to  a  science,  and 
has,  consequently,  been  introduced  into  the  title  of  most  of  the  scientific  v/orks, 
some  authors  have  begun  to  term,  not  only  the  science  of  Agriculture,  but  Agri- 
culture itself,  the  oekonomie  ;  and  the  word  is  used  exclusively  in  this  sense  by 
many  persons.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  those  who  are  supposed  to  practise  the 
art  with  the  greatest  skill  and  science,  are  termed  oekonomen^  (economists  ;)  and 
that  some  of  those  who  are  employed  in  superintending  the  laborers,  even  though 
they  frequently  have  not  the  least  idea  of  the  actual  principles  of  Agriculture, 
chose  to  be  designated  by  this  title. 

But  this  word  has  likewise  been  employed  in  another  sense,  and  one  not  less 
foreign  to  it.  As  it  is  evident  that  the  principal  object  of  skillful  economy  is  to 
t  attain  to  some  particular  end  at  the  least  possible  expense,  they  have  given  the 
(  term  '*  economy  "  to  frugality — taken,  first,  in  its  widest  sense  ;  and,  secondly,  in 
)  its  more  immediate  application  to  money  :  and  some  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to 
c  comprehend  avarice,  although  it  should'fail  of  attaining  its  end  ;  and  have  called 
■  \  those  who  devote  nothing  to  advance  their  Agriculture,  but,  on  the  contrary,  ex 
I    haust  and  ruin  it,  good  economists. 


36 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Attention  to  receipts  and  expenditure  has  also  been  termed  "  economy  ;"  and 
those  who  had  the  management  of  religions  societies  were  termed  "economists." 
We  shall  adopt  the  Laiin  signification  of  the  word,  and,  when  using  it  with  refer- 
ence to  Agriculture,  simply  imply  that  part  of  the  science  which  teaches  the   i' 
■most  adA'autageous  proportions,  and  that  direction  and,  application  of  the  means   [> 
which  vrill  be  most  likely  to  tend  to  facilitate  and  increase  reproduction.     This   ',' 
section,  therefore,  will  treat  of  the  establishment,  the  support,  and  the  use  of  the 
powers  by  v.-hich  labor  is  carried  on  ;  of  cattle,  or  rather  of  the  relation  which 
exists  between  fodder,  manure,  and  Agriculture  in  general ;  the  necessary  divis- 
ion of  the  fields,  and  the  various  systems  of  Agriculture  considered  as  the  means 
of  approaching,  in  each  locality,  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  aim  of  the  undertak- 
ing— that  of  deriving  from  cultivation   the  highest  and  most  permanent  net  pro- 
duce ;  and,  lastly,  of  the  direction  of  the  whole,  and  of  its  transcription  into  regis- 
ters, diaries,  and  account-books. 

LABOR,  m  GENERAL. 

From  labor  Man  derives  or  has  derived  all  that  he  possesses.  That  which 
the  soil  produces  without  labor  or  cultivation  is  very  trifling,  and  can  only  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  a  wandering  life. 

"We  are  indebted  to  labor  for  every  kind  of  food,  every  comfort,  and  every  lux- 
ury— for  riches,  and  even  for  the  capital  necessary  for  carrying  forward  any  branch 
of  trade  or  science.  It  is  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  labor  applied  to  any 
particular  thing,  which  determines  its  value  or  natural  price. 

All  labor  requires,  hoAvever,  a  matter  or  subject  to  which  it  is  applicable. — 
The  soil  is  the  matter  furnished  by  Nature  for  agricultural  labor,  and  the  products 
derived  from  it  by  this  labor  may  be  derived  from  all  other  matter  by  the  appli 
cation  of  the  requisite  industry. 

It  is  not  entirely  and  strictly  right  to  suppose  that  all  riches  and  the  whole 
revenue  of  the  nation  arise  solely  from  labor  :  the  soil  forms  a  considerable  part 
of  it.  While,  on  the  other  hand,  those  who  regard  the  earth  as  the  sole  source 
of  every  revenue,  far  exceed  the  actual  fact. 

A  nation,  inhabiting  a  very  fertile  country,  will  be  able  to  raise  itself  to  a  stati 
of  ease,  if  not  of  luxury,  much  sooner  than  any  other  ;  but  it  too  often  happen 
that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  fineness  of  the  climate  render  the  people  indo 
lent,  and  indisposed  to  profit  by  these  advantages. 

Without  cultivation,  the  soil  will  not  produce  anything  ;  and  it  is  that  alone 
which  gives  to  it  the  actual  value.  In  the  infancy  of  nations,  each  person  took  to 
himself  as  much  ground  as  he  chose  to  cultivate,  without  paying  for  it ;  becau 
the  country  was  not  sufficiently  populous  to  make  this  appropriation  objectiona- 
ble. But  no  sooner  was  the  value  which  the  soil  may  derive  from  cultivation 
perceived,  than  the  chiefs  and  sovereigns  took,  possession  of  the  land  and  affixed 
a  price  to  it.  This  price  continued  to  be  very  low  so  long  as  there  were  not  suf- 
ficient laborers,  or  science,  properly  to  direct  and  carry  on  agricultural  opera 
tions.  But,  as  these  two  requisites  increased,  the  price  of  land  and  also  that  of 
labor  were  likewise  increased  ;  and,  consequently,  the  profits  arising  from  both 
were  augmented. 

Thus,  in  well  cultivated  and  thickly  populated  countries,  there  will  always  be 
found  to  exist  a  proportion  or  equilibrium  between  the  prices  of  land,  of  labor, 
and  of  produce,  which  in  ordinary  years  is  seldom  found  to  vary,  and  which,  A 
deranged  by  any  accidental  circumstances,  is  very  speedily  reestablished. 

This  proportion  is  not,  however,  the  same  in  all  places  :  it  is  regulated  by  the 
relation  between  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  soil,  and  the  powers  which  can 
be  brought  to  bear  upon  it  ;  or  by  the  degree  of  science  and  skill  employed,  or 
the  capital  which  is  invested  in  the  cultivation.  Where  laborers  are  scarce,  and 
skill  and  capital  at  a  low  ebb,  the  value  of  land  is  diminished,  while  that  of  la 
bor  is  proportionally  increased.  But,  in  a  populous  state,  on  the  contrary,  v/here 
labor  is  easily  procured,  science  pretty  far  advanced,  and  where  capital  necessa- 
ry for  the  prosecution  of  agricultural  operations  is  large,  the  value  of  land  is  pro- 
portionally  greater. 

This  proportion  between  the  price  of  labor  and  that  of  land  contributes  greatly 
to  form  the  various  systems  of  Agriculture,  which,   in  their  extremes,  may  be 

(260) 


LABOR    IN    GENERAL.  37 


called  great  or  small  cultivation  [grandes  ou  •petite  culture).*  In  those  places 
where  land  is  cheap  and  labor  dear,  it  is  always  best  to  endeavor  to  obtain  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  produce  for  a  considerable  extent  of  surface,  and  with  the  least 
possible  labor  ;  but  where,  on  the  contrary,  the  land  is  very  dear,  and  there  are 
plenty  of  laborers  to  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  price,  we  must  endeavor,  by 
means  of  the  greatest  possible  labor  and  care,  to  obtain  an  equal  amount  of  pro- 
duce from  a  small  extent  of  surface,  which  is  generally  possible. 

There  are  countries  in  America  where  an  acre  of  land  may  be  purchased  at 
the  price  of  a  day's  work.  In  Belgium,  England,  and  some  provinces  of  Italy, 
the  same  quantity  of  land  can  scarcely  be  rented  at  the  price  of  eighty  days' 
work  per  annum. 

Whoever  Avishes  to  practice  Agriculture,  and  has  a  certain  capital,  may,  in 
the  former  case,  purchase  an  extensive  piece  of  land,  although  he  may  choose  to 
cultivate  only  a  portion  of  it ;  but  he  must  adopt  the  great  or  general  system  of 
Agriculture,  which  will  employ  as  few  laborers  as  possible.  But  in  the  latter 
case  he  must  content  himself  with  a  small  farm,  not  only  on  account  of  the  dear- 
ness  of  the  land,  but  also  because  he  ought  to  reserve  a  larger  portion  of  his  cap- 
ital in  order  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  additional  labor  which  will  then  be  ne-  | 
cessary.  Where  the  land  is  cheap,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  purchase  large 
estates,  the  statute  labor  due  to  which  is  alone  sufficient  for  all  the  indispensa- 
ble operations  ;  and  where,  if  a  person  has  sufficient  stock,  a  very  small  sum  of 
money  will  suffice  for  the  expenses  of  cultivation. 

The  lower  the  price  of  land,  the  less  advisable  is  it  to  attempt  improvements. 
\  Where  an  acre  of  land  costs  only  fifteen  rix-dollars,  and  the  net  produce  of 
which  is  two  dollars,  it  would,  perhaps,  be  disadvantageous  to  spend  fifteen  rix- 
dollars  on  improving  the  soil,  as  by  marl,  for  example,  even  if  the  produce  would 
thus  be  doubled  ;  because  another  acre  of  land  might  be  purchased  for  that  sum, 
from  which  the  same  amount  of  profit  would  be  derived  as  would  be  produced 
by  the  improvements. 

I  say  that  it  would,  perhaps,  be  disadvantageous,  because  there  are  circum- 
stances and  cases  in  which  it  would  be  highly  advantageous  to  devote  that  sum 
to  the  amendment  of  one  acre  of  land,  which  would  be  sufficient  to  purchase  a 
second. 

For  some  time  past  agriculturists  generally  have  complained  of  the  excessive 
advance  in  the  wages  of  servants  and  day  laborers,  and  have  regarded  it  as  a 
crying  evil.     Many  persons  have  attributed  the  high  price  of  corn  to  that  cir- 
cumstance.    In  those  countries  in  which  statute  labor  has  been  suppressed,  they 
have  considered  that  alteration  as  the  cause  of  the  high  rate  of  v/ages.    But  it  is 
far  more  likely  that  it  is  the  dearness  of  provisions,  and  the  desire  which  is  con- 
',   sequently  felt  to  increase  the  amount  of  produce,  Which  has  raised  the  price  of 
/  manual  labor  in  proportion  with  that  of  money.     The  abolition  of  statute  labor 
I   has  rather  tended  to  increase  the  industry  of  the  laborer,  and,  consequently,   the 
amount  of  work  done  has  been  much  greater  ;  and  it  ought  to  have  the  effect  of 
lowering  rather  than  of  raising  the  price  of  labor. 

But  this  complaint  is  often  totally  unfounded,  and  the  advance  in  the  price  of 
labor  i-s  only  imaginary.  The  value  of  money,  with  relation  to  other  things,  has 
dmiinished  ;  while  the  price  of  provisions,  and  especially  of  corn,  is  much  more 
advantageous  than  it  used  to  be  with  regard  to  labor. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  point  out  those  causes  which  are  most  influential' in 
elevating  or  decreasing  the  price  of  labor,  as  calculated  in  money.  They  are  as 
follows : — 

1.  The  price  of  provisions.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  that  the  laborers  should 
earn  enough  to  maintain  themselves,  their  wives,  and  one  or  two  children,  and 
their  support  must  be  of  a  nature  calculated  to  maintain  their  health  and 
strength,  and  that  of  their  children.  If  they  previously  possessed  nothing  beyond 
these  absolute  necessaries,  and  if  provisions  became  dearer  without  the  price  of 

■*  I  must  entreat  my  readers  not  to  confound  the  expression  small  (:petite)  cultivation  with  that  of  bad 
(maavaise)  culture.  The  former  signifies  a  detailed  system  of  cultivation  which  generally  increases  the  pro- 
duce;  and  the  latter  negligence,  or  an  unskilful  method  of  proceeding.  Neither  is  great  (grandes)  culture 
synonymous  with  good  culture,  but  only  with  cultivation  managed  on  an  extensive  scale,  executed  chiefly 
by  means  of  teams,  in  which,  fi-om  the  extent  of  the  whole,  the  farmer  is  frequently  compelled  to  neglect 
the  details  for  want  of  tlie  means  requisite  to  enable  him  to  approach  nearer  to  perfection  by  taking  care  of 
both  the  one  and  the  other.  [French  Trans.  i 
(26])  ' 


38  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

labor  being  also  advanced,  they  Avould  soon  become  so  much  enervated  and  im- 
poverished as  to  be  almost  incapable  of  work  ;  they  could  no  longer  maintain 
their  children,  or  rear  them  up  strong  and  healthy  ;  and  thus  the  quantity  of  la 
borers  would,  in  a  short  time,  be  so  much  diminished,  that  the  small  number 
which  did  remain,  capable  of  work,  would  be  able  to  exact  enormous  wages.— 
This  fact,  alone,  lends  to  prove  the  absolute  necessity  of  the  existence  of  a  cer 
tain  proportion  between  the  price  of  provisions  and  that  of  labor  ;  and  this  pro 
portion  can  never  be  interrupted  for  any  considerable  time,  or  without  great  dis- 
advantage ;  and  it  speedily  recovers  its  oAvn  level. 

If  the  price  of  labor  should,  from  some  particular  cause,  advance  beyond  its 
due  proportion  with  that  of  produce  in  some  districts,  and  the  laborers  are  thus 
enabled  to  earn  more  than  is  required  for  the  actual  necessities  of  life,  they  mar- 
ry much  sooner,  rear  more  children,  and,  the  number  of  laborers  becoming  great- 
er, wages  fall  again. 

It  is  true  that  this  result  does  not  immediately  take  place ;  it  is  nr  regulated 
by  all  the  variations  in  the  price  of  corn,  but  simply  by  an  average  taKen  from  a 
certain  number  of  years.  The  effect  of  a  sudden  decrease  in  the  price  of  provi- 
sions will  be  much  sooner  evident,  because  then  the  laborers,  who  have  hitherto 
only  known  want,  and  who  have  not  the  slightest  idea  of  frugality,  will  be 
able  to  earn  sufficient  for  their  maintenance  in  three  days,  whereas  they  previ- 
ously had  to  work  five  days  for  it.  In  this  case  they  are  easily  induced  to  work 
two  days  less  in  a  week,  and  thus  the  amount  of  labor  is  considerably  diminished, 
and  those  who  have  absolute  need  of  it  are  obliged  to  pay  for  it  pretty  dearly. — 
But  this  state  of  things  has  also  its  limits,  because,  wherever  this  is  the  case,  a 
great  number  of  individuals  will  collect,  and  in  the  long  run  an  increase  of  grain 
will  only  be  found  to  stimulate  a  desire  for  still  more. 

In  general,  in  all  well-populated  countries,  the  price  of  labor  is  regulated  by 
that  of  provisions  ;  and  in  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  in  most  places  and  at 
most  seasons,  the  same  quantity  of  manual  labor  will  be  received  for  a  measure 
of  wheat,  although  the  nominal  price,  that  in  money,  may  not  be  the  same.* 

In  order  to  maintain  a  certain  uniform  standard  of  wages,  an  agriculturist  who 
has  established  the  necessary  number  of  laboring  families  upon  his  estate,  will 
act  most  beneficially  to  his  own  interests,  and  equitably  towards  them,  by  giving 
them  a  portion  of  their  wages  in  provisions  at  a  certain  price  ;  or,  if  he  is  certain 
of  their  work  at  all  times,  by  increasing  or  augmenting  their  wages  in  proportion 
to  the  price  at  which  these  families  can  purchase  these  provisions. 

In  order  to  maintain  himself,  support  his  strength,  and,  at  the  same  time,  rear 
two  children,  a  laborer  ought  to  be  able  to  earn  a  bushel  of  rye  in  eight  days, 
without  too  great  exertion  or  extra  work  :  the  wife  is  supposed  to  be  capable  of 
earning  her  own  living.     From  time  to  .time,  and  particularly  when  provisions  ^ 
are  dear  and  the  laborers  have  earned  less,  they  have  been  indemnified  by  other  | 
advantages  which  rendered  their  existence  possible,  and  which   certainly  ought    ' 
to  be  taken  into  account  when  speaking  of  the  price  of  labor. 

I  shall  take  one-eighth  of  a  bushel  of  rye  as  the  average  daily  wages  of  a  man. 
And  as  the  relative  prices  of  labor  and  grain  give,  in  agricultural  accounts,  a 
much  more  durable  proportion,  and  is  much  better  adapted  to  all  times  and  all 
situations,  than  the  variable  value  of  money,  I  shall  take  this  price  of  a  day's 
work,  or  eighth  part  of  a  bushel  of  rye,  as  the  ideal  coin  of  our  agricultural  ac- 
counts, and  shall  designate  it  by  this  mark,  |.t 

If  we  wish  to  reduce  this  ima^'inary  money  to  the  current  coin,  it  is  only  ne- 
cessary to  obtain  the  average  pri*.  e  of  a  bushel  of  rye  for  ten  years  in  the  province 
or  district  which  we  inhabit.     Thus,  for  example : — 

If  the  bu?hel  of  rye  is  worth  1  rix-dollar,  a  groschen  t  will  be  eqiiivalent  to  3  gros  0    dem. 
«     1         ..  3         u  I  .,  ..  3     ..     41     ■■ 

u     J         ..  1         <.  I  u  u  4     '■     6 

"     2         "  0         "  }  "  "  6     "     0 

*  The  province  of  VignoUes  is  an  exception  to  this  rule  :  there  each  laborer  receives  a  ration  of  wine  eve- 
ry day ;  and  as  this  draught  but  slightly  diminishes  the  quantity  of  food,  properly  speaking,  which  he  con- 
Biimes,  the  price  of  his  day's  work  is  raised  seven-eighths  of  the  value  of  the  wine  ;  in  fact,  it  is  more  tha 
probable  that  this  drink  increases  his  strength.  [French  Trans. 

t  In  those  countries  in  which  the  peasanti-y  are  accustomed  to  enjoy  more  of  the  comforts  of  life,  ar 
■where  wheat  foiTns  a  considerable  part  of  their  food,  the  eighth  part  of  a  bushel  of  that  grain  will  be  the 
equivalent  of  a  day's  work. — [French  Translator.]  One  peck  of  wheait  has  been  long  reckoned  a  standard  in 
England.  [English  Translator. 

(262) 


LABOR    IN    GENERAL.  39    'i 


As  the  price  of  labor  and  the  consumption  form  the  most  considerable  part  of 
the  expenses  of  Agricultm-e,  llie  abstract  and  hypothetical  calculations  which 
we  shall  have  occasion  to  make  Avitli  regard  to  the  details  of  rural  economy, 
will  thus  be  rendered  generally  more  admissible  and  more  correct  than  if  ws 
were  guided  by  money,  which  ahvays  indicates  the  mere  nominal  price  of  ',[ 
things,  and  not  their  actual  value. 

2.  The  increase  or  diminution  of  the  demand  for  laborers.  "When  the  de- 
mand for  laborers  is  increased,  the  latter  naturally  endeavor  to  get  their  wages 
raised,  and  thus  the  price  of  labor  is  advanced  throughout  the  whole  country. — 
An  increase  in  the  price  of  labor  from  this  cause,  so  far  from  being  prejudicial  to 
the  agriculturist,  is,  on  the  contrary,  most  advantageous  to  him.  It  is,  at  once, 
the  effect  and  the  cause  of  a  diffusion  ol' comfort  and  ease  throughout  the  coun- 
try: in  the  case  of  the  agriculturist,  it  is,  perhaps,  connected  with  still  greater 
advances;  but  it  is  certainly  and  invariably  with  additional  advantages  ;  for  com- 
fort, which  is  the  fruit  of  industry,  necessarily  causes  an  increase  of  consump-  \ 
tion,  and  with  that  a  higher  price  of  provisions.  There  is,  hoAvever,  an  excep- 
tion to  this  rule,  viz.,  when  the  increased,  demand  for  laborers  does  not  arise 
from  any  certain  branch  of  industry,  or  of  any  permanent  employment,  but 
merely  from  some  speculation  or  some  temporary  Avork,  as  the  establishment  of 
a  neAV  road,  the  cutting  of  canals,  &c.  ;  it  is  then  that  the  sudden  elevation  of 
the  price  of  labor  becomes  prejudicial,  and  is  frequently  very  embarrassing  to  the 
farmer.  If  governments  would  avoid  the;  derangement  of  the  Agriculture  of  their 
\  country,  they  must  never,  in  cases  of  this  nature,  levy  all  their  laborers  in  the  / 
I    country  itself.  ■  ! 

If,  on  the  contrary,  industry  has  declined  in  some  particular  province,  and  labor  / 
J    is  less  sought  for,  then  the  laboring  class  of  that  place  cannot  obtain  employ-  / 
•  \  ment,  and  their  salaries  are,  consequently,  diminished.   A  diminution  of  the  price  \ 
'\   of  labor  always  announces  the  decline  of  industry  ;  it  is  the  forerunner  of  its  total  fall 
and  of  poverty,  and,  consequently,  never  can  be  advantageous  to  the  agriculturist. 

Nevertheless,  as  a  demand  for  laborers  in  any  particular  district  and  an  ad- 
vance in  their  Avages   speedily  brings  a  great  number   of  them   to   that  place, 
'  Avhile,  on  the  other  hand,  any  great   decrease  of  these  tAvo  articles  Avill  drive 
I  them  aAvay  or  reduce  them  to  poverty,  it  Avill  generally  be  found  that  Avherever    i 
laborers  are  required  and  well  paid,  they  Avill  congregate.  ; 

This  price  is,  therefore,  only  temporarily  modified  during  an  increase  or  a  de- 
cline of  industry.  If  the  price  of  labor  has  remained  the  same  for  some  time,  it 
is  because  there  has  been  exactly,  the  number  of  laborers  that  were  required  ;  for 
this  price,  particularly  if  Ave  regard  the  real  and  not  the  nominal  price  of  labor, 
and  its  proportio-n  Avith  the  value  of  produce,  is  not  usually  higher  in  countries 
Avhere  the  Avorking  classes  lind  full  employment,  nor  loAver  in  those  where  the 
contrary  is  the  case.  Proper  remuneration  Avill  ahvays  •  procure  the  necessary 
number  of  laborers  in  any  country,  Avhereas  the  Avant  of  it  w»ll  cause  them  either 
to  emigrate  or  to  starve  from  want.  Where  the  latter  has  happened,  the 
farmer  has  frequently  sought  in  vain  for  assistance  in  moments  of  emergency, 
and  in  seasons  when  he  required  it  most  ;  and  as  the  laborers  cannot  get  employ- 
ment excepting  at  harvest  or  haymaking  seasons,  they  take  care  then  to  make 
the  farmers  pay  dearly  for  their  services. 

This  is  the  reason  that  the  price  of  agricultural  labor  is  much  lower  in  propor- 
tion to  other  things  in  England  than  it  is  with  us  ;  and  that  in  some  counties  it 
is  so  inconsiderable,  that  the  laboring  classes  could  scarcely  exist  if  they  were  not 
kept  in  constant  work,  and  did  not  receive  assistance  from  those  charitable  insti- 
tutions Avhich,  on  other  accounts,  are  so  burdensome. 

In  examining  and  calculating  the  price  of  Avork,  we  must  be  careful  not  to 
confound  the  price  of  the  Avages  with  that  of  the  Avork  itself.  There  are  some 
countries  in  which  the  former  is  much  higher  than  it  is  in  others,  av  hile  the  lat- 
ter is  actually  lower  ;  for  men  differ  greatly  in  the  degree  of  their  strength,  ac- 
tivity, and  skill,  and  much  depends  on  their  poverty  or  the  comforts  Avhich  they  \- 
enjoy.  A  Avorkman  to  Avhom  I  pay  twelve  groschen  a  day,  can  frequently  exe^ 
cute  more  than  double  the  work,  both  in  quantity  and  quality,  as  another  tc 
whom  I  only  pay  six  groschen.  Consequently,  where  the  laborers  are  industri- 
ous, and  skilled  in  some  portions  of  agricultural  operations,  it  is  cheaper  to  em- 
ploy them,  even  though  they  may  require  somewhat  higher  wages. 

(263) 


40  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture 


Labor  well  f.pplied  is  always  productive  of  some  profit,  and  those  who  spare  it 
act  on  a  false  principle  of  economy;  but  the  best  and  most  judicious  method  of 
employing  labor  and  time  is  the  most  important  of  all  subjects  to  the  real  econo- 
mist. Many  persons  learn  this  method  from  long  experience ;  and  it  is  true  that 
the  tact  and  coup  cVail  thus  acquired  is  peculiarly  just.  But  it  may  be  acquired 
much  more  promptly  and  definitely  by  the  observation  of  certain  principles,  from 
which  a  theory  of  action  may  be  deduced,  without  serving  a  tedious  and  expen- 
sive apprenticeship  to  experience. 

It  is  far  more  difficult  to  apply  labor  judiciously  to  Agriculture,  than  to  apply 
it  to  the  manufacture  of  fabrics  ;  for  the  labor  which  is  required  for  some  particu- 
lar kind  of  proditce,  lasts  but  a  very  short  time,  and  is  then  suspended  for  a  much 
longer  period,  during  Avhich  the  farmer  depends  upon  the  action  of  Nature  to 
briug  this  production  to  perfection,  and  awaits  the  proper  season  for  gathering  it. 
After  each  species  of  grain  has  been  sown,  it  requires  very  little  or  no  attention 
for  some  time  ;  Avhereas,  in  the  formation  of  any  kind  of  fabric,  the  labor  must 
be  continued  from  the  very  commencement  until  the  completion.  In  order,  there- 
fore, that  the  farmer  may  make  the  very  best  possible  use  of  the  powers  Avhich 
he  has  at  his  command,  he  should  endeavor  to  arrange  the  succession  of  his 
crops  in  such  a  manner  that  every  hour  shall  be  devoted  to  some  preparatory  and 
necessary  operation.  It  is  also  necessary  that  he  should  select  the  products  so  as 
neA^er  to  have  more  necessary  operations  in  hand  at  once  than  he  can  accomplish 
by  means  of  the  powers  which  he  has  at  his  disposal,  or  which  are  within  his 
reach.  | 

He  must  never  undertake  many  extensive  operations  at  once,   or  in  places  re-    , 
mote  from  each  other.      He  should  endeavor,  as  much  as  possible,  to  perform  / 
them  one  after  another,  and  to  employ  upon  them  all  the  men  he  keeps,  from    | 
the  begimiing  to  the  end:  this  will  render  the  task  of  inspection  easier,  and  may  '< 
also  tend  to  excite  that  emulation  which  frequently  arises  when  many  laborers  !' 
work  together  under  the  same  superintendence.    When  only  a  fcAv  workmen  are    ■ 
employed  on  some  extensive  operation,  they  frequently  become  dismayed  at  its    . 
length,  and  at  the  little  progress  they  appear  to  make  :  they  lose  all  spirit,  and  ( 
end  by  believmg  that  it  is  impossible  to  discover  whether  or  not    they  work  at 
alL     In  great  operations  it  is  always  better  to  have  a  man  or  a  team   too  many, 
than  to  have  one  less  than  is  necessary.     In  smaller  operations,  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  as  well  to  avoid  employing  more  laborers  than  are  absolutely  necessary ; 
they  only  hinder  one  another,  and  are  apt  to  think  that  the  farmer  believed  that 
the  work  Avould  take  more  time  than  actually  is  required  for  the  accomplishment. 

A  judicious  estimate  of  the  labor  requisite  for  every  operation  is,  therefore,  of 
the  greatest  importance ;  and  it  will  easily  be  acquired  by  carefully  observing 
the  time  and  labor  applied  to  each  separate  portion  and  to  the  whole. 

There  are  some  operations  which  require  a  certain  degree  of  temperature : 
the  farmer  must  ahvays  hold  himself  in  readiness  to  set  about  those  as  soon  as 
the  fitting  time  arrives,  and  must  get  them  done  as  soon  as  possible.  Should  he 
be  interrupted  by  change  of  weather,  it  will  be  contrary  to  the  rules  laid  down 
in  the  preceding  section  to  pass'  to  any  other  extensive  operation,  unless  some 
particular  motive,  or  an  appearance  of  this  change  of  temperature  being  of  long 
duration,  should  seem  to  indicate  such  a  course.  In  such  intervals  it  is  much 
better  to  set  about  some  of  the  smaller  operations,  Avhich  are,  in  point  of  fact, 
of  equally  as  much  consequence,  and  can  be  very  soon  completed.  It  ought  to 
be  held  as  as  a  rule,  that  no  operation  once  taken  in  hand  should  be  laid  aside, 
except  in  case  of  absolute  necessity  ;  and  the  iarmer  ought  always  to  hold  him- 
'  self  in  readiness  to  resume  that  Avhich  v/as  first  undertaken  as  soon  as  the  Avealher 
will  admit. 

In  reaping  or  stacking  corn,  planting  or  digging  potatoes,  &c.,  on  extensive 
farms,  the  division  of  labor  may  be  so  managed  "that  one  part  of  the  laborers 
shall  Avork  Avdth  the  teams  while  the  others  perform  the  manual  labor ;  or  that 
certain  operations  shall  be  committed  to  the  care  of  certain  men  in  each  season. 
But  the  variety  of  these  works  seldom  alloAvs  of  the  same  individual  being  em- 
ployed all  the  year  round  on  one  thing. 

There  are  many  operations  Avhich  can  be  performed  by  Avomen  and  children 
as  Avell  as  by  the  strongest  men,  and  the  form-er  cost  much  less.  It  is  very^ im- 
portant to  distinguish  those  operations  which  ought  to  be  executed  by  men  from 

(264) 


those  which  may  be  accomplished  by  women  or  children,  in  order  that  each  of 
these  classes  may  be  employed  throughout  the  year  on  the  work  best  adapted  to 
their  powers  and  strength. 

On  Draught  Labor — Horses  and  Oxen. 

As  the  number  of  laborers  which  it  is  necessary  to  employ  depends  greatly 
upon  the  teams  which  are  kept,  we  shall  commence  by  treating  of  these  latter. 
Teams  are,  for  the  most  part,  composed  either  of  horses  or  oxen.  It  is  seldom 
.  that  asses  or  mules  are  used.*  There  certainly  are  some  countries  in  which  the 
small  farmers  are  in  the  habit  of  harnessing  the  cows,t  and  where  such  a  pro- 
ceeding does  not  seem  out  of  place  ;  I  see  no  objection  to  these  animals  being 
taken  into  work  in  cases  of  need,  but  their  general  use  does  not  appear  perfectly 
right. 

It  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute  for  some  time  whether  the  preference  should  be 
given  to  oxen  or  horses  as  beasts  of  draught,  and  both  sides  have  contested  the 
point  with  too  much  prejudice,  and  sometimes  with  too  much  animosity  ;  this  is 
one  reason  why  the  question  has  never  yet  been  decided,  and  Avhy  no  positive 
results  have  yet  been  arrived  at  on  the  subject. 

The  preference  must  certainly  be  given,  in  most  situations,  to  horses,  on  the 
'  \  following  considerations  :% 

They  are  capable  of  all  kinds  of  agricultural  labor  ;  they  adapt  themselves  to 
every  road  and  to  every  degree  of  temperature.     Where  horses  are  kept,  there  is 

*  The  mule  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  every  species  of  agricultural  labor.  He  lives  much  longer  than  the 
horse,  he  is  much  more  abstemious,  sti-onger,  and  capable  of  supporting  the  gi'eatest  fatigue.  His  only  faults 
are,  that  he  costs  more  ;  that  his  foot  is  srraighter  and  naiTower,  and,  consequently,  sinks  deeper  into  plowed 
land,  and  that  he  is  apt  to  become  vicious  when  ill-treated  by  the  persons  who  have  the  care  of  him.  Not- 
withstanding these  inconveniences,  the  mule  will  always  be  found  exceedingly  useful  in  agiicultural  labor. 

[French  Trans. 

t  Cows  do  not  seem  to  be  at  all  injured  in  health  from  being  harnessed  to  the  plow  or  wagon.  When  they 
are  only  worked  half  of  each  day,  the  value  of  their  milk  is  not  diminished  more  than  +  0-13,  and  about 
twice  as  much  if  they  are  worked  all  day;  but  it  becomes  as  abundant  as  soon  as  the  animal  is  no  longer 
' ,   required  to  labor. 

'         No  cow  should  ever  be  placed  in  the  shafts,  particularly  in  heavy  work,  which  requires  the  simultaneous 

cooperation  of  more  than  one  couple  of  draught  cattle,  or,  indeed,  in  any  work  which  requires  extraordinary 

labor  ;  because,  although  the  cow  may  have  sufficient  strength  to  bear  it,  her  etforts  are  very  likely  to  pro- 

'     duce  abortion.     Cows  may  always  be  used  before  oxen,  provided  that  too  great  an  exertion  of  strength  is 

not  exacted  trom  them. 

With  a_  little  exertion  of  patience  and  gentleness,  a  cow  may  usually  be  habituated  to  labor  in  a  very  short 
time ;  this  will  invariably  be  the  case  where  the  animal  is  broken  in  while  young,  and  where  they  com- 
mence, by  making  her  draw  light  weights. 

The  pace  of  a  cow  is  generally  rather  quicker  than  that  of  an  ox ;  and  when  of  the  same  breed,  its  strength 
and  powers  of  endurance  average  about  two-thirds  of  that  of  an  ox. 

Cows  which  are  worked  always  require  rather  more  food  than  these  which  remain  in  a  state  of  inaction. 

According  to  the  following  proportion,  the  usual  day's  work  of  an  ox  is  worth  +  1'6 ;  that  of  a  cow,  -f- 1'06. 

The  latter  costs  the  owner — 
The  additional  quantity  of  food  given  during  two  days,  supposing  that  the  cow  is  only  worked  for 

half  a  day,  each  day  6  to  5  of  the  100  kilogi-ammes +    0-3 

The  loss  in  the  milk +    0-26 

Accidents  and  misfortunes -j-    0"1 


0-65 
There  is  some  deficiency  in  the  quantity  uf  dung ;  but  in  general  that  which  is  missed  from  the 
stable  has  fallen  on  some  part  of  the  fields,  where  it  is  not  entirely  lost,  and  the  additional  nour- 
ishment compensates  for  the  deficiency  in  the  stable. 

There  is,  consequently,  a  net  profit  on  each  day  that  a  cow  is  worked,  of. +     0-40 

Or,  to  explain  myself  more  clearly,  the  amount  of  work  executed  by  a  pair  of  oxen  in  one  day  will  cost 
-f  32,  while  that  executed  by  two  cows  will  only  cost  +  2. 

And  if,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  note  attached  to  p.  73,  post,  the  expense  of  work  executed  by  oxen  is,  when 
compared  with  that  executed  by  horses,  as  +  4-32  is  to  -f  3-1.  so  the  quantity  of  work  executed  by  a  pair  of 
horses  in  one  day,  and  costing  +  3-1,  would,  if  performed  by  cows,  only  cost'+  2-72. 

Besides,  the  pace  at  which  cows  move  being  much  quicker  than  that  of  oxen,  if  proper  attention  be  paid 
to  the  manner  of  harnessing  or  yoking  them,  and  to  the  equalizing  of  their  strength  by  numbers,  so  that 
thej;  may  be  able  to  overcome  the  same  resistance  as  the  latter,  then-  conductor  will  find  his  time  qi  ' 
usefully  employed  as  if  he  were  with  horses,  and  much  more  so  than  if  he  drove  a  team  of  oxen. 

But  the  benefits  of  which  I  have  already  spoken  are  not  the  only  ones  which  are  derived  from  the  practice 
of  hai-nessing  cows  ;  however  judicious  may  have  been  the  distribution  of  crops,  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
avoid  having  an  accumulation  of  team  labor  all  necessary  to  be  done  at  one  particular  period.  By  keeping 
the  number  of  hqrses  and  oxen  necessary  to  secure  the  execution  of  all  these  operations  at  the  most  ad- 
vantageous and  fitting  time,  the  farmer  will  be  burdened  with  a  quantity  of  beasts  which,  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  he  will  have  no  use  for  ;  and,  consequently,  each  day's  work  will  cost  an  enormous  sum. — 
But  by  early  accustoming  his  cows  to  labor,  he  will,  on  the  contrary,  always  have  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
teams  at  his  disposal,  which  are  at  no  time  in  the  year  entirely  valueless.  [French  Trans. 

[This  note  of  the  French  translator  is  inserted  to  show  the  opinions  of  a  Frenchman  on  this  subject.] 
X  The  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  has  deemed  this  question  worthy  of  investigation. 
(265) 


'  42  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

no  occasion  to  select  the  particular  kind  of  labor  to  which  they  may  be  applied — 
they  may  be  employed  in  any  work,  and  be  attached  to  every  "description  of  plow. 

They  perform  all  kinds  of  work  very  expeditiously,  and  are  capable  cf  sustain- 
ing their  speed  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  ;  consequently,  the  conductors 
are  kept  in  fuller  employment  while  working  with  horses,  than  when  working 
I  with  oxen. 

Although  less  steady  at  heavy  draught  than  oxen,  the  rapidity  of  their  motion 
I  and  their  spirit  enable  them  to  overcome  all  obstacles  of  short  duration  which 
\  would  frequently  stop  a  team  of  oxen.  / 

I       Oxen,  on  the  contrary,  have  the  following  advantages  in  their  favor  :  ^ 

They  can  execute  most  of  the  agricultural  operations — plowing,  draught,  &c. —  ) 
equally  as  well  as  the  horse,  and,  when  well  fed,  are  capable  of  enduring  almost  S 
as  much  fatigue.  Many  persons  consider  that  they  are  more  useful  in  plowing  ( 
even  than  horses.  ) 

Their  keep  is  much  less  expensive.     The  original  price  of  an  ox  is  generally 
far  below  that  of  a  horse  ;  their  harness  also  is  much  less  costly  ;  their  food  is  . 
much  cheaper,  and  is  of  that  nature  which  finds  a  much  easier  sale  than  the  corn 
which  is  given  to  horses. 

Oxen,  so  far  from  diminishing  in  value  when  they  are  well  fed  and  not  over- 
worked, frequently  become  more  valuable,  and,  on  being  sold,  often  fetch  more 
than  their  original  price,  thus  almost  paying  the  interest  on  their  capital ;  where- 
as, the  horses  decline  in  value  as  they  grow  older,  until  they  are  worth  little  more 
than  their  skins,  and  the  capital  expended  on  them  is  thus  completely  absorbed. 

Oxen  are  also  less  liable  to  accidents  and  disease. 

Lastly,  they  produce  a  greater  quantity  of  dung,  and  the  manure  derived  from  ' 
them  is  generally  more  useful  than  that  which  is  obtained  from  horses. 

We  shall  be  able  clearly  to  demonstrate  that  which  must  already  be  apparent, 
that  even  those  portions  of  agricultural  labor  which  can  be  properly  executed  by 
means  of  oxen  will  not  be  executed  so  cheaply  by  them  as  by  horses.     If  all  the 
operations  on  a  farm  were  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  easily  performed  by  oxen, 
these  animals  only  ought  to  be  made  use  of.     Although  the  operation  of  harrow-  ) 
ing  is  far  better  executed  by  means  of  horses  than  by  oxen,  yet  this  does  not,  in  > 
my  opinion,  form  a  sufficient  consideration  to  induce  the  adoption  of  the  former.   I 
But  in  most  farms  there  are  many  operations  which  oxen  are  still  less  calculated   f 
for,  or,  at  least,  which  they  perform  vjsry  slowly.     This  would  be  a  sufficisnt  rno-   ? 
tive  to  induce  a  determination  to  keep  a  certain  number  of  horses,  regulated,  of  ) 
course,  by  the  amount  and  extent  of  these  operations,  and  to  limit  the  number  of  ) 
oxen  accordiogly.  ( 

li  is  seldom  possible  accurately  to  calculate  the  number  of  horses  which  will  s 
be  requisite  for  those  operations  which  cannot  be  performed  at  any  season,  and  > 
thus  horses  are  frequently  employed  on  operations  which  could  be  executed  at  a  ^ 
much  cheaper  rate  by  oxen.  Nevertheless,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  de-  I 
termine,  as  far  as  possible,  the  proper  proportions  of  each  of  those  animals  ;  but  '} 
that  proportion  varies  on  difierent  farms,  and  must  be  calculated  according  to  the  \ 
extent  and  management  of  each  separately  ;  consequently,  only  general  rules  can  S 
be  laid  down  for  the  regulation  of  it.  There  are,  doubtless,  some  farms  which,  | 
from  their  vicinity  to  the  market  town,  or  some  particular  circumstances,  ought  I 
to  make  use  of  horses  only  ;  because  they  contain  so  few  operations  which  can  ) 
be  executed  by  oxen,  that  it  will  not  be  worth  while  to  incur  the  expense  of  these  ? 
animals,  of  a  herdsman,  5z;c.  I 

In  many  countries,  the  chief  objection  to  the  use  of  oxen  seems  to  be  the  diffi-  ) 
culty  and  almost  impossibility  of  finding  laborers  who  will  work  well  with  them. 

AVhea  the  farmer  wishes  to  make  his  oxen  get  through  as  much  work  as 
horses,  and  without  employing  more  men,  he  must  manage  so  as  to  have  relays 
of  teams  ;  that  is  to  say,  one  ox  shall  work  only  a  part  of  the  ddij,  and  shall  then 
be  relieved  by  another.  This  change  may  take  place  twice  or  thrice  in  the  day. 
It  is  seldom,  excepting  when  the  oxen  are  very  low  in  condition,  that  it  will  be 
necessary  to  make  use  of  a  triple  number  of  beasts.  In  general,  when  they  are 
changed  three  times  in  the  day,  the  ox  which  was  used  first  in  the  morning,  and 
then  relieved  by  another,  may  be  re-harnessed  in  the  afternoon  :  in  this  case  he  is  / 
only  worked  once  on  the  following  day. 

A  relay  team  of  four  oxen,  employed  on  those  operations  for  which  these  ani' 

(266)  ) 


mals  are  best  calculated,  will  do  rather  more  work  than  two  horses,  if  sufficient 
patience  and  perseverance  is  manifested  by  the  conductor,  who  must  not  quit  the  . 
spot  during  the  whole  time  the  labor  lasts,  and  to  whom  the  relays  of  oxen  must 
be  brought  by  the  herdsman  or  cow-boy.  It  is,  however,  true  that  the  same 
number  of  beasts,  when  they  are  not  worked  alternately,  and  only  rest  for  a  short 
time  at  noon,  can  get  through  more  work  than  if  they  were  used  as  relays  ;  but 
then  they  must  be  better  fed,  and  will,  if  worked  all  day  for  many  successive 
days,  become  over-fatigued;  but  two  oxen  worked  permanently  will  never  be 
I  found  to  get  through  as  much  work  as  four  worked  in  relays  can  do,  and,  conse- 
quently, their  conductor  is  not  so  fully  employed.  'The  proportion  between  oxen 
worked  as  relays,  and  those  which  are  permanently  employed,  is  about  three  to 
four.  This  difference  is,  however,  in  part  compensated  by  the  increased  labor  of 
the  man  who  conducts  the  team.  But  it  must  be  confessed,  that  for  every  six 
oxen  a  supernumerary  one  ought  to  be  kept.  In  those  places  where  the  farmers 
have  learned  to  appreciate  the  advantages  of  relay  teams,  they  do  not  appear  at 
all  disposed  to  discontinue  them.  Nevertheless,  during  the  short  days  ot  winter, 
when  it  is  only  possible  to  Avork  for  a  few  hours  each  day,  the  relays  may  be 
separated,  and  allowed  to  work  durmg  the  whole  time. 

It  i-s  a  very  common,  but  a  very  unfounded,  prejudice  to  suppose  that  oxen 

must  not  be  worked  in  the  winter,  or  that  they  must  be  kept  in  idleness,  and  that 

it  is  not  necessary  to  feed  them  well.     In  a  well-arranged  system  of  Agriculture, 

I    there  is  always  work  sufficient  for  the  oxen  in  the  winter,  if  the  roads  are  pass- 

able- 

The  ox  is  not  more  sensible  of  the  cold  than  the  horse  ;  on  the  contrary,  if  he 
is  well  kept  during  the  winter,  he  is  very  lively  and  active.  The  danger  of  slip- 
ing  down  on  the  ice  or  frozen  roads  may  be  averted  by  putting  on  a  light  shoe. 
Jbose  oxen  which  are  well  fed  and  moderately  worked,  are  much  more  active 
and  tractable  than  those  which  have  been  shut  up  all  the  winter  in  idleness. 

AVhere  oxen  are  used,  more  days  are  lost  during  wet  weather,  or  when  the 
roads  are  bad,  than  where  horses  are  employed.     If  each  horse  may  be  reckoned 
to  work   three  hundred  days  in   the  year — supposing,  however,  that,  for  every 
twelve  horses,  one  is  kept  in  reserve  to  supply  the  place  of  those  which  are  sick   * 
— the  number  of  days'  work  which  must  be  reckoned  for  an  ox  is  two  hundred  I 
and  fifty.  { 

According  to  these  data,  and  to  the  cal(!Ulations  which  we  are  about  to  trans-  ( 
cribe  relative  to  the  expense  of  keeping  horses  and  oxen,  it  will  be  easy  to  decide  \ 
in  each  particular  case  whether  horses  or  oxen  will  prove  most  advantageous,  ( 
and  whether  both  or  only  one  of  these  kinds, of  animals  should  be  kept.*  ( 

With  regard  to  cart  and  plow  horses,  we  must  observe  that,  in  purchasing  } 
them,  ^any  farmers  pay  attention  only  to  the  loAvness  of  their  price,  and  never 
concern  themselves  at  all  about  the  time  when  the  horses  will  no  longer  be  ser- 


*  The  question  of  whether  the  preference  should  be  given  to  horses  or  oxen  has  been  left,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, undecided  ;  and,  indeed,  in  order  to  resolve  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  remove  all  doubts  on  the  subject, 
we  must  be  possessed  of  a  gi-eat  number  of  experiments  and  observations,  which  would  require  considera- 
ble sacrifices,  and,  moreover,  be  exceedingly  difficult  to  collect. 

It  is  probable  that  the  size  and  breed  of  the  animal,  the  climate  and  nature  of  the  soil,  may  atfect  the  rela- 
tive utility  of  the  two  kinds  so  much  as  to  exert  considerable  influence  on  the  expediency  of  employing 
them,  and  to  render  the  one  which  is  well  adapted  for  one  country  to  be  exceedingly  disadvantageous  in  an- 
other. We  shall,  however,  endeavor  to  examine  the  subject  with  somewhat  greater  arithmetical  accuracy 
than  has  hitherto  been  applied  to  it. 

From  expeiiments  which  I  have  myself  made,  and  which,  from  then-  accuracy,  are  entitled  to  some  de- 
gree of  confidence,  I  am  convinced  that  with  beasts  of  draught,  as  well  as  with  the  human  race,  there  are 
considerable  difterences  between  the  quantity  of  food  required  by  ditferent  individuals  of  the  same  species, 
and  still  greater  differences  in  the  quantity  of  food  which  they  will  actually  consume  if  sufl'ered  to  eat  as 
much  as  they  like.  Thus,  of  a  pair  of  horses  of  the  same  age  and  breed,  one  will  ofien  consume  22  kilo- 
grammes of  hay  per  diem,  while  the  other  will  eat  only  15  kilogrammes,  or  even  less.  I  am  also  convinced 
that  with  the  exception  of  a  few  individuals  possessed  with  more  sense,  or  more  devoted  to  the  interest  of 
their  master,  than  is  generally  the  case,  it  is  the  constant  practice  of  servants  to  give  the  cattle  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  food  than  they  actually  require. 

Hence  result  the  endless  variations  observable  in  the  quantity  of  food  consumed  by  cattle.  According  to 
my  experience;  a  good  draught  horee  of  the  usual  size  will  eat  from  16  to  23  kilogrammes  of  aitificial  hay, 
clover,  sainfoin,  or  lucerne,  besides  com— thus  averaging  about  19  kilogrammes  a  day. 

If  the  horses  are  fed  with  natural  hay,  they  constime  about  an  eighth  less  ;  but,  however  excellent  in  qual- 
ity this  kind  of  food  may  be,  the  horses  lose  condition  rapidly  if  com  be  not  also  given  to  them.  . 

This  difference  betrween  natural  and  artificial  hay  is  modified  by  the  locality,  the  nature  of  the  soil  on 
which  the  grass  is  grown,  the  manner  in  which  it  is  watered,  and,  lastly,  by  the  plants  of  which  it  is  com- 


An  ox  of  the  Swiss  breed,  of  stature  sufficient 
(267) 


44  ,  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

viceable.  They  always  decrease  in  value,  these  persons  will  say,  as  they  ad 
vance  in  age  ;  and  the  higher  the  price  we  gave  for  them,  the  greater  in  propor- 
tion is  our  loss.  By  the  purchase  and  sale  of  mdifferent  horses,  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  lose  to  the  same  amount ;  and  the  necessity  of  employing  a  large    , 

however,  being  unwieldy,  will  consume  from  17  to  23  kilogrammes  of  aitificial  hay  per  day,  or  20  kilo-     i 

gi-ammes  on  an  average.     (A  kilogram  is  equal  to  2  lbs.  3  oz.  5  dr.  avoh-dupois.) 

The  harness  of  a  horse  usually  costs  about  72  fi-. ;  the  mterest  of  which,  at  5  per  cent,  amounts  to. . .  3fr.  6 

'  i    The  annual  wear  and  tear,  including  repau-s,  may  be  estimated  at 12  0 

^    The  shoeing 14  0 

Liffhting  the  stable 4  0 

Interest" on  capital,  (suppose  it  to  be  480fi-.) 24  0 

Decay,  and  chances  of  mortality 48  0 

Cleaning  and  attendance  in  those  daj's  during  which  the  horse  does  not  work 5  0 

llOfr.  6 
I  shall  not  here  take  into  account  the  rent  of  the  stables  and  hay-lofts,  or  the  cost  of  the  litter  and  of  medi- 
cines ;  neither  shall  I  make  any  deduction  for  the  value  of  the  dung.  I  suppose  these  items  to  compensate 
each  other  in  the  keep  of  both  horses  and  oxen.  In  my  establishment  the  oxen  are  far  more  frequently  ill 
than  the  horses  ;  and  this  is  attributable  to  the  following  causes  :— 1st.  They  have  suffered  frequently  from 
flatulency,  tlirough  the  iiiuoi-dnce  of  servants,  who  have  fed  them  too  plentifully  on  moist  and  verj'  young 
clover.  "2d.  In  very  hot  weather  they  have  been  often  attacked  with  inflammatory  diseases.  3d.  Notwith- 
standing every  possible  care  to  prevent  it,  they  have  been  wounded  several  times  near  the  base  of  the  horn 
in  puttin£r  on  the  yoke.  4th  They  have  often  bruised  their  feet  while  drawing  carts  and  wagons  in  dry 
.weather,~or  over  stony  roads ;  and  the  same  accident  has  sometimes  happened  when  they  have  n-r.veled 
some  considerable  distance  over  wet  and  heavy  roads.  This  evil  may,  however,  be  averted  by  a  light  shoe. 
The  harness  of  an  ox,  comprising  the  half  of  the  yoke  for  the  head  and  neck,  and  the  d-aces,  usually 

costs  about  12tr. ;  the  interest  of  which,  at  5  per  cent,  amounts  to Ofr.     6 

The  annual  weai-  and  tear  of  this  harness 3        0 

The  shoeing 3        0 

Lighting  the  stable 1        0 

Inferest'of  the  capital,  (suppose  it  to  be  288fr.) 14        4 

Chances  of  mortality 7        2 

Attendance  during  those  days  in  which  the  horse  does  not  work 2        5 

31fr.  7 
An  ox,  when  no  longer  used  for  work,  may  usually  be  sold  at  the  price  originally  given  for  him,  and  will 
even  fetch  more  than  his  oiiginal  price  if  he  has  been  put  up  to  fatten  ;  but  this  latter  circumstance  supposes 
that  he  has  been  kept  in  idlenessYor  a  considerable  time,  and  has  been  particularly  well  fed  and  carefuUy 
tended,  and  is,  therefore,  altogether  foreign  to  the  present  calculation.  We  will,  therefore,  suppose  that  the 
ox  is  sold  at  the  same  time  of  the  year  at  which  he  was  purchased,  and  in  such  a  case  he  wiU  fetch  about 
the  same  sum.    We  will  now  sum  up  these  data. 

The  keep  of  a  good  draught  horse  for  365  days,  at  19  kilogrammes  of  artificial  fodder  per  day,  or 
its  equivalent  in  clover," lucerne,  green  tares,  or  in  boiled  potatoes,  or  carrots,  amounts  to  6.935 

kilogrammes,  the  value  of  which,  at  5fr.  for  eveiy  100  kilogi-ammes,  is 346fr.    75 

An  additional  supply  of  com  during  two  months  of  extra  labor,  before  the  horse  is  turned  out  to 

grass • 8  0 

Expenses  already  estimated 110        60 

465fi-.    35 

According  to  my  own  experience,  I  should  say  that  a  horse  cannot  be  worked  more  than  260  days  with 

advantage.     The  author,  whose  experience  is  of  much  longer  standing  than  mine,  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that 

'     a  horse  may  generally  be  worked  300  days  in  the  year.    If  we  di%ade  tlie  sum  total  by  300,  we  shall  find  that 

*     the  daily  expense  averages  about  Ifr.  55c. 

'     The  feed  of  an  ox  amounts  to  about  20  kilogrammes  of  artificial  fodder,  or  its  equivalent  in  clovej-, 
'         lucerne,  green  tares,  boiled  potatoes,  or  caiTOts  ;  total,  7,300  kilogrammes  per  year — the  value  of 

which,  at  5fr.  per  100  kilogi-ammes,  amounts  to 365fr.    0 

Expenses  above  detailed , 31        7 

,  39fifr.     7 

'  I  should  also  estimate,  from  my  own  experience,  the  number  of  days  which  an  ox  can  he  worked  in  the 
'  I  year  wilh  advantage  is  220  ;  but  our  author  reckons  it  at  250.  Now,  a  day's  labor  of  an  ox  being  in  value  to 
' ,  that  of  a  horse  as  3  to  4.  these  250  would  only  be  equivalent  to  187-5  days'  labor  of  a  horse.  Dividing  396fr. 
' ,  7c.  by  this  number,  we  obtain  a  daily  average  of  2fr.  lie.  In  this  calculation  I  have  not  taken  into  account 
the  greater  amount  of  time  expended  by  the  drivers  of  oxen  in  the  execution  of  those  operations  which  are 
performed  so  much  more  expoiiitiously  by  horses.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  same  quantity  of  work  which, 
when  performed  by  horses,  would  cost  only  3fr.  lOc,  would,  when  performed  by  oxen,  cost  4fr.  22c.  'J'he 
calculations  which  are  contained  in  some  subsequent  pages  exhibit  the  numerous  differences  which  exist  in 
the  manner  of  feeding  animals  in  different  countiies  and  districts.  That  the  prices  of  all  commodities  are 
equally  variable,  is  a  fact  of  which  very  few  can  be  ignorant.  I  have  not  pretended  to  decide  so  delicate  a 
question  as  the  expediency  of  keeping  most  horses  or  most  oxen,  or  of  confining  oneself  either  to  hoi-ses  or 
oxen :  but  have  merely  endeavored  to  put  each  of  my  readers  in  the  way  of  making  an  estimation  of  their 
advantages  or  disadvantages  for  himself  according  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  his  agricultural  opera- 
tions, and  the  price  of  each  commodity  in  the  country  in  which  he  hves. 

There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that,  in  places  where  the  "fai-mer  has  an  abundance  of  pasture-ground  at  his  dis- 
posal which  he  cannot  otherwise  employ,  the  saving  it  will  produce  to  him  in  food  for  cattle  during  the 
summer  will  srreatly  modifv  this  estimate  ;  but  this  modification  will  not  actually  be  so  great  as  it  appears  at 
1 1  first  sight,  because  the  ox  y\'hich  has  had  to  seek  its  food  in  the  fields  is  neither  so  strong  nor  so  fresh  as  one 
'    that  has  been  fed  in  the  stable  and  had  a  good  supply  of  rich  fodder. 

It  appears,  also,  that  in  some  countries  the  ox  is  more  moderate  in  his  appetite,  and  consumes  less  food 
than  those  in  the  countiy  in  which  I  live  ;  on  this  point  everj'  one  must  endeavor,  by  repeated  experiments, 
to  ascertain  the  averaceof  his  particular  locality,  and  make  his  calculations  accordingly.^  I  have  supposed 
the  oxen  to  be  fastened  together  with  yokes ;  I  am,  however,  far  fi-om  admitting  that  this  is  the  best  method, 
but  I  believe  it  to  be  that  which  is  most  generally  practised.  [French  Trans. 

(268) 


DRAUGHT  LABOR.  45 


capital  is  also  obviated,  and  less  damage  sustained  in  case  of  accident.  They 
therefore  generally  purchase  horses  which  have  been  badly  used,  or  are  no 
longer  suited  to  the  work  for  which  they  were  originally  intended,  but  which 
are,  nevertheless,  still  capable  of  drawing  the  plow  or  the  harrow  ;  and  they 
base  this  practice  on  recollections  of  animals  thus  purchased,  which  have  been 
brought  into  such  condition  by  dint  of  care  and  good  feeding  as  to  be  equal  to  all 
the  work  required  from  them,  and  which  have  afterwards  been  sold  for  more  mo- 
ney than  they  originally  cost.  If  the  maintenance  of  the  horse,  under  diS'erent 
points  of  view,  were  the  only  thing  which  it  was  necessary  to  consider,  this  mode 
of  proceeding  would  not  be  so  bad.  But,  in  agricultural  operations  of  any  ex- 
tent or  continuance,  horses  of  this  description  are  not  to  be  depended  upon. — 
They  are  subject  to  frequent  attacks  of  illness,  and  the  amount  of  work  of  which 
they  are  capable  is  very  doubtful  ;  besides,  in  cattle  thus  collected,  all  have  not  an 
equal  proportion  of  strength,  courage,  or  endurance  ;  nor  are  they  all  equally  ac- 
customed to  Avork  ;  a  regular  and  systematic  course  of  tillage  cannot  be  carried 
on  with  such  teams,  unless,  indeed,  several  additional  horses  are  kept  in  reserve. 
!  If  we  cannot  depend  upon  the  force  which  is  at  our  disposal,  all  tables  and  cal-  \ 
'  culations  become  utterly  useless.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  a  pair  of  ; 
horses,  which  are  unable  to  work,  and  whose  places  cannot  immediately  be  sup- 
plied at  a  time  when  several  urgent  operations  are  necessary  to  be  done,  will  oc- 
^  casion  a  loss  which  will  far  outweigh  the  profit  expected  to  result  from  the  sav- 
ing in  question.  The  non-employment  of  the  one,  causes  irregularity  in  the  work 
of  several  others.  I  am,  therefore,  of  opinion  that  these  worn-out  horses  can 
only  be  advantageously  purchased  for  spare  or  relay  teams,  or  to  be  temporarily 
,   employed  in  improvements,  buildings,  or  repairs. 

The  priacipal  teams  should  consist  of  horses  of  the  same  breed,  well  set  about- 
the  shoulders  and  neck,  having  a  deep  chest,  and  round  in  the  carcass.  They 
should  not  be  large  boned,  but  have  plenty  of  sinew  ;  should  be  docile  and  pa- 
tient, not  too  spirited,  and  have  good  legs  and  feet.  It  is  only  on  very  tenacious 
soils  that  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  large  heavy  horses,  which  require  an  abund- 
ant supply  of  food  and  very  great  care  in  order  to  keep  up  their  strength.  For 
plowing,  it  is  necessary  to  have  robust  horses,  which  are  able  to  stand  constant 
work,  and  keep  up  their  flesh  and  strength  even  when  badly  tended  and  irregu- 
larly fed. 

This  breed  of  horses  was  formerly  common  to  several  provinces  of  Germany ; 
but,  at  the  present  day,  it  is  becoming  scarce,  because  the  growth  of  those  be- 
longing to  small  farmers  has  been  retarded  or  impeded  by  want  of  attention,  and 
by  premature  labor ;  and  on  the  large  estates  the  breed  lias  been  crossed  and  re- 
crossed,  until  it  is  deprived  of  all  those  qualities  which  rendered  it  so  valuable 
for  agricultural  purposes.*  Those  among  the  large  farmers  who  do  not  breed 
horses,  and  endeavor  to  improve  and  beautify  the  race  to  the  utmost,  expressly 
for  the  purpose  of  selling  them  to  the  highest  bidder,  have  almost  Avholly  aban- 
doned the  practice,  from  the  persuasion  that  they  can  purchase  all  those  which 
I  they  require  for  their  agricultural  operations  at  a  much  cheaper  rate  than  they 
'    could  rear  them  on  their  own  estates. 

[■       But  those  who  know  the  value  of  a  strong,  active,  vigorous,  and  well-proporf 
'[  tioned  breed  of  horses,  will  consider  the  advantage  of  possessing  such  animals  as 
,  are  fully  equivalent  to  the  extra  expense  of  rearing  them.     A  team  of  horses, 
I  bred  upon  the  land,  and  matched  not  so  much  with  regard  to  color  as  to  bodily 
I   strength  and  endurance,  may  be  used  with  a  degree  of  confidence  which  can 
never  be  felt  when  using  cattle  difi'ering  from  each  other  in  qualities  and  in 
breed,  or  which  were  purchased  at  different  places.     Low-priced  horses,  and  es- 
' ,  pecially  those  which  have  already  been  in  the  hands  of  horse-dealers,  have  gener- 
ally been  forced  in  their  growth,  and  subsequently  brought  into  condition  by  rich 
and  plentiful  feeding  ;  and  have  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  a  variety  of  diseases. 
This  internal  weakness  in  horses  is  the  cause  of  frequent  accidents,  and  it  is  of- 
ten difficult  to  discover  whether  they  are  attributable  chiefly  to  want  of  attention 
/  or  to  weakness  of  constitution.     When  horses  of  different  breeds  are  harnessed 
' !  together  in  the  same  team,  and  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  this  where  the  horses  are  sepa- 

*  An  evil  which  exists  to  an  incalculable  extent  in  this  country.  A  colt  or  a  calf  is  what  is  sought  for,  no 
matter  what  the  character ;  the  principal  question  is,  at  how  small  a  price  the  services  o*"  the  male  can  be 
procured. 

(269) 


46  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


1 


rately  purchased,  they  harass  and  hnpede  each  other  ;  the  quick  ones  incommode  !; 
those  Avhose  movements  are  slower,  and  these  latter  are  a  hindrance  and  a  drag 
upon  the  quicker.* 

Moreover,  in  the  generality  of  agricultural  establishments,  as  we  shall  else- 
where prove,  the  rearing  of  horses  is  neither  so  difficult  nor  so  expensive  a  mat- 
ter as  is  generally  imagined. 

When  the  mares  are  put  to  the  male  at  the  proper  season,  little  of  their  work 
is  lost.  The  time  at  which  they  bear  a  foal  and  begin  to  suckle  occurs  at  a  sea- 
son of  the  year  when  they  may  be  allowed  to  rest,  and  from  that  time  they  re- 
quire no  further  attendance. 

In  external  appearance  a  good  ox  should  be  distinguished,  not  so  much  by 
hight  and  length  as  by  a  square  built  form,  his  neck  should  be  finely  shaped  to- 
Avards  the  head,  and  thicker  towards  the  shoulder  and  breast ;  the  chest  should 
be  deep  and  broad,  the  flanks  full,  the  loins  wide,  and  the  hips  large.  The  back 
should  be  straight  and  broad,  and  nearly  level  from  the  head  to  the  rump.  The 
legs  straight  and  sinewy,  and  hoofs  long  and  hollow  ;  and  both  legs  and  feet 
y  should  be  supple,  and  not  stiff  and  awkward.  The  ox  ought  not  to  knock  his 
)  hinds  legs  together,  as  is  often  the  case  with  those  which  are  narrow  and  high 
in  the  legs.  He  should  have  a  brisk  air,  and  a  backward  glance  of  the  eye, 
without,  however,  being  shy  or  intractable.  Large  and  smooth  horns  are  at 
ionce  an  indication  of  health  and  strength,  and  useful  for  fixing  and  supporting 
the  yoke  and  the  guides.  The  English  consider  a  thick,  clumsy  head,  and  a 
large  dewlap,  as  an  indication  of  weakness  or  deficiency  in  other  parts  ;  while 
manv  persons,  on  the  contrary,  regard  these  as  favorable  signs.  The  hight  of 
the  ox  from  the  feet  to  the  withers,  to  which  many  give  exclusive  attention,  is  a 
very  uncertain  indication. 

Young  oxen  may  be  harnessed  at  the  age  of  five  years  ;  but  if  the  farmer 
wishes  his  cattle  to  acquire  their  full  strength,  and  to  retain  it  for  any  consider- 
able period,  he  must  avoid  over-loading  or  over-working  them  before  they  have 
attained  their  seventh  year. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  most  agriculturists  that  an  ox  should  not  be  suffered,  to 
live  more  than  ten  years,  because,  after  that  time,  he  becomes  unfit  for  fatten- 
mg,  and  it  is  difficult  to  dispose  of  him.  Nevertheless,  even  supposing  that  an 
ox  does  lose  somewhat  of  his  disposition  to  fatten,  and  his  flesh  becomes  less 
valuable — facts  which  I  have  never  yet  been  able  to  discover,  since  I  have  ol'len 
obtained  excellent  meat  from  oxen  thirteen  years  old,  which  have  fattened  kindly 
1 1  — the  work  which  strong  and  well-trained  beasts  of  this  description  are  capable 
of  performing,  will  alone  render  it  worth  while  to  keep  them  longer.  It  is  not 
.  until  his  ninth  year  that  an  ox  acquires  his  full  strength  and  vigor,  and  is  best 
able  to  endure  fatigue  ;  and  he  will  continue  equally  active  until  he  is  sixteen 
years  old,  if  he  has  not  been  over-wrought  in  his  youth. f 

Few  things  require  so  muc*h  care,  patience,  and  attention  as  the  tn;hr)]io-  r.( 
oxen,  accustoming  them  by  degrees  to  draught,  gradually  increasing  thtii  li-ad, 
and  teaching  them  to  move  more  quickly  by  harnessing  them  Avith  those  Avinch 
move  rapidly.  Their  subsequent  utility  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  this 
training;  and  it  is,  therefore,  most  important  that  the  business  should  be  en- 
trusted to  experienced  persons,  who  will  prevent  them  from  acquiring  a  habit  of 
creeping  along,  without  the  general  cause  arising  from  over-loading  or  over-heat- 
ing them. 

If,  in  rearing,  tending  and  training  oxen,  the  same  care  and  attention  Avere 
used  as  are  bestowed  on  horses,  the  improvement  of  the  ox  might  be  carried  to 
a  very  great  extent. 

*  The  author  veiy  judiciously  recommends  the  having  a  select  breed  of  horses  on  every  fann,  FuJtalile  to 
it,  and,  when  once  obtained,  to' breed  fi-om  that  stock,  in  preference  to  bujing  animals  from  totiJly  unJcnovvn 
sources,  provided  circumstances  will  pei-mit  By  breeding  horses,  better  opportunities  are  aticrded  olpro- 
cuiing  constitution,  strength  and  action  in  the  animal,  and  the  necessary  equality  in  these  particulws  :  and 
also  a'proper  training,  by'which  many  vicious  habits  are  prevented. 

f  The  age  of  oxen  here  mentioned  appears  extraordinary,  being  so  much  gi-eater  than  is  known  to  attain 
in  Encland.  The  early  maturity  to  which  our  breeds  have  been  forced,  may,  in  some  measure,  account  for 
it ;  bu't  an  ox  capable  of  work  at  the  age  of  sixteen  years,  seems  to  require  a  greater  cause  to  occasion  the 
difference.  Ours  are  rarely  worked  beyond  seven  years  old.  There  was,  some  j'ears  since,  a  wild  ox  at 
Chillingham  Ca-stle,  in  Northumberland,  which  had  reached  the  age  of  seventeen  years,  having  been  kept 
for  the'  purpose  of  trying  the  period  of  extreme  longevity.  The  animal  died  at  that  age,  having  for  some 
years  previous  been  unable  to  move  to  any  distance,  or  to  feed  on  the  usual  articles  of  maintenance.  The 
ages  stated  by  ih-e  author  appear  incredible  in  our  country.  [Editors. 

(-270) 


DRAUGHT  LABOR. 


47 


In  the  feeding  of  horses  the  following  instructions  must  be  attended  to.  The 
kind  of  grain  generally  given  to  them  is  oats,  and  many  persons  consider  this  as 
the  only  kind  of  grain  which  is  good  for  them.  It  is,  however,  certain,  that  a 
proper  quantity  of  any  species  of  grain,  each  in  proportion  to  its  nutritive  quali- 
ties, is  both  profitable  and  beneficial  to  horses. 

Vegetables,  as  beans,  peas,  and  tares,  are  perfectly  well  adapted  to  the  consti- 
tution of  the  horse,  and  are  even  preferable  to  grain  properly  so  called.  The 
kind  of  grain  which  can  be  given  to  horses  with  most  advantage,  is  always  that 
Avhich  can  be  obtained  at  the  cheapest  rate  in  proportion  to  its  nutritive  quali- 
ties. The  proportional  value  of  different  kinds  of  grain,  as  will  be  shown  more 
at  length  in  another  place,  is  as  follows  : — 

O  ats 5  1  Wheat 12 

Barley 7    Vegetables 10  to  1 1 

Rye 9  I 

It  is  customary  to  give  the  horses  a  quantity  of  hay  along  with  their  corn,  the 
nutritive  qualities  of  which  cannot  be  denied  ;  and  also  chopped  straw,  which 
latter  is  given  with  the  intention  of  facilitating  mastication  and  filling  the 
stomach,  but  which  contributeslittle  towards  nutrition,  properly  so  called,  when 
there  is  no  grass  mixed  with  it. 

In  proportion  as  the  quantity  of  hay  is  increased,  the  quantity  of  corn  may  be 
diminished,  and  vice  versa.  Experience  tends  to  prove  that  an  increase  of  corn  is 
most  advantageous  for  quick  and  forced  work,  but  that  an  additional  quantity  of 
hay  is  best  for  slow  and  continuous  labor. 

A  tolerable-sized  horse,  properly  worked,  generally  requires  about  10  pounds, 
or  3  metzen  of  good  oats  a  day  throughout  the  year,  and  as  it  is  frequently  necessary 
to  increase  this  quantity,  the  yearly  amount  must  be  reckoned  at  70  bushels.* 

Besides  this  allowance  of  grain,  it  is  also  necessary,  in  order  to  keep  up  the 
strength  during  long  and  continuous  labor,  to  give  10  pounds  of  hay  each  day  ; 
and,  lastly,  a  quantity  of  cut  straw  is  mixed  with  the  corn,  and  increased  or 
diminished  in  proportion  with  the  quantity  of  hay  given  to  the  horse. 

The  annual  feed  of  a  horse,  therefore,  costs — 

70  bushels  of  oats  at  5  t 350 

33  quintals  of  hay  at  3  j 99 

449 

To  which  must  be  added — 

Interest  of  purchase  money... 24 

Annual  decay 48 

Shoeing 14 

^^ 
Total 535  I 

The  straw  is  omitted,  as  being  compensated  by  the  value  of  the  dung. 

If  a  bushel  of  rye  be  valued  at  1|  rix-doUars,  one  %  will  be  worth  four  gro& 
chen  six  deniers,  and  consequently  a  horse  will  cost  one  hundred  rix-dollars  and 
seven  groschen  per  annum.  . 

It  is  very  difficult  to  estimate  the  yearly  expense  of  the  keep  of  a  horse  in  those 
places  Avhere  they  are  grazed  all  the  summer,  or  where  they  are  fed  during 
winter  on  chaff  only,  or  during  harvest  time  on  the  cuttings  of  the  sheaves  and 
a  little  corn;  these  customs  are  altogether  incompatible  with  an  active  system 
of  cultivation,  and  are  not  at  all  calculated  for  those  teams  which  are  in  constant 
work. 

There  is  now  no  longer  any  doubt  that  horses  may  be  kept  in  perfect  health 
and  vigor  without  having  any  corn,  and  by  means  of  a  far  less  expensive  system 
to  the  farmer,  viz  :  that  of  giving  them  clover  and  green  tares  in  summer,  and 
potatoes,  carrots,  and  other  nourishing  roots,  in  the  winter.  Although  the  quan- 
tity of  these  roots  consumed  by  the  cattle  is  so  great  as,  when  the  value  of  them 
is  reckoned  according  to  the  market  price  in  towns,  to  render  the  advantage 
derived  from  the  use  of  them  apparently  doubtful,  yet,  since  they  are  less  ex- 
pensive to  the  grower  than  corn,  and  the  carrying  of  them  to  market  would  be 

*  The  word  here  and  elsewhere  translated  bushel  is  a  German  word  (scheffel).  It  seems  to  be  applied  to 
a  gi-ear,  many  difierent  measures.  At  Berlin,  the  sheffel  is  nearly  twice  as  much  as  the  English  bushel ;  at 
Stutgard.  between  three  and  four  times  as  large  as  at  BerUn ;  at  Weimar,  between  two  and  three,  and  at  Mu- 
nich, four  times  as  large.  The  metzen,  also  a  German  measure,  seems  to  be  of  such  a  size  that  14  two-tifihi 
are  required  to  make  a  bushel. 
(271) 


'  A« 


48  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

^ 

attended  by  very  great  inconvenience  and  expense,  it  is  better  to  have  them  con- 
sumed by  "the  cattle  during  the  progress  of  the  agricultural  operations.  The 
results  of  several  experiments  performed  on  a  large  scale  have  rendered  the 
advantage  of  this  systenn  of  feeding  no  longer  doubtful,  and  when  it  has  become 
generally  understood  and  adopted,  the  question  as  to  the  respective  merits  of 
horses  and  oxen  will,  perhaps,  be  differently  considered.  We  shall  enlarge  nrore 
fully  on  this  subject  elseAvhere. 

In  order  to  keep  oxen  in  good  condition,  they  should  receive,  on  an  average, 
20  lbs.  of  hay  each  per  day  during  the  whole  of  the  time  that  they  are  kept  upon 
drv  food  ;  consequently,  40  quintals  of  hay  must  be  allowed  for  each  ox.  If  a 
considerable  quantity  of  chatl'or  Avinnowed  siftings  be  given,  30  quintals  will  be 
sufficient.  By  this  means  their  strength  and  health  will  be  fully  sustained,  and 
they  Avill  be  equal  to  all  the  labor  Avhich  may  be  required  of  them  during  the 
winter. 

In  those  establishments  where  so  great  a  quantity  of  hay  cannot  be  spared  for 
the  oxen,  its  place  is  supplied  by  the  grain  which  is  best  adapted  for  this  pur- 
pose, after  having  passed  under  the  mill-stone  (crushed).  A  bushel  of  oats*  in 
the  feeding  of  caltle  is  equivalent  to  a  quintal  of  good  hay.  If,  therefore,  an  ox 
receives  3  lbs.  of  oats  per  day,  his  daily  allowance  of  hay  may  be  diminished 
by  6  lbs.  and  his  strength  will  not  decrease  in  consequence,  and  may  possibly 
augment. 

The  best  food  for  oxen  during  the  winter  season  certainly  is  potatoes  and  other 
nourishing  vegetables.  If  an  ox  receives  two  metzenf  of  potatoes,  together  with 
12  lbs.  of  hay  per  day,  numerous  experiments  tend  to  prove  that  he  will  be  kept 
in  full  vigor. 

In  summer,  when  the  oxen  are  turned  into  the  pasture-field,  one  and  a-half 
cows  are  usually  reckoned  to  each  ox  ;  consequently,  if  the  cost  of  a  cow  be 
estimated  at  four"  bushels  of  rye,  or  36  t,  that  of  an  ox  at  pasture  must  be  esti- 
mated at  54  t :  or  they  are  fed  in  the  stable  on  green  clover,  tares,  or  other 
esculent  vegetables.  An  ox,  when  rather  severely  worked,  will  consume  one 
and  a-half  square  perches  of  red  clover  on  an  average  per  day,  in  two  feeds,  and, 
consequently,  an  acre  and  a  quarter  in  about  four  months.  If  an  acre  of  clover 
be  valued  at  36  $,  this  will  amount  to  45  t. 

Thus,  the  maintenance  of  an  ox,  according  to  the  different  methods  of  which 
we  have  spoken,  may  be  estimated  as  follows : — 

(a)     40  quintals  of  hay,  at  3  t 120 

Pasturage  in  summer, 54 

{b)     Hay  for  200  days,  at  18  lbs.  per  day,  3,600  lbs.  at  3  |  per  110  lbs 98 

Oats  for  200  days,  at  3  lbs.  per  day,  12^  bushels  at  5  +  per  bushel, 62^ 

Pasturage - 54 

(c)  Hay  for  200  days,  at*  10  lbs.  per  day,  2,000  lbs 54 

Potatoes  for  200  days,  at  22  lbs.  per  day,  44  bushels  at  1  ^;  per  bushel, 44 

Pasturage, ,  -  54 

J52t 

(d)  Stable  Feeding : 

18  quintals  of  hay  at  3  ^  per  quintal, 54 

2  metzen  of  potatoes  per  day,  21  bushels  at  1 1  per  bushel, 21 

Green  clover, 45 

120  t 

In  point  of  intrinsic  value  or  nutritive  quality,  it  may  be  admitted  that  110  lbs. 
of  hay  are  equivalent  to  48  lbs.  or  one  bushel  of  oats,  and  to  200  lbs.  or  two 
bushels  of  potatoes.  But  the  cost  of  reproduction,  which  the  agriculturist  should 
take  as  the  basis  of  his  calculation  in  all  his  own  operatioris,  is  sometimes,  as  we 
have  already  observed,  very  different,  and  the  market  price  is  also  subject  to 
very  great  variation.  Sometimes  a  bushel  of  oats  will  sell  for  more  and  some- 
times for  less  than  110  lbs.  of  hay  ;  and  even  when  they  are  equal  in  value,  it 

Abo\it  26  kilogrammes. 

About  6  kiloeriimmes,  besides  sti'aw  ad  libitum. — French  Teans. 

(272) 


DRAUGHT     LABOR.  49 


will  be  more  advantageous  to  the  farmer  to  give  his  beasts  hay  than  to  give  them 
oats,  because  the  former  will  yield  a  greater  quantity  of  dung.  It  is  the  exist- 
ence of  this  difference  between  the  intrinsic  value,  the  cost  of  reproduction,  and 
the  market  price,  which  gives  rise  to  the  advantage  of  feeding  cattle  in  one  way 
rather  than  in  another,  and  in  part,  also,  to  the  advantage  of  keeping  one  species 
of  cattle  in  preference  to  another,  according  as  the  kind  of  food  the  consumption 
of  which  is  most  profitable  is  best  adapted  to  one  or  the  other  of  these  species. 

Whichever  of  these  systems  of  feeding  may  be  adopted,  the  oxen,  so  far  from 
losing  condition  or  decreasing  in  strength,  will,  on  the  contrary,  increase  in 
value  so  much  as  even  to  cover  the  interest  of  their  capital.  If,  however,  in 
consideration  of  this  interest  and  of  casualties,  12  |  be  added  to  the  sum  total,  the 
keep  of  an  ox  m  the  best  possible  manner  will  even  then  scarcely  amount  to  one- 
fourth  of  that  of  a  horse  ;  and  even  if  we  admit  that  four  oxen  working  in  relays 
will  not  do  more  Avork  than  iwo  horses,  it  will  still  be  done  cheaper  than  if  it  were 
performed  by  these  latter  animals.  It  must,  however,  be  observed,  that  in  bad 
weather  oxen  working  alternately  are  not  available  for  so  many  days  as  horses, 
and  that  the  proportion  of  the  one  to  the  other  is  2  :  3,  or  at  most  5  :  6. 

In  treating  of  the  working  of  teams,  we  must  also  consider  the  implements  by 
means  of  which  the  operations  are  performed.  It  is  of  greater  importance  than 
most  persons  seem  to  imagine,  both  as  regards  the  execution  of  the  work  and  the 
saving  and  the  better  employment  of  power,  that  the  construction  of  the  imple- 
ment should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  perfect,  and  adapted  to  the  locality,  the  soil, 
and  the  end  which  is  to  be  attained  by  the  use  of  it. 

Altiiough  so  much  attention  and  study  have  been  devoted  to  the  improvement 
and  perfecting  of  machines  for  the  manufacture  of  fabrics,  and  so  great  and  sur- 
prising a  diminution  of  labor  has  resulted  from  it,  yet  little  attention  has  hitherto 
been  paid  to  the  improvement  of  agricultural  implements.  This  appears  to  arise, 
in  a  great  measure,  from  the  indolence  of  the  farmers,  from  their  want  of  me- 
chanical skill,  and  perhaps,  likewise,  from  the  declamations  of  certain  agricul- 
tural theorists.  These  persons  have,  in  fact,  inculcated  the  closest  economy  in 
the  use  of  agricultural  implements,  and  advised  that  they  should  not  only  be 
constructed  at  the  least  possible  expense,  but  also  that  their  number  should  be 
limited  as  much  as  bare  necessity  will  allow. 

They  argue  thus  :  the  keeping  in  order  of  a  plow  of  the  least  expensive  kind, 
annually  amounts  to  five  bushels  of  rye,  equal  to  45  |.  Now,  if  I  can  carry  on 
my  agricultural  operations  with  ten  plows  of  the  same  kmd,  and,  nevertheless, 
ought  to  have  plows  of  two  or  three  different  kinds,  I  must  have  at  least  a  twen- 
tieth, and,  instead  of  50  bushels,  these  plows  will  cost  me  100  bushels  per  annum, 
an  expense  which  will  scarcely  be  compensated  by  a  saving  in  the  employment 
of  animal  power.  But  even  setting  aside  the  better  quality  of  the  work,  it  will 
easily  be  perceived  that  this  calculation  is  founded  on  erroneous  principles. 
There  certainly  is  less  wear  and  tear  in  implements  that  are  worked  alternately, 
than  in  those  which  are  in  constant  use  ;  and  if,  when  not  wanted,  they  are  care- 
fully put  away  in  a  dry  place,  the  Avood,  by  being  dried  from  time  to  time,  Avill  be 
kept  in  better  preservation  than  if  constantly  used  on  a  humid  soil  :  this  is  so 
much  the  case,  that  it  would  even  be  advisable  to  have  spare  ploAvs  if  only  one 
kind  Avere  requisite.  Nothing,  then,  but  the  interest  of  a  larger  capital  can  be 
charged  to  the  account  of  this  diversity  of  implements.  Consequently,  if  an  es- 
tablishment which  requires  ten  ploAA^s  should  absolutely  spend  300  bushels  of  rye 
in  procuring  implements  of  a  superior  quality,  or  different  construction,  no  annual 
increase  of  expenditure  could  thence  arise  beyond  the  interest  of  these  300  bush- 
els ;  that  is  to  say,  fifteen  bushels,  and  this  would  soon  be  compensated  by  the 
mere  saving  of  animal  power. 

The  enumeration,  valuation  and  description  of  agricultural  implements  must, 
however,  be  deferred  to  another  chapter.  At  present  we  shall  content  ourselves 
with  observing,  in  order  accurately  to  determine  the  relative  prices  of  these  la- 
boi,^,  that  in  general  the  expense  of  the  whole  gear  in  which,  and  with  which, 
a  h'orse  works,  may  be  estimated  at  the  value  of  ten  bushels  of  rye  per  annum. 
It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  this  estimate  Avill  be  subject  to  modifica- 
tions arising  from  locality,  the  price  of  blacksmith's  work,  the  charges  of  the 
cariwright,  the  harness-maker,  and  of  the  rope-maker  ;  and  the  nature  of  the  soil 
and  the  condition  of  the  roads.     The  cost  of  the  gear  of  an  ox,  when  employed 

(321) 4 


50  thaer's  principles  ©f  agriculture. 

only  at  the  plow,  has  been  estimated  at  no  more  than  one-fifth  of  this  sum.  If  they 
are  also  employed  in  carts  and  wagons,  a  kind  of  work  for  which  they  are  not  so 
well  adapted  as  horses,  but  in  which  they  cost  less  and  do  not  require  such  ex- 
pensive harness,  the  cost  of  two  oxen  working  alternately  must  be  estimated  at 
scarcely  half  that  of  one  horse.  The  harness-maker  has  little  or  nothing  to  do  \ 
with  the  harness  of  oxen. 

In  order  to  obtain  all  the  necessary  data  for  a  general  valuation  of  the  expenses 
of  teams,  we  shall  speak  likewise  of  the  men  who  work  with  them.  It  is  prin- 
cipally necessary  to  know  the  exact  power  of  the  team  to  Avhich  the  man  is  to 
be  appointed. 

If  the  expenses  arising  from  the  employment  of  carters  were  not  taken  into  ac- 
count, it  would  be  most  advantageous,  according  to  the  laws  of  mechanics  and  the 
results  of  certain  decisive  experiments,  to  employ  beasts  of  draught  singly  as  much 
as  possible.  For  it  is  an  acknowledged  fact,  that  when  the  carriages  are  light  in 
proportion,  the  animals  can  draw  a  much  heavier  load,  and  continue  at  work  for  a 
much  longer  period  when  harnessed  separately.  Four  horses  harnessed  into  two 
carts  will  draw  a  much  greater  load  than  when  all  are  attached  to  a  single  vehicle. 
But  they  never  draw  so  much  as  when  each  one  is  harnessed  separately  in  a  two- 
wheeled  cart  of  suitable  construction.  Experiments  made  in  England  have  proved 
that  four  horses  harnessed  separately  m  four  two-wheeled  carts  are  equivalent  in 
power  to  eight  harnessed  together  in  one  wagon.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the 
deviation  of  the  diflerent  lines  of  traction,  the  unequal  application  of  power,  the 
'  want  of  absolute  conformity  of  motion,  pace,  and  traction,  and  the  frequent  action 
'  of  forces  in  opposition  to  each  other,  which  takes  place  when  the  horses  are 
united  in  one  team.  When  a  horse  works  alone  he  may  keep  the  true  line  of 
faction,  and  preserve  an  uniform  rate  of  motion  ;  he  is  not  urged  on  by  emula- 
tion, or  forced  into  exertions  beyond  his  strength  by  the  activity,  or  impeded  by 
the  sluggishness,  of  his  companions.  But  the  horses  must  be  well  trained  and 
be  accustomed  to  the  guidance  of  signs  and  words,  and  the  harness  and  vehicles 
must  be  carefully  arranged,  or  it  is  utterly  impossible  that  one  man  can  regulate 
and  guide  three  or  four  horses,  when  each  one  is  attached  to  a  separate  cart. 
And  since  it  is  impossible  always  to  employ  an  equal  number  of  one-horse 
vehicles  at  a  time,  only  one  man  is  kept  for  the  horses,  who  takes  care  of  them 
in  the  stable,  and  those  which  work  with  them  are  hired  by  the  day  or  by  the 
task.     This  system  also  requires  good  and  even  roads. 

If,  according  to  our  custom,  the  servants  who  look  after  the  horses  are  also 
made  to  work  with  the  teams,  only  one  man  is  usually  allowed  for  every  four 
horses,  and,  in  that  case,  when  the  work  is  heaviest  the  strav/  is  cut  ready  for 
him.  In  some  agricultural  establishments  two  men  are  allowed  to  every  four 
horses,  the  second  being  termed  assistant  carter  or  stable-boy.  This  arrangement 
is  generally  found  on,  and  is  particularly  adapted  to,  those  farms  in  which  the 
horses  are  principally  used  for  plowing;  and  are  harnessed  in  pairs  instead  of 
teams  consisting  of  four  animals. 

Where  four  horses  are  worked  together,  it  is  customary  at  times,  when  it  be- 
comes absolutely  necessary  to  separate  them,  to  entrust  two  to  a  day  laborer,  or 
an  assistant  driver  is  kept  for  a  number  of  teams. 

The  custom  of  using  three  horse  teams,  which  has  lately  been  introduced  into 
some  countries,  or  that  of  keeping  one  man  for  three  horses,  is  in  my  opinion 
disadvantageous.  If  the  expenses  of  the  household,  properly  so  called,  be  equally 
divided  amongst  the  several  persons  which  compose  it,  the  keep  of  the  man  who 
looks  after  the  horses  must  be  regarded  as  equal  to  34  bushels  of  rye.  I  estimate 
the  wages  and  other  perquisites  of  each  servant  at  16  bushels  of  this  grain. 
According  to  this  calculation,  a  man  capable  of  driving  and  taking  care  of  a  team 
of  four  horses,  will  cost  the  value  of  50  bushels  of  rye  per  annum. 

With  regard  to  oxen,  it  is  generally  managed  that  one  man  shall  attend  to  and 
feed  or  look  after  them  in  summer  while  they  are  grazing  ;  but  those  who  work 
with  the  teams  and  who  remain  all  day  in  the  field  Avith  the  relay  teams  are,  for 
the  most  part,  day  laborers ;  and  at  each  change  the  relays  are  brought  to  them 
by  the  herdsman.  The  expense  of  this  man  may  be  estimated  at  the  value  of 
40  bushels  of  rye  per  annum.  He  can  very  well  look  after  thirty  oxen,  and  sttch 
a  man  must  be  kept  even  for  a  smaller  number  of  beasts. 

I  am  well  aware  that  in  many  countries  the  maintenance  of  a  servant  is  valued 

(3021 


r 


DRAUGHT   LABOR.  51 


at  a  much  less  sum  ;  but  in  the  greater  number  of  cases  it  will  be  found  to 
amount  to  that  now  stated. 

I  shall  now  recapitulate  the  expenses  of  labor  as  performed  by  horses  and  oxen, 
and  draw  a  comparison  between  them. 

The  expense  of  a  horse  is  as  follows : — 

Feed, 449  f 

Interest  of  capital,  depreciation  in  value,  and  shoeing, 86 

The  harness  and  implements  with  which  he  works, 90 

A  man  to  take  care  of  four  horses  cost  400  I,  consequently  one-fourth,  or  100  J,  must  be 
reckoned  to  each  horse 100 

7-25  f 

If,  then,  300  days'  labor  cost  725  |,  each  horse  will  cost  2-41  t  per  diem.  But 
if,  during  one-half  of  this  time  the  horses  work  separately  in  two  teams,  so  that 
the  four  require  an  extra  day-laborer  for  150  days,  we  must  add  37-5  |  per  annum 
to  the  cost  of  each  horse,  and  consequently  the  value  of  a  day's  work  will  then 
amount  to  2-54  |. 

According  to  the  four  methods  of  feeding  oxen,  the  expenses  of  which  have 
already  been  calculated,  an  ox,  if  thoroughly  well  fed,  will  cost : — 

For  feeding 168^  J 

Risk 12 

Harness  for  team 22|  , 

Herdsman  (reckoning  this  man  at  40  bushels  for  30  oxen) 12  * 

Extra  driver  for  150  days 62J 

27ir{ 
Two  oxen  working  alternately  therefore  cost  555  t 

Thus,  during  the  250  working  days,  which  is  usually  the  average  number  m 
a  year,  the  labor  of  two  oxen  working  alternately  will  cost  2-2  t  per  day.  The 
labor  of  a  horse  costs  2-54  %  per  day ;  that  is  to  say,  0-34  t  more  than  two  oxen 
working  alternately.  Local  circumstance  may  easily  modify  this  difference, 
rendering  it  sometimes  greater  and  at  other  times  less.  It  should  be  particularly 
observed,  that  we  have  here  founded  our  calculations  on  the  supposition  that  the 
oxen  are  better  fed  than  they  are  in  general,  and  we  have  also  supposed  them  to 
do  much  more  work  than  is  usually  exacted  from  them  in  our  country. 

In  all  those  agricultural  operations  for  which  oxen  are  as  well  adapted  as 
horses,  two  of  the  former  working  alternately  will  do  more  work  than  one  horse 
but  there  are  many  circumstances  in  Agriculture  in  which  the  superiority  of  oxen 
is  far  less  considerable  ;  sometimes,  in  fact,  it  diminishes  so  much  as  no  longer  to 
compensate  for  the  trouble  of  attending  to  two  kinds  of  draught  cattle,  or  for 
the  inconveniences  attending  the  use  of  two  kinds  of  teams.  For  instance,  on  a 
'    farm  which  would  require  at  least  twelve  horses,  and  Avhere  eight  oxen  might  ; 

also  be  employed,  it  would  be  much  better  to  keep  four  additional  horses  instead 
I    of  the  oxen  ;  unless,  indeed,  the  pasturage  for  the  latter,  and  the  care  which  they 

would  require,  should  amount  to  very  little. 
I        The  following  are  the  principal  kinds  of  labor  performed  with  teams  : — 

1.  Plowing. — The  data  concerning  the  daily  amount  of  work  executed  by  a 
plow  vary  considerably.  Some  persons,  from  their  own  experience,  state  it  to  be 
1|  acres ;  others,  2k  ;  and  some  even  3  acres.  All  these  data  are  founded  on  ac- 
tual observations  ;  but  we  must  weigh  and  examine  all  the  circumstances  under 
which  the  observations  were  made,  and  which  occasion  this  difference.  The 
principal  reason  is  the  breadth  of  the  furrow.  If  a  plow  cut  furrows  6  inches 
wide  on  a  surface  of  30  Rhine-perches  in  extent,  I  shall  haVe  to  make  720  ;  but 
if,  on  the  contrary,  I  make  these  furrows  10  inches  wide,  I  shall  only  have  432. 
Supposing  this  surface  to  be  30  perches  in  length,  the  team  will,  in  the  former 
case,  have  to  travel  over  10  4-5  geographical  miles,  and  in  the  latter  6  12-25 
miles,  not  reckoning  the  distance  passed  over  in  returning  to  the  ends  of  the  fur- 
rows. It  should,  therefore,  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  quantity  of  work 
which  can  be  executed  by  one  plow  in  a  day  is  regulated  by  the  width  of  the 
furrows  or  trenches.* 

On  land  of  a  medium  quality,  the  furrows  are  usually  made  9  inches  wide. — 

In  this  case  the  plow  passes  over  a  surface  of  14,400  perches,  or  7§  geographical 

miles,  in  the  space  of  5  acres.     The  turns  will  be  more  or  less  frequent,  and, 

I  consequently,  the  distance  passed  over  in  turning  greater  or  less,  according  to  the 

■*  A  Pnissiiui  acre  contains  only  3,053  square  yards — a  statute  acre,  4,840. 
(32^) 


THAEPv.  S   PllINCIPLES    OF  AGRICULTURE. 


length  or  breadth  of  the  land  which  is  to  be  plowed  ;  and  71  miles  may,  how- 
ever, be  taken  as  the  average  in  most  cases.  If,  in  consequence  of  this  breadth 
of  furrow,  2^  acres  are  plowed  in  a  day,  the  beasts  of  draught  and  the  men  travel 
over  31  miles,  and  this  is  the  utmost  that  can  be  expected  from  them  in  contin- 
uous labor.  The  narrower  the  trenches  or  furrows,  the  smaller  the  extent  of 
ground  which  can  be  plowed  in  a  day,  and  vice  versa.  It  is  likewise  necessary 
to  consider  the  nature  of  the  soil,  whether  it  is  light  or  tenacious.  The  next 
thing  to  be  considered  is  the  depth  of  the  furrow,  in  which  every  additional  half 
inch,  especially  where  the  soil  is  heavy,  often  makes  a  very  great  difference  in 
the  resistance  which  it  opposes  to  the  plow.* 

Lastly,  the  construction  of  the  implement  is  of  considerable  importance.     A 
well-constructed  plow  overcomes  the  resistance  of  the  soil  much  more  easily  :^ 
than  one  of  inferior  construction  ;  this  may  be  particularly  observed  in  argillace-  '\ 
ous  soils,  and  where  deep  furrows  are  cut ;  the  cattle  are  less  fatigued  by  a  good 
plow,  and  they  can  move  more  rapidly  and  their  progress  is  less  impeded. 

On  light  soils,  where  the  friction  is  not  very  great,  the  ground  is  usually  pre- 
pared by  a  horse-hoe  ;  this  method  facilitates  the  cutting  of  deeper  furrows  in 
plowing. 

After  what  has  just  been  said,  it  will  no  longer  be  a  matter  of  surprise  to  find 
such  discrepancies  in  the  reports  furnished  by  pjractical  agriculturists  of  the 
quantity  of  work  performed  by  their  plows.  But  it  is,  generally  speaking,  very 
necessary  to  make  a  distinction  between  the  performance  of  the  plows  when  par- 
ticular attention  is  paid  to  them,  at  the  times  of  press  of  work,  and  when  the 
weather  is  favorable,  and  their  average  performance  throughout  the  year. 

This  kind  of  labor  and  the  moving  power  which  it  requires,  will  be  enlarged 
upon  when  we  treat  of  plowing  in  particular.  We  will  here  admit  that  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  autumn,  on  what  is  called  barley  land,  composed  of  equal  parts 
of  argillaceous  and  sandy  soil,  two  acres  per  day  may  be  well  plowed  ;  and  when 
the  furrows  are  deeply  cut  to  extirpate  the  harvest  roots,  an  acre  and  three  quar- 
ters per  day  may  be  plowed.  In  the  spring  two  acres  may  be  plowed  for  peas, 
oats,  and  the  first  barley-crops  ;  and  two  acres  and  a  half  for  the  second.  In 
breaking  up  the  land  to  lie  fallow,  two  acres;  in  plowing  the  ground  over  again, 
two  acres  and  a  half;  and  in  plowing  for  seed,  two  acres  and  a  quarter.  These 
are  averages  which  may  be  exceeded  when  the  weather  is  favorable,  or  dimin- 
ished when  it  is  not  propitious. 

In  general,  a  plow  drawn  by  two  good  oxen,  working  alternately,  will  execute 
a  quarter  of  an  acre  per  day  more  than  one  drawn  by  horses. 

2.  Harrowing. — In  this  operation  there  are  still  greater  differences  in  the 
amount  of  work  done  than  in  plowing.  In  fact,  every  thing  depends  on  the  care 
and  on  the  implements  with  which  this  important  process  is  executed.  Cross- 
harrowing  is  most  efficacious,  and  also  most  difficult ;  and  it  is  generally  consid- 
ered that  sixteen  acres  is  the  utmost  extent  of  surface  which  can  be  harrowed 
by  a  team  of  four  horses  in  a  day.  Fourteen  acres  of  tenacious  lands  infested 
with  weeds,  is  a  good  day's  work ;  but  if  it  is  only  requisite  to  equalize,  and  not 
to  break  the  clods,  such  a  team  can  harrow  twenty  acres  per  day.  If  the  opera- 
tion is  performed  lengthwise — that  is  once  up  and  once  down — it  is  possible  to 
harrow  from  twenty-four  to  twenty-eight  acres  per  day  with  a  team  of  four  horses. 

#    *  PLOWING  TABLE,  by  Mr.  John  Mokton. 
(^Farmers'  Almanac,  by  Johnson  and  Shaw,  Vol.  1,  p.  191.) 


Breadth  of 

Space  traveled 

Extent  plowed  or 

Furrow  Slice,  or  Scarifier. 

in  plowing  an  acre. 

scarified  per  day,  at  rate  of 

18  Miles.            1            16  Miles. 

Inches. 

Miles. 

Acres. 

7 

14  1-8 

11-4 

11-8 

8 

121-4 

11-2 

114 

9 

11 

13-5 

11-2 

10 

9  9-10 

14-5 

13-5 

u 

9 

2 

13-4 

81-4 

21-5 

19-10 

13 

71-2 

21-3 

2  1-10 

14 

7 

21-2 

21-4 

15             ' 

61-2 

2  3-4 

2  2-5 

16 

61-6 

2  9-10 

2  3-5 

, 

(324) 


1 

DRAUGHT   LABOR.  53 


Horses  are  geuerally  employed  ia  harrowing,  on  account  of  the  greater  rapidi- 
ty of  their  action  ;  but  oxen  may  also  be  used  with  nearly  as  much  advantage. 

3.  Rolling. — This  operation  is  generally  omitted  in  the  list  of  operations  ;  it 
is,  nevertheless,  a  very  useful  one,  and  adapted  both  to  light  and  heavy  soils.  In 
proportion  as  the  roll  is  broader  and  thinner,  or  shorter  and  of  larger  dimensions, 
the  greater  or  less  will  be  the  labor  of  the  cattle  in  drawing  it.  Where  the  cyl- 
inder is  eight  feet  long,  it  v/ill  be  easy  to  roll  eighteen  acres  per  day. 

Angular  and  pointed  rollers,  called  spike-rollers  or  clod-crushers  in  England, 
are  much  heavier,  and  require  more  power  to  move  them.  Having  spoken  of 
those  operations  which  are  requisite  in  order  to  prepare  the  ground  for  sowing 
or  planting,  we  will  noAv  proceed  to  notice  those  which  take  place  during  the 
growth. 

To  the  former  belong  the  tillage  performed  by  the  large  double  extirpator  with 
eleven  shares,  by  the  use  of  which  four  horses  and  two  men  can  finish  eighteen 
acres  per  day ;  and  that  performed  with  the  small  extirpator,  or  sowing  plough, 
with  which  one  man  and  two  horses  can  get  over  ten  acres  per  day. 

The  trenching  plow  is  also  intended  for  operations  of  this  kind,  as  by  means  of 
the  mould-board  attached  to  the  coulter,  it  divides  the  trench  horizontally  into 
two  parts,  and  throws  the  upper  one  to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  This  imple- 
ment requires  an  additional  horse  or  ox  in  order  to  enable  it  to  execute  as  much 
work  as  another  plow.  Two  horses  or  oxen  can  draw  it,  provided  that  less  work 
be  required  of  them  ;  and  this  latter  method  accords  best  with  the  habits  of  the 
animals.  The  implement  is  chiefly  used  for  breaking  up  grass  and  clover  lands. 
To  the  second  class  of  operations  belongs  the  tillage  performed  with  the 
horse-hoe  and  the  various  kinds  of  rakes,  "passauf,"  and  cultivators  drawn  by 
horses,  and  by  means  of  which  one  or  two  men,  as  may  be  most  coavenient,  with 
one  horse,  can  till  six  acres  of  land  passing  between  rows  two  feet  apart.  Those 
plows  which  are  intended  for  cutting  deeper  furrows  in  draining,  have  two 
mould-boards,  which  may  be  more  or  less  separated  at  the  hinder  part,  and  these 
•  \  implements  require  two  horses.* 

^  The  drill-plow  for  sowing  seed  in  rows  eight  or  nine  inches  apart,  will,  when 
worked  by  two  men  and  a  horse,  sow  twelve  acres  a  day  ;  we  shall,  however, 
suppose  the  average  to  be  ten,  on  account  of  the  delays  which  sometimes  arise. f 
The  hoe  with  six  shares,  which  is  united  with  this  implement,  will  get  over 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  acres  per  day  when  drawn  by  one  horse  and  guided  by  two 
men,  according  to  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil,  and  the  skill  and  practice 
of  the  laborers. 

4.  The  carrying  of  manure.  This  operation,  which  in  a  well-conducted  es- 
tablishment is  by  no  means  inconsiderable,  cannot  be  estimated  with  any  degree 
of  precision,  except  on  a  given  locality ;  since  it  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  on 
the  distance  of  the  fields,  the  state  of  the  roads,  the  season  of  the  year,  and  on 
the  Aveather. 

5.  Carrying  the  Crops.  This  operation  also  varies  according  to  distance. — 
Where  relay  wagons  are  kept,  a  team  of  four  oxen  will  be  sufficient  for  seven, 
eight,  ten,  twelve,  and  even  sixteen  wagons.  A  wagon  load  of  corn  is  general- 
ly regulated  by  fifteens,  scores,  or  fifties  of  sheaves  ;  but  as  these  latter  vary  in 
size  in  different  places,  in  some  districts  weighing  only  eight  pounds,  and  in  oth- 
ers nearly  fifty  pounds,  no  positive  rule  can  be  deduced  from  this  statement. — 
During  harvest  time,  when  every  operation  is  pushed  forward,  four  good  horses 
can  easily  draw  3,500  lbs.  weight ;  and,  provided  that  the  wagons  are  of  a  pro- 
per size,  the  roads  good,  and  the  distance  not  too  great,  they  may  be  made  to 
draAv  4,000  lbs.  weight.  If  the  sheaves  are  all  of  a  certain  size,  it  will  then  be 
easy  to  calculate  what  number  of  them  will  form  a  wagon-load.  In  hay  harvest, 
a  wagon  drawn  by  four  horses  will  scarcely  be  able  to  carry  twenty-twu  or  twen- 
ty-four quintals,  on  account  of  the  room  it  occupies  ;  and  as  a  great  deal  of  time 
is  lost  in  loading  and  unloading,  and  as  this  work  cannot  be  commenced  very 

*  To  this  description  of  plow  belongs  an  instrument  for  heaping  the  mould  taken  from  the  middle  of  the 
fun-ows  round  the  plants  sown  in  rows.  [French  Trans. 

t  The  author  makes  no  mention  here  of  the  machines  for  sowing  com  which  are  used  in  France  and 
Switzerland,  and  which  sow  the  seed  in  rows  about  five  or  six  inches  apart,  (from  14  to  16  centimetres.) — 
Although  these  implements  extend  o%'er  a  space  of  2}  feet  or  81  centimetres  in  breadth,  the  greatest  extent 
of  land  that  can  be  sown  with  them  by  the  aid  of  a  single  horse  does  not  exceed  four  or  five  acres. 

[Fre?ich  Trans. 
(325) 


54  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

early  in  the  morning,  it  is  impossible  to  get  in  more  than  six  or  eijrht  wagon 
loads  per  day,  even  when  the  meadoAvs  are  vei-y  near  the  homestead. 

The  operations  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  belong  to  particulsr  seasons 
and  times  of  the  year  ;  we  will  now  proceed  to  mentioa  others  which  ire  appli- 
cable to  any  seasons  and  may  be  performed  in  all  kinds  of  weather, 

6.  The  carriage  of  grain  and  other  product  to  the  market  towns.  It  is  gene- 
rally allowed  that  24  bushels  of  winter  grains  and  peas,  32  bushels  of  barley, 
and  36  or  40  bushels  of  oats  may  be  placed  in  a  wagon  at  the  same  time.  If  the 
distance  is  about  four  or  five  miles  one  day  is  allowed  to  go,  another  to  return, 
and  a  third  to  load  the  wagon  and  sell  its  contents  ;  if  the  distance  be  six  or  eight 
i  miles,  three  days  and  a  half  are  allowed  ;  if  three  miles,  two  days;  and  if  two 
miles,  one  day.  Thus,  the  distance  of  the  market  town  makes  a  great  differ- 
ence in  the  performance  of  this  operation,  which  is  always  exceedingly  prejudi- 
cial to  the  teams.* 

We  shall  now  divide  the  year  into  four  seasons,  without,  however,  confining 
ourselves  within  the  limits  prescribed  by  the  calendar. 

Thus,  winter  comprises  eighty  days  of  labor,  which  may  be  employed  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Carrying  manure  for  the  fallow  and  vegetable  crops,  and  breaking  up  some  of 
the  stubble  fields,  if  the  frost  is  not  too  hard  to  admit  of  it.  After  this  is  done, 
the  teams  may  be  used  for  any  other  purpose. 

Spring  comprises  sixty-four  days  of  labor,  during  which  the  following  opera- 
tions must  be  performed : — 

Giving  the  second,  third,  and  even  fourth  plowing  and  harrowing  to  the  fallow 
crops  ;  giving  the  vegetable  crops  one  plowing  ;  the  barley  one  plowing  ;  the 
oats  one  or  two  plowings.  The  last  two  operations  may  be  in  a  great  measure 
saved,  or  at  any  rate  diminished  by  the  use  of  the  extirpator. 

The  newly-made  dung  must  be  carried  to  the  last  planting  of  the  fallow  crops, 
the  winter  corn  harrowed,  and  those  operations  performed  with  the  horse  hoe 
which  are  designed  to  encourage  vegetation. 

Summer,  which  commences  somewhere  about  the  month  of  June,  comprises 
eighty  days  of  labor,  which  may  be  be  thus  employed: — 

Plowing  the  fallow  ground  for  the  reception  of  the  winter  grain  ;  plowing  the 
stubble  of  clovers  and  leguminous  crops  the  first  time,  in  order  to  prepare  for  tbe 
autumnal  seeds.  Carting  the  manure  destined  for  the  winter  crops;  continuing 
the  use  of  the  horse-hoe  from  time  to  time  ;  getting  in  the  hay  harvest,  and  reap- 
ing and  housing  the  corn. 

Autumn,  which  we  suppose  to  commence  in  September,  comprises  seventy-six 
days  of  labor,  and  the  foUoAving  operations  : — 

Plowing  and  harrowing  the  seeds  ;  cutting  and  gathering  the  after-grass  ; 
getting  in  the  potatoes  and  other  roots,  and  also  the  cabbages  ;  and  breaking  up 
'  the  stubble-fields  or  pastures,  not  only  for  the  reception  of  the  seed  of  the  follow- 
'   ing  spring,  but  also  for  the  dead  fallow  of  the  summer. 

Thosp  who  are  accustomed  to  agricultural  operations  will  be  able  to  form  an 
exact  estimate  of  the  number  of  teams  which  will  be  required,  and  to  ascertain 
from  calculation  or  past  experience  how  many  are  necessary  for  the  seed  time  of 
spring  and  autumn,  in  order  to  execute  the  work  in  four  weeks  or  twenty-four 
days  in  the  best  possible  manner.  If  a  plow  drawn  by  two  horses  can  plow  two 
and  one-third  acres  of  ground  per  day,  and  if  four  horses  can  harrow  sixteen  acres 
a  day,  a  team  consisting  of  four  horses  will  be  able  to  sow  ninety  acres  per 
month ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary,  from  the  tenacity  of  the  soil,  the  increased  se- 
verity of  labor,  when  a  greater  depth  of  furrow  is  performed,  or  from  the  inade- 
quacy of  the  force  and  slow  motions  of  the  horses,  only  two  acres  per  day  are 
plowed,  the  number  of  those  which  are  soAvn  will  be  reduced  to  seventy-six. — 
Thus,  for  each  extent  of  ninety  or  seventy-six  acres  of  spring  or  winter  sowing, 
'  (or,  according  to  the  most  general  usage,  for  every  112  or  95  bushels  of  seed,)  a 
'  team  of  four  horses  must  be  kept.  In  many  countries  a  horse  is  kept  for  every 
ivinspelf  of  autumnal  seeds.  But  when  an  extent  of  ground  is  sown  with  oats 
and  barley  equal  to  that  sown  with  wheat  and  rye,  and  a  quantity  of  vegetables 
and  fallow  crops  is  likewise  cultivated,  it  will  be  impossible  to  execute  all  the 

*  A  Gei-man  short  mile  is  equal  to  3'897  English. — [Eds.  t  A  winspel  is  equal  to  24  bushels  of  English 
measure. 


MANUAL   LABOR.  55 


operations  incidental  to  spring  with  the  same  number  of  beasts  as  would  suffice 
for  the  autumnal  seed  time. 

Manual  Labor, 

In  some  few  agricultural  undertakings,  laborers  are  employed  in  those  opera-  ; 
tions  which  are  executed  by  oxen  ;  when  this  is  not  the  case,  a  herdsman  can  take  !' 
'    care  of  twenty-four  or  thirty  oxen  ;  but  where  a  still  greater  number  of  these  \ 
animals  is  kept,  he  will  require  a  lad  to  help  him. 

One  cowherd  is  sufficient  for  fifty  or  sixty  beasts,  not  only  while  they  are  at 

pasture — for  then,  with  the  assistance  of  a  good  dog,  he  might  easily  take  -'are 

of  two   hundred — but    also  when  they  are  in  the  stable,  if  some  of  the  other 

,  domestics  will  assist  him  to  cut  the  straw  in  the  winter,  and  if  the  green  fodder 

is  cut  and  brought  to  him  in  the  summer. 
/       The  number  of  female  servants  must  be  regulated  by  the  number  of  cows  that 
I  are  kept,  and  also  by  the  quantity  of  milk  wliich  these  animals  yield.  / 

^       These  servants  are  employed  not  only  in  milking  and  taking  care  of  the  dairy,    | 
.   but  also  are  required  to  assist  as  much  as  possible  in  the  cultivation  of  linseed,  |i 
hemp,  and  other  products,  and  in  the  harvest  time :  and  in  the  winter  they  spin.    ' 
When  it  is  necessary  to  pay  great  attention  to  stall  feeding,  three  female  ser- 
j  vants  are  allowed  for  every  tifty  cows,  with  one  to  inspect  the  others.     In  some 
I  countries,  where  great  numbers  of  these  animals  are  kept,  one  maid  Fervant  is 
I  allowed  for  every  ten  cows  ;  but  then  she  is  expected  to  feed  them  and  carry  away 
their  dung,  two  things  which  in  moderately  extensive  establishmeuis  can  be 
much  better  accomplished  in  another  way.     Most  of  the  great  cow-keepers  in 
Holstein  and  Mecklenberg  keep  eniy  one  milk-maid  for  every  twenty-five  cows. 

In  large  farm-houses,  another  female  servant  ought  to  be  kept  for  the  perform- 
ance of  the  domestic  affairs. 

A  man  must  also  be  kept  to  look  after  and  take  care  of  the  pigs  ;  this  is  not, 
as  is  generally  supposed,  so  insignificant  a  duty  that  the  execution  of  it  may  be 
.   confided  to  old  women  or  to  children.  ■ 

I       We  shall  not  mention  the  shepherd  and  his  assistants  until  we  come  to  treat    \ 
I    of  sheep,  because  the  manner  of  using  these  servants  and  the  wages  which  they 
I    receive  vary  greatly  in  different  places.     The  shepherd  is  seldom  included  in  the 
I    calculation's  of  rural  economy,  excepting  thus  far,  that  he  receives  a  salary  either 
in  money  or  in  produce. 

Besides  the  servants  already  mentioned,  a  bailiff  or  overseer  is  frequently  kept, 
whose  place  it  is  to  inspect  all  the  operations,  whether  in  the  fields,  the  out- 
;   houses,  or  at  the  farm  ;  to  superintend  the  plowing,  the  seed-time,  and  the  har- 
vest :  and  to  use  vigilance  that  all  the  laborers  do  their  duty.     He  ought,  also, 
to  look  after  all  the  agricultural  implements,  and  to  be  able  to  repair  them  and 
make  new  ones.     In  very  extensive  rural  establishments,   another  overseer  or 
bailiff  is  also  kept,  whose  duty  principally  consists  in  making  and  repairing  the 
,  carts'  and  wagons' work,  and  in  superintending  all  the  repairs  and  smaller  build- 
'  ings.     Sometimes  one  or  more  extra  farm  servants  are  kept  in  readiness  to  assist  \ 
I  in  any  operation  for  which  they  may  be  required;  but,  in  general,  day-laborers 
'    are  preferred  where  it  is  possible  to  procure  them. 

Where  these  house  servants  are  single,  they  generally  live  on  the  farm,  and 
are  boarded,  lodged,  and  provided  with  every  necessary  article  ;  but  if  they  are 
married,  they  reside  in  separate  habitations,  and  are  allowed  a  certain  quantity 
of  provisions  for  their  subsistence.  The  former  are,  certainly,  most  advantageous 
to  the  farmer,  both  as  regards  expense  and  the  power  of  exercising  a  proper  de- 
gree of  surveillance  over  them.  The  greater  the  number  of  servants  kept,  the 
less  is  the  expense  of  each  individual  one  ;  for  the  cost  of  lodging,  fire,  candles, 
and  even  food,  is  almost  as  much  for  two  or  three  as  for  tAvice  that  number. 
Where  there  are  only  a  few  servants  kept,  it  might  be  advantageous  to  give  to 
each  one  his  allowance  in  produce. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  fewer  married  servants  and  those  who  receive 
their  allowance  in  produce  are  kept,  the  better  ;  for  they  invariably  contrive  that 
their  whole  family  shall  live  at  the  master's  expense,  and  are  seldom  or  never 
satisfied  with  the  provisions  allowed  them,  although  these  may  be  far  more  than 
they  could  possibly  require  for  themselves,  but  endeavor  to  carry  off  all  that 
comes  in  their  way  ;  and  it  is  no  easy  matter  altogether  to  prevent  their  having 

(327) 


56  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture, 

the  opportunity  of  pilfering.*  Nevertheless,  as  some  situations — those  of  bailiff, 
herdsman,  and  cowherd — require  to  be  filled  by  steady,  middle-aged  men,  and 
these  are  seldom  to  be  met  with  unmarried,  the  farmer  must,  therefore,  submit 
to  the  necessity  of  paying  them  their  maintenance  in  produce. 

No  general  estimate  can  be  given  of  the  expense  of  the  keep  of  a  man  or  maid- 
servant, on  account  of  the  numerous  variations  which  are  produced  by  locality  i 
or  by  different  customs.  The  difference  of  expense  in  one  country  or  in  another  ! 
is  so  great  as  frequently  to  increase  or  diminish  by  one-half.  In  general,  how- 
ever, it  will  be  found,  that  where  the  servants  are  well  kept,  and  particularly 
where  they  receive  an  ample  allowance  of  food,  they  are  stronger,  more  capable 
of  work,  and  more  willing  to  assist  in  all  kinds  of  operations,  so  that  the  value 
of  their  labor  is  very  little  short  of  the  actual  cost  of  their  keep.  Accounts  of 
the  usages  of  many  countries  with  regard  to  servants,  and  specifications  of  their 
expense  in  these  places,  will  be  found  in  many  treatises  on  agriculture  and  political 
economy.  None  of  these  calculations  are,  however,  to  be  depended  on  ;  the  most 
correct  are  those  by  Count  Podeevils.a  Gusow,  in  his  work  on  political  economy. 

According  to  an  average  rate  deduced  from  observations  made  by  myself  in 
countries  which  are  well  known  to  me,  it  appears  that  the  expense  of  the  keep 
of  a  man-servant,  a  dairyman,  or  a  cowherd,  ought  to  be  about  equal  in  value  to 
34  bushels  of  rye,  or  272  X '-  and  the  expense  of  a  female  servant,  or  lad,  to  28 
bushels,  or  224  | :  every  necessary  expense,  as  fire,  catidles,  bed,  &c.,  is  com- 
prised in  this  valuation.  The  difference  is  great  in  money,  on  account  of  the  dif- 
ference which  exists  in  the  price  of  provisions. 

The  wages  in  money  likewise  vary  greatly  ;  nevertheless  they  are  generally 
more  in  accordance  with  the  price  of  corn  than  with  the  nominal  value  of  money  : 
they  may  be  estimated  at  16  bushels  of  rye,  or  128  t>  fof  a  man-servant  ;  and  12 
bushels,  or  96  t,  for  a  female  servant ;  and  this  will  include  linen,  clothing,  and 
other  articles  which  she  is  to  receive. 

The  wages  of  an  overseer  or  bailiff  are  generally  a  little  higher,  and  those  of 
a  cowherd  a  little  lower,  than  those  of  the  other  servants. 

Other  workmen  are  paid  by  the  day,  or  by  the  task  ;  that  is  to  say,  for  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  each  kind  of  labor  ;  or,  lastly,  by  a  certain  portion  of  the  produce 
of  their  labor. 

If  the  farmer  would  have  his  day-laborers  do  their  duty,  he  must  follow  them 
up  from  morning  to  night,  and  look  very  carefully  after  them.  The  men  earn 
'  much  less  when  they  work  in  this  way,  and,  nevertheless,  any  work  thus  exe- 
cuted is  far  dearer  to  the  farmer.  In  general,  a  day-laborer  who  is  employed  on 
some  simple  operation,  and  works  a  moderate  time,  will  earn  a  bushel  of  rye  in 
eight  days,  and,  consequently,  we  may  say  1 1  per  day.  Women  and  young  per- 
sons, or  feeble  workmen,  will  only  earn  a  bushel  of  rye  m  twelve  days,  or  0  2-3  | 
per  day  ;  but  this  calculation  is  also  liable  to  variations. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  this  last-mentioned  kind  of  work  (task-work)  is  by  far 
the  most  advantageous  both  to  the  farmer  and  to  the  laborer,  for  then  the  latter 
1   will  endeavor  to  get  on  with  his  work  instead  of  trifling  away  his  time  and  hus- 
'  banding  his  strength.     He  will,  of  course,  earn  more  than  if  he  worked  by  the 
'   day,  and,  consequently,  will  be  better  fed,  and  able  to  procure  many  comforts, 
and  to  preserve  his  health  and  strength.     He  will,  therefore,  feel  more  interested 
-   in  his  work  ;  will  study  how  he  can  render  the  execution  of  it  less  difficult,  will 
I   procure  better  tools,  and  acquire  more  skill,  particularly  if  at  certain  seasons  he 
,   is  regularly  employed  in  the  same  operations.     His  wife  and  children  can  fre- 
quently assist  him,  and  by  this  means  he  will  get  on  faster  and  train  up  his  chil- 
dren early  to  work,  and,  by  accustoming  them  to  earn  their  own  living,  will  thus 
'    relieve  himself  from  some  part  of  his  responsibility. 

*  The  author  here  prefers  single  to  manied  laborers;  the  point  admits  much  speculation,  and,  like  most 
emplojTnents,  the  advantages  of  each  are  nearly  balanced.  It  is  evident  that  both  must  be  employed;  and 
while  the  necessity  of  having,  on  every  fann.  a  ready  command  of  labor  is  admitted,  fev?  fanners  now-a- 
days  like  a  number  of  servants  Uving  in  the  farm  house.  One  or  tvco  seem  useful,  but  a  greater  number  is 
more  advantageously  removed  to  adjoining  cottages.  In  our  country,  the  single  men  on  full  wages  are  reck- 
oned more  expensive  and  much  more  troublesome  than  married  laborers;  and  the  author's  observations 
about  pilfering  opportunities,  are  irenerally  shifted  to  the  other  side.  But  our  system  of  paying  in  a  stipulat- 
ed quantity  of  produce,  to  be  used  t;t  pleasitre.  difters  from  the  continental  mode,  where  it  would  seem 
provisions' are  given  for  subsistence  onlj'.  and  exclusive  of  the  value  of  labor.  A  somewhat  similar  custom 
yet  prevails  in  the  south  of  f^cotland,  whr'i-e  residrnt  reapers  receive  a  portion  of  grain  in  lieu  of  the  evening 
l1,  and  tiius  is  saved  the  trouble  of  cooking  in  tiie  faiin-liouse  for  that  number. 


*»'N^>i^Ny-« 


MANUAL    LABOR.  57 


So  far  from  rejecting  this  mode  of  proceeding  as  some  prejudiced  agricultmists 
have  done,  because  tliey  feared  that  their  laborers  gained  too  much  by  it,  al- 
though at  the  same  time  they  could  not  help  perceiving  that  the  work  done  in 
I'  this  way  cost  them  less  money,  a  clever  and  clear-sighted  farmer  will  not  allow 
himself  easily  to  be  deterred  from  engaging  his  laborers  by  the  task  for  perform- 
ing all  those  "Operations,  the  value  of  which  can,  in  some  measure,  be  calculated 
;  beforehand.     Threshing  is  one  of  those  operations  in  which  the  laborers  are  paid 
\  by  a  certain  portion  of  the  produce  of  the  work  ;  the  threshers  generally  receive 
I   the  14th,  16th,  or  18th  bushel  of  the  produce.     The  same  system  is  applied  in 
some  places  to  harvest  ;  and  in  this  case  the  reapers  receive  the  11th,  12ih,  or 
13th  sheaf  for  reaping  and  performing  all  other  portions  of  this  operation.* 

In  order  to  calculate  the  number  of  day-laborers  or  task-workmen  which  will 
be  required  in  an  agricultural  undertaking,  the  following  operations  must  be  esti- 
mated, as  being  of  most  frequent  occurrence  : — 

Plowing  with  oxen  or  horses,  if  only  one  man  is  kept  for  every  four-horse 
team. 

Harrowing  with  oxen.  When  the  number  of  horses  is  short,  it  occasionally 
becomes  necessary  to  employ  oxen  at  this  work  ;  likewise  for  wagons  drawn  by 
oxen,  if  there  are  no  servants  who  can  be  entrusted  to  drive. 

Manuring  and  ameliorations  ;  carrying  majiure  from  the  stahles  and  cattle- 
'  sheds  ;  ivatering  it,  turning  it,  SjC.  Two  K;en  and  a  half  will  generally  be  re- 
•\  quired  to  load  each  dung-cart,  but  this  will,  m  a  measure,  depend  on  the  rapidity 
i  with  which  the  carts  are  driven  backwards  and  forwards,  the  distance  they  have 
\  to  go,  and  the  compactness  of  the  dung.  The  driver  alone  Qan  generally  unload 
,  the  dung-cart ;  if,  however,  several  teams  are  used  in  the  same  cart,  it  Avill  often 
I  be  found  advantageous  to  employ  a  man  to  assist  in  this  operation,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  to  see  that  the  heaps  are  properly  distributed  over  the  ground. 

Spreading  the  dung  o?i  the  land.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  a  woman  can 
spread  an  acre  and  a  quarter  per  day,  and  a  man  an  acre  and  a  half  or  two  acres 
per  day.  But  this  depends  much  on  the  quantity  of  manure  which  is  to  be 
spread,  and  on  the  state  of  it,  and  on  the  care  which  is  taken  to  divide  it  as  much 
as  possible  and  distribute  it  equally.  This  last  mentioned  point  is  of  so  much 
importance,  that  no  pains  should  be  spared  in  attending  to  it.  Manure  contain- 
ing much  straw  often  requires  to  be  thrown  into  the  furrow  with  a  rake  or  pitch- 
fork, and  this  operation  requires  a  man  for  tAvo  plows,  and  sometimes  even  for  one. 
Sowing.  This  operation  is  usually  performed  by  the  head-man.  It  is  gene- 
rally reckoned  that  a  man  can  sow  eighteen  bushels  of  wmter  grain  and  twenty- 
four  bushels  of  spring  grain  in  a  day.f  A  skillful  sower  can,  in  fact,  soav  much 
more  if  the  extent  be  taken  as  a  guide  for  the  quantity  of  seed  ;  this,  however, 
depends  on  the  thickness  with  which  the  seed  is  sown.  It  frequently  happens 
that,  when  the  seed  is  sown  too  thickly,  with  a  view  of  getting  as  much  as  pos- 
sible into  the  ground  in  the  course  of  the  day,  a  great  quantity  is  lost.  Attention 
should,  therefore,  be  paid  rather  to  the  extent  of  ground  sown  than  to  the  quan- 
tity of  seed  used;  and  if  a  man  sows  fifteen  or  sixteen  acres  per  day,  that  should 
be  considered  as  sufficient. 

At  harvest  time,  it  is  usually  reckoned  that  with  a  cradle,  (a  scythe  furnished 
with  rods  for  collecting  the  corn  in  heaps  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  cut,)  each 
man  can  cut  and  heap  tv^ro  and  a  half  acres  per  day :  a  woman  is  supposed  to  be 
able  to  rake,  bind,  and  collect  two  acres  a  day.  Strong  active  people,  who  Avork 
hard,  can,  however,  get  through  one-third  more.  The  average  amount  may  be 
reckoned  as  a  little  higher  when  an  ordinary  scythe  is  used.  A  man  using  a 
sickle  may  reap  an  acre  a  day.  If  the  fields  are  not  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  farm-yard,  the  crop  mav  be  housed  very  rapidly  by  means  of  relay  Avag- 
ons  ;  each  Avagon  will  require  tAvo  men  to  load  it  and  one  woman  to  rake  ;  but 
only  one  man  beside. 

*  The  author  much  approves  of  task  and  piece-work  in  all  cases  -where  circumstances  permit,  thongh  the 
utility  is  much  disputed  by  many  extensive  practitioners,  as  tending,  in  most  cases,  to  produce  a  careless 
performance  of  work  on  the  part  of  the  laborers,  in  order  to  realize  more  wages  in  a  given  time.  For  much 
of  the  detail  work  of  a  farm,  task- work  isunsuited;  it  is  generally  applicable  in  operations  that  require  a 
very  quick  execution  ;  and  especially  in  cases  that  admit  a  regular  and  easy  inspection  ;  the  preference, 
however,  would  seem  to  be  yet  undecided  between  laborers  paid  by  the  piece  of  work  that  has  been  satis- 
factorily executed,  and  workmen  who  perfoi-m,  under  constant  inspection,  an  equal  quantity.  Our  own 
opinion  leads  us  to  give  the  preference  to  task-work,  wherever  it  can  be  adopted. 
A  good  seedsman  with  us  vrill  sow  more  than  double  this  quantity. 
(3U9) 


THAEK  S    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE. 


Two  men  are  required  to  unload  and  two  to  stack  the  corn  when  the  crop  is 
brought  home  quickly,  besides  three  women  for  every  ten  feet  of  depth  in  the   <[ 
stack.     If  the  wagons  only  return  at  considerable  intervals,  two  men  will  often 
be  sufficient.     When  the  stubble  is  torn  up  with  a  horse-rake,  one  man  and  one 
horse  can  usually  get  through  ten  acres  per  day. 

i/oy  harvest.  An  acre  and  a  half  is  the  usual  allowance  for  each  mower,  and 
the  same  for  each  haymaker.*  When,  as  frequently  happens,  the  meadows  are 
at  a  considerable  distance,  the  calculation  must  be  made  lower.  The  weather 
makes  a  very  great  difference  in  the  number  of  people  required  for  hay-making  ; 
in  fine  Aveather  not  nearly  so  many  are  needed.  In  mowing  clover,  where  the 
land  is  very  level  and  the  clover  has  not  been  beaten  down,  two  acres  and  a  half 
may  be  reckoned  for  each  mower ;  and  as  the  manner  of  executing  the  work  is 
very  simple,  one  laborer  may  be  considered  as  sufficient  for  four  acres. 

The  same  number  of  men  as  are  requirr^.  for  the  corn  harvest  are  usually  al- 
lowed for  loading  and  unloading,  and  half  as  many  in  the  barn  or  hay-loft. 

The  methods  adopted  for  the  cultivation  of  the  fallow  crops,  differ  very  much. 
If  it  be  performed  with  the  proper  implements,  and  in  a  manner  which  is  at  once 
the  best  and  the  least  expensive,  one  acre  will  employ  the  following  number  of 
laborers  :  two  for  sowing  potatoes,  one  for  rooting  up  those  weeds  which  remain 
after  the  use  of  the  horse-hoe,  and  one  man  and  eight  women  for  gathering  the 
crop. 

For  sowing  radishes  and  other  small  seed  in  rows  :  one  man  can  sow  five  acres 
per  day  with  a  small  sowing  machine  ;  and  two  men  can,  with  the  assistance  of 
a  horse,  plow  the  furrows  over  twelve  acres  in  a  day.  Two  persons,  a  man  and 
a  boy,  are  generally  employed  in  sowing  beans  in  rows,  in  order  that  the  opera- 
tion may  be  the  sooner  completed  ;  they  can  get  through  five  or  six  acres  a  day. 
The  weeding  and  thinning  of  radishes  sown  in  rows  should  always  be  consid- 
ered as  task  work.  In  these  parts  three  pfennigs  are  paid  for  forty  perches  long, 
and  the  man  who  does  this  kind  of  work  earns  five  or  six  groschen  per  day ; 
consequently  he  thins  about  an  acre  per  day. 

If  the  farm  servants  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  allow  their  feeding  and 
looking  after  all  the  cattle,  and  especially  if  the  cattle  are  partly  fed  upon  chopped 
straw,  some  day-laborers  must  likewise  be  kept ;  the  number,  of  course,  will  de- 
pend upon  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  establishment.  Sixty  or  seventy 
days'  labor  are  generally  allowed  for  the  washing  and  shearing  of  a  thousand 
sheep. 

Day-laborers  are  also  required  for  various  kinds  of  work  in  the  farm-yard  and 
the  household,  unless  there  is  a  superabundance  of  servants.     It  is  also  occasion- 
'  ally  necessary  to  employ  them  in  the  room  of  those  servants  who  are  ill.f 
'\       for  the  cultivation  of  the  garden,  which  we  will  suppose  to  be  conducted  on 
the  siixiplest  possible  plan,  and  in  which  the  female  servants  can  be  made  to  as- 
sist, five  days'  work  of  a  man  may  be  yearly  reckoned  for  every  acre. 

For  taking  care  of  the  ditches  and  trenches,  repairing  fences  and  damages  of 
all  kinds,  and  keeping  the  roads  in  order,  from  half  a  day  to  one  day's  work  per 
acre  all  over  the  estate  may  be  reckoned.  This  will,  however,  depend  upon  the 
extent  and  number  of  the  fences,  roads,  and  ditches. 

It  is  impossible  to  form  a  general  calculation  of  the  amount  of  work  which 
I  will  be  required  for  improvements,  but  the  laborers  may  be  employed  on  them  at 
those  times  when  there  is  least  work  to  be  done. 

Threshing  is  usually  considered  as  task  work,  and  is  paid  for  by  a  certain  por- 
tion of  the  produce  of  the  labor,  generally  a  sixteenth  part. 

It  is,  of  course,  understood  that  these  data  are  subject  to  variation,  and  that 
they  may  be  increased  or  decreased  by  the  skill  and  activity  of  the  laborers,  the 
manner  in  which  the  work  is  arranged,  and  many  other  causes.  They  comprise 
'  the  work  which  may  be  expected  from  a  day-laborer,  but  are  by  no  means  equal 
to  what  a  strong  active  man  can  do,  or  what  a  laborer  working  at  task-work  will 
perform. 

*  These  calculations  must  be  made  in  reference  to  crops  much  lighter  than  the  average  of  England, 
t  Some  of  the  quantities  of  labor  here  mentioned  as  being  performed  by  a  certain  power  in  a  given  time, 
are  gi-eater  than  the  usual  rates  in  our  country,  and  many  of  them  are  smaller.     Such  ditferences  will  aiise 
from  local  pecuUarities  of  soil  and  cUmate,  and  also  from  the  implements  and  mode  of  ctdrure.     Our  shep- 
herds would  not  requu-e  sixty  or  seventy  days  to  wash  and  shear  IfiOO  sheep. 
(3.30) 


We  stated  before,  when  speaking  of  draught-labor,  that  if  the  teams  were  suf- 
ficiently numerous  to  get  through  the  sowing  time,  they  would  suffice  for  the 
whole  year  ;  and  so  it  is  with  regard  to  manual  laborers,  if  the  number  is  large 
enough  to  secure  the  harvest  properly,  they  can  accomplish  all  the  other  neces- 
sary operations.  The  laborers  who  have  been  employed  at  this  season,  may,  in 
a  large  farm,  be  retained  all  the  year  round. 

THE  PROPER  METHOD  OF  KEEPING  THE  JOURNALS.  REGISTERS,  AND  OTHER  BOOKS 
CONNECTED  WITH  AN  AGRICULTURAL  UNDERTAKING. 

A  clear,  precise,  and  accurate  system  of  book-keeping  is  an  essential  feature 
in  an  advantageous  and  well-arranged  agricultural  undertaking.  The  most  per- 
fect system  and  the  longest  course  of  practice,  even  though  acquired  in  the  very 
place  in  which  the  cultivation  is  carried  on,  are  rarely  sufficient  in  giving  an  un- 
exceptionable view  of  all  its  various  relations  and  actual  results.  The  farmer, 
in  order  to  be  convinced  that  he  is  really  making  some  little  progress  towards  the 
attainment  of  perfection,  should  always  have  before  his  eyes  such  a  comprehen- 
/  sive  view  of  the  system  as  is  naturally  presented  by  well-kept  books.  In  a  too 
\  complicated  system,  the  impressions  of  the  senses  and  the  recollections  left  by 
them  seldom  or  never  indicate  the  combinations  which,  on  a  former  occasion, 
tended  to  produce  the  desired  end,  with  sufficient  exactness  to  be  depended  on; 
and,  consequently,  it  is  impossible  accurately  to  say  which  were  those  that  re- 
quired to  be  modified  or  undergo  a  complete  change. 

The  system  of  book-keeping  may  be  divided  into  two  parts :  the  one  perma- 
nent, the  other  annual. 

To  the  former  belongs  what  is  called  the  estate-hook  [livre  fancier).  This 
book  should  contain  a  plan  of  the  whole  estate  and  of  each  of  its  useful  parts, 
and  present  a  full,  clear,  and  precise  enumeration  of  every  circumstance  relating 
>   to  it. 

Above  all  things,  this  book  ought  to  contain  plans,  with  explanations  of  them. 
There  are  three  sorts  of  plans:  1,  Th.e  geometrical  plan,  containing  the  measure- 
ment of  the  surface  ;  2,  The  geological  plan  ;  and  3,  The  plan  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  portions  of  land  assigned  to  the  different  rotations  of  crops,  and  the 
differences  in  the  soil  that  cause  the  arrangement.  In  time,  these  three  kinds  of 
plans  maybe  united;  they  are  however,  designed  for diflTerent purposes,  although 
referring  to  one  another ;  and  it  is  therefore  advisable  to  keep  them  separate  and 
distinct. 

1.  The  geometrical  plan  is  merely  a  map  of  the  extent  of  the  surface,  its  per- 
manent and  natural  divisions,  and  its  limits.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  that 
certain  notes  and  remarks  should  not  be  inserted  in  it,  which  may  be  useful ;  and 
the  boundaries  and  the  principal  isolated  trees  may  likewise  be  marked. 

2.  The  geological  plan  shows  the  variations  which  exist  in  the  nature  of  the 
soil.  The  various  species  of  soil  may  be  indicated  on  this  plan  by  different  colors, 
which  will  serve  to  show  their  extent,  and  to  point  out  the  places  in  which  the 

,  nature  of  the  soil  is  either  suddenly  or  gradually  changed.  Where  the  varia- 
'  tions  in  the  nature  of  the  soil  are  considerable,  and  the  changes  occur  very  near 
to  one  another,  it  is  necessary  that  this  plan  should  be  drawn  on  a  much  larger 
scale  than  either  the  first  or  the  third  ;  and  in  fact,  that  a  separate  sheet  should 
be  devoted  to  each  piece  of  land.  Such  plans  may  be  of  very  great  assistance  to 
the  memory  in  arranging  the  system  of  cultivation ;  but,  for  this  purpose,  par- 
ticular attention  must  be  paid  to  the  degree  of  humidity  of  the  soil,  and  the 
places  in  which  the  moisture  is  very  abundant  must  be  marked  in  a  distinct  man- 
ner, as  well  as  those  which  are  most  hurt  by  drouth.  These  plans  should  pre- 
sent the  nature  of  the  soil  and  its  physical  properties  in  every  part  of  the  estate 
at  once  to  view,  in  the  clearest  and  most  obvious  manner,  and  with  mathematical 
accuracy. 

3.  The  plan  of  the  distribution  of  the  portions  of  land  assigned  to  each  rota- 
tion of  crops. — This  plan  contains  the  division  of  the  estate  and  of  its  several 
parts,  relatively  to  the  kind  of  cultivation  to  which  they  are  to  be  subjected.  It 
should  not  be  confined  simply  to  the  division  of  the  crop-lands,  but  should  extend 
to  all  the  sub-divisions,  particularly  if  they  are  to  have  any  influence  on  the  na- 
ture of  the  produce.  It  might,  perhaps,  be  advisable  to  mark  in  it  single  acres 
or  patches  of  land,  where  the  expenses  of  the  tillage,  manuring,  and  sowing 

(33r 


60  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

these  portions  are  to  be  septirately  calculated.  The  numbers  of  the  principal  di- 
visions may  be  marked  on  this  plan  in  Roman  numerals  ;  and  those  of  the  sub- 
divisions, or  of  these  pieces  of  land,  in  Italic  figures,  or  by  simple  letters.  A  new 
series  of  numbers  may  be  formed  at  pleasure  for  the  fractions  of  each  allotment 
'  of  land,  or  the  same  series  may  be  continued  throughout  all  the  pieces  comprised 
in  the  estate.  If  it  bt  desired  to  unite  these  three  kinds  of  plans  into  one,  that 
one  must  be  formed  upon  a  tolerably  large  scale,  in  order  that  each  separate  di- 
!  vision  may  readily  catch  the  eye.* 

!  In  many  cases,  and  especially  in  very  mountainous  situations,  whete  it  is  neces- 
sary  to  provide  against  water,  it  may  be  very  desirable  to  have  a  leveling  sketch 
taken  of  the  land  in  various  directions,  and  to  exhibit  a  plan  of  it  in  a  diagram. 
The  nature  of  the  beds  on  which  the  vegetable  mould  rests,  and  likewise  those 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  lower  strata,  may  also  be  mdicated  in  this 
diagram. 

To  these  plans  tables  should  be  affixed,  showing  the  nature  and  consistency  of 
the  soil  in  each  of  the  parts,  and  the  distribution  of  the  lands  for  crops.  These 
[•  things  may  all  be  comprised  in  one  single  table,  which  will  thus  give  a  clear  and 
exact  idea  of  them.  If  the  division  of  the  crop-lands  be  fixed  and  permanent, 
each  division  ought  to  have  its  own  separate  table.  In  the  first  vertical  column 
there  Avill  appear  the  sub-divisions,  with  their  numbers  and  denominations. — 
Each  kind  of  land  should  have  a  column  assigned  to  it,  in  which  the  number  of 
acres  and  fractions  of  acres  which  it  contains  should  be  indicated.  The  motives 
for  classing  the  different  soils  should  be  stated  by  means  of  notes  or  references. 

If,  in  the  crop-lands,  or  their  sub-divisions,  there  should  be  any  lew  places 
which  cannot  be  sown,  as  bogs,  ditches,  roads,  or  other  spots  which  will  not  ad- 
mit cultivation,  the  extent  of  such  places  must  also  be  specified  ;  and  the  sums 
will  then  be  taken  both  vertically  and  horizontally. 

Besides  this  table,  a  separate  description  of  each  field  should  be  drawn  up,  ex- 
hibiting all  its  peculiarities. 

If  every  species  of  land  be  taxed  for  the  purpose  of  affixing  to  each  division 
and  to  every  one  of  its  sub-divisions  a  price  proportionate  to  the  relative  value,  a 
summary  will  be  obtained  which  will  prove  very  useful  in  forming  a  valuation 
of  the  effective  produce.  Thus,  after  having  previously  deducted  from  the  capi- 
tal the  value  of  all  the  rights  and  accessory  revenues,  independent  of  these  lands, 
an  estimate  of  the  value  of  an  acre  of  each  sort  of  land  is  made  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  and  by  the  rules  which  we  shall  lay  down  when  treating  of 
agronomy,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  in  proportional  numbers  ;  for  example,  the 
first  class  land  may  be  estimated  at  10,  the  second  at  8,  the  third  at  6,  the  fourth 
at  4,  the  fifth  at  2,  and  the  sixth  at  1,  if  that  be  the  proportion  which  they  bear 
to  one  another. 

The  value  of  each  division  or  sub-division  of  crop-land  is  thus  determined  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  each  class  which  it  contains,  and  this  estimate  maybe 
used  in  forming  a  precise  valuation  of  the  net  produce  of  each  portion,  as  is  the 
custom  in  England.  It  is  generally  known  that  the  crop  on  any  given  surface  is 
better  in  proportion  as  the  soil  on  which  it  grows  approaches  the  middling  class. 

In  this  valuation  of  the  land,  or  rather  in  this  division  of  capital  among  all  the 
lands  of  which  the  estate  is  composed,  some  notice  ought  to  be  taken  of  other 
considerations  totally  foreign  to  the  nature  of  the  soil ;  thus,  a  field  at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  farm  buildings  may  be  estimated  at  a  much  lower  rate 
than  one  which  is  nearer,  supposing  them  both  to  be  of  equal  fertility. 

The  value  of  each  portion  of  land  thus  determined  may  also  be, added  to  the 
table  in  a  particular  column. 

It  will  be  understood  that  meadows,  pasture-lands,  woods,  mossy  ground,  and 

*  The  maps  and  plans  here  recommended  by  the  author  are  essential  to  the  proper  management  of  es- 
tates, and  form  a  striking  contrast  with  the  careless  and  unsystematic  manner  in  which  such  means  are  "en-     , 
erally  used.    A  general  cash-book  and  a  geometrical  map  are  usually  kept  from  neces.sity,  but  the  geological    ' 
map  and  the  book  of  rotations  on  the  different  soils,  mentioned  by  the  author,  are  found  in  some  few  in-    ' 
stances  only.    The  two  latter  are  intimately  concerned  ;  and,  when  properly  aiTanged  and  kept,  are  attend- 
ed with  much  advantage.    The  map  should  exhibit  the  different  strata,  and  all  the  variety  of  soils  incum- 
bent on  them;  and  the  book  of  rotations  should  contain  a  reduced  geometrical  map  of  each  farm,  facing  on 
the  opposite  page  a  tabular  form  of  the  different  fields,  with  the  crops  grown  on  each  during  every  year  of 
the  lease.     The  wood,  on  extensive  properties,  may  be  reduced  to  a  similar  form;  and,  by  these  methods, 
con-ect  views  can  be  at  any  time  obtained  of  all  circumstances  relating  to  the  estate,  and  very  useful  inier- 
snces  and  suggestions  may  be  deduced  for  the  future  management  and  improvement. 

(^32) ^..,^^.^^.,^,...^...^^ 


other  useful  kinds  of  land,  should  be  included  in  the  estimate  as  well 

hie  lands,  and  their  portion  be  charged  ia  the  distribution  of  capital.  i 

With  regard  to  the  buildings,  the  value  of  which  is  usually  added  to  the  capi-  / 
tal  of  the  estate,  if  a  separate  value  has  been  assigned  to  them,  I  think  it  most  < 
advisable  to  annex  it  to  that  of  the- lands  which  are  in  a  state  of  cultivation,  be-  | 
cause  it  is  for  those  lands  that  the  buildings  are  required,  and  the  latter  are  in-  \ 
eluded  in  the  conditions  of  the  lease  of  the  former.  A  complete  specification  and  S 
valuation  of  the  buildings  should  be  inserted  in  the  estate  book.  > 

The  estate  book  likewise  contains  an  exact  specification  of  all  the  useful  and  ( 
available  rights  that  are  attached  to  the  domain,  and  the  revenues,  both  certain  ^ 
and  casual,  which  belong  to  it ;  such  as  statute-labor,  tithes,  leases  of  mills  and  ) 
taverns,  incomes  derivable  from  breweries  and  distilleries,  or  the  right  of  having  1 
such  establishments,  and  perhaps  of  supplying  a  whole  district  exclusively  from  > 
them.  The  revenues  are  estimated  according  to  their  actual  return,  and  the  ) 
rights  only  according  to  the  value  which  they  would  yield  independent  of  risks,  < 
and  supposing  that  they  were  farmed  by  another  person  instead  of  being  exer-  i 
cised  by  the  proprietor  himself;  for  the  profit  which  can  be  derived  from  a  brew-  | 
house,  a  distillery,  or  a  mill  used  by  the  proprietor,  is  not  so  much  the  rent  of  i 
the  ground  as  the  produce  of  industry.  If  such  an  establishment  is  really  worked  > 
by  the  proprietor,  a  particular  account  of  it  must  be  inserted  in  the  great  book, 
and  the  rent  alone  which  could  be  derived  from  it  without  the  application  of  any 
labor,  must  be  added  to  the  capital  of  the  estate. 

The  capital  of  the  estate  is  composed  of  the  united  value  of  these  different  ob- 
jects. If  the  amount  of  this  capital  be  previously  kno^yn,  it  must  be  distributed 
among  the  various  branches  according  to  their  relative  value,  but  not  before  a 
deduction  has  been  made  of  all  the  liabilities  of  the  estate  according  to  the  fixed 
or  average  value. 

It  will  be  found  very  useful  to  combine  an  account  of  the  capital  as  well  as  an 
annual  account  of  the  cultivation  with  the  estate  book,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
return  which  the  capital  annually  produces,  and,  consequently,  the  degree  of 
augmentation  which  the  property  of  the  landlord  acquires.  According  to  the 
method  of  book-keeping  by  double  entry,  the  annual  interest  of  the  capital  of  the 
estate  and  of  the  stock  are  added  to  the  debtor  side  of  the  account  in  the  estate 
book,  together  with  whatever  may  have  been  expended  in  money  ;  and  the 
amount  of  that  which  has  been  delivered  to  the  proprietor  both  in  money  and  ! 
kind,  whatever  has  been  expended  in  permanent  improvements  or  ameliorations, 
or  the  additional  value  thus  bestowed  on  the  estate,  is  carried  to  the  credit  ac- 
count. As  the  determination  of  the  last  object  may,  in  some  cases,  prove  rather 
difficult,  it  is  generally  considered  sufficient  to  reckon  the  expenses  occasioned  by 
these  improvements,  or  the  value  of  the  labor  which  has  been  devoted  to  them, 
even  when  that  labor  has  been  executed  by  means  of  the  ordinary  resources  of 
the  establishment.  Since  these  improvements  increase  the  capital  applied  to  the 
estate,  the  interest  of  their  value  should  be  added  to  the  ensuing  year,  but  at  a 
higher  rate.  Thus,  for  instance,  if  the  mterest  of  land  be  reckoned  at  4  per 
cent.,  that  of  the  improvements  in  question  must  be  estimated  at  6  per  cent. — 
This  account  in  the  estate  hook  ought  always  to  agree  with  that  of  the  capital 
kept  in  the  yearly  ledger.  It  may  be  drawn  up  in  the  maimer  indicated  on  the 
following  page : — 


L 


(333) 


THAER  S    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


ADMINISTRATION  OP  THE  ESTATE. 


1843  to  1844. 

Interest  of  100,000  rix-doUars 

purchase  money  at  4  per 

cent 

Rix-dol. 

4,000 

4,000 
228 

4,000 
348 

4,000 
444 

4,000 
492 

1843  to  1844. 

Paid  to  the  proprietor 

Expended  in  improvements 

1844  to  1845. 

Paid  to  the  proprietor 

Expended  in  improvements 

1845  to  1846. 

Paid  to  the  proprietor 

Expended  in  improvements 

1846  to  1847. 

Paid  to  the  proprietor 

Expended  in  improvements 

1847  to  1848. 

Paid  to  the  proprietor 

Expended  in  improvements 

Rix-dol. 

1,200 
3,800 

3,500 
2,000 

4,000 
1,600 

6,550 
800 

8,500 
500 

32,6.50 

1844  to  1845. 
Interest  of  purchase  money 

Improvements  at  6  per  cent. 

1845  to  1846. 
Interest  of  purchase  money 
at  4  per  cent 

Interest    of    improvements, 
5,800  rix-doUars  at  6  per 

1846  to  1847. 
Interest  of  purchase  money 
at  4  per  cent 

Interest    of    improvements, 
7,400  i-ix-dollars  at  6  per 

1847  to  1848. 
Interest  of  purchase  money 
at  4  per  cent 

Interest    of    improvements, 
8,200  rix-dollars  at  6  per 

Balance  due  to  the  adminis- 

21,512 
11,138 

32,6.50 

Lastly,  the  estate-book  should  contain  a  history  or  chronicle  of  the  estate,  to 
which  may  every  year  be  added  whatever  tends  to  influence  its  value  and  its 
rights.  One  of  the  most  important  items  in  this  chronicle  is  an  account  em- 
bracing even  the  most  minute  details  of  every  improvement  that  has  been  made 
in  the  property,  and  which  has  added  to  its  value,  as  explained  in  a  previous 
page.  To  this  may  also  be  added  notes  relating  to  the  price  of  produce,  the 
weather  and  the  fertility  of  different  years,  and,  indeed,  to  everything  connected 
with  the  estate,  or  which  may  be  interesting  to  be  kept  in  remembrance. 

All  changes  of  any  importance,  whether  in  the  divisions  of  the  land,  in  the 
buildings,  or  in  the  revenues  and  privileges  attached  to  the  estate,  should  be 
carefully  entered  in  the  estate-book,  care  being  taken  to  class  them  all  under  their 
proper  heads. 

Kemarkable  facts,  observations,  and  experiments  relating  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  land,  may  likewise  be  recorded  in  it,  where  a  separate  book  is  not  kept  for 
that  special  purpose. 

A  book  of  this  description  becomes  a  kind  of  treasure  which  a  man  may  be- 
queath to  his  successors. 

The  second  plan  of  Agricultural  books  or  journals  contains  the  annual  accounts 
of  the  Avhole  undertaking,  comprising  the  yearly  account  of  the  rural  economy 
and  the  various  matters  relating  to  it.  This  system  of  accounts  is  complete  in 
proportion  as  it  extends  to  every  portion  of  the  establishment,  embraces  all  the 
details  Avhich  may  tend  to  influence  the  whole,  and  exhibits  each  particular  ob- 
ject with  clearness  and  precision.  It  should,  therefore,  not  only  specify  the  dis- 
posal of  the  money  and  the  produce  in  receipt  and  expenditure,  but  also  contain 
details  relative  to  labor,  and  all  other  matters  which  may  tend  to  affect  the  suc- 
cess of  the  undertaking;  as,  for  example,  seeds,  manure,  &c.  This  system  of 
accounts  cannot  be  too  carefully  attended  to  and  kept,  as  it  is  indispensable  to 
the  undertaking.  The  highest' degree  of  excellence  can  never  be  attained  with- 
out its  aid  :  at  all  events,  it  is  impossible  without  its  assistance  either  to  be  sure  of 
having  attained  the  desired  end,  or  to  obtain  a  guide  which  will  point  out  the 
path  most  likely  to  lead  to  it. 

The  following  is  the  method  usually  adopted : — 

Besides  the  day-hook  and  the  note-book,  three  ledgers  are  kept ; 

1.  For  the  money  accounts. 

(334) 


KEEPING     THE    JOURNALS. 


63 


2.  For  the  account  of  the  receipt  and  delivery  of  produce.    ^ 

3.  For  the  buying,  selling,  and  the  protit  or  loss  on  the  live-stock. 

No.  1.  The  first  part  of  the  book  containing  the  money  account  usually  con- 
tains the  receipts,  and  the  second  the  expenditure.  In  both  parts  the  pages  are 
ruled  in  such  a  manner  that  the  first  column  on  the  left  may  contain  the  date  of 
the  month  and  day  ;  the  second,  the  numbers  of  the  vouchers  if  there  be  any  ; 
and  the  third,  or  middle  column,  the  statement  of  the  items  ;  and  the  last  two 
on  the  right,  the  cash  accounts.  In  the  first  of  the  money  columns,  the  various 
items  are  separately  inscribed  ;  in  the  second,  the  total  receipt  and  expenditure 
of  the  month  is  inserted. 

In  order  to  explain  the  method  more  clearly,  I  shall  transcribe  the  receipt  of 
one  month  in  the  following  table,  whether  arising  from  revenues  in  money  or 
from  the  sale  of  rye  : — 


Date.      Vouchers 


CASH  RECEIPTS. 


Julyl. 


Balance  in  hand 

For  natural  hay  sold  to ,  of , 

For  ground  rent  from  the  miller  N , 

For  ground  rent  from  the  farrier  G , 

For  the  letting  out  of  land  as  potato  ground, 
according  to  the  account  kept  in  the  book 
for  that  purpose 

From  the  miller  and  farrier  for  money  paid 
on    their    acount    to    the    fire    insurance 


Total  for  July . 


Dates. 

W^spl 

Sch 

Metz. 

Jan.  1. 

3 

7 

16 

15 

8 

23 

1 

SALE  OF  RYE. 


Pf    Rix     Gr      Pf 


-,  of 


-,  at  3 


at  3  rix- 


To  the  miller  N- 
rix-do  liars 

To  the  bailiiT ,  of 

dollars,  4  gr 

To  the  corn-chandler ,  of , 

at  4  rix-dollars 

To  the  day  laborer  N ,  at  4  rix- 
dollars 


The  items  of  the  receipts  in  cash  vary  according  to  the  plan  of  operations 
which  is  pursued  ;  they  are  united  or  kept  separate,  according  as  it  may  be  re- 
quired to  have  a  more  or  less  distinct  view  of  each  presented  individually  to  the 
eye.  Each  part  has  moreover,  its  peculiar  title  ;  they  are  usually  classed  under 
the  following  heads  : — 


1.  Cash  receipts,  or  revenues. 

2.  Sale  of  grain,  each  kind  separately,  as 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  peas,  lentils,  millet, 
and  buckwheat. 

3.  Clover-seed,  flax,  and  other  kinds  of  seed 
and  produce  destined  for  sale. 

4.  Fruits,  and  other  garden  and  orchard  pro- 
duce. 

5.  Sale  of  cattle,  horses,  co\vs,  oxen,  calves. 


pigs,  sheep,  and  poultry,  each  on  a  separate  folio. 

6.  Sale  of  animal  produce  : — 

faj  Butter,  cheese,  and  milk,  from  the  dairy 
and  cheese-house. 

fbj  Wool  and  lambs,  from  the  sheep-fold. 
fcj  Honey  and  wax,  from  the  bee-hive. 

7.  Sundries — occasional  receipts  which  do  not 
come  under  any  of  the  heads,  such  as  the  re- 
pairs of  damages,  &c.  &c. 


If  any  brewery  or  brandy  distillery  should  be  attached  to  the  establishment, 
and  its  produce  sold,  an  account  of  it  must  likewise  be  kept;  but  where  con- 
cerns of  this  kind  are  conducted  on  an  extensive  scale,  it  is  customary  to  assign 
to  them  a  separate  set  of  books,  and  a  separate  cash-box. 

The  second  part*,  or  pecuniary  disbursements,  usually  include  the  following 
items : — 


1.  Payments  to  the  proprietor,  or  on  ' 
count. 

2.  For  building  materials. 

3.  For  builder's  work. 

4.  For  gardener's  work. 

5.  For  fai-m  labor. 

(3?-) 


6.  For  labor  expended  on  ameliorations  and 
improvements. 

7.  For  servants'  wages. 

8.  For  iron  and  nails. 

9.  For  timber  for  use. 
10.  For  fire-wood  and  turf. 


[  G4 


THAER  S    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


For  revenue  iij^wood. 

For  horses. 

For  liornedcattle. 

For  pigs. 

For  sheep. 

For  farrier's  ^vork. 

For  caitwright's  work. 

For  locksmith's  work. 

For  harness-maker's  work. 

For  coopei-'s  work. 

For  carpenter's  work. 


Q2.  For  ca.'^toms  and  port  duties. 

23.  For  mebscngers,   drovers  and   traveling 
expenses. 

24.  For  excise,  turnpike,  and  city  tolls. 

25.  For  taxes,  direct  and  indirect,  poor-rates, 
&c. 

26.  For  fire-insurance. 

27.  For  produce  consumed  in  the  household 
and  on  the  establishment. 

28.  For  sundries,   which   cannot  be  ranged 
under  any  of  the  preceding  heads. 


The  annual  summary  of  the  receipts  and  expenditure  in  each  separate  month, 
and  of  each  description  of  article  or  item,  is  best  made  in  the  form  of  a  table, 
which  may  be  readily  formed  by  the  farmer. 

No.  2.  The  ledger  for  the  receipt  and  delivery  of  produce  accounts,  has  sepa- 
rate columns  for  the  different  kinds  of  grain,  and  in  these  columns  the  receipts 
and  expenditure  are  balanced  every  month  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
quantity  remaining  in  the  store. 

In  this  manner,  the  table  in  question  supplies  the  place  of  a  barn  register  ;  it 
is,  however,  usual  to  add  to  the  amount  of  the  receipts  the  produce  not  obtained 
from  the  harvest  of  the  farm,  such  as  corn  purchased  or  received  in  payment  for 
rent,  &c. 

Next  comes  the  expenditure  of  the  various  kinds  of  grain  classed  under  all  the 
different  heads.     This  account  m.ay  as  well  be  thrown  into  a  tabular  form. 

The  kinds  of  grain  intended  for  sale  may  also  be  arranged  in  a  tabular 
form. 

The  value  in  money  may  be  given  here  by  way  of  additional  information  ;  it 
is  more  fully  and  precisely  stated  in  the  money  account. 

Then  should  follow  the  other  items  of  expenditure  under  thsir  several  de- 
nominations. Then  the  payments  in  grain,  such  as  those  appropriated  to  the 
physician,  surgeon,  veterinary  surgeon,  and  chimney-sweeper  ;  and  lastly,  the 
produce  assigned  for  the  consumption  of  the  various  persons  employed  on  the 
establishment,  such  as  the  steward,  foreman,  cow-keeper,  and  shepherd,  and 
also  the  farrier,  if  an  agreement  can  be  made  Avith  him  for  shoeing  the  plow- 
horses. 

The  corn  consumed  by  the  plow-horses  may  also  be  shown  in  the  form  of  a 
table.  If  the  account  only  relates  to  an  establishment  which  is  the  immediate 
property  of  the  landlord,  separate  columns  must  be  assigned  to  carriage  and  rid- 
ing horses,  and  to  those  belonging  to  visitors.  Corn  given  to  other  animals  must 
likewise  be  taken  into  account,  and  entered  in  columns  under  the  head  of  fatten- 
ing of  pigs  and  poultry.  A  separate  column  is  devoted  to  the  important  object 
of  the  sowings  of  various  kinds  of  grain,  together  with  a  memorandum  of  the 
day  on  which  the  seed  was  so%vn  and  the  piece  of  ground  occupied  by  it.  Each 
kind  of  grain  should  have  a  separate  folio. 

The  corn-account  is  usually  terminated  by  a  specification  of  the  number  of 
sheaves  that  have  been  gathered,  and  likewise  of  the  barns  and  stacks  m  which 
they  have  been  deposited. 

After  the  receipt  and  expenditure  of  grain,  there  follows  the  account  of  other 
kinds  of  vegetable  produce,  such  as  meadow-hay,  natural  and  artificial,  potatoes, 
radishes,  carrots,  cabbages,  hemp,  flax,  poppies,  &c. 

No.  3.  The  ledger  for  the  account  of  the  increase  and  diminution  of  the  live 
stock,  contains,  in  the  first  place,  a  specification  and  description  of  every  head  of 
cattle,  with  its  name,  number,  the  species  or  breed  to  which  it  belongs,  its  age, 
qualities  and  defects,  and  the  value  which  it  possesses  at  the  termination  or  re- 
newal of  the  early  account. 

The  opposite  page  is  left  vacant  for  the  insertion  of  observations,  which  it  may 
be  necessary  to  make  upon  each  animal  in  the  course  of  the  year. 

The  condition  of  the  other  kinds  of  live  stock  should  be  stated,  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, in  the  same  manner. 

Next  may  follow  the  account  of  the  increase  and  diminution  of  the  live  stock, 
the  numbers  of  which  ought  to  correspond  with  those  of  the  inventory  of  the 
stock.  A  separate  account  is  usually  devoted  to  the  sheep-fold,  in  order  that  the 
increase  and  diminution  of  these  animals  may  be  visible  at  once.      This  is  par 

(336) 


KEEPING    THE    JOURNALS,  65 

ticularly  necessary  where  the  flock  is  composed  of  amniais  of  difi'erent  breeds,  or 
where  it  contains  some  that  are  cross-bred. 

Then  may  follow  the  accomit  of  the  receipt  and  expenditure  of  various  animal 
products  ;  as,  for  example,  what  has  been  obtained,  consumed,  or  sold,  in  butter, 
cheese,  milk,  wool,  eggs,  honey,  wax,  &c.  The  skins  of  beasts  killed  for  home 
consumption,  and  likewise  those  of  sheep  that  have  died,  or  have  been  killed, 
should  likewise  be  entered  in  their  proper  places. 

This  method  of  book-keeping  is,  of  course,  subject  to  a  variety  of  modifica- 
tions. Every  one  may  arrange  it  accordhag  to  his  personal  convenience,  or  to  the 
end  which  he  has  in  view. 

It  constitutes,  however,  the  system  which  is  most  approved  at  the  present 
day,  and  is  perfectly  sufficient  for  all  the  wants  of  an  ordinary  system  of  agricul- 
tural operations.  At  the  close  of  each  monthly  account,  it  exhibits  a  clear  view 
of  the  whole  ;  and  as  it  may  be  supposed  that  every  person  who  is  employed  to 
inspect  a  set  of  agricultural  books  must  be  more  or  less  acquainted  with  it,  a 
director  will  be  better  able  to  justify  his  conduct  by  it  than  by  any  other  means. 

The  preference  bestowed  on  this  system,  by  many  persons,  on  the  plea  that  it 
is  easier  and  more  simple  than  any  other,  appears  to  me  to  be  more  founded  on 
I  habit,  and  on  the  practice  which  these  persons  have  had  in  the  use  of  it,  than  on 
anything  else.  Besides,  this  system  of  book-keeping  is  by  no  means  remarkable 
for  simplicity,  since  it  requires  the  use  of  several  books  and  the  double  insertion 
of  every  item,  and  is  by  no  means  easy  of  reference.  Besides,  it  does  not  give  a 
clear  idea  or  view  of  the  details  of  the  management  and  cultivation. 

One  of  its  greatest  defects  is  the  want  of  a  simple  and  precise  mode  of  reckon- 
ing in  one  of  the  most  important  objects  of  rural  economy,  viz.,  the  application 
and  division  of  labor  ;  it  is,  however,  possible  to  keep  a  book  for  this  particular 
purpose.  We  shall  very  soon  have  to  speak  of  the  method  of  keeping  an  ac- 
count of  labor. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  description  of  other  modes  of  book-keeping,  it  will  be 
\  as  well  to  pause  and  endeavor  to  settle  the  question  as  to  the  time  of  the  year  at 
'i  which  the  accounts  should  be  opened  or  closed. 

Many  and  very  different  periods  have  been  selected  for  this  purpose.    The  best 

undoubtedly,  that  in  which  there  is  a  pause  or  rest,  and  when  the  greater  part 
;  of  the  produce  having  been  sold  or  consumed,  the  remainder  can,  consequently,  be 
/  the  more  readily  estimated.    The  usual  commencement  of  the  year  is  not,  there- 
',  fore,  convenient ;  neither  is  the  spring  or  the  autumn,  in  my  opinion,  the  proper 
season.     Where  I  live,  the  1st  of  July  is  the  time  usually  chosen  ;  and  it  appears 
to  me  to  be  on  many  accounts  more  suitable  than  those  before  mentioned.     I  do 
not,  however,  like  to  see  the  hay-harvest  thus  divided  into  two  parts,  and  there- 
fore prefer  the  beginning  of  June  ;  because,   at  that  period,  most  of  the  things 
which  require  particular  attention  are  in  a  state  of  rest ;  and  there  is  then  most 
leisure  for  a  careful  examination  of  the  state  of  the  provisions,   the  stock,  and, 
indeed,  of  every  part  of  the  rural  economy.     There  may,  hoAvever,  be  many  mo- 
tives which  Avill  induce  a  person  to  conform  in  this  respect  to  the  usages  of  the 
country  in  which  the  estate  he  farms  is  situated,  and  particularly  to  that   period 
at  which  farm  leases  usually  commence  and  expire. 

Where  it  is  customary  to  sow  small  barley  in  June,  the  beginning  of  July  cer- 
tainly is  the  best  time. 

Although  labor  is  one  of  the  most  important  items  m  Agriculture,  much  too 
little  attention  has  frequently  been  paid  to  taking  notes  of  it,  and  calculating  the 
expense.  Even  if  a  general  estimate  be  made  of  the  cost  of  plowing  executed 
by  the  servants  and  teams  belonging  to  the  estate,  as  well  as  by  day-laborers  and 
task-workers,  and  the  whole  amount  of  these  expenses  be  obtained  by  adding  to- 
gether the  wages  and  food  of  the  servants,  the  value  of  fodder  consumed  by  the 
beasts  of  draught,  and,  finally,  the  amount  of  pecuniary  disbursements,  still  the 
portion  of  these  expenses  which  appertains  to  each  object,  product,  and  field,  is 
rarely  ascertained  with  any  precision;  nevertheless,  such  knowledge  is  of  the  ' 
utmost  importance,  since  it  affords  the  only  means  by  which  certain  results  re- 
specting the  profit  and  loss  of  each  department  of  the  cultivation,  or  system  of 
operations  in  general,  can  be  obtained.  Again,  it  is  ui  this  way  alone  that  it  is 
possible  to  ascertain  whether  the  resources  which  have  been  expended  on  labor 
have  been  employed  to  the  greatest  advantage,  or  whether  they  might  not  be 

f337) 5 


66  thaer's  principles   of  agriculture. 

better  applieo.  The  method  of  which  we  are  speakmg  would,  likeAvise,  tend  to 
give  a  greater  degree  of  control  over  labor  than  could  be  obtained  by  any  other 
means,  and  to  furnish  data  for  makmg  valuations  on  far  more  certain  principles 
than  could  be  derived  even  from  the  most  incessant  and  careful  superintendence 
and  inspection  of  the  diflerent  branches  of  labor. 

For  this  purpose  it  is  chiefly  necessary  to  take  note  of  the  various  works  which 
have  been  executed,  whether  by  manual  labor  or  by  teams,  and  the  uses  to  which 
they  have  been  applied.  The  method  of  making  this  entry  is  by  no  means  un- 
important ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  of  the  greatest  moment,  both  as  giving  the  ut- 
most facility  to  the  inspector,  and,  what  is  of  more  consequence,  as  furnishing 
him  with  the  clearest  possible  summary  of  the  labor  devoted  to  each  object,  and 
enabling  him  afterwards  to  transfer  it  to  the  proper  place  without  risk  of  error. 
I  have  tried  various  forms  of  this  table  of  labor,  and  am  of  opinion  that  a  week- 
ly table  is  that  which  ansAA^ers  the  purpose  best.  The  one  I  use  contains  col- 
umns for  four  different  classes  of  laborers,  Avho  receive  a  daily  stipend  of  6,  5,  4, 
and  3  groschen.     These  sums  frequently  vary  from  one  season  to  another. 

In  the  first  column,  the  description  and  locality  of  all  the  operations  executed 
durmg  the  week  is  entered.  When  it  indicates  the  locality,  or  the  purpose  to 
which  the  labor  has  been  applied,  care  must  be  used  to  make  the  note  in  the  ta- 
ble agree  Avith  the  title  under  which  it  will  have  to  be  entered  in  the  ledger. — 
Thus,  those  works  of  Avhich  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  distinct  summary,  must  be 
entered  separately  in  the  table  ;  Avhile  all  those  which  are  to  be  carried  to  the 
same  account,  may  be  collected  together  under  one  head.  It  requires  some  con- 
siderable degree  of  kuoAvledge  on  the  part  of  the  inspector  to  form  this  combina- 
tion properly  ;  and,  until  this  knoAvledge  has  been  acquired,  it  will  be  better  for 
him  to  make  a  number  of  distinctions  rather  than  class  too  many  subjects  or  ob- 
jects under  one  head.  At  the  beginning  of  the  week  he  enters  all  those  opera- 
tions and  works  Avhich  he  knoAvs  must  certainly  be  performed  ;  those  others 
which  he  could  not  foresee,  he  enters,  of  course,  in  the  order  in  which  they  oc- 
cur. There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  very  desirable  he  should  draw  up  a  list  or 
table  of  all  the  Avorks  Avhich  he  knows  must  be  executed  ;  he  Avill  then  only 
have  to  enter  on  every  day  the  quantity  of  labor  of  each  kind  which  has  been 
expended  upon  every  operation,  in  the  proper  column.  The  best  Avay  is  to  de- 
vote a  book  containing  fifty-two  pages  to  this  journal,  arranged  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  distinctions  of  heads  will  only  require  to  be  entered  at  the  commence- 
ment of  each  quarter,  and  the  divisions  or  columns  are  previously  made. 

Other  persons  may  perhaps  prefer  having  a  black  tablet,  with  horizontal  and 
vertical  Lines  draAvn  in  red  colors,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  be  efi'aced,  sus- 
pended against  the  wall,  and  to  mark  the  work  which  has  been  done  each  day 
upon  it,  and  also  the  number  of  laborers  employed  in  that  work. 

In  the  column  which  contams  the  summary,  the  number  of  laborers  of  each 
description  emploved  during  the  week  on  each  particular  operation  is  inscribed  ; 
and  in  the  money  column  the  cost  of  each  separate  piece  of  Avork  is  entered. — 
The  total  amount  of  days'  labor  of  each  description,  and  of  the  money  expended, 
ought  then  to  agree  with  the  number  of  day-laborers  and  the  sums  paid  to  them 
as  Avages. 

If  a  portion  of  the  work  has  been  executed  by  statute-labor,  or  by  gratuitous 
service,  an  account  of  it  must  be  entered  in  the  proper  place,  and  the  value  of  it 
united  with  the  rest.  At  the  end  of  the  Aveek  when  the  accounts  are  made  up, 
these  days  of  gratuitous  labor  must  be  separated  from  those  which  haA^e  been 
paid  in  money.  The  statute-laborers  are  considered  as  creditors  for  the  number 
of  days'  labor  which  they  have  performed,  and  the  sum  is  deducted  from  the 
whole  amount  Avhich  is  due  from  them. 

The  daily  account  of  labor  executed  by  teams  is  kept  in  the  same  manner. — 
Columns  are  assigned  for  each  species  of  labor,  separate  cues  being  kept  for  the 
horses,  the  oxen,  and  the  men  Avho  work  with  them.     Each  individual  Avill  be 
able  to  determine  for  himself  whether  it  is  best  to  make  no  distinction  betw^een 
or  to  separate  the  domestics  who  look  after  the  horses,  from  those  Avho  take  care  ^ 
of  the  cows.     If  the  day-laborers  work  with  the  oxen  and  horses,  their  labor  is  \ 
entered  in  the  table  of  manual  labor  and  not  in  that  of  which  we  are  at  present  S 
speaking.     The  labor  of  beasts  of  draught  is  always  better  reckoned  according  *> 
to  the  number  of  head  of  cattle  than  according  to  the  number  of  teams  employed 

(338) 


KEEPING  THE  JOURNALS. 


-q 


At  j;he  close  of  the  week  a  calculation  is  made  of  the  number  of  the  days  of 
draught  labor  that  have  been  applied  to  each  operation  ;  I  think  the  money 
column  may  be  omitted  in  this  table. 

From  these  weekly  tables  it  will  be  easy  to  form  a  monthly  summary  of  the 
whole  accounts.  There  is,  however,  no  occasion  to  confine  oneself  to  a  certain 
number  of  weeks :  all  that  is  requisite  will  be  to  rule  the  columns  sufficiently 
long  to  comprehend  the  period  which  they  are  to  contain.  On  an  open  sheet, 
there  is  always  room  for  eight  weeks. 

For  my  own  part,  I  find  in  the  method  of  book-keeping  by  double  entry  so  de- 
cided an  advantage  over  the  tabular  form,  that  I  feel  very  much  inclined  leaving 
to  others  the  trouble  of  bringing  the  latter  to  perfection. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  reduce  everything  to 
one  common  standard  ;  and  it  would  be  scarcely  possible  to  adopt  any  other  than 
that  of  money,  since  it  is  to  money  that  all  the  products  of  industry  are  ultimate- 
ly reduced.  Nevertheless,  in  the  course  of  the  reckoning,  doubts  frequently  arise 
as  to  the  value  which  ought  to  be  assigned  to  some  things  which  cannot  be  im- 
mediately realized.  It  is  true,  that  a  false  estimate  would  make  no  difference  in 
the  final  result,  since  v/hat  was  lost  to  the  credit  of  one  division  would  be  added 
to  the  debt  of  another  ;  but  this  mode  would  lead  to  inaccuracy  in  the  value  of 
particular  items.  The  average  price  of  the  greater  number  of  articles — such,  for 
example,  as  the  grain  and  fodder  consumed  on  the  establishment — cannot  be  ac- 
curately determined  in  the  course  of  the  year,  and  at  the  time  when  they  are 
used ;  and  yet  it  is  this  price  which  regulates  the  valuation  of  other  things  which 
cannot  be  immediately  settled  in  money — as  servants'  labor,  and  the  labor  of  the 
beasts  of  draught  employed  in  each  particular  operation ;  whereas,  at  the  end  of 
the  year,  a  due  consideration  of  all  the  circumstances  and  relations  will  lead, 
with  some  degree  of  certainty,  to  a  knowledge  of  the  value  of  each  separate  ar-  \ 
tide  in  money.  ^ 

Thus,  for  example,  if  I  know  at  what  value  I  ought  to  estimate  the  oats  and 
hay  consumed  by  the  beasts  of  draught,  and  if  I  am  also  acquainted  with  the  ac- 
cessory expenses  incurred  by  them,  I  can  tell  what  a  day's  labor  of  a  horse  or  an 
ox  costs  me,  and  can  thus  carry  this  sum  to  the  debtor  side  of  the  account  to 
which  the  operation  belongs  in  which  they  have  been  employed  ;  supposing,  of 
course,  that  the  number  of  days'  labor  has  been  accurately  determined.  In  order 
to  conduct  a  valuation  properly,  it  is  only  necessary  to  lay  down  certain  funda-  . 
mental  principles,  and  adhere  faithfully  to  them.  If,  for  example,  any  one  should  / 
choose  to  take  the  average  market  price  as  the  basis  of  his  valuation  of  corn,  I  ' 
see  no  objection  to  such  a  course,  provided  that  he  also  deducts  from  this  price  ' 
the  expenses  of  transport,  estimated  by  their  actual  value  ;  including  not  only  the 
wear  arfd  tear  of  the  horses  themselves,  but  also  of  the  harness,  and  a  certain  de- 
gree of  disorder  among  the  men  employed,  as  well  as  various  other  accidents  and 
circumstances  which  experience  alone  can  foresee  and  guard  against.  Thus,  if, 
from  a  train  of  accidental  circumstances,  the  market  price  should  be  raised  con- 
siderably above  the  natural  standard,  that  is  to  say,  above  what  might  be  expect- 
ed from  the  abundance  of  the  harvest,  I  should  fix  the  consumption  price  by  that 
i[  which  the  abundance  of  the  harvest  would  give  when  uninfluenced  by  other  cir- 
cumstances ;  because  those  things  which  have  tended  to  modify  the  natural  price 
have  not  the  slightest  connection  with  my  system  of  cultivation.  I  should  like- 
"VMise  proceed  on  the  same  principles  with  regard  to  hay.  As  to  those  vegetables 
i  which  are  cultivated  exclusively  for  cattle,  as  potatoes,  turnips,  &c.,  1  should  es- 
timate their  price  at  one  and  a  half  times  what  they  cost ;  that  is  to  say,  at  one 
and  a  half  times  the  united  value  of  the  ground  rent,  the  manure  expended  on 
them,  and  the  labor  employed  in  their  cultivation.  If  the  price  throughout  the 
neighborhood  should  happen  to  become  sis  times  as  high  as  its  ordinary  standard, 
it  would  make  no  difference  to  me  or  to  the  price  which  I  had  previously  fixed 
upon  the  article  in  question  appropriated  to  home  consumption,  because  I  could 
profit  little  by  this  increase  of  price. 

I  have  hitherto  estimated  the  price  of  dung  at  one  and  a  half  rix-dollars  for  a 
load  of  twenty  quintals  ;  I  divide  the  total  value  between  the  cattle  which  have 
produced  it  and  the  straw  which  formed  the  litter  of  the  animals  to  which  it  has 
been  applied,  assigning  one-third  to  the  cattle  and  two-thirds  to  the  straw. 

These  are.  the  principles  which  I  have  adopted  for  my  own  guidance  with  re- 

(339) 


gard  to  the  determination  of  prices,  but,  of  course,  every  person  is  perfectly  at  lib- 
erty to  modify  them  according  to  his  situation  and  circumstances.  When  there  is 
110  cash  receipt  and  expenditure,  the  produce  is  provisionally  carried  to  each  ac- 
count in  weight  and  measure  only  ;  and,  at  the  closing  of  the  account,  its  value  is 
charged  to  the  money  column.  | 

Most  persons,  who  keep  separate  accounts  of  distinct  productions,  are  in  the 
habit  of  uniting  together  the  same  kinds  of  produce,  although  grovsm  in  dift'erent 
fields  ;  but  this  method  is  not  sufficient  for  me  ;  I  wish  to  know  what  each  field 
has  cost  me,  and  what  it  has  produced. .  In  my  books^  therefore,  each  field  has 
its  separate  account,  and  if  two  or  more  different  kinds  of  produce  grow  in  the 
same  field,  each  of  them  has  a  respective  account.  This  method  causes  no  extra 
difficulty,  if  the  daily  accounts  of  labor  are  carefully  kept.  It  must,  however,  be 
remembered  that  the  greater  part  of  the  expenses  of  harvest  belong  to  the  pre- 
ceding year's  accounts,  since  the  ncAV  year  commences  on  the  1st  of  June  or  the 
1st  of  July.  But  as  it  is  necessary  that  the  expenses  and  the  produce  should  be 
contrasted  with  each  other  in  the  same  account,  the  former  are  taken  from  the 
preceding  year's  accounts,  either  in  one  sum,  or,  at  most,  under  the  principal  di- 
visions ;  they  are  thus  charged  to  the  debtor  side  of  the  current  year,  and  to  the 
creditor  side  of  the  preceding  year. 

The  produce  of  the  various  fields  in  grain  is  first  debited  to  the  bams  in  sheaves  : 
but  I  do  not  value  these  sheaves  until  after  the  threshing  is  over,  at  which  time 
I  am  able  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  grain  which  they  have  yielded,  and  the 
price  which  should  be  affixed  to  it.  The  barn  account  should  be  kept  in  this  man- 
ner, in  order  that  it  may  supply  the  place  of  a  barn-register ;  I  know,  no  other 
method  by  which  the  produce  of  each  field  can  be  kept  separate,  supposing  that 
I  am  anxious  to  obtain  an  accurate  knowledge  of  it :  such  care  and  nicety  is, 
however,  quite  unnecessary  for  those  who  only  wish  to  ascertain  the  gross  amount 
of  the  produce.  The  quantity  which  the  sheaves  are  found  to  yield  after  thresh- 
ing is  then  placed  to  the  creditor  side  of  the  barns,  and  to  the  debtor  side  of  the 
kind  of  grain  to  which  it  appertains.  It  is  better,  at  first,  not  to  enter  anything 
beyond  the  number  of  bushels  produced,  and  to  defer  affixing  the  pecuniary  value 
until  the  price  of  grain  has  reached  the  average  hight ;  and  this  amount  may  also 
be  added  to  the  general  price  adopted  in  that  year  for  the  rural  economy :  I  shall 
call  this  latter  the  cultivation  price,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  current  \ 
price  in  the  markets. 

After  the  corn  has  been  sold,  the  price  actually  obtained  for  it  is  entered,  and 
the  balance  of  the  grain-account  then  shows  exactly  how  much  has  been  lost  or 
gained  in  consequence  of  all  the  commercial  circumstances. 

The  expenses  that  attach  to  grain,  from  the  time  of  its  consignment  to  the 
granary  to  that  of  its  sale  or  consumption,  cannot  be  charged  conveniently  to  each 
particular  kind  ;  an  account  is,  therefore,  kept  in  the  granary,  containing,  for  ex- 
ample, the  expenses  of  turning  and  cleaning  the  corn,  and  particularly  the  cost  of 
transport.  Should  it  be  considered  requisite  or  desirable,  these  expenses  may  be 
divided  among  the  different  kinds  of  com  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  and  pecu- 
niary value. 

There  are  also  other  matters  which  require  particular  accounts  of  cultivation 
and  provision.     The  various  expenses  of  cultivation  are  added  to  the  debtor  side 
of  the  former  ;  and  the  produce,  as  it  is  brought  from  the  field,  to  the  creditor 
side.     This  produce  is  then,  in  its  turn,  carried  to  the  debtor  side  of  the  provisioij 
accomit,  the  creditor  side  of  which  contains  the  use  which  has  been  made  of  the 
produce  for  various  purposes.     When,  however,  certain  products  are  consumed  ' 
as  soon  as  they  are  taken  out  of  the  field — as,  for  example,  clover  and  vetches 
given  to  cattle  as  green  food,  and  a  portion  of  the  radishes — they  are  immediate-    '. 
ly  charged  to  the  credit  of  the  field,  and  to  the  debt  of  the  cattle  by  which  they 
are  consumed.     The  pecuniary  value  in  this  case  is,  indeed,  rather  uncertain  ;  but 
I  estimate  it  according  to  an  approximate  valuation  of  what  the  produce  in  ques- 
tion has  cost  me :  some  persons  may,  perhaps,  think  it  better  to  estimate  its  value 
according  to  the  utility  and  employment  of  the  produce.     In  my  opinion,  the 
former  of  these  two  methods  is  far  more  advantageous  than  the  latter,  at  least  so   ' 
far  as  the  greater  part  of  the  agricultural  establishments  are  concerned. 

The  live  and  dead  stock  are  valued  at  the  termination  of  each  yearly  account ;  < '. 
a  new  inventory  is  then  made  of  them,  or  the  requisite  alterations  are  made  in 

(340) 


that  of  the  preceding  year.  The  value  of  the  stock  at  this  period  is  entered  in 
the  foUowmg  year  under  the  proper  heads.  Thus,  every  improveEient  in  the 
stock  during  a  year  is  placed  to  the  credit  side  of  that  year's  accounts  ;  while  all 
the  deteriorations,  on  the  contrary,  are  charged  to  the  debtor  side.  The  account 
of  live  stock  is  debited  with  the  price  of  whatever  cattle  have  been  purchased, 
and  the  cash  account  is  credited  with  it,  if  the  price  has  been  paid  in  money  ; 
while  the  value  of  the  cattle  sold,  or  the  sum  obtained  for  them,  is  charged  to 
the  debtor  side  of  the  cash  account,  and  the  credit  side  of  the  live  stock.     When 

'    a  beast  dies,  the  value  is  debited  to  the  account  of  the  kind  of  cattle  to  which  it 

'  belongs  :  as,  for  example,  if  it  be  a  cow,  the  loss  is  added  to  the  debtor  account 
of  the  cow-house  ;  and  if  it  be  a  horse,  the  team  account  is  charged  with  its  loss. 
This  is  one  of  the  parts  with  which  begimaers  are  most  puzzled  and  staggered : 
it  appears  absurd  to  them  to  credit  the  live  stock  with  the  loss  of  all  the  cattle 

I   which  die;  and,  indeed,' the  loss  is  productive  of  detriment  to  that  stock,  inas- 

',  much  as  the  value  of  it  at  the  end  of  the  year  will  be  proportionably  diminished. 

'  In  this  case,  as  in  all  others,  it  is  only  necessary  that  a  person  form  a  clear  and 
just  idea  of  this  method  of  book-keeping,  and  he  will  easily  be  enabled  to  extri- 
cate himself  from  these  difficulties,  and  others  of  a  similar  nature.  The  expres- 
sion "Dr.,"  at  the  head  of  the  debtor  side  of  the  account,  is  synonymous  with 
"have  received,"  or,  "have  benefited  hy ;"  the  expression  "Cr.,"  on  the  opposite 

,   side,  is  equivalent  to  "  given  away"  or  "  has  furnished." 

\  At  the  settling  of  the  accounts,  the  sum  total  of  ail  the  items  on  the  debtor 
side  ought  to  be  equal  to  the  sum  total  of  all  those  on  the  creditor  side.  But 
the  debits  and  credits  of  the  greater  number  of  the  accounts  are  very  diiferent ; 
this  is  likewise  the  case  with  those  which  have  nothing  on  the  debtor,  or  nothing 
on  the  creditor  side.  The  overplus  of  debt  or  credit  in  an  account — or,  in  other 
words,  the  sum  which  must  be  added  to  one  side  in  order  to  make  it  equal  to  the 
other,  is  called,  in  commercial  language,  the  balance.  It  may  also  be  termed 
•profit  or  loss,  plus  or  jninus.  If,  then,  the  profit  of  all  those  accounts  which  have 
yielded  any,  be  placed  on  one  side,  and  the  loss  of  all  those  which  have  sustained 
any  on  the  other,  the  sum  of  these  two  accounts  ought  to  be  the  same.  But  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  real  return  or  profit  of  the  undertaking  during  a  year,  it  is 
necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  add  to  the  general  debit  of  the  account  the  loss  on  . 
all  those  accounts  which  were  necessary  to  carrying  on  the  system  of  operations,  / 
or,  Avhat  comes  to  the  same  thing,  the  expenses  of  the  establishment ;  and,  seC' 
ondly,  the  credit  of  the  preceding  year. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  proprietor's  debt,  or  the  amount  of  that  which  he  has  \ 
drawn  from  the  estate,  whether  in  money  or  in  kind  ;  secondly,  the  debt  of  ex- 
penses attendant  on  improvements  ;  thirdly,  that  of  the  following  year ;  and 
fourthly  and  lastly,  the  debt  of  casualties  and  accidents  which  must  be  borne,  not 
by  the  undertaking,  or,  what  comes  to  the  same  thing,  by  the  farmer — supposing  ; 
the  estate  is  farmed  out — but  by  the  estate  itself,  or  by  the  proprietor  (and,  there- 
fore, a  special  account  should  be  kept  open  for  the  insertion  of  these  casualties) 
— all  these  items  must  be  added  to  the  credit  side  of  the  account  which  is  about 
to  be  balanced.  The  residue  which  is  left,  after  one  account  has  been  deducted 
from  the  other,  is  the  true  net  profit  or  loss. 

I  should  advise  all  those  who  may  wish  to  adopt  this  method  of  book-keeping, 
to  make  trial  of  it  for  one  year  at  first,  and,  during  that  period,  to  continue  using 
the  method  to  which  they  were  previously  accustomed,  in  order  that  their  ac-  \ 
counts  may  not  be  embarrassed  and  spoiled  by  errors  which  might  not  perhaps  at 
first  be  discovered. 

Whoever  has  once  adopted  this  method,  and  entered  fully  into  the  spirit  of  it, 
will  iiever  afterwards  give  it  up,  or  regret  the  trouble  which  it  may  have  occa- 
sioned to  him  at  first.  The  clear,  precise,  and  accurate  manner  in  which  it  dem- 
onstrates every  result,  not  only  of  each  particular  part  or  operation  of  the  rural 
economy,  but  also  of  the  relations  which  the  several  parts  bear  to  each  other  ; 
the  hints  which  may  be  derived  from  it  for  the  improvement  of  the  system  of 
management  and  cultivation  ;  the  facility  which  it  aflfords,  and  with  which  it 
enables  any  one  to  retain  an  absolute  control  over  the  agricultural  operations  and 
the  consumption  of  food,  even  while  in  his  own  chamber,  or  while  absent ;  and 
lastly,  the  indications  which  it  gives  of  the  various  objects  to  which  attention 
ought  to  be  directed — all  these  will  tend  abundantly  to  compensate  for  the  care 

(341) 


70  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


n 


which  will  he  required  in  order  to  reduce  it  perfectly  to  practice,  and  particular- 
ly in  the  first  year.  During  that  period,  the  most  difficult  and,  nevertheless,  the 
most  necessary  part  of  the  system,  is  to  establish  the  day-books,  and  keep  them 
in  a  proper  manner  ;  but  here,  also,  the  difficulty  lies,  not  in  the  thing  itself,  but 
only  in  the  ideas  and  principles  Avhich  must  be  imparted  to  those  persons  to  whom 
the  keeping  of  the  books  is  entrusted.* 

PROPORTION  OF  THE  MANURE  TO  THE  QUANTITY  OF  FODDER  AND  THE  NUMBER  OF 
CATTLE.f 

The  principal  article  which  contributes  most  to  the  formation  of  the  plants 
which  we  cultivate,  which  causes  them  to  grow  and  to  bear  the  seed  which  is 
destined  for  their  reproduction,  is  manure,  or  the  mould  produced  by  its  decom- 
position. 

The  quantity  and  quality  of  the  plants  which  we  propagate  depends,  therefore, 
on  the  quantity  and  richness  of  the  manure  which  we  can  afford  them.  Next, 
then,  to  labor  and  the  manner  of  superintending  its  execution,  the  subjects  which 
most  naturally  present  themselves  to  our  consideration  are,  the  nature  of  ma- 
nures, the  means  of  obtaining  them,  and  the  proportion  between  the  quantity  of 
the  manure  and  that  of  the  produce. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  supply  the  place  of  manure  by  an  increase  of  la- 
bor, or  to  supply  the  place  of  labor  by  an  additional  quantity  "of  manure,  but  the 
success  of  these  experiments^  has  necessarily  been  merely  apparent  at  first,  and 
but  of  short  duration.  Jethro  TuU  imagined  that  he  could  altogether  dispense 
with  manure  and  replace  it  by  the  application  of  frequently  repeated  tillage  ap- 
plied to  his  crops,  sown  in  rows,  and  by  the  complete  division  of  the  parts  of  the 
soil  produced  by  that  means.  The  plan,  at  first,  turned  out  favorably  for  himself 
and  his  followers,  for  they  had  a  fertile  soil  to  work  upon,  which  had  for  a  long 
time  previously  been  plentifully  supplied  with  manure  ;  in  fact,  by  repeated  til- 
lage and  the  consequent  exposure  of  the  soil  to  the  action  of  the  air,  all  the  nu- 
tritive particles  contained  in  it  were  converted  into  extractive  matter  fit  for  the 
food  of  plants,  and  thus  brought  into  the  service  of  the  roots  and  their  fibres. 
But  this  eS'ect  can  only  last  for  a  few  years  ;  and  wherever  this  system  of  draw- 
ing upon  the  riches  of  the  soil  is  closely  followed,  it  will  eventually  render  it  so 
poor,  that  plentiful  and  repeated  manurings  will  scarcely  be  able  to  restore  it  to 
anything  like  fertility. 

There  certainly  are  some  kinds  of  land  which  are  naturally  so  rich  in  them- 
selves, and  which  have  been  so  little  impoverished  by  cultivation,  that  they  do 
not  require  manure ;  but  these  are  rarely  to  be  met  with,  and  form  exceptions  to 
the  general  rule  ;  we  shall  treat  of  them  more  at  length  in  the  proper  place.  It 
very  frequently  happens  that  the  degree  of  fertility  possessed  by  any  particular 
field  or  piece  of  land,  and  which  is  entirely  owing  to  the  land  having  been  used 
as  meadow  ground  for  some  time,  and  from  a  number  of  cattle  having  been  kept 
upon  it,  is  attributed  to  the  nature  of  the  soil. 

*  The  author  has  given  a  lengthened  description  of  the  systems  that  are  adopted  in  keeping  acronnts  in 
agricultural  establishments,  a  subject  that  has  obtained  much  attention  in  this  country,  and  in  which  consid- 
erable diiBculty  has  been  experienced  when  attempted  to  be  followed  out  to  the  extent  of  which  it  would 
seem  to  be  capable.  The  system  finally  recommended  by  the  author  ditfers  little  from  the  most  approved 
method  in  this  country,  in  which  every  chief  article  and  operation  en  a  farm  is  entered  in  a  separate  ac- 
count ;  that  is,  every  aiticle  and  operation  that  influences  the  conduct  of  the  establishment,  and  the  final  loss 
or  gain,  and  which  it  is  necessary  to  exhibit  in  a  separate  form  and  disjoined  from  other  contingencies.  The 
result  of  each  separate  account  appears  in  a  money  column,  to  which  standard  all  values  are  reduced  ;  and 
the  balance  of  this  column  shows  the  profit  or  loss  in  the  speculation. 

The  difficulty  lies  in  determining;  the  number  of  separate  accounts,  and  in  limiting  the  unnecessary  multi-     . 
plication  of  books.     Some  speculative  vniters  have  carried  their  ideas  very  far.  and  have  proposed  separate 
accotmts  for  each  field  ;  but  they  involved  themselves  in  valuations  very  difficult  to  be  ascertained,  and'  in    ' 
calculations  not  required  for  the  purpose  in  view.     One  book,  called  a  "  ledger,"  may  comprehend  each  sep. 
arate  account  in  columns,  and  to  which  book  all  the  other  detached  accounts  will  be  carried.    The  number 
of  the  latter  will  depend  on  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  establishment :  labor-books  are  indispensable,  and 
beyond  these  two  divisions,  few  concerns  will  require  any  more.     A  separate  cash-book  is  now  much  used, 
containing  every  particular  of  the  sums  of  money  expended,  and  by  which  is  seen  the  general  state  of  re- 
ceipts and  expenditure  of  the  whole  business,  without  the  trouble  of  referring  to  each  separate  head  in  the    i 
ledger.     Many  plans  and  books  are  proposed  to  be  kept  by  amateurs,  which  are  not  required  by  the  practi- 
cal man ;  but  every  person  who  knows  his  business,  and  thinks  on  what  he  is  required  to  do,  will,  as  the 
author  very  judiciously  observes,  form  apian  to  suit  the  situation  and  circumstRnces,  and  for  which  pur|jose 
a  carefiil  study  and  examination  of  every  plan  published  will  afford  materials  of  selection,  as  no  single 
method  can  be  devised  which  vrill  be  adapted  to  every  circumstance  of  cultivation  and  locality. 

t  In  order  to  enter  more  fully  into  the  views  of  the  author,  and,  at  his  request,  I  have  remodeled  this  chap- 
ter, so  as  to  insert  in  it  those  obseiTations  and  those  modifications  which  were  oiiginally  inserted  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  second  volume  of  the  German  edition.  [French  Trans. 
(342) 


MANURE FODDER CATTLE. 


Although  nature  furnishes  a  number  of  substances  which  tend  to  quicken  ve- 
getation, either  by  augmenting  the  vital  principles  or  by  assisting  in  the  decom- 
position of  the  mould,  it  is  only  the  mould  or  humus  (finely-divided  organic  mat- 
ter) which  is  capable  of  the  requisite  degree  of  decomposition,  or  the  vegeto- 
animal  manures,  which  supply  to  plants  the  most  essential  particles,  and  those 
most  necessary  for  their  nourishment.  I  say  their  most  essential  particles,  be- 
cause they  could  likewise  derive  some  nourishment  from  the  decomposition  of 
water  as  well  as  from  the  gaseous  substances  contained  in  the  air,  and  from  their 
combination  ;  and  that,  if  instead  of  removing  the  plants  from  the  spot  on  which 
they  grow,  they  Avere  suffered  to  remain  there  and  decompose  and  resolve  them- 
selves into  earth,  the  operation  of  these  principles  would  tend  to  increase  and 
multiply  the  mass  of  vegetable  products  over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  or  of  any 
particular  field.  This  fact  appears  to  be  demonstrated  by  the  astonishing  fertility 
of  those  soils  which  have  never  been  cultivated,  as,  for  instance,  those  of  ancient 
forests. 

With  regard  to  that  portion  of  the  earth  which  cannot  be  decomposed,  and 
which  resists  the  action  of  fire,  the  experiments  made  by  De  Saussure  and  Schra- 
der  tend  to  prove  that  it  has  little  to  do  with  the  positive  act  of  vegetation,  and 
only  contributes  to  it  by  receiving  the  roots  of  the  plants  and  preservmg  their 
nutritive  matter,  but  is  itself  incapable  of  aflfording  them  sufficient  nourishment 
for  their  support. 

But  as  plants  derive  the  substance  necessary  for  their  nourishment  from  the 
humus,  or  decomposing  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  it  of  course  follows  that 
this  matter  must  be  diminished,  and,  in  course  of  time,  exhausted  by  the  vege- 
tation of  plants  in  the  soil ;  and  the  rapidity  and  degree  of  this  diminution  and 
exhaustion  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  nutrition  which  these  plants  absorb,  or, 
what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  in  proportion  to  the  nutrition  Avhich  they  con- 
tain ;  supposing,  however,  that  they  are  gathered  and  taken  off  the  ground. 

The  strength  of  the  vegetation  and  the  quantity  of  each  product  is  determined 
by  the  proportion  of  nutritive  juices  or  succulent  properties  contained  in  the  soil. 
By  the  terms  "  nutritive  juices  "  or  "  succulent  properties,"  we  mean  to  designate 
that  portion  of  the  mould  which  is  in  a  fitting  state  to  be  taken  up  by  the  roots 
of  the  plants,  that  which  constitutes  the  richness  and  is  the  chief  cause  of  the 
fertility  of  the  soil ;  and  we  admit  that  the  quantity  of  these  juices  is  modified, 
augmented,  or  diminished  by  each  product  which  is  taken  from  the  soil,  because 
every  crop  we  take  from  the  field  serves  more  or  less  to  exhaust  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  and,  unless  we  return  it  some  equivalent  in  the  form  of  manure,  it  will 
very  soon  become  a  barren  waste. 

The  degree  in  which  these  nutritive  juices  are  absorbed  or  diminished,  is  in 
proportion  to  the  size,  weight,  and  also  to  the  nature  of  the  produce.  With  re- 
gard to  the  whole  class  of  cereals,  both  general  experience  and  individual  experi- 
ments tend  to  prove  that  the  diminution  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  nutritive 
substances  which  these  plants  themselves,  and  particularly  their  grain,  contain. 

It  is  well  known  that  wheat  absorbs  them  and  exhausts  the  land  much  sooner 
than  rye,  that  rye  exhausts  it  much  sooner  than  barley,  and  barley  much  sooner 
than  oats.  Experiments  commenced  by  many  persons,  and  which  are,  in  fact, 
hardly  yet  completed,  demonstrate  the  existence  of  this  proportion  more  clearly 
than  could  have  been  expected. 

Accordmg  to  be  best  analysis  that  Einhof  has  formed  of  the  different  quantities 
of  nourishing  and  succulent  properties,  as,  for  instance,  gluten,  starch,  and  mu- 
cilaginous sugar,  contained  in  each  kind  of  grain,  there  appears  to  be  the  follow- 
ing proportion : —  , 


In  Wheat, 78  per  cent. 

Rye 70 

Barley,  according  to  the  qualities  and  species, 65  to  70  " 

Oats," 58  " 

but  the  analysis  of  ibis  kind  of  grain  is  not  yet  completed. 

Lentils, 74  " 

Peas, 75i  " 

French  Beans, 85  " 

Windsor  Beans, 68^  " 

Horse  Beans, 73  " 

(343) 


72  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


Thus,  a  bushel  of  Wheat  of. 92  lbs.  contains  71-76  of  nutritive  juices. 

Rye 86    "  "         60-2 

Barley 72    "  "         48-6 

"  Oats 52    "  "         30-16 

Peas 100    "  "         75-5 

"  Horse  Beans 103    "  "        75-19 

From  these  data,  and  by  taking  into  account  the  differences  in  the  nature  of 
the  succulent  properties  themselves,  as  well  as  in  the  straw  and  in  the  whole  of 
the  experiments  relative  to  this  matter,  into  which,  however,  we  shall 
not  enter  until  we  come  to  treat  of  each  product  separately,  we  will  admit 
that  the  crops  of  grain,  properly  speaking,  bear  the  following  proportions  to  each 
other  as  regards  their  nutritive  principles  and  the  degree  in  which  they  exhaust 
the  soil : — 

Wheat, 13 

Rye, 10 

Barley, 7 


Oa 


Thus,  6  bushels  of  Rye  are  equal  to  4-61  of  Wheat. 
8-58  of  Barley. 
12-      of  Oats. 

We  ought,  therefore,  to  expect  that,  when  a  certain  quantity  of  nutritive  mat- 
ter is  spread  over  a  soil  which,  from  its  composition  and  physical  qualities,  is 
equally  fitted  to  produce  any  one  of  the  cereal  plants,  a  crop  of  grain  equal  to 
this  proportion  will  be  produced  ;  especially  if,  besides,  we  can  ensure  the  exist- 
ence of  this  equality  united  Avith  cultivation  and  the  temperature  best  adapted 
to  the  kind  of  grain  that  is  used.  This  proportion  generally  exists  in  the  crop  ; 
for,  if  at  one  time  we  obtain  a  more  plentiful  return  than  was  expected,  the  fol- 
loAving  harvests  will  be  proportionally  diminished.  ' 

The  relation  of  the  produce  to  the  exhausting  property,  has  not,  as  yet,  been 
determined  with  any  degree  of  precision,  excepting  in  those  kinds  of  grain  m 
most  common  use.     As  to  other  vegetable  products,  we  do  not,  as  yet,  know  any 
thing  definite   respecting  them ;  the  results  are  doubtless  very  different  where 
these  crops  occur  very  frequently,  instead  of  being  used  as  intermediate  or  alter- 
nate products  with  separate  crops  of  the  gramineous  grain-bearing  plants.     We 
shall  not  enlarge  on  this  subject,  until  we  come  to  speak  of  the  succession  of 
/  crops,  and  shall  only  observe  here,  that  vegetables,  peas,  beans,  and  vetches  have 
been  regarded  as  ameliorating  crops  ;  and  their  possessing  this  property  has  been 
attributed  to  the  shade  which  their  leaves  produce,  the  kind  of  culture  they  re- 
/  quire  while  growing,  which  loosens  the  soil  and  keeps  it  clear  of  weeds,  the  air 
'  which  they  exhale,  and  the  stem  and  large  roots  which  they  leave  in  the  soil. 
Many  persons  have  considered  these  crops  as  equivalent  to  a  dead  fallow,  when 
'    they  are  not  repeated  too  frequently  in  the  same  place,  and  when  the  plants  are 
both  vigorous  and  close  together,  which  can  only  happen  where  the  land  is  in 
good  condition.     Experience  and  theory,  however  tend  to  prove  that  it  is  going 
rather  too  far  to  compare  these  crops  to  a  dead  fallow,  which  latter  really  causes 
'\  an  actual  increase  in  the  nutritive  portion  of  the  soil.     The  number  of  experi- 
I    ments  on  this  subject  which  have  been  made  on  land  cultivated  according  to  the 
!    triennial  rotation  of  crops,  has  induced  a  great  number  of  agriculturists  to  think 
that,  supposing  the  quantity  of  manure  and  the  number  of  plowings  to  be  the 
same  in  both  cases,  the  crop  of  autumnal  corn  and  the  spring  crop  by  which  it  is 
succeeded  will  be  about  a  bushel  less  in  quantity  than  they  would  have  been 
after  a  dead  fallow.     But  ten  degrees  less  of  fertility  will  not  explain  this  defi- 
ciency ;  it  will  require  rather  from  seventeen  to  twenty  degrees,  for  the  rye  will 
absorb  five  out  of  the  seventeen,  before  it  can  produce  a  bushel  of  grain  ;  conse- 
quently, if  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  diminished  from  seventeen  to  twenty  degrees, 
the  produce  in  rye  will  also  be  diminished  by  a  bushel,  and  the  spring  crop  will 
be  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  twelve  or  fifteen  degrees  which  still  remain  to  be 
I    used.     For  this  reason  I  fix  the  positive  exhaustion,  or  impoverishment  occasioned 
!    by  crops  of  vegetables,  at  ten  degrees,  and  take  that  as  a  general  average,  with- 
I  out  pausing  to  inquire  whether  the  crop  is  plentiful  or  not ;  because  experience 
I  teaches  us  that  the  finer  the  vegetation,  the  less  does  it  impoverish  the  soil. 
Some  attentive  observers  have  remarked,  that  when  the  winter  crop  of  com  was 

(344) 


MANURE FODDER CATTLE. 


very  fine  and  abundant  after  peas,  the  spring  crop  was  proportionably  poor  ;  in  ] 
these  cases,  therefore,  they  sowed  oats  instead  of  barley.  Superficial  observa- 
tions have  rendered  the  opinions  exceedingly  diversified  with  regard  to  the  greater  ' 
or  less  exhausting  properties  of  other  products.  Many  agriculturists  assert,  that 
potatoes  deteriorate  and  exhaust  the  productive  power  of  the  soil  very  much ; 
and  adduce  in  support  of  this  opinion  the  ill-success  of  the  autumnal  crop  of  corn 
which  succeeds  the  potato  crop;  this  assertion,  however,  generally  emanates 

!'  from  those  who  sow  their  seed  immediately  afterwards,  Aviihout  any  previous 

I  preparation,  or  without  the  interposition  of  any  ameliorating  crops — as  turnips, 
or  grass — and,  consequently,  when  the  land  is  in  an  unfavorable  condition  for  the 

'  reception  of  grain.  On  the  other  hand,  we  meet  with  persons  who  cultivate  the 
spring  crop  after  potatoes,  and  are  ready  to  maintain  that  it  yields  equally  as 
well  as  the  autumnal  crops  Avhich  succeed  a  fallow.  It  has  been  lately  proved 
by  several  experiments,  that  potatoes,  and  other  roots  cultivated  successfully,  ex- 
haust those  soils  which  were  previously  in  good  condition  but  little.  This,  how- 
ever, seems  to  me  to  be  carrying  the  matter  too  far  :  my  own  observations  have 
led  me  to  believe  that  two  loads  of  manure  per  acre,  each  containing  twenty 
quintals,  will  more  than  equal  the  impoverishment  occasioned  by  a  crop  of  pota- 
toes ;  at  least,  wherever  I  have  allowed  this  quantity,  I  have  never  been  able  to 
detect  any  diminution  in  the  two  crops  of  grain,  viz.  rye  and  barley,  which  fol- 
lowed. I  must  entreat  all  persons  who  have  the  opportunity,  to  pay  attention  to 
this  subject.  Here,  again,  there  ought  to  be  some  difference  made  betAveen  the 
treatment  of  the  soil  after  a  plentiful  crop,  cr  after  one  which  is  not  so  abundant. 
If  the  potatoes  are  planted  very  closely  together,  they  certainly  produce  a  greater 

]  quantity  ;  but  then  they  camiot  be  so  carefully  cultivated  ;  the  fertilizing  influ- 
ence of  the  cultivation  is,  consequently,  very  considerably  diminished,  and  the 
soil  is  more  impoverished.  I  am,  therefore,  content  with  80  bushels  of  produce, 
for  the  small  quantity  of  five  bushels  of  seed,  per  acre.  Thus,  I  reckon  the  ex- 
haustion which  they  occasion  at  thirty  ;  attributing  to  them,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  same  fertilizing  influence  as  that  of  a  fallow,  namely,  ten  degrees.* 

The  exhaustion  or  impoverishment  occasioned  by  crops  of  grain  may  be  re- 
paired in  three  v/ays  : — 

In  the  first  place,  by  the  carrying  and  incorporation  of  manure,  properly  so 
called.  The  nutritive  faculty  of  the  soil  is  more  or  less  augmented  in  proportion 
to  the  quality  of  this  naanure;  and  the  goodness  of  the  crop  is  also  regulated  by 
the  same  power,  at  least  to  a  certain  point ;  but  beyond  that,  the  manure  becomes 
absolutely  injurious,  causing  over  luxuriant  growth  of  corn.  In  forming  an  esti- 
mate ^  the  amelioration  or  deterioration  of  the  soil,  we  may  regard  a  load  of 
dung,'mken  at  a  suitable  degree  of  fermentation,  and  weighing  2,000  lbs.  as  equal 
to  ten  degrees  on  an  acre  of  land  ;  and  thus,  five  such  loads  of  manure  would  be 
equal  to  fifty  degrees. 

i'he  nature  of  the  manure  must  likewise  be  taken  into  consideration  ;  we  have 
here  supposed  it  to  be  common  manure,  composed  of  the  excrements  of  cattle, 
or  of  horses  and  pigs,  and  combined  with  straw  or  litter.  The  dung  of  sheep, 
especially  that  distributed  over  the  fields  by  the  pasturing  of  these  animals  on 
them,  is  not  equally  efficacious ;  it  becomes  more  rapidly  the  food  of  plants,  but 
it  is  also  more  quickly  exhausted.! 


*  Tlie  author,  from  experience,  recommends  the  application  of  a  small  quantity  of  dung  on  land  that  has 
produced  a  crop  of  potatoes,  in  order  to  correct  the  (supposed  ?)  deterioration  inflicted  on  the  soil  by  that 
plant.  Though  he  has  applied  dung  on  the  supposition  that  the  crop  unduly  exhausts  the  soil,  he  seems  in 
doubt  if  the  exhaustion  be  real  or  imaginary,  and  advises  further  attention  to  the  subject.  A  long  and  very  ( ' 
extensive  individual  experience,  in  which  potatoes  and  turnips  were  cultivated  on  a  great  variety  of  soils, 
loamy  clays,  sands,  and  gravels,  in  the  same  field,  and  with  the  same  management  in  eveiy  respect,  never, 
in  any  one  instance,  showed  the  least  visible  diiference  on  any  succeeding  crop — wheat,  barley,  oats,  or  grass 
seeds  :  on  the  contrary,  it  is  thought  that  all  the  crops,  especially  the  last  mentioned,  thrive  best  on  pcitato 
tilth,  li-om  the  greater  degree  of  pulverization  which  the  land  receives.  Behef  can  hardly  be  given  to  .te 
assertion,  that  a  green  crop,  whose  soil  is  manured,  cleaned,  and  pulverized,  can  exhaust  land  more  tnan 
two  or  three  grain  crops  in  succession ;  the  current  opinion  must  have  arisen  from  attributing  the  eftect  to 
the  wrong  cause,  and  that  opinion  seems  to  have  misled  the  author  so  far  as  to  induce  the  application  of  an 
additional  quantity  of  manure,  without  sufficient  reason  for  such  an  application. 

t  Experience  will  receive  with  limitation  this  observation  of  the  author,  that  land  is  exhausted  by  heavy 
crops  of  esculent  plants,  and  that  it  is  enriched  by  thin  slight  crops  from  admitting  more  perfect  cultivation. 
General  observation  would  lead  to  a  contrary  conclusion  in  this  country;  in  the  case  of  thin  straggling  crops 
of  any  kiud,  the  benefit  imparted  by  the  shade  of  close  crops  is  wholly  wanting,  and  exposure  w"buld  seem 
to  be  detrimental.  The  quantity  of  seed  allowed  by  the  author  to  an  acre  of  potato  ground  is  only  five 
bushels  :  the  produce  is  sixteen  from  one,  which  is  about  an  average  crop  in  this  kingdom. 
(345) 


74 


THAERS   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Secondly,  by  what  is  called  repose,  or  inactivity  {repos),  or,  rather,  by  the 
conversion  of  the  fields  into  pasture  grounds.  The  putrefaction  of  the  herbage 
which  grows  spontaneously,  of  the  worms  and  insects  that  lodge  in  it,  and  the 
excrements  of  the  cattle  which  pasture  on  it,  communicate  to  the  soil  a  nutritive 
power,  which  is  greater  or  less  in  proportion  to  the  state  of  the  land  when  it  was 
left  to  nature,  to  the  abundance  and  vigor  of  the  vegetation,  and  to  the  quantity 
of  excrements  voided  by  the  cattle.* 

This  advantage  may  be  fixed : 

{a)  According  to  an  inverse  proportion  of  the  extent  necessary  for  the  whole 
maintenance  of  a  cow. 

If  3|  acres  be  sufEcient,  this  amelioration  may  be  considered  as  equal  to  10  degrees. 
If  3  "  "  "  "  11 

If  25  ..  ..  u  u  12        -, 

If2i  "  "  "  "  13 

If  2  "  "_  "  "  14 

On  the  other  hand,  if  3^  acres  are  required  for  a  cov/,  the  amelioration  can  only 

be  considered  as  equal  to 8 

if  4  "  6 

if4j  "  4 

(h)  Or  according  to  the  state  of  fertility  in  which  the  soil  was  allowed  to  grow 
herbage. 

If  the  soil  contained  40  degrees  of  fertility,  then  it  annually  gains  10  degrees. 

50  "  "  11 

60  "  "  12 

70  "  "  13 

"         80  "  "  14, 

90  «  «  15 

If,  on  the  contrary,  only  30  "  "  8         " 

20  "  "  6 

"  10  "  "  4 

When  we  come  to  treat  more  particularly  of  herbage,  we  shall  enter  more 
fully  into  an  explanation  of  the  method  of  determining  the  value  of  the  pasturage, 
according  to  the  degree  of  fertility  contained  in  the  soil. 

The  additional  fertility  which  is  produced  by  clover,  varies  according  to  the 
closeness  of  the  crop,  and  the  length  of  shoot  which  the  plants  are  suffered  to 
attain  before  they  are  buried  by  plowing  ;  and  this  latter  circumstance  has  a  very 
material  i:ifluence  on  the  improvement  produced  by  clover.  Imfact,  it  is  evident 
that  when  this  plant  is  thick  and  averages  from  eight  to  nine  inches  in  bight,  it 
yields  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  vegetable  manure  to  the  soil ;  but  the 
thicker  the  clover,  the  greater  will  be  this  advantage,  because  then  one  Howing 
will  be  sufficient.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  principle,  that  clover  sown 
on  land  containing  60  degrees  of  fertility,  will  improve  it  by  10  degrees  ;  if  the 
land  contains  70  degrees,  the  improvement  will  amount  to  12  degrees  ;  if  80,  to 
14  ;  and  if  90,  to  16,  &c.  &c. 

The  same  may  be  observed  with  regard  to  vetches  cut  while  green,  if  before 
burying  them,  they  are  allowed  to  stand  and  sprout  again  ;  but  this  second 
growth  can  only  take  place  where  the  plants  are  thick  and  vigorous,  and  where 
they  were  mown  just  as  they  had  begun  to  flower. 

Thirdly,  by  a  dead  summer  fallow,  attended  with  proper  cultivation ;  by  means 
of  which  the  soil  will  not  only  be  cleaned  and  pulverized,  but  will  likewise  re- 
ceive positive  nutrition,  as  well  from  its  different  parts  being  successively  sub- 
mitted to  the  fertilizing  influence  of  the  gases  contained  in  the  atmospheric  air, 
as  from  the  putrefaction  of  the  plants  and  roots  buried  in  it  by  the  operation  of 
plowing  being  hastened  and  expedited.  The  more  vigorous  and  better  the  soil, 
the  more  efficacious  does  the  fallow  become ;  and  in  proportion  as  it  has  been 
complete,  and  the  soil  has  been  thoroughly  cleaned,  pulverized,  and  aerated,  and 
the  nutritive  particles  which  it  contained  brought  into  action,  will  the  subsequent 
crops  be  abundant.  It  is,  however,  a  fact  that  in  this  manner  a  greater  degree 
of  exhaustion  is  subsequently  created. 

*  The  crops  of  the  farmer,  if  used  in  their  green  or  uA-ipe  state,  exhaust  the  soil  which  produced  them 
in  a  much  less  degree  than  the  same  crops  when  sutfered  to  ripen  their  seed ;  for  their  saline,  and 
other  matters,  increase  in  proportion  as  the  plants  attain  maturitj'.  Now,  the  ameliorating  grass  lands  to 
which  our  excellent  author  alludes  are  those  fed  incessantly  by  the  Uve  stock  of  the  farm ;  the  produce 
consumed  green ;  the  soil  constantly  enriched  by  the  excrements  of  the  cattle  by  Which  they  are  deposited. 
(346) 


MANURE FODDER CATTLE. 


There  is  no  doubt  that  the  fallow  absorbs  or  attracts  the  fertilizing  properties 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  that  the  better  the  condition  of  the  soil  the  greater  is  the 
quantity  of  nutritive  particles  thus  absorbed;  besides,  the  richer  the  soil  the 
greater  will  be  the  quantity  of  weeds  which  spring  from  it,  and  the  putrefaction 
of  which  will  also  contribute  to  ameliorate  it.  From  these  considerations  we 
may  conclude,  that  if  the  soil  contains  40  degrees  of  fertility,  the  fallow  will  add 
10  to  it ;  if  50,  the  increase  will  amount  to  11  ;  if  60,  to  12,  and  so  on. 

Every  one  must  determine  for  himself,  according  to  his  own  situation  and  cir- 
cumstances, which  of  these  three  methods  of  improving  the  land  will  suit  him 
best.  Should  he  have  succeeded  in  being  able  to  procure  an  abundant  quantity 
of  manure  from  his  own  farm,  he  will,  doubtless,  iind  the  first  mentioned  mode 
to  be  the  most  efficacious  ;  but,  unless  that  be  the  case,  the  other  two  may  be 
advantageously  adopted. 

A  field  is  seldom  so  much  exhausted  by  the  crops  which  it  has  successively  / 
produced  as  to  be  incapable  of  yielding  any  further  produce.  It  may,  however,  / 
be  so  much  impoverished  that  the  value  of  the  crop  will  barely  cover  the  ex-  '[ 
penses  of  cultivation.  Tliis  faculty  of  production  inherent  in  the  soil  is  desig-  > 
uated  the  natural  fertility.  There  are  difi'erent  degrees  of  this  fertility  ;  when  it  [ 
is  so  high  that  an  acre  of  land  may  still  be  made  to  yield  two  bushels  of  rye 
more  than  the  quantity  sown,  and  nevertheless  must  not  be  sown  agam  from  fear 
of  exhausting  it  too  much,  until  it  has  been  manured  or  suffered  to  rest,  or  be  fal- 
lowed, then  its  natural  fertility  is  supposed  to  be  equal  to  40  degrees  ;  and  this  is 
the  greatest  extent  of  exhaustion  which  a  piece  of  land  of  average  quality,  should 
ever  be  suff'ered  to  reach.  Good  barley  land  which  does  not  contain  more  than 
sixty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand,  a  small  quantity  of  lime,  and  perhaps  about  two 
parts  in  a  hundred  of  finely-divided  organic  matter,  will  seldom  become  so  much 
impoverished,  unless,  indeed,  it  be  purposely  exhausted.  When  it  has  been  ma^ 
nured  once  in  six  years,  we  ahvays  attribute  to  it  60  degrees  of  fertility,  even 
though  it  may  have  produced  four  crops  of  grain  ;  and  we  may  then,  if  we  choose 
yet  further  to  exhaust  it,  also  obtain  other  crops,  care  being  used  to  choose  those 
which  will  only  require  nutrition  in  proportion  to  this  number  of  degrees.  It  is 
generally  supposed  that  the  more  favorable  the  constituent  parts  of  the  soil  to 
the  reproduction  of  vegetation,  the  greater  will  this  natural  fertility  be  ;  and 
that,  in  proportion  as  the  soil  is  of  an  argillaceous  nature,  it  will  be  more  difficult 
for  it  to  be  impoverished  to  that  extent  which  we  have  here  designated  by  40 
degrees,  and,  for  the  reason  that  it  retains  the  nutritive  juices  longer,  will  pro- 
duce less  returns  to  cultivation,  while  it  possesses  within  itself  a  richness  which 
only  requires  to  be  brought  into  action  by  thoroughly  dividing  the  integral  parts 
Vv^hich  contain  the  nutritive  and  succulent  matter.  It  requires  a  great  deal  of  art 
thoroughly  to  exhaust  land  of  this  nature  ;  but,  when  once  it  is  done,  an  im- 
mense sum  must  be  expended  before  it  can  be  restored  to  a  proper  degree  of 
fertility. 

This  property  of  the  soil  which  we  term  its  natural  fertility,  because  it  is  in- 
nate, and  possessed  by  the  soil  at  the  time  we  bestow  fresh  nutritive  matter  on 
it,  and  particularly  when  we  recommence  the  rotation  or  succession  of  crops,  and 
forms  the  ground-work  of  the  amelioration  which  we  wish  to  produce — this  fer- 
tility, I  say,  is  increased  or  diminished  according  to  the  quantity  of  manure  which 
is  mixed  in  the  land,  and  the  number  and  kind  of  crops  whicli  are  produced  du- 
ring the  course  of  the  rotation. 

Thus,  if  a  field  has  received  five  loads  of  manure,  each  containing-  20  quintals,  for 

this  must  be  allowed 50  degrees. 

For  a  dead  fallow^ 10 

For  its  natural  fertility 40 

Thus,  the  whole  amount  of  richness  and  nutrition  may  be  valued  at 100  degrees, 

Others  endeavor  to  attain  the  same  end  by  means  of  trenching  with  the  spade, 
acting  on  the  belief  that  the  under  layer  of  the  soil  acquires  additional  fertility 
while  it  lies  buried  and  inactive,  and  that  when  brought  to  the  surface  it  will    I 
bear  abundant  crops  ;  and  they  fancy  that  by  changing  the  layer  of  the  earth 
every  year  they  shall  ensure  good  crops,  without  being  obliged  to  replenish  the    \ 
land  with  nutritive  matter. 

It  certainly  does  occasionally  happen  that  on  some  soils,  where  the  layer  which 

(347) 


76 


THAERS    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


is  turned  up  and  brought  to  the  surface  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  substances 
which  contain  combinations  of  oxygen  and  hj^drogen  susceptible  of  decompositirtn, 
this  system  appears  to  be  successful  for  a  time;  but  it  will  not  endure  for  any 
length  of  cultivation,  for  after  having  produced  a  few  crops  without  being  ma- 
nured, the  land  becomes  so  poor  as  to  be  incapable  of  affording  the  smallest  nour- 
ishment to  plants.* 

In  the  neighborhood  of  large  towns,  where  manure  can  be  obtamed  at  a  low 
price,  and  in  countries  where,  on  account  of  the  great  extent  of  pasture  lands, 
a  large  number  of  cattle  are  kept,  little  labor  is  bestowed  on  the  ground  ;  it  is 
never  sutiered  to  lie  fallow  ;  the  proper  rotation  of  crops  is  not  observed  ;  the 
fields  are  sown  with  grain  every  year,  and  frequently  with  the  same  kind  of 
plants.  In  those  places,  on  the  other  hand,  where,  from  want  of  fodder,  a  small 
quantity  of  dung  can  be  obtained,  the  farmers  seek  to  improve  their  lands  by 
constant  plowing  and  cultivation,  and  particularly  by  allowing  them  to  lie  fallow, 
and  either  convertmg  them  into  pasture  grounds  or  leaving  them  perfectly  inac- 
tive. This  circumstance  constitutes  the  great  difference  between  the  systems  of 
cultivation  pursued  in  Holstein  and  Mecklenberg,  which  are  otherwise  so  similar. 
In  the  former  country  they  manure  the  land  very  plentifully,  and,  in  order  to 
accomplish  that  purpose,  they  devote  a  considerable  portion  of  it  to  the  growth 
'f  plants  destined  for  the  maintenance  of  cattle  ;  but  they  plow  the  fields  very 
litile,  even  for  the  reception  of  grain.  In  Mecklenberg,  on  the  contrary,  where 
the  system  of  cultivation  will  not  admit  so  much  manure  being  expended  on  the 
land,  the  want  of  it  is  supplied  by  frequent,  carefully  managed,  and  complete  fallows. 
Although  this  substitution  may  be  practicable  to  a  great  extent,  similar  results 
must  never  be  expected  from  it,  since  the  greatest  portion  of  produce  can  only  be 
obtained  when  the  soil,  the  manure,  the  labor,  and  the  kind  of  grain  sown,  are 
in  their  relative  proportions  to  each  other. 

And  if  we  deduct  from  this  sum  the  value  of  the  impoverishment  occasioned 
by  the  crops  produced  in  the  course  of  the  rotation,  the  balance  which  remains 
will  indicate  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil  at  the  close  of  the  succession  or  ro- 
tation, or  that  number  of  degrees  with  which  the  ensuing  course  will  commence. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  is  a  certain  regularity  and  proportion  existing 
in  the  exhaustion  occasioned  by  the  crops.  It  is  thus  that,  after  a  fine  crop  of 
autumnal  corn,  the  spring  crop  generally  proves  meagre  and  scaiity  ;  and  that,  in 
the  triennial  rotation  with  fallowing,  the  autumnal  crop  in  the  second  year,  after 
a  remarkably  good  crop  of  spring  corn,  will  not  be  found  to  answer  so  well.f  For 
the  same  reason,  we  see  that  a  succession  of  abundant  and  scanty  crops,  the  for- 
mer having  been  favored  by  weather  and  temperature,  flourish  and  yield  plenti- 
fully, but  impoverish  the  soil  very  considerably ;  while  the  latter,  having  been 
retarded  by  unfavorable  weather,  leave  morenutritive  matter  in  the  soil  in  which 
they  vegetated  than  they  originally  derived  from  it.  A  careful  examination  and 
observation  of  this  law  of  nature  may  lead  to  results  which  will  enable  us  to  ob- 
tain plentiful  crops  precisely  at  those  seasons  and  in  those  years  when,  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  things,  we  should  have  obtained  very  bad  ones ;  it  may  also 
teach  us  to  reserve  those  powers  which  will  overcome  even  the  influence  of  un- 
favorable temperature  for  using  in  the  latter  periods.  By  this  means,  a  generally 
bad  year  may  be  rendered  exceedingly  profitable  by  a  skillful  and  scientific  agri- 
culturist. It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  the  fact  of  the  same  system  of  cultivation 
not  being  every  where  established  and  practised,  is  really  a  public  benefit. 

Until  other,  more  numerous,  and  better  authenticated  experiments  have  been 
made,  and  all  the  light  thrown  on  this  subject  of  which  it  is  susceptible,  we  are 

*  The  author  thinks  much  art  will  be  required  in  exhausting  a  certain  kind  of  land,  and  very  judiciously 
adds,  that  much  more  art,  and  also  expense,  will  be  required  in  repairing  the  damage  after  the  exhaustion 
has  been  efFected.  In  this  country  the  art  of  exliausting  lands  is  reckoned  %-ei-y  simple,  viz.,  by  continued 
cropping,  which  will  effect  the  purpose  in  a  greater  or  less  time  according  to  the  degi-ee  of  natural  fertility. 
The  art  of  restoring  fertility  to  lands  is  naturally  more  difficult,  and  much  aggravated  by  the  expense,  which 
»h^ily  increases  the  difficulty  of  the  art.  though  the  process  be  universally  known.  No  farmer,  who  de 
selves  the  name,  will  ever  allow  such  a  result  to  happen  on  lands  that  are  under  his  chaa-ge. 

The  obser\-ation  here  made  by  the  author,  that  a  good  crop  of  spring  com  seldom  succeeds  an  abundant 
;i>mnal  crop,  and  vice  versa,  is  in  exact  accordance  with  the  established  fact  that  two  grain  crops  should 
not  follow  each  other.  The  following  remark,  that  a  bad  crop  of  any  kind  enriL-hes  the  land  by  not  extract- 
ing so  much  nutritious  matter  as  an  abundant  produce,  is  more  difficult  of  admission  in  this  coimtry  ;  and 
the  meaning  of  the  author  is  rather  obscure  how  the  skillful  agriculturist  can  render  a  bad  year  profitable, 
and  secure  nlentiful  crops  in  adverse  seasons,  by  any  previous  foresight  or  arrangement. 
(3481 


MANURE FODDER CATTLE,  77 

led,  from  what  is  at  present  known,  to  believe  that  a  crop  of  wheat  will  impov- 
erish a  fertile  and  not  too  cold  a  soil  in  40  degrees  ;  while  a  crop  of  barley  will 
only  exhaust  30  degrees,  and  a  crop  of  spring  grain  25  degrees. 

When  wheat  is  sown  on  a  soil  fitted  for  its  reception,  it  frequently  yields  as 
large  a  quantity  of  grain  as  rye  ;  and  the  produce  not  only  weighs  more,  but  also 
contains  a  greater  amount  of  nutritive  matter  in  the  proportion  of  13  to  10;  thus, 
the  proportion  which  exists  between  the  degrees  in  which  these  two  kinds  of 
!  grain  exhaust  the  soil,  ought  to  be  as  39  to  30  ;  but  as  the  impoverishment  occa- 
'  •  sicned  by  wheat  appears  to  be  still  greater,  we  will  therefore  suppose  it  to  be  equal 
to  40.  With  regard  to  the  spring  crops  of  grain,  the  short  time  their  vegetation 
lasts  must  be  a  sufficient  proof  that  the  exhaustion  which  they  occasion  is  much 
less ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  seldom  that  they  yield  in  produce  an  equal  quantity  of 
nutritive  matter  with  that  furnished  by  tiie  autumnal  crops.  For  some  time  past, 
opinions  have  been  divided  in  the  question  whether  barley  or  oats  are  most  ex- 
hausting ;  and  the  answer,  doubtless,  depends  upon  the  state  of  the  soil,  the 
preparation  which  it  has  received,  and  the  abundance  of  the  crops  of  either  kind 
which  it  has  produced.  On  strong  land  which  has  received  a  slight  plowing, 
oats,  which  possess  a  greater  capability  of  absorption,  will  exhaust  more  than 
barley  ;  but  then  they  will  also  produce  a  finer  crop,  and  we  therefore  consider 
them  to  be  about  equal. 

These  data  are  not  founded  merely  on  the  theory  of  the  nutritive  or  succulent 
matters,  but  are  deduced  from  a  summary  of  the  results  furnished  by  general  ex- 
perience, and  are  in  perfect  harmony  with  those  which  have  been  observed  in 
well  directed  agricultural  undertakings,  and  which  in  average  years  are  admitted 
in  case  of  lands  of  moderate  fertility.  We  only  summon  theory  to  our  aid  in  this 
case  to  assist  us  in  forming  a  standard  or  measure  by  means  of  which  each  pro- 
duct may  receive  an  average  value,  always  taking  into  account  the  various  cir- 
cumstances by  which  it  is  influenced ;  and  the  realization  of  this  standard  or 
measure  proves,  in  its  turn,  the  correctness  of  the  theory. 

Some  of  the  more  exhausting  kinds  of  grain  may  occasionally,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  favorable  weather  and  temperature,  yield  a  larger  amount  of  produce 
than  we  have  here  assigned  to  them  ;  but  they  will  also  impoverish  the  soil  in  a 
']  greater  degree,  and  the  succeeding  crops  will  be  proportionally  less.  All  that  is 
here  attempted  is  to  discover  the  sum  total  of  the  produce,  and  the  greater  or 
less  degree  of  fertility  retained  by  the  soil. 

In  this  hypothetical  calculation  I  have  endeavored,  as  much  as  possible,  to  con- 
fine myself  to  round  numbers,  and  to  leave  out  all  fractions  ;  because  these  latter 
would  only  have  rendered  the  calculations  more  difficult,  without  making  any 
sensible  difference  in  the  results. 

If  we  would  calculate  the  probable  produce  of  a  crop  of  any  single  species  of 
grain,  according  to  the  amount  of  easily  soluble  matter  in  the  soil,  we  must  take 
several  accessory  circumstances  into  account.  When  these  accessory  circum- 
stances are  favorable,  a  vegetable  will  yield  a  much  larger  produce  from  land 
possessing  the  same  nature  and  degree  of  fertility  than  when  the  contrary  is  the 
case.  These  circumstances  include  a  cultivation  or  preparatory  crop  which  will 
destroy  all  the  weeds  which  would  otherwise  prove  injurious  to  the  produce,  and 
also  those  influences  of  the  weather  which  we  can  neither  foresee  nor  prevent. 
,  We  ought,  therefore,  to  have  these  circumstances  constantly  before  our  eyes 
while  endeavoring  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  produce,  which,  from  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  and  the  nature  of  the  grain,  we  may  be  led  to  expect ;  and  to  bear  in 
mind  that  this  attractive  power  can  only  be  brought  fully  into  action  where  it 
meets  with  no  obstacles. 

We  have  stated  the  average  absorbing  power  of  rye  to  be  as  30  to  every  100 
degrees  of  soluble  or  succulent  matter  in  the  soil,  and  we  shall  now  fix  the  pro- 
duce of  this  kind  of  grain  at  six  bushels  besides  the  seed ;  thus  allowing  five  de- 
\  grees  of  impoverishment  for  every  bushel. 

According  to  the  same  principle,  and  to  the  proportion  of  the  absorption  of  nu- 
triment of  the  difi'erent  kinds  of  grain,  we  ought  to  attribute 
To  a  bushel  of  wheat,  6J  deg.  of  impoverishment, 
barley,  3^  " 

"  oats,      2^  " 

and,  consequently,  to  be  able  to  calculate  the  probable  number  of  bushels  which 
L^        (34?) 


78 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


will  be  yielded  by  a  crop  of  each  kind  of  grain  on  land  of  a  certain  degree  of  fer- 
tility, as  well  as  the  impoverishment  of  the  soil  which  will  ensue.  In  fact,  we 
ought  to  be  able  to  distinguish  the  exhaustive  power  possessed  by  a  particular 
kind  of  grain,  from  the  nutritious  juices  of  the  soil  which  it  employs  in  its  forma- 
tion ;  for  these  two  things  do  not  always  seem  to  be  in  absolute  relation  to  each 
other.  But  the  quantity  of  nutritious  matter  which  a  bushel  of  grain  employs  in  i 
its  formation,  is  equal  to  the  quantity  which  this  measure  detracts  from  the  soil. 

In  order  to  explain  what  we  have  already  said  with  regard  to  the  proportion  in   . 
which  different  kinds  of  grain  exhaust  the  soil,  we  will  give  a  few  examples ; 
and  suppose,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  soil  contains  140  degrees  of  fertility.    The 
exhausting  power  of  wheat  is  40  in  100. 

100  :  40  :  :  140  =  56. 
A  bushel  of  wheat  absorbs  65  degrees  of  fertility, 

6-5  :  1  :  :  56  =  86  bushels,  which  may  be  produced  by  these  140  degrees  of  fertility. 
The  exhausting  power  of  rye  is  30  in  100. 

100  :  30  :  :  140  =  42. 
A  bushel  of  lye  absorbs  5  degrees  of  fertility, 

5  :  1  :  :  42  =  8-4. 
The  exliausting  power  of  barley  is  25  in  100. 

100  :  25  :  :  140  =  35. 
A  bushel  of  barley  absorbs  Sj  degrees  of  fertility, 

3-5  :  1  :  :  35  =  10. 
The  exhausting  power  of  oats  is  25  in  100. 
All  these  quantities  are  exclusive  of  the  seed  sown. 

100  :  25  :  :  140  =  35. 
A  bushel  of  oats  absorbs  2^  degrees  of  fertility, 

2-5  :  1  :  :  35  =  14. 

Or,  if  the  produce  be  known,  and  it  is  only  requisite  to  obtain  the  quantity  of 
nutritive  matter  which  has  been  absorbed,  we  proceed  in  an  inverse  method. — 
We  will  suppose  8  bushels  of  wheat,  besides  the  seed :  1  bushel  requires  6|  de- 
grees of  nutritive  matter;  therefore  52  degrees  have  beien  absorbed,  and  there 
only  remains  88  of  the  140. 

If  we  suppose  8  bushels  of  rye,  each  bushel  absorbing  5  degrees  ;  these  8  will 
deduct  40  degrees  from  the  140,  and  only  100  will  remain.  Again,  if  we  suppose 
11  bushels  of  barley,  at  3|  degrees,  per  bushel,  these  11  will  impoverish  the  soil 
38-5  degrees,  and  there  will  only  remain  101*5.  And,  lastly,  if  we  suppose  14 
bushels  of  oats,  at  2^  degrees  per  bushel,  this  quantity  will  exhaust  35  degrees 
of  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  leave  105.  It  depends  upon  circumstances,  some 
of  which  are  within  our  control  and  the  others  beyond  its  influence,  whether  the 
number  of  bushels  thus  reckoned  from  a  calculation  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
and  the  exhausting  properties  of  the  grain  will  be  realized,  or  whether  the  sum 
will  be  augmented ;  but,  be  the  produce  what  it  may,  the  impoverishment  of  the 
soil  will  be  proportionate  to  the  number  of  bushels  of  grain  obtained. 

As  every  thing  relative  to  the  doctrine  which  I  am  here  laying  down  appears 
to  me  to  be  of  sufficient  importance  to  merit  such  a  clear  and  precise  explanation, 
as  will  help  to  obviate  all  possibility  of  misconception,  I  shall  subjoin,  as  exam- 
ples, some  calculations  relative  to  the  augmentation,  or  diminution  of  fertility 
which  is  produced  by  the  various  rotations  of  crops. 

If  the  natural  fertility  of  a  soil  be 40  degrees. 

And  to  this  is  added  five  loads  of  manure 50*      " 


And  then,  without  being  again  manured,  it  is  subjected  to  the  triennial  rota- 
tion with  naked  fallowing :  it  will  present  the  following  results. 

In  these  calculations,  I  have  intentionally  deducted  the  quantity  of  seed  sown 
from  the  product ;  therefore,  if  any  one  should  wish  to  ascertain  the  sum  total 
of  produce,  he  must  add  the  amount  of  the  seed  to  the  quantity  here  given.  It 
is  certainly  probable  that  the  seed  contains  a  quantity  of  soluble  matter,  quite 
sufficient  for  a  single  reproduction  ;  and  that  thus  the  increase  of  the  quantity  of 
seed,  at  least  to  a  certain  extent,  always  gives  a  much  greater  gross  amount, 
although  it  does  not  yield  any  considerable  increase  of  net  produce. 

*  A  load  of  manure  is  here  supposed  to  contain  twenty  quintals. — French  Trans. — A  quintal  is  equal  to 
112  lbs.  English. 
(350) 


MANURE FODDER CATTLE, 


79  : 


Rotation  of  the  Crops. 

Produce  of  the 

Crop  over  the 

Seed. 

Succulent  matter  absorbed  in 
Proportion  to    the  Species 
and  Quantity  of  the  Grain. 

Additional 
Fertility. 

Remaining 

Fertility. 

1.  Fallow  year 

2    Rye*                         .   -  - 

Bushels. 

6 
5 

3-81 
4-44 

2-6 
3-03 

Degrees. 

30 

17-5 

19-05 
11-11 

13 

7-58 

Degrees. 
70 

3.  Barley* 

4    Fallowt           

52-5 
63-5 

44-45 

6    Oats}:                  

33-34 

7    Fallow 

43-34 

8    live                   

30-34 

9.  Oats 

22-76 

Thus  we  see  that  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil,  which,  at  first,  was  40  de- 
grees, has  diminished  to  22-76  ;  consequently,  it  has  lost  17-24  ;  and  this  is  the 
invariable  result  of  that  system  of  cultivation  which,  after  an  amelioration  of 
five  loads  of  manure  per  acre,  exacts  six  crops  of  grain.  In  order  to  avoid  this 
great  exhaustion  of  the  land,  the  rotation  should  have  been  interrupted  after  the 
fifth  crop ;  but,  by  means  of  feeding  cattle  on  the  ground,  it  might  have  been 
made  to  bear  the  sixth  crop,  and,  beyond  this  point,  no  person  should  ever  go 
without  manuring  the  land  afresh. 

Should  it  be  thought  desirable  to  sow  peas  on  the  manured  fallow  in  this  ro- 
tation of  crops — without,  however,  bestowing  any  additional  quantity  of  manure 
— the  peas  will,  as  we  have  already  observed,  return  some  portion  of  the  nourish- 
ment absorbed  from  the  soil,  but  without  producing  the  efl'ect  of  a  naked  fallow. 
In  this  case  the  following  will  be  the  results : — • 


Rotation  of  the  Crops. 

Produce  of  the 
Crop. 

Nun-itive  Matter  absorbed  in 
Proportion  to  the  Species 
and  Quantity  of  the  Grain. 

Additional 
FertUity. 

Remaining 
Fertility. 

1   Peas 

Bushels. 
5 

4-8 
4 

3-12 
3-64 

2-23 

2-6 

De^ees. 

24 
14 

15-6 
9-1 

ii-9 

6-52 

Degrees. 

Degrees. 
80 

56 

3    Barley                 

42 

4.  Fallow 

52 

5    liye         

36-4 

27-3 

7   Fallow 

37-3 

8    Rye 

26-11 

Here  the  soil  has  lost  20-41  degrees  of  the  fertility  which  it  previously  pos- 
sessed. If  without  augmenting  the  quantity  of  manure  .in  this  rotation,  the 
farmer  should  choose  to  have  a  crop  of  potatoes  instead  of  the  first  fallow,  alid 
if  these  roots  impoverish  the  soil  as  much  as  a  crop  of  rye,  and  nevertheless 
from  the  culture  they  require,  bestow  on  it  all  the  advantages  of  a  fallow,  the 
following  will  be  the  results : — 


Rotatlc 


the  Crops. 


Potatoe.? . 
Barley. . . 
Oats..'.. 
Fallow.. 
Rye 

Fallow.. 

Rye 

Oats 


Produce  of  the 
Crops. 


2-96 
3-45 


2 '15 
2-51 


Nutritive  Matter  absorbed  in 
Proportion  to  the  Produce. 


Degrees. 


17-5 
13-12 


14-81 
8-64 


10-67 
6-29 


Additional 

Remaining 

FeitUity. 

Fertility. 

Degrees. 

Degrees. 

10 

70 

52 

5 

39 

38 

i9 

38 

34 

57 

25 

93 

35 

93 

25 

16 

18 

87 

It  will  here  be  seen  that  the  soil  has  lost  21'13  degrees  of  the  original  fertility, 
and  it  is  therefore  still  left  more  impoverished.     It  certainly  is  not  usual  to  sow  \ 
barley  in  the  second  year  of  the  triennial  rotation  of  crops  in  the  place  of  rye,  ) 
but  it  was  necessary  to  do  so  here.  I 

This  example  will  tend  to  prove  that  the  accusation  of  impoverishing  the  soil,   | 

The  25  per  cent,  of  succulent  matter  left  in  the  soil  by  the  rye  crop.  17J  degrees,  -which,  at  3-5  per  bushel 
of  barley,  ought  to  produce  5  bushels.  "  [French  Trans. 

t  11,  instead  of  10,  because  that  the  soil  has  52  degrees  of  fertility,  instead  of  the  40  which  it  possessed  at 
the  time  of  the  fnst  fallow.  [Freyich  Trans. 

I  Thp  35  per  cent,  of  44-45,  that  is  to  say  11-11,  -which,  fet  2-5  per  bushel,  makes  4-44  of  oats.    [French  Trans. 

m  ■ 


80 


THAER  S    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


so  general-j'  brought  against  potatoes,  is  not  without  foundation,  since  their  intro- 
duction here  not  only  diminishes  the  amount  of  all  the  crops  which  succeed 
them,  but  likeAvise  increases  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil.* 

Where  potatoes  are  cultivated  as  food  for  cattle,  and  are  converted  into  manure, 

which  is  spread  over  the  ground  during  the  first  fallowing,  the  results  will  be 

?  very  different.     But  when  potatoes  are  introduced  into  the  triennial  rotation,  they 

are  usually  cultivated  for  a  very  different  purpose. 
'       Supposing  that  at  the  commencement  of  a  seven  years'  rotation  with  pastiarage,t 

the  soil  possesses  of  natnral  fertility 40  degrees. 

Theiisnal  quantity  of  manure  is  bestowed  on  it,  making 50        " 

And  that  it  becomes  grass  laud  for  three  years 30         " 

120  degrees. 


The  following  will  be  the  results  :- 

- 

Rotation  of  the  Crops. 

Produce  of  the 
Crops. 

Nutritive  Matter 
absorbed. 

Additional  Fertility. 

Remaining  Fer- 
tility. 

1    Fallow 

Bushels. 

7-9S 
6-64 
6-98 

Degi-ees. 

39-9 

23-27 
17-45 

"Tf- 

Degrees. 
133 

2.  Rye                 

93-1 

3    BarleV 

69.83 

4.  Oats 

52.38 

Here  the  soil  has  gained  12-38  additional  degrees  of  fertility,  and  commences 
the  succeeding  course  of  crops  with  this  advantage. 


Nine  years'  rotation  with  pasturage  : 
Na 


f atural  fertility . 
Five  loads  of  manure. . 
Four  years'  pasturage. 


40  degrees. 

50 

40 


Rotation  of  the  Crops. 

Produce  of  the 
Crops. 

Nutrition   absorbed 
by  the  Crops. 

Additional  Fertihty. 

Remaining  Fer- 
tility. 

1    Fallow       

Bushels. 

8-64 
7-2 
4-53 
5-29 

Degrees. 

43'2 

25-2 

13-23 

Degrees. 
14 

Degrees. 
144 

100-8 

3    B  arley           

75-6 

4.  Rye 

52-92 

5.  Oats 

39-69 

Here,  then,  the  soil  is  impoverished  0-31  ;  the  increase  of  produce  yielded,  is 
seemingly  greater,  but  not  real ;  this  system  has,  therefore,  fallen  into  disrepute, 
although  once  so  much  approved,  and  is  now  almost  entirely  abandoned. 

In  the  rotation  of  eleven  years  with  pasturage,  the  land  is  rarely  manured 
with  the  first  fallow  ;  it,  therefore,  commences  the  course  with  no  resources  but 
the  natural  fertility,  and  the  amelioration  resulting  from  four  years  of  pasturage, 
'!  80  degrees. 

The  results  in  this  case  are  as  follows  : — 


Rotation  of  the  Crops. 

Produce  of  the 
Crops. 

Nuti-ition  Absorbed 
by  the  Crops. 

Additional  Fertility. 

Remaining  Fer- 
tility. 

1.  Fallow  on  the  bro- 
ken     up       pasture 
ground ^ . .  - 

Bushels. 

5-64 
6-58 

7-22 
6-10 
6-31 

Degrees. 

28-2 
16-45 

36  "l 

21-06 
15-79 

Degrees. 
14 

71 

Degrees. 

94 

65-8 

3    0  ats               

49-35 

4.  Fallow,    with     six 
loads  of  manure  . .  - 
5   Rve 

120-35 

84-25 

6    Barley        

63-19 

7.  Oats 

47-4 

In  this  tabular  rotation  and  comparative  statement,  potatoes  are  shown  to  exhaust  the  supposed  fertility 
of  the  land,  and  also  to  diminish  the  amount  of  the  succeeding  grain  crops.  This  last  result  dilTers  from  the 
previous  supposition  that  Ught  crops  left  more  nutritive  matter  than  good  returns  ;  if  it  has  been  left  in  this 
case,  it  has  been  inoperative,  though  the  land  was  fallowed  and  might  be  supposed  to  call  it  into  action.  But 
the  assumption  on  which  the  whole  calculation  rests,  viz.  that  a  crop  of  potatoes  exhausts  land  as  much  as 
a  crop  of  rye.  is  purely  hypothetical.  ,.,,,.     .^ 

t  Siehcnsckla  gige  Koppelwirthschaft.     In  Germany  the  term  "  Koppelwirthschaft,  signifies  a  system  of  cul- 
tivation, in  which  the  crops  of  giain  are  succeeded  or  preceded  by  two  or  more  years  of  pasturage,  as  is  gen- 
erally tlie  case  throughout  Holstein  and  Mecklenberg. 
(352) 


MANURE FODDER CATTLE. 


Here  the  soil  gains  7*4  degrees  in  eleven  years. 

Should  we  attempt  to  give  examples  of  complete  alternate  rotations,*  loith 
stall-feeding  of  cattle,  we  must  necessarily  suppose  that  the  quantity  of  manure 
applied  to  the  crops,  is  far  greater  than  that  already  specified  ;  but  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  always  remains  the  same  ;  in  fact,  unless  it  be  possible  to  obtaia  an 
additional  quantity  of  manure  for  the  time,  it  would  be  folly  to  attempt  introduc- 
ing such  a  rotation,  because  the  soil  would  very  speedily  be  exhausted  by  the  fal- 
low crops. 

We  will,  then,  allow  that,  in  a  quadrennial  rotation  of  this  nature,  one  ought 
to  commence  by  bestowing,  at  least,  eight  loads  of  manure  per  acre  on  the  land 
during  the  first  year  ;  so  that,  with  the  natural  fertility,  the  soil  may  contain  120 
degrees. 


Rotation  of  the  Crops. 


1.  Potatoes 

2.  Barley 

3.  Clover 

4.  Rye 

At  the  second  rotation, 

ten  loads  of  manure 
may  be  given 

1.  Potatoes 

2.  Barley 

3.  Clover 

4.  Rye 


Produce  of  i 
Crops. 


Bushels. 
80 
7-14 


Nutrition   absorbed; 
by  the  Crops. 


Degrees. 
30 
25 


37-5 
33.52 


Additional  Fertility, 


Degrees. 
10 


100 
10 


Remaining  Fer- 
tility. 


Degi-ees, 
100 
75 


161-6 
134-1 
100-58 
118-58 
83-01 


Thus,  during  these  eight  years,  and  in  the  course  of  the  two  rotations,  the  soil 
gains  43-01  degrees  of  fertility. 

We  will  now  give  an  example  of  some  land  submitted  to  an  alternate  rotation 
of  the  same  nature,  but  divided  into  seven  parcels, 


The  natural  fertility  of  ■svhich  is 

And  to  which  has  been  added  eight  loads  of  manure. 


120  degi-ees. 


Rotation  of  Crops. 

Produce  of  the 
Crops. 

Nutrition  absorbed. 

Additional  Fertility. 

Remaining  Fer- 
tility. 

Bushels. 
80 
7 

6-06 

6-04 

Degrees. 
25 

3o!3 

20 
30-21 

Degrees. 
10 

13 
13 

50 

Degrees. 

2.  Barley 

75 

4.  Clover .'... 

101 

5.  Rye 

70.7 

6.  Peas,     with      two 
loads  of  manure  . .. 

7.  Rye...- 

100-7 
70-49 

The  soil  has  thus  gained  38-49  degrees  of  fertility. 

In  order  to  be  able  more  easily  to  compare  the  increase  of  fertility  or  the  im- 
poverishment of  the  soil,  which  are  the  results  of  these  several  rotations,  we 
shall  reduce  the  course  to  ten,  and  then  we  shall  have  the  following  results  : — 


Rotations. 

Increase  of  Fer- 
tility. 

Diminution  of  Fer- 
tility. 

Triennial  rotation,  with  dead  fallows  and  an  amelioration 

17'-67 

6-73 
53.76 
43.53 

The  same,  with  peas  on  the  first  fallow    

22-67 

The  seven  years  rotation  with  pasturage 

0-34 

Jlrleven  years  rotation  with  pasturage 

The  alternate  four  years  rotation  with  stall-feeding 

Seven  years  rotation  with  ditto 

■• 

*  Assohmens  alternes  (alternate  rotations) ;  it  is  thus  that  we  designate  the  systems  of  cropping,  in  which 
one  part  of  the  crops  is  destined  for  the  maintenance  of  cattle  and  the  other  for  that  of  man.  Thus,  rota- 
tions with  pasturage  are  properly  called  alternate  rotations,  although  the  successive  crops  of  grain  which 
«re  generally  inh'oduced  are  wholly  at  variance  with  the  principles  which  ought  to  form  the  basis  of  "com 
plete  alternate  rotations."  "  [French  Trans. 

(353) 6. 


82  THAERS   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

To  this  must  be  added  the  progressive  increase  of  the  manure,  which  takes 
place  in  all  those  rotations  in  which  the  general  fertility  is  increased ;  and  also 
the  diminution  which  is  daily  visible  in  the  manure  in  all  those  rotations  which 
tend  to  decrease  the  fertility.  Thus,  the  two  latter  rotations  with  pasturage,  of 
which  we  have  spoken,  and  which  maintain  a  kind  of  equilibrium,  may  be  con- 
'  tinned  for  any  length  of  time  with  equal  success  ;  whereas  the  others  fall  off, 
the  former  from  exhaustion  and  want  of  manure,  the  latter  from  the  excess  of  it, 
and  require  to  be  submitted,  for  a  time,  to  some  other  course,  or  system  of  culti- 
vation, which  will  tend  to  furnish  the  necessary  supply  of  manure  to  the  first,  or 
absorb  that  overplus  in  the  second  which  the  regular  rotations  were  unable  to 
consume. 

The  triennial  rotation  of  crops,  as  we  have  described  it,  absolutely  requires  an 
additional  quantity  of  manure,  or  that  the  greater  part  of  the  fields  shall  only  be 
made  to  produce  a  crop  once  in  three  years,  and  during  the  mtermediate  time 
shall  receive  one  year's  repose  and  a  complete  fallow.  With  regard  to  the  alter- 
nate perfectionated  rotation,  it  will  be  necessary  to  modify  it  by  substituting 
vegetables  intended  for  sale,  for  one  part  of  the  plants  raised  for  fodder  ;  because 
the  former,  by  absorbing  the  superabundance  of  manure,  will  produce  the  finest 
and  largest  crop  that  can  possibly  be  expected. 

The  quantity  of  manure  here  laid  down  is  certainly  only  hypothetical,  but  we 
shall  presently' prove  it  to  be  that  which  is  requisite  for  the  second  rotation.  In 
the  triennial  rotation  with  fallows,  it  will  be  impossible  to  bestow  a  greater 
quantity  of  manure  on  the  land  than  we  have  here  stated,  unless  the  farm  con- 
tains a  good  portion  of  meadow  and  pasture  land,  or  there  are  some  other  means 
of  procuring  manure  within  reach,  or,  lastly,  unless  recourse  be  had  to  the  cul- 
tivation of  clover,  and  to  the  stall-feeding  of  cattle.  The  rotations  with  pastur- 
age may,  and  frequently  will  enrich  the  land  much  more  than  we  have  here  cal- 
culated: and  the  same  may  be  observed  with  regard  to  the  alternate  perfection- 
ated rotations,  whether  united  with  pastuiage  or  with  stall-feeding. 

As  the  system  which  I  am  about  to  mention  appears  to  be,  in  my  opinion,  of 
sufficient  importance  to  merit  a  clear  and  concise  explanation,  which  may  remove 
any  misconception,  I  shall  add  as  examples  some  calculations  relative  to  the  aug- 
mentation and  diininution  of  fertility  consequent  on  the  systems  of  cultivation 
pursued  in  those  agricultural  undertakings  which  have  been  conducted  on  some 
'  of  the  best  cultivated  lands  of  Prussia. 

I  ought  to  observe,  that  in  these  tables  the  products  in  grain  have  been  de- 
duced from  the  results  of  actual  experience,  and  not  from  those  rules  which  I  ; 
have  already  given;  nevertheless,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  general,  and  upon  the 
whole,  they  are  in  tolerable  keeping  with  each  other,  provided  w^  commence  at 
the  second  rotation  of  the  course,  when  the  soil  has  attained  that  degree  of  fer- 
tility which  ought  to  be  produced  by  this  kind  of  cultivation. 

In  order  to  avoid  useless  fractions,  I  shall  suppose  the  quantity  of  seed  sown 
to  be  only  a  bushel  per  acre,  and  I  shall  subsequently  deduct  it  from  the  produce, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  calculate  the  impoverishment  which  may  be  expected  to  en- 
sue from  the  amount  of  the  overplus. 

No.  1. — Triennial  Rotation  System  of  Fallowing  in  all  its  Purity. 

Increase  of         Decrease  of 

Fertility.  Fertility. 

a    Fallow 10  degrees.        — degrees. 

6  7-10  loads  (of  20  quintals)  of  manure 67  — 

b     Rye,  6  bushels —  30 

c    Barley,  6  bushels —  21 

d    Fallow 10  — 

e     Rye,  3  bushels —  17-5 

/    Oats,  4  bushels —  10 

f     Fallow,  with  a  few  cattle  or  sheep  fed  upon  it 28  — 

Rye,  4  bushels —  20 

i    Barley,  3  bushels —  10-5 

115  deg.  109  deg. 

The  soil  would  thus  gain  an  increase  of  6  degrees  of  fertility  in  9  years,  were 
it  not  that  the  manure  produced  by  this  rotation  is  composed  chiefly  of  straw, 
and  consequently  inferior  in  quality. 

(354) 


MANURE FODDER CATTLE.  83 

No.  2. — Perfectionated  Triennial  Rotation. 

Increase  of  Decrease  of 

Fertility.  Fertility. 

a    6  loads  of  manure 60  degrees.        — degrees. 

Peas , —  10 

h     5  bushels  of  Rye —  25 

c    Barley,  5  bushels —  17-5 

d     Pallow,  with  6  loads  of  manure  and  a  few  cattle  fed  upon  it.   90  — 

e    Rye,  7  bushels —  35 

/    Barley,  7  bushels —  24-5 

f     Clover - 12  — 

Rye,  6  bushels —  30 

i     Oat8,7  bushels —  17-5 

162  deg.  159-5  deg. 
tjained  in  nine  years,  2^  degrees. 

No.  3. — Septennial  Rotation  with  Pasturage. 

Increase  of  Decrease  of 

Fertility.  Fertility. 

a    Fallow 12  degrees.        — degrees. 

5  8-10  loads  of  manure 58  — 

h    Rye,  7^  bushels —  37-5 

c    Barley,  7J  bushels —  26-25 

d     Oats,  7  bushels —  17-5 

«     Clover  for  mowing 10  — 

fg    Pasturage 20  — 

100  deg.  81-25  deg. 
Gained  during  the  seven  years,  18J  degrees  of  fertility. 

No.  4. — Rotation  of  Ten  Years  with  Pasturage, 

Increase  of  Decrease  of 

Fertility.  Fertility. 

a    Fallow , 10  degrees.       — degrees. 

3  loads  of  manure 30  — 

h    Rye,  7  bushels —  35 

c     Oats,  9  bushels —  22-5 

&    Fallow 10  — 

5  loads  of  manure 50  — 

c    Rye,  7  bushels —  35 

/    Barley,  7  bushels., —  24-5 

g    Clover  for  mowing 10  — 

30  — 

140  deg.  117  deg. 
Gained  23  degrees  in  ten  years. 

No.  5. — Rotation  of  Twelve  Years  with  Pasturage. 

Increase  of  Decrease  of 

Fertility.  Fertility. 

a    Fallow 10  degrees.        — degrees. 

3  1-7  loads  of  manure 31-23  — 

h    Rye,  6  J  bushels '. —  32-5 

c    Barley,  6^  bushels —  22-75 

i     Gats,  5  bushels —  12-5 

e    Fallow 10  — 

6  loads  of  manure 60  — 

/    Rye,  7  bushels —  35 

g    Barley,  6  bushels —  21 

h     Oats,  5  bushels —  12-5 

i     Clover  for  movt'ing , 10  — 

I  m    Pasturage '. 30  — 

151^  deg.  136^  deg. 
Increase  of  fertility  in  twelve  years,  15  degrees. 

No.  6. — The  Rotation  of  Ten  Years  as  practised  in  Holstein. 

Increase  of         Decrease  of 

Fertility.  ='ertility. 

a    Oats  sown  on  the  broken-up  pasturage,  11  bushels —  degrees.        37-5  deg. 

b    Fallow 12  - 

8  loads  of  manure 80  — 

c    Rye,  9  bushels —  45 

d    Barley,  9  bushels —  31-5 

e    Rye,  4  bushels —  20 

(355) 


84  THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


ghik 


Increase  of  Decrease  of 

Fertility.  Fertility. 

Clover  for  mowing 10  — 

Pasturage 40  — 

142  deg.  124  deg. 
Gained  in  ten  years,  18  degrees  of  fertility. 


No.  7.— Rotation  of  Eight  Years  with  alternate  Cultivation  and  Pasturage. 

Increase  of          Decrease  of 
Fertility.  Fertility. 

a    9  loads  of  manure 90  degrees.        — degrees. 

Potatoes 10  30 

b    9  bushels  of  Barley —  31-5 

c    Peas —  10 

3|  loads  of  manure 37'5  — 

d     8  bushels  of  Rye, —  40 

e     Clover  for  mowing 12  — 

fg    Pasturage 20  — 

h     Oats  on  the  broken-up  pasture  ground —  27'5 

165i  deg.  139  deg.. 

Increase  of  fertility  in  eight  years,  30^  degrees. 

No.  8. — Rotation  or  Eight  Years,  with  alternate  Cultivation  and  Stall-Peeding  of 

Cattle. 

Increase  of          Decrease  of 

Fertility.  Fertility. 

a    9  loads  of  manure 90  degrees.        — degrees. 

Potatoes,  80  bushels 10  30 

b    Barley,  11  bushels —  38-5 

c    Clover 15  — 

d     Oats,  13  bushels —  32-5 

e     6§  loads  of  manure 66-66  — 

Peas —  10 

/    Rye,  9  bushels —  45 

pr     Green  vetches 10  — 

'a     Rye,  8  bushels —  40 

191§  deg.  196  deg. 

Loss  of  4J  degrees  of  fertility  in  eight  years. 

No.  9.— Rotation  of  Ten  Years,  with  alternate   Cultijation,  Stable-Feeding  of 
Horses  and  Cattle,  and  Two  Years  of  Pasturage  for  Sheep. 

Increase  of          Decrease  of 
Fertility.  Fertility. 

a    Oats  on  broken-up  pasture,  13  bushels , — degrees.       32-5  deg. 

b     Green  vetches  on  a  fallow 10  — 

Pasturage  of  1,500  sheep — per  acre 40  — 

c    Rye,  9  bushels —  45 

d    Peas —  10 

3  loads  of  manure 30  — 

e    Rye,  8  bushels —  40 

/    Potatoes 10  30 

10  loads  of  manure .' 100  — 

Barley,  11  bushels —  38-5 

Clover 15  — 

i  k    Pasturage 30  — 

235  deg.  196  deg. 

Increase  of  fertility  during  ten  years,  39  degrees.* 

Those  agricultural  systems,  therefore,  which  are  based  upon  this  rotation,  are 
infinitely  more  ameliorating,  and  more  likely  to  produce  valuable  crops  of  plants 
and  vegetables,  such  as  wheat,  cabbages,  and  others  intended  for  sale  ;  they  are 
also  likely  to  increase  the  profits  of  sheep-husbandry  very  considerably,  which 
would,  doubtless,  be  much  greater  than  they  are  at  present,  if  the  breeds  were 
improved  and  properly  attended  to. 

The  cases  or  situations  in  which  a  farmer  can  procure  manure  from  any  extra- 
neous sources,  independent  of  that  produced  by  his  own  cattle  and  establishment, 
are  of  such  rare  occurrence  that  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  notice  them  at  all 

*  The  result  of  the  rotation  No.  9  shows  the  benefits  of  alternate  cropping,  as  has  been  long  ago  proved  in 
this  country.     The  knowledge  and  use  of  green  crops,  esculent  and  herbaceous,  must  soon  banish  fallows 
from  the  foregoing  rotations,  for  the  growth  of  rye  and  barley  would  suppose  a  capability  in  the  soil  of  being 
beneficially  used  in  producing  these  invaluable  plants. 
(356) 


f 


MANURE FODDER— CATTLE.  85 

in  this  place.  Nevertheless,  as  they  are  frequently  spoken  of,  although  they  can 
only  exist  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  towns  ;  and  as  manure  is  often  estimated 
at  the  price  which  it  fetches  under  such  circumstances,  we  will  devote  a  few  ob- 
servations to  the  subject. 

The  only  means  of  discovering  the  actual  value  of  manure  is  to  compare  the 
produce  of  an  acre  of  land  which  has  been  plentifully  and  repeatedly  manured, 
with  the  amount  which  it  yielded  when  only  the  necessary  quantity  of  manure 
was  bestowed  on  it,  and  that  at  distant  intervals. 

In  the  third  volume  of  my  English  Agriculture,  page  461,  et  seq.,  I  have  given 
some  iaccount  of  this  expense,  derived  from  information  v/hich  I  obtained  from 
country  .people,  and  the  results  of  which  were  that  the  real  value  of  a  load  of 
manure  was  6  rix-dollars  and  9  groschen.  But,  in  order  to  be  convinced  that  it 
is  correct  after  having  calculated  the  produce  of  the  triennial  rotation,  as  given 
at  page  79,  let  us  suppose,  on  the  other  hand,  that  we  could  procure  sufficient 
manure  to  enable  us  to  bestow  an  amelioration  of  six  loads  every  three  years  ; 
and  to  avoid,  as  much  as  possible,  diverging  from  the  triennial  rotation,  we  will 
take  the  following  succession  as  a  basis  : 

1.  Fallo^v  manured.  I  4.  Peas  manured.  1  7.  Potatoes  manured. 

2.  Cabbage  or  turnips  5.  Rye.  8.  Barley. 

3.  Wheat.  |  6.  Barley.  |  9.  Rye. 

We  must  now  calculate  the  value  of  all  these  products,  according  to  the  pro- 
portion of  nutritive  matter  which  the  soil  contains  ;  and  then,  by  deducting  the 
extra  expenses  which  cultivation  of  them  occasions,  the  value  of  the  manure  will 
immediately  become  evident. 

But  the  real  value  of  manure  is  increased  by  the  fact,  that  it  progressively 
augments  itself ;  and  that,  besides  the  produce  it  yields,  an  extra  quantity  of 
manure  will,  if  properly  bestowed,  never  fail  to  produce  the  elements  of  a  fresh 
supply,  so  that  it  will  soon  be  possible  to  cultivate  those  plants  successively,  from 
which  the  largest  sum  of  money  may  be  realized.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ma- 
nure diminishes  in  like  proportion  if  once  a  scarcity  is  allowed  to  be  felt,  and  an 
immediate  and  suitable  remedy  be  not  found  and  applied.  One  of  the  conse- 
(^  quences  of  a  scarcity  or  diminution  of  manure,  is  a  scarcity  of  straw  ;  and  where 
'!  there  is  little  straw  or  fodder,  little  dung  can  be  obtained,  and  thus  the  quantity 
of  manure  progressively  dwindles  away  until  the  soil  becomes  totally  exhausted. 
However  expensive  it  may  be  to  bestow  this  first  extra  quantity  of  manure  on  a 
soil  which  has  been  impoverished,  there  certainly  is  no  capital  better  employed 
than  that  which  is  expended  in  this  manner.* 

In  order  to  prevent  misunderstanding  with  regard  to  the  quantity  and  weight  / 
or  measure  of  this  manure,  we  shall  here  lay  down  some  principles  from  which   ' 
neither  absolute  uniformity  nor  mathematical  precision  must  at  all  times  be  ex- 
pected, but  which  may,  however,  be  taken  as  general  averages. 

The  usual  load  for  a  wagon  drawn  by  four  horses  is  thirty-six  cubic  feet  of 
stable  manure,  half  reduced,  and  in  the  state  in  which  it  is  usually  applied  to  the  ' 
land.  In  this  state — that  is  to  say,  when  the  straw  has  become  soft  and  disor- 
ganized, without  being  wholly  decomposed,  and  the  dung  is  moist  and  yet  not 
very  watery— a  cubic  foot  of  it  will  weigh  56  lbs. ;  therefore  a  load  of  thirty-six 
feet  contains  2,016  lbs.,  which,  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  round  numbers,  we  will 
reduce  to  2,000  lbs.  Where  the  roads  are  good  and  the  weather  favorable,  this 
load  may,  doubtless,  be  increased;  but  as  a  period  of  fine  weather  is  seldom 

The  author  recommends  the  quantity  of  manure  on  any  farm  never  to  be  suffered  to  gi-ow  less ;  and 
that  some  extraneous  source  be  discovered,  if  possible,  whence  to  support  the  quantity  ;"and  finally,  to 
create  a  progressive  augmentation.  If  the  crops  be  allowed  to  diminish  in  bulk,  the  quantity  of  dung  will 
decrease  proportionably,  and  end  in  the  complete  exhaustion  of  the  farm.  He  observes  that  no  expense  must 
be  grudged  to  fill  with  manure  all  the  lands  tliat  are  cultivated,  and  more  especially  on  those  soils  that  have 
been  exhausted  by  previous  mismanagement;  and  in  the  whole  course  of 'his  wiitinss,  most  certainly  he 
has  not  made  a  greater  or  more  valuable  display  of  practical  skill.  On  such  lands  the  utmost  limit  of  skiU 
m  cultivation  and,  in  cropping  may  be  exerted,  and  with  very  httle  efl'ect ;  years  will  be  passed  in  a  very 
heartless  occupation,  and  time  and  labor  will  be  expended  wfth  no  corresponding  result.  On  the  essential 
expense  that  is  requh-ed  to  produce  the  first  crops,  in  order  to  yield  the  elements  and  means  of  raising  others, 
most  cultivators  in  our  country  stumble  and  founder,  from  want  of  calculation  of  the  probable  repayment ; 
for,  as  before  observed  by  the  author,  they  cannot  view  capital  as  existing  in  any  form  other  than  in  money  ' 
in  a  bank  or  in  coffers  ;  and  these  contracted  views  produce  a  universal  stagnation.  Notwithstanding  the 
many  splendid  examples  of  capital  that  had  been  judiciously  expended,  now  repaying  an  ample  premium 
on  the  amount,  money  employed  in  this  manner  is  expended,  on  the  most  solid  security ;  panics  and  fail- 
ures and  bankruptcies  do  not  affect  it. 
(357) 


86  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

chosen  for  carrying  manure,  this  quantity  will  in  general  be  found  to  be  tolerably 
correct. 

If  the  straw  is  not  decomposed  or  altered,  a  cubic  foot,  closely  packed,  will  not 
weigh  more  than  48  lbs.  ;  and  in  this  case  the  volume  or  size  of  the  load  is  in- 
creased, and  contains  from  forty-five  to  forty-six  cubic  feet  of  manure. 

When  eight  of  these  loads  are  distributed  over  an  acre  of  land,  it  is  considered 
that  a  good  covering  has  been  given  ;  each  square  perch  then  receives  88-8  lbs. 
of  manure,  and  each  square  foot  nearly  0-6  lbs.  If  only  five  of  these  loads  be 
allowed  for  each  acre,  as  is  generally  the  case,  it  is  said  then  that  the  ground  has 
been  slightly  manured,  and  each  square  perch  receives  about  55  lbs.  And  lastly, 
if  twelve  loads  are  spread  over  each  acre,  which  must  never  occur  where  cereal 
crops  are  to  be  grown,  unless  the  land  has  been  completely  exhausted,  then  the 
ground  is  said  to  have  received  an  abundant  manuring. 

It  is  customary  to  allow  only  one-half  the  weight  and  quantity  above  men- 
tioned when  the  manure  is  derived  entirely  from  sheep,  because  the  effects  which 
it  produces  are  at  once   greater,  more  prompt,  but  less  efficacious  in  point  of  ' 
durability. 

The  periods  of  these  ameliorations  occur  every  three,  four,  six,  or  nine  years; 
the  more  frequently  they  are  applied,  the  slighter  they  are  ;  and  the  longer  the 
intervals  the  more  abundant  must  the  manuring  be,  unless,  indeed,  scarcity  com- 
pels the  farmer  to  manure  very  moderately.  Thus,  in  forming  a  calculation  re- 
lative to  the  distribution  of  manure,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  noi  only 
the  quantity  which  is  to  be  laid  on  at  each  separate  application,  but  likewise  the 
number  of  times  that  this  amendment  must  be  repeated,  and  the  quantity  which 
will  be  requisite  for  a  certain  number  of  years. 

As  it  seldom  happens  that  a  farmer  can  procure  manure  in  any  manner  which  ' 
will  prove  cheaper  or  more  advantageous  than  by  deriving  it  from  his  own  cattle 
and  establishment,  many  persons  have  endeavored  for  some  time  past  to  deter- 
mine the  relative  proportions  that  ought  to  exist  between  the  number  of  cattle 
kept  and  the  extent  of  the  cultivation  of  corn,  in  order  that  both  may  tend  to 
produce  the  highest  amount  of  profit  which  can  be  attained.  The  multiplication 
of  the  number  of  cattle  raises  the  produce  of  the  cultivation  by  increasing  the 
quantity  of  manure  which  is  made  ;  and  the  ameliorations  thus  bestowed  on  the 
soil  in  their  turn  increase  the  profit  of  the  cattle  by  augmenting  the  crops  destined 
for  their  food.  This  reciprocal  influence  is  the  great  balance-wheel  of  every  well-  | 
regulated  agricultural  undertaking  ;  and  the  least  acceleration  of  its  motion  at 
any  period,  or  the  slightest  inclination  to  one  side  or  to  the  other,  communicates 
itself  to  the  whole  machinery,  and  multiplies  or  diminishes  the  powers  of  action 
and  their  results. 

In  order  to  discover  the  just  proportion  of  each  of  these  objects  in  every  local- 
ity, the  persons  before  alluded  to  have  commenced  with  the  cattle,  and  have 
sought  to  determine  how  many  of  such  a  breed  or  species  ought  to  be  kept  upon 
a  given  surface.  One  ox  or  cow  has  generally  been  considered  as  equivalent  to 
one  horse,  ten  sheep,  or  six  pigs.  But  it  was  soon  observed  that  there  great  dif- 
ferences even  between  individuals  of  the  same  breed  and  kind,  both  as  regarded 
the  size  of  the  animals  and  the  quantity  of  food  which  they  consumed  ;  and  that 
it  was  also  necessary  to  take  these  circumstances  into  consideration.  One  of  the 
most  perfect  calculations  on  this  subject,  founded  on  an  average  taken  from  sev- 
eral different  data,  will  be  found  in  Borgstede's  work.*  The  author,  in  the  first 
place,  notices  the  straw  and  other  component  parts  of  the  litter ;  he  classes  them 
thus : — 

(1.)  Countries  in  which  straw  is  very  plentiful,  so  much  so,  indeed,  that,  in 
general,  from  1,500  to  1,800  sheaves  of  straw,  and  even  more,  ma/  be  reckoned 
for  every  winspel  of  seeds  ;  a  winspel  of  seed  is  generally  equal  to  about  twenty 
acres,  which  allows  from  75  to  to  90  sheaves  per  acre,  and  the  weight  of  a  sheaf  <, 
of  straw  of  spring  or  autumnal  corn  is  usually  about  lOf  lbs.;  the  Avhole  will, 
therefore,  amount  to  from  800  to  960  lbs. 

(2.)  Countries  in  which  from  1,350  to  1,500  sheaves  of  straw  are  obtained  for 
every  winspel  of  seeds,  from  675  to  75  sheaves  per  acre,  and  about  720  to  800 
pounds. 


Gnmdsatzen  uberdie  "  General  verpaclitungen  der  domainen  in  den  preussischen  Staaten."  Berlin,  1785. 
(358) 


MANURE FODDER CATTLE.  87 

(3.)  Countries  which  produce  only  a  smaller  quantity  of  sheaves,  never  amount- 
ing to  ]  ,350,  and  in  which  there  is  consequently  a  scarcity  of  straw  for  litter. 

(4.)  Countries  in  which  they  are  compelled  to  make  use  of  other  substances 
and  extraneous  matters,  to  supply  the  place  of  the  straw  as  litter. 

(5.)  Countries  in  which  they  are  able  to  supply  this  deficiency  by  straw  pur- 
chased at  a  reasonable  price. 

In  No.  1,  the  cattle  are  supposed  to  be  turned  into  the  pasture  lands  about  the 
middle  of  May,  and  not  taken  back  into  the  stalls  until  the  middle  of  November. 

In  No.  2,  the  cattle  are  supposed  to  be  turned  out  towards  the  end  of  March, 
and  not  brought  up  again  tintil  the  middle  of  December. 

In  No.  3,  the  cattle  are  supposed  to  be  fed  entirely  in  the  stalls. 

No.  4,  indicates  the  dung  resulting  from  100  sheep,  which  were  not  pastured.   \ 

In  No.  5,  the  animals  are  supposed  to  have  been  depastured  during  five  month: 
of  the  year,  and  confined  in  the  sheep-fold  all  night  during  the   other  seven  / 
months. 

Nicolai,  in  his  work  entitled,  "  Principles  for  the  Regulation  of  Estates,"  says: 

One  ox  or  cow  yields  10  loads  of  dung,  for  a  two-horse  wagon.  . 

One  young  ox  or  cow  yields  5  loads  of  dung,  for  a  two-horse  wagon. 

One  horse  fed  in  the  stable  yields  15  loads  of  dung  for  a  two-horse  wagon.  \ 

One  horse  turned  out  to  grass  yields  Ti  loads  of  dung,  for  a  two  horse  wagon. 

One  hundred  sheep  yield  100  loads  of  dung  for  a  two-horse  wagon. 

He  likewise  states,  that  half  as  much  dung  as  is  obtained  from  the  horned 
cattle,  may  be  derived  from  the  pigs,  the  poultry,  and  the  farm-yard,  provided 
that  care  is  taken  to  keep  the  latter  place  well  provided  with  straw. 

He  allows  twenty  of  these  loads  of  the  dung  of  cattle  per  acre,  eighteen  of 
horse  dung,  twenty-five  loads  of  the  mixed  manure  derived  from  the  farm  yard, 
&c.,  and  fifteen  loads  of  the  dung  of  sheep.  I 

Consequently,  an  ox  manures  5  an  acre  ;  a  young  ox  or  cow,  I  of  an  acre  ;  a 
horse  fed  in  the  stable,  5-6th  of  an  acre  ;  and  a  hundred  sheep,  6f  acres. 

These  loads  for  two  horses  cannot  contain  1,000  lbs.  because  an  amelioration 
of  20,000  lbs.  per  acre  would  be  something  extraordinary.  The  system  here 
mentioned  of  obtaining  manure  by  strewing  great  quantities  of  straw  about  the 
farm-yard,  is,  in  my  opinion,  very  far  from  beneficial ;  as  the  fields  which  were 
manured  with  dung  thus  composed,  would  derive  little  im.provement  from  it. 

Fredersdorf,  in  his  "Valuations  of  Estates,"  reckons,  that  each  cow  that  has 
been  well  kept,  and  has  been  allowed  about  150  sheaves  for  litter,  will  produce  '. 
six  four-horse  loads  of  dung  ;  and  if  stall-fed  during  the  whole  year,  that  she  will  / 
produce  ten  four-horse  loads  of  dung.  That  each  horse  which  receives  a  truss  \ 
and  a  half  of  straw  per  day,  will  produce  seven  loads  and  a  half  of  manure.  | 
He  considers  the  dung  of  fifteen  sheep,  or  of  four  or  five  full  grown  pigs,  to  be 
equal  to  that  of  one  cow. 

According  to  Karbe,  sixty-five  cows  will  manure  a  hundred  acres,  when  they  are    ! 
turned  out  to  pasture  all  day  during  the  summer,  and  brought  up  to  the  cow-house  ; 
at  night ;  he  states  the  proportion  between  horses  or  mares,  and  cows,  to  be  as 
2  to  3  ;  and  the  proportion  between  stall-fed  oxen  as  3  to  2.     A  hundred  sheep 
will  manure  ten  acres. 

Pfeiff"er  states,  that  a  cow  fed  in  the  stall  will  yield  200  quintals  of  manure  ; 
and  an  ox  put  up  to  fatten,  80  quintals. 

According  to  Leopold,  four  cows  fed  in  the  stalls  yielded  fifty  loads  of  tnanure, 
six  of  which  were  suflTicient  for  an  acre  of  land. 

In  a  paper  by  a  very  talented  agriculturist,  and  a  man  of  some  experience  in 
the  "  Annales  de  I'Agriculture  de  Basse  Saxe,"  annee  5,  section  1,  page  129,  the  i 
following  statement  of  the  proportion  of  the  quantity  of  manure  furnished  by  ' 
different  animals  will  be  found  : — 

If  the  dung  of  an  ox  or  cow  amounts  to 180  I  That  of  a  sheep,  to ]0 

That  of  "a  horse  amounts  to 170  |  And  that  of  a  pig,  to 18 

The  manure  produced  in  his  undertaking  during  the  space  of  three  years,  was 
distributed  according  to  this  proportion,  and  he  found  that  * 

Each  ox  or  cow  had  produced  7-789  loads  for  a  wagon  drawn  by  four  horses. 
"       Horse  "  7-357 

•'       Sheep  "  0-432 

"      Pig  "  0-778  " 

(359) 


CO  THAER  S   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

These  wagons  from  the  mauner  in  which  ihev  Avere  loaded,  prohably  contained 
from  22  to  24  quintals  each. 

These  data  are  strikingly  vague,  contradictory,  and  indefinite,  leaving  the 
many  variations  which  occur  with  regard  to  the'weight  and  bulli:  of  a  load  of 
manure,  totally  out  of  the  question  ;  it  is  impossible  to  form  a  correct  estimate  of 
the  quantity  of  manure  which  will  be  made  by  a  certain  number  of  animals,  un- 
less the  quantity  of  fodder  and  litter  consumed,  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
cattle  are  kepi,  be  previously  determined. 

No  average  proportion  can  be  given  of  the  quantity  of  manure  which  cattle 
will  produce,  because  when  they  receive  an  abundance  of  food  containing  a  great 
proportion  of  succulent  matters,  the  manure  they  will  yield,  both  in  straw  and  Inter, 
and  in  excrement,  will  be  seven  or  eight  times' as  much  as  would  be  furnished  if 
they  were  fed  on  dry  food.  In  the  former  case,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  give  the 
cattle  a  sufficiency  of  litter  ;  the  dung  ought  to  be  carried  out  every  day,  or  at 
least  to  be  thrown  back,  otherwise  the  animals  would  stand  in  dirt  and  tilth  ;  in 
the  latter  case,  on  the  contrary,  straw  which  has  formed  the  litter  for  a  month  or 
more,  will  be  found  to  be  scarcely  soiled  or  wetted.  The  size  of  the  cattle  has 
some  influence  on  the  quantity  of  manure  derived  from  them. 

Cattle  can  only  be  considered  as  machines  that  appropriate  a  very  small  portion 
of  the  fodder  which  they  consume  to  their  own  subsistence,  while  they  reduce 
the  greatest  portion  of  it  to  dung.  By  dung,  we  understand  not  only  the  larger 
excrements  properly  so  called,  but  also  the  urine,  and  some  portion  of  the  pers^pi- 
ration  which  is  absorbed  by  the  straw  ;  this  dung  is  not  entirely  composed  of  the 
residue  of  the  fodder,  but  also  contains  some  portions  of  the  animal  organization, 
which,  in  the  course  of  nature,  are  detached,  evacuated,  and  replaced  by  new 
formations.  Thus  the  dung  loses  a  great  part  of  its  vegetable  nature,  and  ac- 
quires animal  properties  instead. 

The  exj)eriments  hitherto  made  have  been  insufficient  to  determine  whether 
the  mass  of  consumed  and  digested  fodder  is  found  to  be  augmented  or  dimin- 
ished, when,  by  extracting  the  aqueous  principle,  it  is  reduced  to  a  state  of  dry- 
ness. It  is  most  probably  diminished,  since  tlie  augmentation  of  the  animal  frame, 
the  growth  of  hair  or  wool,  and  the  secretion  of  milk,  must  absorb  some  portion 
of  the  aliments.  It  is,  hoAvever,  only  a  very  triffing  portion  that  is  thus  absorbed, 
and  it  is  not  yet  decided  whether  the  water  which  the  animal  drinks,  and  the 
gaseous  substances  which  are  otherwise  imbibed,  are  not  decomposed  in  the  bcdv 
until  they  form  a  solid  matter.  At  any  rate,  it  is  certain,  that  by  means  of  the 
additional  humidity,  the  excrements  weigh  above  half  as  much  more  than  the 
dry  food,  if  we  weigh  them  in  the  moist  state  in  which  we  use  manure. 

The  superabundant  moisture,  particularly  the  urine,  which  we  must  not  con- 
sider simply  as  wgiter,  but  rather  as  a  fluid  containing  a  great  number  of  very    i 
active  solid  animal  particles ;  this  moisture  I  say  is  absorbed  by  the  litter,  and 
thus  augments  the  mass. 

There  is  very  great  difficulty  in  determining  the  relative  proportions  which  ex- 
ist between  the  dung  on  the  one  side,  and  the  fodder  and  litter  consumed  on  the  . 
other.     This  accounts  for  the  constant  variations,  trifling  though  they  be,  which    \ 
are  observable  in  the  results  of  all  the  experiments  made  with  a  view  of  deter-  ; 
mining  this  point.     There  is  still  more  difficulty  and  uncertainly  in  determining  i 
the  bulk  of  the  dung  from  that  of  the  fodder,  because  the  former  depends  on  the    ! 
greater  or  less  degree  of  moisture  and  compression,  as  well  as  on  the  state  of 
decomposition  in  which  the  straw,  and  other  filaceous  substances,  happen  to  ex-  i^ 
ist ;  all  which  circumstances  have  more  65*601  on  the  bulk  than  they  have  on  the    ' 
weight.     Nevertheless,  the  experiments  hitherto  made,  whether  on  a  small  scale,   ' 
by  weigh mg  the  larger  excrements  by  themselves,  or  in  conjunction  with  the 
urine  absorbed  by  the  straw,  or  in  all  their  various  degrees  of  decomposition,  o-r   ' 
in  that  state  when  the  manure  does  not  give  out  any  water,  even  from  compres- 
sion ;  or  on  a  large  scale,  by  determining  as  nearly  as  possible,  by  wei£rht,  the 
quantity  of  dung  which  is  carried,  and  comparing  it  with  the  Vv'eight  cf  fodder 
and  litter  consumed  ;  these  experiments,  I  say,  are  sufficiently  in  accordance  with  \ 
each  other  to  prove   that  the  mass  of  dry  food  and  litter  is  rendered  twice  as 
heavy  by  the  transformation  into  dung. 

But,  in  order  to  produce  this  eflfect,  the  dung  must  be  properlv  attended  to,  and 
as  much  straw  used  for  litter  as  will  be  sufficient  to  absorb  the  fluids  ;  for,  should   , 


MANURE FODDER CATTLE. 


there  be  too  much,  it  will  not  be  properly  impregnated  with  moistm-e,  and,  con- 
sequently, will  not  attain  that  increase  of  weight  which  was  just  rnenuoaed  ;  and 
should  the  litter  be  too  thin  and  scanty,  it  will  not  retain  the  urine  at  all.  The 
necessary  quantity  of  litter  cannot  be  determined  by  the  number  of  cattle ;  it 
ought  rather  to  be  regulated  by  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  fodder  consumed, 
anil  the  excrements  produced  from  it. 

Both  the  dry  aliments  destined  for  cattle,  and  those  which  have  preserved  theij 
succulent  properties,  vary  in  nutritive  powers,  although  they  be  of  equal  weight. 
ThuS;  a  greater  number  of  cattle  can  be  prohtably  fed  on  a  certain  weight  of 
succulent  food,  than  could  be  kept  in  condition  by  an  equal  quantity  of  dry  fodder. 
Amongst  cattle  equally  well  fed,  the  larger  excrements  of  those  kepi  on  "substan- 
tial food  frequently  appear  less  bulky  than  of  others  fed  on  a  greater  proportion 
of  less  succulent  aliments  ;  but  the  quantity  of  larger  excrements  and  urine  voided 
by  animals  is  not  always  in  direct  proportion  with  the  amount  of  fodder  which 
they  consume. 

A  horse  fed  for  the  most  part  on  corn  will  yield  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  much 
dung  as  one  that  consumes  twice  that  weight  of  hay  only.  This  is  one  reason 
that  the  nutritious  properties  and  powers,  as  well  as  the  weight  of  dry  fodder, 
should  be  regarded;  because  what  is  wanting  in  quantity  when  the  animals  are 
fed  on  substantial  fodder,  is  doubtless,  made  up  by  the  quality  of  the  dung,  and 
by  the  greater  number  of  animal  particles  which  it  contains.  , 

Tne  worthy  and  talented  commissioner.  General  Meyer,  is  the  lirst  writer  who  / 
has  given  us  an  exact  account,  founded  on  well-attested  experiments,  of  th 
quantity  of  dung  which  will  be  produced  by  a  certain  weight  of  fodder  and  litlei 
He  gives  to  the  straw  the  moisture  which  it  derives  from  the  urine,  and,  guided  \ 
I  by  these  experiments,  he  supposes  this  increase  to  be  as  2-7,  when  only  the  neces-  '> 
!  sary  and   proper  quantity  of  litter  is  laid  down  ;  and  under  the  title  of  "  litter," 
'  he  also  comprises  the  straw  given  as  food,  because  it  contributes  little  or  nothing 
[  towards  the  nourishment  of  the  animal.     He  allows  only  1-8  for  the  augmenta- 
tion occasioned  by  the  moisture  ^dded  to  the  hay  which  is  consumed,  on  account 
of  the  nutrition  derived  from  this  kind  of  fodder  by  the  animal  frame.     Those 
vegetables  which  retain  their  succulent  properties  are  classed  by  him  with  the 
hay,  but  only  according  to  their  weight  when   reduced  to  a  state  of  dryness. 
Lastly,  he  attributes  a  much  greater  augmentation  to  grain  when  transformed 
into  dung,  than  they  would  derive  according  to  the  previous  proportion  ;  insisting 
that  their  weight  is  increased  from  3  to  3-7. 

According  to  the  results  of  numerous  experiments,  and  particularly  of  several 
trials  which  were  made,  with  great  care  and  precision,  during  the  winter  of 
1808-9,  on  some  oxen  put  up  to  fatten,  it  appears  that  we  shall  be  very  near  the 
truth  when  we  admit  that  the  weight  of  hay  and  straw  consumed,  as  well  as  that 
of  litter  just  sufficient  to  absorb  all  the  urine,  will  be  doubled  by  its  transform- 
ation into  dung.  The  quantity  of  dung  likely  to  be  produced  might  be  calculated 
with  much  more  accuracy  in  this  manner  than  it  could  be  ascertained  by  any 
reference  to  the  number  of  cattle. 

We  are  left  in  still  greater  uncertainty  with  regard  to  the  quantity  of  manure 
which  may  be  obtained  by  feeding  the  cattle  with  a  given  quantity  of  succulent 
vegetables,  because  no  satisfactory  experiments  on  a  sufficient  number  of  animals, 
or  continued  for  a  sufficient  period,  have  as  yet  been  made  on  this  point.  Never- 
theless, from  several  observations  which  I  have  had  the  opportunity  of  making 
respecting  the  use  of  potatoes,  on  extensive  farms,  Avhere  great  quantities  of  this 
vegetable  are  grown  and  given  to  the  cattle  as  their  chief  food,  I  find  that,  when 
transformed  into  dung,  they  lose  at  least  two-lifths  of  their  original  weight, 
\  especially  if  the  increase  of  weight  above-mentioned  be  attributed  to  the  straw 
consumed  with  them. 

But  this  mode  of  proceeding  does  not  do  justice  to  the  potatoes,  for  the  chief 
part  of  the  augmentation  of  weight  in  the  straw  proceeds  from  them  ;  and  with- 
out the  aid  of  a  good  stock  of  these  roots,  fewer  cattle  could  be  kept,  and  there 
would,  consequently,  be  a  diminution  in  the  supply  of  the  urine,  by  which  the 
litter  is  changed  into  dung  and  its  weight  increased. 

W  ith  regard  to  the  potato  haulm  or  straw,  according  to  an  experiment  made 
in  1809,  an  acre  of  that  substance,  which  appeared  to  be  thin  or  fine  haulm, 
when  cut  and  perfectly  dry, 

(361) 


THAER  S    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


^Veighed - ,-  -  -  • 9""  lbs. 

A  similar  extent  of  large  potato  haalm  weighed fiOo     " 

1,512  lbs. 
The  average  weight  would  be  756  lbs. 

The  quantity  of  albumen  which  this  haulm  contains,  renders  it  in  general 
much  preferable  to  straw. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  nutritive  powers  of  dif-   ? 

ferent  vegetables  would  enable  us  to  form    some  tolerably  close  calculations   I 

respecting  the  quantity  of  manure  which    they  would   produce.     Experiments  ) 

have  been  made  with  regard  to  these  nutritive  powers,  both  in  fattening  cattle   I 

and  by  chemical  analysis,  and  the  results  of  both  methods  have  been  in  accord-   i 

ance  with  one  another.     I  therefore  propose,  at  once,  to  begin  and  point  out  all   > 

the  most  essential  facts  with  regard  to  the  nutritive  properties  of  the  vegetables  ^ 

in  common  use,  for  this  will  be  a  necessary  preliminary  in  order  to  render  perfect  '^ 

',  those  details  of  rural  economy  into  which  we  shall  have  occasion  to  enter.  > 

)       As  hay  is  more  known  and  more  used  than  any  of  the  other  kinds  of  fodder,  I   | 

\  shall  make  that  article  the  standard  by  which  all  the  others  may  be  compared.       i 

\       According  to  the  researches  of  Einhoflf,  which  he  did  not,  however,  regard  as  5 

sufficiently  "accurate  and  complete  to  be  submitted  to  the  public,  one  hundred  parts  I 

of  good  hay  contain  only  about  fifty  parts  of  what  may  be  regarded  as  nutritive 

matter. 

If  100  parts  of  good  potatoes,  which  are  neither  aqueous  nor  spongy,  are  dried 
to  about  the  same  degree  as  hay,  after  this  process  there  will  remain  only  30 
parts,  and  25  of  which  may  really  be  regarded  as  nutritive  matter.  Thus,  in 
the  feeding  of  cattle,  100  lbs.,  or  one  bushel  of  potatoes,  may  be  regarded  as 
equal  to  50  lbs.  of  hay;  and  this  proportion  will  be  found  to  be  borne  out  by  al- 
most all  general  observations  made  on  the  fattening  of  cattle  ;  for  when  an  ox  \ 
put  up  to  fatten  receives  60  lbs.  of  potatoes  per  day,  he  thrives  equally  as  well  as 
on  30  lbs.  of  hay. 

Beet-root  contains  only  eight  parts  in  100  of  actual  nutritive  matter  ;  but  it 
likewise  contains  four  parts  of  filaceous  substances,  which  is  very  difficult  to  de- 
compose ;  and  as  it  is  yet  uncertam  how  far  these  latter  substances  may  contri- 
bute towards  nutrition,  we  will  suppose  this  vegetable  to  contain  ten  nutritive 
parts  m  every  100.* 

The  Ruta-bagas  contain  twelve  parts  in  every  100  of  matter  decidedly  nutritive, 
and  rather  more  than  three  parts  of  filaceous  substances,  which  are  with  difficulty 
decomposed.     The  turnip  cabbage  contains  about  the  same  proportions.! 

Thus  100  lbs.  o(  hay,  200  Ibsr  of  Potatoes,  500  lbs.  of  beet-root,  and  370  lbs.  of 
ruta-baga,  probably  each  contain  an  equal  portion  of  nutritious  matters. 

These  two  last-mentioned  vegetables  likewise  produce  a  great  many  leaves  ; 
the  leaves  of  the  beet-root  are  most  numerous,  and  contain  the  greater  proportion 
of  succulent  matter,  and  are  the  most  aqueous.  Those  of  the  ruta-baga,  on  the 
contrary,  are  fewer,  but  they  contain  more  albumen,|,and,  consequently,  are  more 
nourishing. 

If,  in  our  valuation  of  these  roots,  we  leave  the  haulm  quite  out  of  the  ques- 
tion, and  attribute  no  portion  of  weight  to  it,  we  may,  without  hesitation,  admit 
that  460  lbs.  of  beet-root  and  350  lbs.  of  ruta-bagas  are  equal  to  200  lbs.  of  pota- 
toes and  100  lbs.  of  good  hay. 

Einhoff  has  not  completed  his  analysis  of  these  vegetables.     Nevertheless,  after 

*  I  cannot  compreliend  how  Einhoff  could  possibly  distinguish  which  parts  really  were  the  nutritive  por- 
tions of  any  vegetable,  or  how  he  could  discover  the  actual  degree  of  nutrition  which  these  portions  con- 
tained, unless  it  was  by  means  of  direct  experiments  on  the  feeding  of  animals  ;  but  I  have  strong  reasons 
for  believing  that  beet  root  is  much  more  niitritious  than  the  author  has  here  stated.  Leaving  the  assertions 
of  the  Abb6  Rosier,  which  certainly  are  exaggerat."^,  totally  out  of  the  question,  I  am  led  to  believe  from  an 
account  which  there  is  in  "  La  Bibliot  Biit."  No.  33S,  p.  42,  of  an  experiment  made  in  the  winter  of  1809-10,  on 
twenty-four  sheep,  that  252  lbs.  of  beet  root,  if  used  two  months  after  the  gathering  of  the  crop,  will  be 
found  equal  to  100  lbs.  of  hay.    Subsequent  experience  has  convinced  me  of  the  truth  of  this  proponion. 

[French  Trans. 
i  I  was  also  induced,  by  the  above-mentioned  experiment,  to  believe  that  234  lbs.  of  Ruta-baga  grown  on 
argillaceous  land,  are  equal  in  nutritive  powers  to  100  lbs.  of  good  hay ;  239  lbs.  of  raw  potatoes,  and  222  lbs. 
of  these  roots,  when  cooked,  have  also  appeared  to  me  to  be  equal  to  a  quintal  of  hay;  but  as  all  the  crops 
of  this  vegetahle  grown  in  1809,  were,  evidently,  vei-y  aqueous,  I  can  agree  with  the  opinion  of  EinhufF  on 
this  point.    I  also  perfectly  coincide  in  his  opinions  with  regard  to  carrots,  lucerne,  and  clover. 

[French  Trans. 
1  A  substance  of  the  same  nature  as  the  yolk  of  an  egg. 
(362) 


MANURE FODDER CATTLE. 


91 


a  very  superficial  examination,  and  comparing  them  with  the  ruta-bagas,  he  came 
to  the  conclusion  that,  with  regard  to  nutritive  properties,  their  reciprocal  relation 

IS  as  2  to  3.     Thus,  525  lbs.  of  roots  would  be  equal  to  100  lbs.  of  hay. 

The  same  may  be  said  with  regard  to  carrots,  which  really  contain  a  great 
number  of  aqueous  parts,  and  also  a  great  deal  of  albumen  and'  sugar.  We  are 
enabled  from  the  experiments  of  Einhoff",  as  well  as  from  the  observations  of  dif- 
ferent persons  while  employed  in  fattening  cattle,  to  ascertain  that  their  relation 
to  potatoes  is  as  3  to  4  ;  thus  266|  lbs.  of  carrots  are  equal  to  100  lbs.  of  hay. 

White  cabbages  have  not,  as  yet,  been  analyzed  ;  but,  from  the  experiments 
which  have  beea  made  with  regard  to  fattening  cattle,  their  proportion,  when 
compared  with  potatoes,  is  as  1  to  3  :  thus  600  lbs.  of  white  cabbage  are  equiva- 
lent to  100  lbs.  of  hay.  Clover,  if  cut  at  the  period  when  its  flower  is  just  open- 
ing, loses  SO  parts  of  100  in  drying ;  but  both  experience  and  chemical  analysis 
tend  to  prove  that  this  plant  contains  a  far  greater  portion  of  nutritive  juices  than 
hay  grown  in  natural  meadows,  and  that  the  stalk  in  particular,  like  that  of  all 
plants  belonging  to  the  diadelphous  class,  contains  a  great  deal  of  albumen  and 
sugar.  90  lbs.  of  young,  dry  clover  may,  consequently,  be  regarded  as  equal  to 
100  lbs.  of  common  meadow  hay. 

Vetches,  if  cut  when  young,  bear  about  the  same  proportion  ;  if  they  are  suf- 
fered to  grow  older,  the  increase  of  size  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  formation  of 
the  husk  and  seed  on  the  other,  compensate  for  the  diminution  of  succulency  in 
the  stalk  and  leaves.  Neither  can  we  give  any  reason  that  the  same  value  may 
not  be  assigned  to  lucerne  and  saintfoin.  It  does  not,  however,  appear  to  me  that 
we  have  any  proof  that  these  plants  lose  nothing  by  being  dried,  or  that  ihey  con- 
tain the  same  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  when  reduced  to  dry  fodder,  as  they 
did  while  green  ;  in  fact,  it  is  exceedingly  improbable  that  no  portion  whatever, 
excepting  the  water,  is  evaporated  during  the  process  of  drying ;  but  it  possibly 
might  happen  that  the  fibrous  parts,  which  could  before  be  easily  decomposed, 
have  become  more  difficult  of  dissolution. 

We  may  then  consider  that,  for  feeding  cattle,  the  following  proportions  will 
be  found  to  be  equally  nutritious  and  beneficial : 


Hay.  Potatoes. 

100  lbs.  200  lbs. 

Young  Clover. 
90  lbs. 


Ruta-baga. 
350  lbs. 


Radishes.  Carrots.  White  Cabbage. 

525  lbs.  266  lbs.  600  lbs. 


Vetches  dry. 
90  lbs. 


Lucerne  dry. 
90  lbs. 


Saintfoin  dry. 
90  lbs 


In  order  the  better  to  attain  our  object,  and  to  ascertain  the  proportion  between 
the  quantity  of  nutriment  which  may  be  obtained  and  that  of  the  dimg  which  it 
will  produce,  it  is  necessary  that  we  should  previously  determine  the  average 
amount  of  plants  and  vegetables  which  may  be  raised  on  an  acre  of  land,  always 
supposing  that  a  proper  kind  of  soil  and  a  suitable  degree  of  cultivatioa  are  em- 
ployed. We  shall  enter  more  fully  into  this  subject  when  we  come  to  the  part 
of  the  work  that  is  more  especially  devoted  to  what  relates  to  these  vegetables  ; 
and  there  we  shall  describe  the  basis  on  which  the  valuation  given  in  the  preced- 
ing section  is  founded. 

At  p.  23,  we  divided  meadow  land  into  five  classes,  by  taking  the  greater  or 
less  amount  of  produce  which  it  yielded,  as  the  basis  of  the  classification  ;  these 
divisions  will  be  more  accurately  and  precisely  defined  in  the  sequel.  Meadow 
land  of  the  first  class  is  seldom  met  with  ;  and,  as  a  meadow  must  be  in  very 
tolerable  condition  to  enable  it  to  yield  1600  lbs.  in  two  crops  or  mowings,  we 
will  take  this  quantity  as  the  average  produce. 

It  is  frequently  reckoned  that  the  clover  crops  will  produce  from  thirty  to  forty 
cwts.  of  hay  per  acre ;  but  the  soil  must  be  particularly  rich,  fertile,  and  calcare- 
ous, to  yield  this  quantity,  although  it  is  argillaceous  in  constitution. 

On  a  common  argilo-sandy  S(jirwhich  has  been  deeply  and  carefully  plowed, 
which  is  submitted  to  a  judicious  rotation,  and  on  which  the  clover  is  properly 
sown,  an  average  crop  of  2,400  lbs.  at  two  mowings,  or  1,600  lbs.  at  one  cutting, 
may  in  general  be  confidently  reckoned  upon,  and  five  times  that  weight  in  green 
fodder.  In  moist  and  fertile  years,  when  both  crops  are  equally  good,  the  pro- 
duce of  the  clover  will  far  exceed  this  average  ;  but  in  dry  years,  when  one  crop 
is  scanty,  it  will  frequently  be  far  below  it. 

Rich  and  thickly-planted  lucerne  ought  to  yield  4,000  lbs.  of  dry  fodder,  if  the 


THAER  S   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


soil  and  climate  be  suitable  for  it.  Saintfoin,  if  sown  on  a  soil  appropriate  to  its 
nature,  will  yield  2,000  lbs.  of  dry  fodder  per  acre.  Vetches,  or  the  mixed  crop 
of  which  they  form  a  portion,  will  yield  at  least  2,000  lbs.  of  dry  fodder  when 
they  have  been  manured.  When  they  have  not  been  manured,  and  the  soil  is, 
nevertheless,  in  good  condition,  this  produce  is  reduced  to  1,200  lbs. 

A  crop  of  potatoes,  sown  on  a  warm  soil,  which  has  been  deeply  plowed,  well 
manured,  and  has  received  a  very  careful  culture,  will  yield  SO  bushels  per  acre, 
or  8,000  lbs.  over  and  above  the  seed.  The  amount  here  mentioned  is  rather  be- 
low than  above  the  average  produce  of  a  good  and  carefully-cultivated  soil ;  I 
have,  myself,  repeatedly  raised  a  crop  of  12,000  lbs.  per  acre  in  ordinary  years. 
But  I  would  rather  that  my  valuation  of  this,  and  of  all  other  crops  oi"  roots, 
should  be  beloAV  their  average  produce  than  above  it,*  in  order  to  do  away  Avith 
the  suspicion,  which  many  seem  to  entertain,  that  I  speak  more  favorably  of 
them  than  they  deserve,  from  having  a  predilection  for  that  root.f 

Beet-root  yielded 20,000  lbs.  of  roots  per  acre. 

Ruta-baga  and  turnip  cabbage 20.000  lbs.         "  " 

Can-ots 18,000  lbs. 

Cabbages,  if  sown  on  a  soil  suited  to  them 36,000  lbs.         "  " 

Thus,  then,  the  produce  of  an  acre  of  potatoes  may  be  regarded  as  equal  in  nu- 
tritive power  to 4,000  lbs.  of  hay. 

That  of  an  acre  of  Beet-root  as  equal  to 4,347,  or  4,300  " 

"  "  Ruta-bagas 5,700 

"  Radishes 3,800 

"  "  Carrots 6,700 

Cabbages 6,000 

"  "  Clover,  at  two  mowings 2,600  " 

"  "  Lucerne 4,400  " 

"  "  Saintfoin 2,200  " 

"  "  Vetches,  when  manured 2,200  " 

"  "  "         not  manured 1,300  " 

In  every  case  I  have  supposed  these  vegetables  to  be  grown  on  a  soil  which  is 
suitable  to  them,  and  which  has  been  for  some  considerable  period  ameliorated 
by  careful  culture,  and  has  been  properly  manured.  It  must  also  be  understood 
that  these  products  are  calculated  from  an  average  taken  from  several  successive 
years,  since  there  always  will  be  seasons  in  which  some  of  the  crops  turn  out 
badly,  and  others,  on  the  contrary,  in  which  they  yield  far  more  than  the  usual 
amount  of  produce  ;  this  consideration  ought  also  to  induce  us  to  cultivate  seve- 
ral different  kinds  of  crops,  in  order  that  the  gain  on  some  of  them  may  compen- 
sate for  the  loss  in  others. 

If  we  collect  the  excrements  and  urine  of  those  animals  which  have  been  fed 
on  plants  or  vegetables  containing  a  great  proportion  of  succulent  matter,  and  keep 
them  separate  from  any  other  substances,  we  shall,  doubtless,  find  that  this  dung 
will  bear  more  relation  to  the  nutritive  powers  than  to  the  weight  of  the  food. 
The  lesser  weight  of  the  more  solid  aliments  will  be  compensated  by  the  greater 
quantity  of  water  which  the  anim.als  will  drink  while  consuming  them.  Thus, 
200  lbs  of  potatoes,  350  lbs.  ruta-bagas,  600  lbs.  of  cabbages,  or  50  lbs.  of  oats, 
will  singly  produce  as  much  dung  as  100  lbs.  of  hay  ;  for  each  of  these  quantities 
will  afford  an  equal  degree  of  nourishment  to  cattle.  But  if  we  allow  the  excre- 
ments to  be  collected  with  the  straw,  and  attribute  to  it,  and  not  to  the  excrement, 
the  increase  of  weight  which  the  latter  derives  from  the  liquid  portions,  the  pro- 
portion of  these  will  be  modified.  Those  aliments  Avhich  contain  the  smallest 
portion  of  indissoluble  fibres,  will  yield  the  least  quantity  of  large  excrements. 
This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  exceedingly  succulent  vegetables  do  not  stand  in 
that  proportion  to  hay,  with  regard  to  the  dung  which  they  produce,  as  they  do 
with  regard  to  nutritive  properties. 

We  have  not,  as  yet,  had  any  sufficient  or  definite  proofs  of  the  quantity  of  dung 
produced  by  most  of  the  vegetables  given  as  food  ;  the  only  experiments  from 
which  clear  and  certain  results  were  deduced,  are  those  which  have  been  made 
on  potatoes.     It  would  appear,  from  the  average  of  those  results  which  I  have 

*  The  crop  of  potatoes  at  80  bushels  beyond  the  seed,  or  100  bushels,  seems  very  low ;  and,  allowing  the 
Gei-man  to  be  two-thirde  of  our  acre,  the  crop  will  only  amount  to  150  bushels  ;  and  the  scheffel  being  about 
one  and  a-half  bushels,  the  whole  amount  little  exceeds  200  bushels. 

1  These  weights  are  much  below  the  usual  produce  in  England. 
(364) 


MANURE FODDER CATTLE.  93  I 


stated  at  p.  91,  that  100  lbs.  of  potatoes  will  produce  60  lbs.  of  dung  ;  and  that 
thus,  an  acre  of  potatoes  which  yields  80  bushels,  or  8.000  lbs.  above  the  seed, 
and  is  equal  to  4,000  lbs.  of  hay,  will  produce  4,800  lbs.  of  dung,  without  reckon- 
ing that  produced  by  the  haulm,  which  amounts  to  1,512  lbs.  on  account  of  the 
weight  being  doubled  of  that  portion,  when  reduced  to  a  state  of  dryness.  It  will 
weigh  this  amount  whether  it  be  given  to  the  cattle  as  food  while  green,  or  dried 
y  and  used  as  litter  instead  of  straw.  Therefore,  by  uniting  these  two  sums,  we  shall 
fmd  the  average  amount  of  dung  produced  by  an  acre  of  potatoes,  to  be  6,.^12  lbs. 
As  experience  has  not,  hitherto,  furnislied  us  v/ith  any  data  from  which  we 
can  derive  any  positive  information  with  regai'd  to  the  otiier  plants  used  for  fod- 
der, we  will  suppose  their  produce  in  dung  to  be  equal  to  that  of  potatoes,  calcu- 
lated not  accorduig  to  weight,  but  according  to  the  number  of  acres,  without 
allowing  anything  for  the  additional  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  their  extra 
amount  of  produce  may  contain.  ! 

We  shall,  likwise,  suppose  clover  and  lucerne  to  be  the  same  in  this  respect  as 
natural  hay,  notwithstandmg  the  superiority  which  they  possess  over  the  latter 
in  point  of  actual  nutriment. 

We  shall,  therefore,  reckon  that —  '\ 

One  acre  of  Potatoes,  or  any  otlier  vegetable  or  root,  will  yield  6,312  lbs.  of  dung. 

"  Clover,  in  two  mowings 5,200  " 

"  Clover,  in  one  mowing 3,200  " 

"  Lucerne 8,800  '• 

"  Saintfoin 4,400  " 

"  Vetches,  manm-ed 4,400  " 

'•  Ditto,  not  manured 2,600  " 

Independent  of  the  additional  weight  which  the  straw  will  produce. 
In  1805  I  obtained  sufficient  dung  from  the  consumption  of  25  acres  of  green 
peas,  with  about   1,500  sheaves  of  straw  as  litter,  and  a  small  quantity  of  pine 
leaves,  to  manure  30  acres  of  autumnal  corn  that  year. 

With  regard  to  the  other  part  of  the  dung,  namely,  that  which  is  produced  by 
the  straw,  we  have  lately  obtained  some  information  which  may  be  depended  on. 
It  is  true  that  we  have  not  hitherto  wanted  for  data  with  regard  to  the  quantity 
of  sheaves  which  a  certain  extent  of  each  kind  of  land  will  produce,  or  of  the 
number  of  trusses  of  straw  which  ought  to  be  derived  from  each  species  of  graui ; 
but  yet  we  lacked  any  certain  and  invariable  data  Avith  regard  to  the  average 
weight  of  these  sheaves  or  trusses.  Every  agriculturist  and  farmer  who  has  gone 
beyond  the  confines  of  his  own  property,  well  knows  that  there  are  vast  and 
almost  incredible  differences  with  regard  to  this  matter  ;  that,  in  some  places, 
the  sheaves  only  weigh  8  lbs.  while  in  others  they  weigh  from  40  lbs.  to  50  lbs. 
And  the  difference  in  the  weight  of  the  trusses  is  equally  great,  varying  from 
10  lbs.  to  40  lbs.  Hitherto,  however,  most  persons  have  thought  that  they  ez- 
!  plained  themselves  sufficiently  clear,  when  they  stated  the  average  amount  of 
their  crops  according  to  their  own  system  of  proceeding. 

It  is  generally  considered  that  we  may  derive  a  tolerably  exact  notion  from 
experience  what  amount  of  produce  in  corn  may  be  expected  from  certain  kinds 
of  soil  or  systems  of  cultivation ;  and  it  is  very  true  that  where  sufficient  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  the  subject,  we  may  learn  much  in  that  manner. 

But  Commissioner  General  Meyer  is  the  first  person  I  ever  knew  who  has  sys- 
1  tematically  endeavored  to  deduce  the  produce  in  straw  from  that  of  grain.     No 
'  one,  however,  can  be  ignorant  that  there  is  an  existing  proportion  between  these 
two  articles  of  produce.     Every  experienced  farmer  can  calculate  the  amount  of 
grain  which  one  of  his  sheaves  will  yield  ;  and  after  the  first  threshing  he  is  able 
to  say  whether  these  sheaves  yield  well  or  only  middling,  or  very  bai£ly  in  that 
\  year.     The  variations  which  frequently  occur  on  the  same  soil,  and  under  the 
same  kind  of  cultivation,  are  therefore  exceptions  to  the  general  rule.     If  a 
favorable  state  of  weather  has  caused   the  corn  to  shoot  up  quickly  at  first,  to 
put  forth  a  number   of  blades,   and  at  the  time   of    flowering   the    exceeding 
i  richness  of  the  soil  causes  it  to  fall  to  the  ground  ;  or  if  bad  weather,  or  the 
various     diseases    to    which    corn    is    subject,    impede    development    of    the 
grain :  or  lastly,  if  at  harvest  time  the  corn  should  be  laid,  then  will  the  propor- 
tion of  grain  to  straw  be  much  less  than  usual.     But  if,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
continuation  of  bad  weather  should  stint  the  growth  of  the  corn,  or  destroy  a 

Ljreat  number  of  the  plants  ;  or  if  mice  or  insects  should  thin  the  crop,  and  after- 


94  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

wards  an  interval  of  fine  weather  should  intervene — which  promotes  the  devel- 
opment of  the  ears,  the  fecundity  of  the  flowers,  and  tends  to  mature  and  ripen 
the  grain — then  will  the  proportion  of  straw  to  that  of  the  corn  he  much  less 
than  usual.  But  it  is  impossible  to  take  all  these  exceptions  into  account  while 
forming  a  general  estimate  of  the  results  of  rural  economy. 

According  to  most  of  the  observations  and  experiments  which  I  have  heard  of, 
or  which  have  been  communicated  to  me,  the  proportion  of  grain  to  straw  varies, 

III  Rye,  from  38  to  42  ia  100  ;  Wheat,  from  48  to  52  in  100  ;  Barley,  from  62  to  64  in  100  ;  Oats, 
from  60'  to  62  in  100. 

It  is  Still  more  uncertain  with  regard  to  peas,  for  it  is  well-known  that  there 
is  no  average  with  regard  to  the  number  of  legumes  that  one  plant  will  bear. 
The  loss  or  diminution  which  this  plant  may  sustain  during  the  harvest  or  gath- 
ering, must  likewise  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  Count  Von  Podewils  has 
stated  the  proportion  of  grain  to  straw  in  this  case  to  be  as  5  to  21  ;  but,  if  my 
opinion  were  asked,  I  should  say  we  were  much  nearer  the  mark  if  we  stated  it 
to  he  as  35  to  100.  The  best  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  allow  2,000  lbs.  of  straw 
for  each  manured  acre  of  peas,  because  in  this  crop  the  product  in  straw  is  much 
less  casual  than  in  grain.     The  same  may  be  said  with  regard  to  vetches. 

If,  then,  a  bushel  of  rye,  of  full  measure,  weighs  86  lbs.  and  the  average  pro- 
portion of  straw  to  grain  be  as  40  :  100,  an  acre  of  rye  will  yield  a  produce  of— 

3  bushels*  645  lbs.  of  straw,  which,  in  its  turn,  yields  1,290  lbs.  of  dung. 

4  "  1-86  "  "  "  1,720 

5  "  1.075  "  "  "  2,150 

6  •'  1,230  "  "  "  2,580             " 

7  "  1,505  "  «  "  3,010 

8  "  1,720  «  "  "  3,440 

9  "  1,935  "  «  "  3,870 

10  "     2,150  "  "  "'  4,300 

11  "     2,365  ''  "  "  4,730 

12  "     2,580  "  "  "  5,160 

If  a  bushel  of  wheat  weighs  92  lbs.  and  the  proportion  of  the  grain  to  the 
straw  be  as  50  :  100,  an  acre  will  yield  a  produce  of— 

3  bushels   552  lbs.  of  straw,  which,  in  its  turn,  yields  1,104  lbs.  of  dung. 

4  "  736  "  "  "  1,472 

5  "  920  "  "  "  1,840 

6  "  1,104  "  "  "  2,208 

7  "  1,288  "  "  "  2,57€ 

8  "  1,472  "  "  "  2,944 

9  "  1,656  "  "  "  3,312 

10  "      1,840  "  "  "  3,680 

11  "      2,024  '•  "  "  4,048 

12  "      2,208  "  "  "  4,416 

If  a  bushel  of  barley  weighs  68  lbs.,  and  the  proportion  of  the  grain  to  the 
straw  is  as  63  :  100,  an  acre  of  land  will  yield  in  one  crop — 

3  bushels  324  lbs.  of  straw,  which,  in  its  turn,  yields     698  lbs.  of  dung. 

864 
1,080 
1,296 
1,512 
1,728 
«  "  1,944 

2,160 
2,37€ 
2,592  !■■ 

If  a  bushel  of  oats  weighs  52  lbs.,  and  the  proportion  of  grain  to  straw  is  as 
61  :  100,  an  acre  of  land  will  yield  in  one  crop — 

3  bushels   256   lbs.   of   straw,   which  will    produce     512  lbs.  of  dung. 

682 

852 

1,024 

1,194 

"  «  1,366 

••  "  1,536 

"  "  1,706  " 

1,876 

2,048 

The  measure  here  translated  "bushels,"  is  about  IJ  of  our  measure  of  that  name. 

(366) 


4 

432 

5 

540 

6 

648 

7 

756 

8 

864 

9 

972 

10 

"   1,080 

11 

"   1,188 

12 

"   1,296 

4 

341 

5 

426 

6 

512 

7 

597 

8 

688 

9 

768 

10 

853 

11 

938 

12 

"   1,024 

MANURE FODDER CATTLE.  95 

In  this  estimate  of  the  proportions  in  which  dungirfay  be  obtained,  it  is  always 
understood  that  the  straw  is  employed  for  litter  ;  or,  should  straw  be  scarce,  those 
substances  which  are  used  instead  shall  be  sufficiently  plentiful,  not  only  to  re- 
ceive and  absorb  all  the  different  excrements,  but  likewise  to  enter  into  fermenta- 
tion and  become  sufficiently  decomposed  without  requiring  any  additional  mois- 
ture ;  and,  farther,  that  everything  shall  be  so  arranged  that  no  portion  of  the 
urine  shall  be  wasted  or  suffered  to  run  off,  and  that  the  dung-steads  shall  be 
protected  from  the  washing  of  heavy  rains,  which  might  carry  away  some  por-  ,■ 
tions  of  component  parts.  This  dung,  composed  of  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, is  supposed  to  be  lifted  at  the  period  when  the  incipient  fermentation 
has  commenced,  and  when  the  straw  has  become  softened  without  being  decom- 
posed ;  in  a  word,  in  that  state  in  which  experience  teaches  all  practical  agricul- 
turists when  it  can  be  used  with  the  greatest  advantage.  There  is  a  great  deal 
of  difference  between  the  weight  of  fresh  dung  and  of  that  which  has  become  / 
completely  decomposed,  and  in  which  the  straw  is  quite  dissolved.  The  amount 
of  the  humidity  has  already  been  indicated  in  a  previous  page. 

In  order  to  discover  the  quantity  of  dung  produced   by  pasturing  animals,  that 
evacuated  by  a  cow  fed  on  excellent  pasture-land  has  been  weighed,  and  it  was 
found  that,  on  an  average,  she  produced  37  lbs.  in  a  day  and  night ;  that  is,  5,661 
lbs.  in  five  months,  or  one  hundred  and  fifty-three  days  ;  the  dung  evacuated  dur- 
ing the  day  was  also  weighed  separately  from  that  which  was   produced  during 
the  night,  and  it  was  found  that  the  former  amounted  to  from  21  lbs.  to   23  lbs. 
and  the  latter  to  from  15  lbs.  to  15^  lbs.     That  dung  which  is  evacuated  by  cat- 
tle on  permanent  pasture-land  is  lost  for  all  agricultural  purposes  ;  but  those  "farm-    i 
ers  who  use  their  fields  alternately  as  pasture  and  arable  land,  derive  some  por-    ' 
tion  of  benefit  from  it.     Even  then,  however,  it  is  not  nearly  so  profitable  as  when    | 
mixed  with  the  straw  or  litter  in  the  stable  or  farm-yard,  and  properly  collected. 
A  great  part  of  that  evacuated  in  the  fields  is  evaporated  by  the  action  of  the  sun  \ 
and  wind,  or  falls  in  the  dust  and  is  destroyed  by  insects  ;  but  the  luxuriant  tufts 
of  grass  which  spring  up  wherever  it  falls,  and'  the  increased  fertility  of  those 
parts  of  enclosed  pastures  on  which  the  cattle  lie  down,  or  where  they  are  milked, 
tends  very  satisfactorily  to  prove  that  it  is  not  so  completely  wasted  as  some  per- 
ilc  " 

ill. 
thus  made  is  already  comprised  in  the  ameliorating  quality  which  we  attributed 
to  the  repose  or  rest  of  the  land. 

But  if  the  cattle  which  are  depastured  during  the  day  are  brought  into  the  sta- 
ble or  farm-yard  at  night,  the  dung-heap  ought  necessarily  to  be  augmented  by 
the  addition  of  their  excrements.  We  reckon  this  part  of  the  dung  which  will 
be  produced  by  a  cow,  plentifully  fed,  at  2,500  lbs. ;  if  she  is  not  so  well  fed,  as 
is  usually  the  case  with  those  that  are  pastured,  it  will  amount  to  about  1,500  i 
lbs. ;  and  the  straw  of  which  the  litter  is  composed  must  here  be  reckoned  sepa- 
rately.* 

With  respect  to  the  dung  proceeding  from  the  fodder  consumed  by  cattle,  and 
the  straw  or  other  substances  composing  the  litter,  no  difference  is  made,  in  gen- 
eral estimates,  between  the  various  kinds  or  breeds  of  cattle  by  which  it  has  been 
produced.     We  shall,  however,  offer  a  few  observations  on  this  subject. 

The  amount  of  dung  which  will  be  produced  from  the  same  quantity  of  food 
by  lean,  ill-conditioned,  weakly  cattle,  will  neither  be  so  great,  so  rich,  or  so  fer- 
tilizing ;  nor  does  it  contain  so  much  animal  matter  as  that  which  is  produced 
by  strong,  healthy  and  well-fed  animals. 

Sheep,  if  fed  on  the  same  quantity  of  provender,  will  produce  dung  which  goes 
i  further,  but  the  action  of  which  is  not  so  durable.  These  animals,  however,  ap- 
pear to  be  decidedly  the  most  advantageous  for  the  manuring  of  pasture-land  ; 
^  the  dung  which  they  evacuate  over  the  meadows  is  not  only  more  equally  dif- 
fused, but  also  amalgamates  more  freely  with  the  soil,  and  acts  more  promptly 
on  the  vegetation.  If  the  sheep  are  brought  up  from  the  pastures  at  night,  and 
confined  in'  a  paddock  or  sheep-fold,  they  will  produce  a  proportionally  larger 
quantity  of  manure  than  cattle,  supposing  that  each  species  has  been  allowed 
the  same  extent  of  pasturage.     This  reason  causes  the  meadow  and  pasture-lands 

*  At  the  rate  of  2  lbs.  of  dung  to  1  lb.  of  ati-aw. 
(367) 


I  sons  would  have  us  to  believe.  In  the  rotations  of  crops  with  pasturage,  in  which  - 
<  it  is  usually  the  custom  to  leave  the  cattle  in  the  field  day  and  night,  the  dung  [ 
'     thus  made  is  alreadv  cnmnrised    in  the  aineHnratinfr  mialitv  w^hicb  w^e  nttrihnfed 


96 


THAER  S    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


in  England,  where  it  is  customary  to  leave  the  sheep  out  night  and  day,  gradu- 
ally to  become  ameliorated  and  improved,  and  to  be  capable  of  feeding  an  in- 
creased number  of  these  animals  every  year ;  Avhen  these  lands  are  broken  or 
plowed  up,  they  are  found  to  have  acquired  a  much  greater  proportion  of  nutri- 
tive matter  than  those  on  which  cows  have  been  fed  ;  indeed,  these  latter  usual- 
ly decrease  in  fertility  about  the  third  or  fourth  year,  particularly  where  the  soil 
is  of  a  dry,  hot  nature. 

AVhen  "sheep  are  depastured,  it  is  usually  reckoned  that  1,200  will  yield  about 
the  same  degree  of  amelioration  to  an  acre  of  land,  as  would  be  produced  by  one- 
half  of  the  quantity  of  stable  manure  generally  allowed  ;  1,800  sheep  are  sup- 
posed to  manure  an  acre  and  a  half  tolerably  well,  and  2,400  to  manure  it  abund- 
antly;  so  much  so,  indeed,  as  to  render  it  too  rich  for  most  kinds  of  grain.  If 
ten  sheep,  when  pastured,  are  regarded  as  equivalent  to  one  cow,  and  if  one  cow 
produces  15  lbs.  of  dung  during  the  night,  ISO  cows  will  only  produce  2,700  lbs. 
and  240  cows  3,600  lbs.  which  is  not  enough  to  manure  one  acre  of  land  ;  but 
the  effects  and  the  nutritive  properties  of  manure  thus  derived  are  much  more 
permanent,  and  are  retained  much  longer  in  the  soil,  than  the  dung  of  sheep. 

In  order  to  discover  how  far  this  estimate  of  the  quantity  of  manure  to  be  ob- 
tained, when  founded  on  the  consumption  of  fodder  and  straw,  will  agree  with 
those  which  take  for  their  basis  the  number  of  cattle,  we  will  examine  some  of 
these  latter  which  have  been  derived  from  experience,  and  draAvn  up  from  gen- 
eral averages,  which  may  not,  however,  have  been  perfectly  correct. 

The  table  of  the  quantity  of  manure  which  may  be  derived  from  cattle  (see  ante 
p.  95)  has  peculiar  relation  to  the  mode  of  feeding  adopted  for  the  estimates  in 
the  electoral  market  and  in  the  new  market.  According  to  this  method,  the  fol- 
lowing proportions  are  given  to  the  different  kinds  of  cattle : 


For  a  large  ox 

"      Middle-sized  ox 

"      Small  ox 

"      Larg-e  cow 

"      Middle-sized  cow 

"      Horse  vsrhich  is  always  fed  in  the  stable . 


Straw  from 

Straw  of 

Hay. 

Winter  Cereals. 

Spring  Cereals. 

3,600  lbs. 

1,680  lbs. 

1,6.50  lbs. 

3,000 

1,400 

1,375 

2,400 

1,120 

1,100 

1,800 

1,260 

1,320 

1,500 

1,050 

1,100 

4,800 

2,640 

According  to  our  system,  the  quantity  of  manure  which  would  be  derived  from 
the  above  table  would  be  as  follows  : 


Quantity  of 
Fodder  and  Straw. 

Dung. 

Extent  of  Land  which  covdd 
be  manured  at  the  rate  of 
10,000  lbs.  per  acre. 

6,930  lbs 

5,775 

4,620 

4,380 

3,650 

13,860  lbs. 
11,.550 

9,240 

8,760 

7,300 

.5,730 
14,880 

1-38  lbs. 

1-15 

"      Small  ox 

0-92 

1 

"      Middle-sized  cow 

0-73 

"      Small  cow 

"      Horse  fed  in  the  stabl  e 

2,865 
7,440 

0-57 
1-48 

We  do  not  here  include  the  com  which  the  horse  consumes,  but  place  that  against  the  time 
which  he  passes  out  of  the  stable. 

If,  then,  we  take  a  large,  or  a  middle  sized,  or  a  small  ox,  according  as  straw 
is  plentiful  or  scarce  in  the  country  ;  and  if  we  further  admit  that  on  a  cold  soil 
from  20  to  22  metzen  has  been  sown,  and  on  a  Avarm  dry  soil  from  18  to  19  ;  and, 
fmally,  if  we  allow  a  somewhat  larger  quantity  of  dung,  about  12,000  lbs.  to  the 
former,  and  a  smaller  quantity,  as  9,000  lbs.  to  the  latter,  it  will  be  easy  to  ap- 
ply the  data  contained  in  the  above  table  to  particular  fields  or  pieces  of  ground, 
and  to  the  quantity  of  fodder  which  is  necessary  for  them.  But  if  we  should 
wish  to  calculate  the  general  average  of  cattle  and  of  fodder  as  it  is  stated  in  this 
table,  we  shall  find' that  one  beast  will  produce  dung  enough  to  manure  1  19-60 
acres.  In  the  instructions  and  rules  laid  doAvn  for  the  estimate  of  the  income 
proceeding  from  corn  in  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  the  following  were  taken  as 
their  basis  from  being  most  conformable  to  general  experience: 

Thev  calculate  that  the  produce  in  straw  of  an  annual  sowing  will,  for  a  fat 
animal,  be  from  li  to  2|  acres  of  land  of  the  first  and  second  class,  from  2|  to  3^ 

(36S) 


FODDER CATTLE. 


otland  of  the  third  class,  and  from  4  to  5  acres  of  land  of  the  fourth  class.     But 
it  would  seem,  from  reference  to  all  other  data,  that  we  are  to  understand  by  the  ! 
term  "  large  "  or  "  great  beast,"  small  horses,  oxen,  and  cows,  when  pastured. —  ' 
If,  therefore,  we  admit  that  the  product  of  the  first  and  second  class  land  is  nine 
bushels  per  acre,  we  shall  find  that  we  obtain 

From  H  acres  of  rye,  calculated  at  1,935  lbs.  per  acre,  a  produce  of 2,418  lbs.  of  straw. 

From  5  acre  of  barley,  at  972  lbs.  per  acre 1,215  " 

To  which  must  be  added  the  hay 1,320  " 

4,953 
Which  will  make  altogether  about  9,906  lbs.  of  dung. 

But  if  we  take  three  acres  at  seven  bushels  of  produce  for  the  third  class, 

There  will  be  on  IJ  acres  of  autumnal  corn 225  lbs.  of  straw. 

Tliere  will  be  on  1^  acres  of  spring  corn 1,134  " 

To  which  must  be  added  tlie  hay 1,320  " 

4,711 
Which  will  produce  an  amount  of  dung  equal  to  9,422  lbs. 


According  to  the  data  on  which  this  instruction  is  founded,  each  beast  produces 
ten  loads  of  manure  for  four  horses  ;  that  is,  generally,  at  most  ten  quintals  to 
each  horse.  Fifteen  such  loads  are  usually  considered  to  be  requisite  for  every 
acre,  if  we  would  have  the  ground  retain  the  effect  of  the  manure  during  the  nine 
years'  rotation.  Thus,  one  beast  and  a-half  may  be  said  to  manure  an  acre  of 
land. 

The  more  carefully  we  compare  a  number  of  data  deduced  with  the  utmost 
exactitude  from  comprehensive  averages,  and  relating  to  the  produce  in  dung, 
with  the  fundamental  principles  which  we  have  here  detailed,  the  more  shall 
we  feel  convinced  that  they  perfectly  agree  Avith  one  another,  and  that  an  esti- 
mate of  the  quantity  of  dung  which  it  is  possible  to  obtain  may  be  derived  with 
much  greater  precision  from  comparison  and  reference  to  the  amount  of  straw 
and  fodder  consumed,  than  it  could  be  by  any  other  means  ;  and  we  shall,  there- 
fore, henceforward  be  guided  by  it  in  all  our  agricultural  calculations  and  esti- 
mates. 

The  data  with  regard  to  the  necessary  quantities  of  fodder  are  as  numerous  as 
they  are  various.  It  is,  sometimes,  scarcely  possible  to  believe  that  they  can  re- 
fer to  the  same  animals.  But,  then,  how  great  is  the  difference  between  a  small, 
lean,  ill-conditioned  beast,  that  picks  up  a  scanty  living  on  arid  fallows,  in  the 
woods,  or  on  open  commons,  and  another  that  is  plentifully  fed  in  the  stable  or 
on  rich  and  fertile  pastures  !  Some  oxen  do  not  yield  above  200  lbs.  of  meat 
when  slaughtered,  while  others  jdeld  2,000  lbs.  It  would  be  absurd  to  pretend 
that  these  different  kinds  of  animals  receive  the  same  kind  or  quality  of  food,  or 
to  expect  that  they  will  yield  the  same  quantity  of  dung. 

We  have  already  stated  the  quantity  of  straw  and  fodder  which,  in  most  agri- 
culiural  estimates,  is  generally  supposed  necessary  for  the  winter  feeding  of  cat- 
tle of  various  kinds,  breeds,  and  size  ;  it  only  remains  for  us  to  consider  the  ac- 
count given  by  some  of  the  authors  who  have  treated  on  this  subject. 

D_e  Beaekendorf  allows  one  bushel,  or  8  pounds,  per  day,  of  chopped  straw  of 
spring  corn  for  every  draught  ox,  and  three-quarters  of  a  bushel  for  a  cow.  It 
is  his  opinion  that  a  piece  of  land  sown  with  three  bushels  of  barley  or  oats,  will 
yield  319  bushels  of  chopped  straAV  ;  and  that,  as  the  duration  of  the  winter- 
feeding  is  165  days,  two  oxen  or  cows  may  be  kept  on  the  produce  of  one  sowing 
of  three  bushels  of  spring  corn  ;  he  also  thinks  that  the  straw  of  rye  and  peas 
ought  to  be  devoted  entirely  to  sheep  ;  that  the  number  of  cattle  ought  to  be  reg- 
ulated by  the  quantity  of  straw,  since  the  summer  pasturage  might  be  replaced 
by  green  clover  given  in  the  stable,  and  that,  by  means  of  crops  of  roots,  it  might 
be  possible  to  do  without  hay. 

Independent  of  that  circumstance,  a  draught  ox,  according  to  him,  requires  12 
ibs  of  hay  per  day,  from  the  first  of  January  to  the  first  of  June  ;  a  milch  cow, 
13  cwts.  of  hay  in  a  year,  besides  grains,  corn,  and  soupe,*  or,  if  she  is  fed  on 

*  A.  kind  of  pottage  composed  of  grains  or  of  cooked  potatoes,  and  sometimes  also  of  water  mingled  with 
meal,  and  poured  over  the  chopped  straw. 

(417) r 


98  TIIAiER's    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE. 

hay  alone,  18  cwts  ;  young  or  barren  beasts  require  4  cwts.  if  they  are  allowed 
other  provender  besides  ;  an(?  otherwise  11  cwts. 

According  to  Karbe,  a  draught  ox  ought  to  receive  a  daily  provender  of 


IS  lbs.  of  chopped  straw,  2  lbs.  of  straw  as  litter;  in  all,  ■ 
i  metzen  ol'  roots,  or  GO  bushels  yearly, 

during  the  whole  of  the  240  days  of  winter. 

If  roots  and  vegetables  are  scarce,  or  nearly  all  spent,  30  lbs.  per  day  of  corn, 
chaff,  hay,  chopped  straw,  and  of  litter,  may  be  substituted.  Thus  an  addition 
of,  perhaps,  10  lbs.  of  hay,  instead  of  roots,  where  the  latter  are  altogether  taken 
away,  will  amount  to  2,400  lbs.  per  year. 

A  milch  cow  ought  to  be  allowed  18  lbs.  of  straw  and  hay,  for  food,  per  day, 
during  the  190  days  of  Vv'inter,  aud  2  lbs.  of  litter — 3,800  lbs.  per  year  ;  and,  like- 
wise, 4  metzen  of  vegetables  or  roots  per  day,  or  50  bushels  per  year.  During 
the  175  days  of  summer,  a  pasturage  of  3  acres  of  clover  and  grass,  and  2  lbs.  of 
litter  every  night,  or  350  lbs.  per  year. 

An  ox  for  fattening  ought  to  receive  in  each  of  the  112  days,  which  are  usually 
allowed  for  that  purpose — 

10  lbs.  of  chopped  straw  and ^  n44  lb=t  straw 

2  Ib.s.  of  litter ^  1,J44  lbs.  straw. 

8  lbs.  of  hay 896  lbs. 

8  or  9  metzen  of  vegetables  or  roots 60  bushels. 

In  my  edition  of  "  Bergen's  Anleitung  zur  Viehzucht,"  I  have  given  an  account 
of  the  quantity  of  fodder  consumed  by  my  cows  in  the  course  of  a  year,  at  a  pe- 
riod when  all  my  cattle  were  of  the  heaviest  breeds.  It  amounted  to  the  follow- 
ing per  head : 

"White  cabbages 4,890  lbs.  815  lbs.  reduced  to  hay. 

Potatoes 3,900    "  1,950  " 

Radishes 1,8.30"  343  " 

Carrots 1,230   "  462  " 

Green  clover 14,080    "  3,129  " 

Hay 1,660  " 

Su-aw  as  fodder 2,312  " 

"       aslitter 3,6.50  " 

14,321     "  « 

Which  produced  32,938  lbs.  of  dung,  or  very  nearly  sixteen  loads  of  2,000  lbs. 
each. 

With  such  an  amount  of  fodder,  the  cattle  certainly  ought  to  be  completely  sa- 
tiated, but  they  did  not,  at  any  time,  suffer  from  indigestion.  In  proof  of  this,  I 
shall  state  the  daily  quantity  of  milk  yielded  by  each  of  my  dairy  cows,  which 
amounted,  on  an  average,  to  10  quarts  of  Hanoverian,  or  8  quarts  of  Berlin  meas- 
ure ;  makmg  3,650  Hanoverian  or  2,920  Berlin  quarts  per  year. 

These  variations  in  the  data  may  suffice  to  prove  that  horned  cattle  require  lit- 
tle for  their  actual  subsistence,  and  also  that  they  can  consume  a  great  quantity. 
/  On  the  whole-,  an  abundant  supply  of  food  is,  to  a  certain  degree,  far  more  proiit- 
I  able,  in  the  end,  than  any  great  saving  or  economy  on  this  head  ever  can  be.  I 
'  have,  however,  ascertained,  by  long  experience,  that  large-sized  beasts  can  only 
be  rendered  profitable  by  being  very  abundantly  fed.  In  order  to  establish  the 
Ji  average  quantity  of  food  and  straw  on  which  a  moderate-sized  ox  or  cow  can  be 
!  most  advantageously  kept,  I  shall  admit  that  a  good  milch  cov^  or  draught  ox, 
I  when  fed  in  the  stall,  will  annually  consume 

i  In  straw,  for  fodder  and  for  litter , 4,500  lbs. 

)  In  hay,  the  various  kinds  of  green  fodder  being  also  reduced  to  it 4,500  lb,?. 

But  when  these  beasts  are  pastured  during  the  day,  they  have  an  equivalent  to 
4,000  lbs.  of  straw,  and  also  to  the  quantity  of  roots  which,  if  reduced  to  hay, 
would  amount  to  2,800  lbs.  ;  by  these  means,  m  the  former  case,  18,000  lbs.  or 
nine  loads  of  dung  will  be  obtained,  and,  in  the  latter,  13,600  lbs.  or  six  loads 
and  three-quarters. 

A  draught  horse,  when  fed  in  the  stable,  requires  7,500  lbs.  of  gross  fodder — 
one-third  of  which  should  be  hay,  and  two-thirds  straw,  besides  a  sufficiency  of 
com. 

{418) 


MANURE FODDER CATTLE.  99 

We  shall  find  a  still  greater  number  of  variations  in  the  accounts  of  the  winter 
feeding  required  by  sheep.  In  "  Den  Tax  Prinzipien,"  (the  principles  of  estima- 
tion,) we  find  the  amount  of  fodder  necessary  for  a  hundred  sheep,  which  were 
turned  out  at  intervals  during  the  winter,  stated  at  4,950  lbs.  ;  and  that  requisite 
for  the  same  flock  when  turned  out  more  frequently,  at  3,850  lbs.  of  hay.  On 
the  other  hand  a  flock  of  sheep  of  an  improved  breed  consumed  : 

Dj-y  Clover.  Sti-aw  and  Peas. 

Per  100  of  Ewes 16,600  lbs.  5,,™o  lbs. 


Yearlings 22,000 

"  Lambs  and  lambkins 5..500  Ifi.oOO 

■Wethers 22,000 

44,180  lbs.  44,100  lbs. 

Thus,  on  an  average  per  100  sheep,  11,025  lbs.  dry  clover,  and  11,025  lbs.  straw  and  peas,  be- 
sides straw  for  litter. 

In  the  sheep-fold  of  Kunersdorf,  containing  four  hundred  and  sixty-six  sheep, 
in  1804,  the  following  amount  of  produce  was  consumed  : 

Hay 1,200  cwts.       I  Oats 7^  bushels. 

Horse-beans 108  bushels.     Rape-cake 300    pieces. 

Peas 46  bushels.  | 

Which  is,  indeed,  an  astonishing  difference. 

In  order  to  determine  what  extent  of  pasturage  is  necessary  for  a  cow,  I  shall 
take  as  a  basis  a  table  contained  in  Commissioner  General  Meyer's  work,  and  in 
which  all  the  principal  items  which  relate  to  this  subject  are  carefully  defmed 
and  distinguished. 

I  must,  however,  observe,  in  the  first  place,  that  this  table  has  reference  to 
pasturages  formed  on  fields  during  their  period  of  repose,  and  to  a  small  breed  of 
cows,  such  as  are  found  in  the  Mecklenburgh  dairies. 

The  table  relates  to  the  meadow-pastures  both  in  spring  and  in  autumn.  In 
those  cases  where,  from  the  fields  being  laid  down  for  pastures  all  the  year 
round,  three  acres  are  sufficient  for  one  beast,  a  cow  is  supposed  to  require — 

Acres,  Square  perches. 

From  the  beginning  of  August  to  the  12th  of  May 9  40 

From  the  middle  of  August  to  the  12th 'of  May 11  40 

"            1st  of  May 10  60 

"  "      September  to  the  12th  of  May 15 

From  St.  Michael's  to  the  12th  May 25  36 

1st  May 36  24 

From  St.  Majlin's  to  the  1st   May 116  80 

•'                 "                 "  12th  May 48  100 

The  difference  between  the  first  and  the  twelfth  of  May  is  indeed  striking,  but 
it  is  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  things  ;  because  in  these  eleven  days  the 
\  vegetation  is  considerably  more  active,  which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  pas- 
turing of  cattle  at  this  period  is  very  injurious  to  the  meadows.  If  the  animals 
were  continued  on  pasture  to  the  24th  or  to  the  end  of  May,  this  diflFerence  would 
become  still  more  evident. 

I  shall  also  refer  my  readers  to  the  same  work  for  a  table  estimating  the  pas- 
turage found  in  forests.  The  profit  which  may  be  derived  from  them,  and  the 
influence  which  is  exercised  over  it  by  the  kind  and  size  of  the  trees  with  which 
these  forests  are  filled,  will  all  be  found  very  accurately  defined  and  distinguished 
there. 

The  Calenberg  acre,  according  to  which  Meyer  forms  his  calculations,  is  three 
square  perches  and   three-quarters  larger  than  the  Berlin  acre.     It  contains  a 
hundred  and  twenty  perches  of  sixteen  feet  each,  but  these  latter  are  shorter  | 
than  the  Rhenish  feet.  ■ 

A  great  number  of  agriculturists  are  of  opinion  that  ten  sheep  will  consume  as 
much  winter-fodder  or  pasture  as  one  cow  ;  but  this  depends,  in  a  great  measure, 
on  the  nature  of  the  pasture — for  there  are  some  kinds  of  mountain  herbage,  a 
certam  esteht  of  which,  though  quite  sufficient  for  the  keep  of  ten  sheep,  will 
not  support  one  cow  ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  there  are  others  perfectly  adapted 
fox  pasturing  cattle,  and  are  by  no  means  suitable  or  profitable  for  sheep.  In 
fact,  the  number  of  animals  which  can  be  kept  on  a  certain  extent  of  pasture  de- 
pends, in  a  great  measure,  on  the  breed  of  the  animals,  and  the  purpose  for 
ma) 


which  they  are  designed.  In  those  places  where  improved  breeds  of  sheep  are 
kept  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  for  the  quantity  of  wool  Which  they  may  be  made  to 
produce,  an  extent  of  pasture  which  will  generally  feed  a  cow  will  barely  suffice 
for  seven  sheep  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  an  extent  of  pasture  sufficient  for  fif- 
teen sheep  will  aflFord  a  very  poor  and  meagre  feeding  for  a  cow  belonging  to 
one  of  the  large  breeds.  But  as  these  differences  can  only  be  duly  appreciated 
in  certain  defuiite  localities,  and  by  reference  to  the  lands  or  the  animals  in  ques- 
tion, we  shall  not  stop  to  include  them  in  our  average  estimates,  but  confine  our- 
selves to  the  original  one. 

THE  VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF  CULTIVATION. 

One  of  the  most  essential  conditions  attending  every  rotation  of  crops  is  that 
the  proportion  of  labor  and  manure  shall  be  suitable  and  proportionate  to  the  ex-  / 
tent  and  quality  of  the  soil.  '[ 

The  well  known  necessity  of  animal  manures  in  the  cultivation  of  every  spe- 
cies of  vegetable  products,  and  particularly  of  corn,  has  led  all  nations  and  all 
ages  to  consider  that  arable  culture  and  grazing  ought  to  be  united,  in  order  that  ; 
each  may  be  made  to  produce  all  the  advantages  which  may  be  derived  from  ' 
them.  There  is  but  one  opinion  on  this  subject ;  but  there  are  many  disputes  on 
the  subject  of  their  reciprocal  relation,  to  each  other,  and  on  the  determination  of 
the  quantity  of  land  which  ought  to  be  devoted  to  each  ;  and  particularly  on  the 
relative  proportion  Avhich  they  ought  to  bear  to  one  another,  in  order  that  the 
greatest  possible  amotmt  of  animal  and  vegetable  products  may  be  derived  from 
their  union. 

These  systems  of  cultivation  may  be  divided  into  two  classes.  In  agricultural 
undertakings  regulated  by  the  first  of  these  principles,  the  chief  part  of  the  land 
is  devoted  exclusively  to  the  cultivation  of  corn,  or  of  other  vegetable  products, 
which  are  intended  solely  for  the  consumption  of  the  human  race  ;  and  a  very 
small  part  only  to  the  raising  of  food  for  the  grazing  of  cattle.  The  meadovfs 
and  fields  are  separated  from  each  other ;  one  portion  of  the  latter  is  mown,  and 
on  the  other  portion  cattle  are  pastured. 

In  the  second  class,  the  same  piece  of  land  is  made  to  produce  alternately 
.  grass  or  vegetables  for  fodder  and  com  ;  the  proportion,  quantity,  species,  &c.  of 
!    the  different  crope,  and  the  frequency  of  their  repetition,  or  the  order  in  which 
they  succeed  each  other,  being  regulated  by  the  soil,  the  climate,  and  the  nature 
of  the  locality.     The  first  class  is  generally  designated  cultivation  of  grain  or 
corn,  and  the  second  alternate  husbandry.     We  shall  presently  point  out  the  va- 
rious subdivisions  of  these  two  classes,  and  the  deviations  from  the  general  rule. 
These  two  classes  are  now  frequently  combined  ;  for  it  has  latterly  been  deem- 
ed expedient  to  introduce  the  cultivation  of  plants  destined  for  fodder  into  those 
rotations,  which  were  formerly  exclusively  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  corn. 

\  Class  1- — -Tht  Cultivation  of  Corn. 

Fields  submitted  to  this  system  are  appropriated  solely  to  the  cultivation  of 
crops  of  various  kinds  of  corn.     W*  shall  henceforth  designate  under  this  title 
the  cultivation  of  all  products  destined  chiefly  for  the  wants  and  subsistence  of 
mankind,  and  which  consequently  find  a  sure  and  ready  sale.     Where  this  system  ( 
of  cultivation  is  pursued,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  pasture  grounds  and  natural   > 
and  artificial  meadows  on  those  portions  of  land  set  apart  for  the  purpose  of  feed-  ( 
ing  cattle.     If  these  are  sufficiently  extensive  to  maintain  the  number  of  cattle  { 
which  it  will   be  necessary  to  keep  in  order  to  provide  the  requisite  quantity  of  ; 
manure  for  the  soil ;  and  if  these  portions  of  land  cannot  be  rendered  more  ad-  ( 
vantageous  to  the  whole  by  any  other  means,  then  it  may  be  admitted  that  this  ^ 
system   attains  its  end,  viz.,  that  of  yielding  the  utmost  possiile  amount  of  net  ) 

against  it.     There  certainly  are  in-  ( 


produce,  and  no  objection  can  be  offered 

tances  of  this  case  existing,  but  they  are  seldom  met  with,  and  are  far  more  rare 

than  most  of  the  advocates  and  defenders  of  this  system  appear  to  believe. 

This  system  likewise  receives  the  names  of  the  three,  four,  and  five-course 
shift,  according  to  the  number  of  years  which  each  course  occupies,  or  which 
intervene  between  each  manured  fallowing.  There  are  some  rotations  belonging 
lo  this  class  which  extend  to  six  and  even  to  nine  years  ;  but  these,  as  we  shal' 
presently  see,  can  only  be  regarded  as  repetitions  of  the  triennial  rotation. 

(420) 


SYSTEMS  OF  CULTIVATION. 


101 


This  latter  is  the  one  most  frequently  used,  and  we  shall  therefore  begin  with 
it;  and  having  examined  it  in  its  primitive  excellence,  shall  proceed  to  notice  the 
additions  and  improvements  to  which  ii  has  been  submitted.  Afterwards  we 
shall  treat  of  the  other  rotations. 

During  the  time  of  the  Ptomans,  the  triennial  rotation  of  crops,  as  it  in  all 
probability  existed  and  was  practised  in  every  part  of  Europe  except  in  Italy  itself, 
where  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  introduced  until  the  14th  century"  by  t  it 
Barberiui,  whence  it  derived  its  name,  consisted  in, 

1.  A  naked  fallow,  with  repeated  plowings  during  summer. 

2.  Crop  of  autumnal  corn. 

3.  Crop  of  spring  corn. 

The  fallow  ought  always  to  be  manured,  and  this  invariably  used  to  be  the 
case  when  the  proportion  of  meadows  and  pasture-ground  to  arable  land  Avas 
much  greater  than  at  present.  At  the  present  day,  however,  the  fallows  are 
only  regularly  manured  in  a  very  few  fertile  countries,  or  in  districts  where  there 
is  a  great  deal  of  rich  meadow  land,  or  perhaps  where  the  union  of  stall  feeding 
and  the  cultivation  of  plants  for  fodder  with  this  system  renders  the  procuring  of 
manure  a  less  difficult  task.  In  general  only  every  second  and  sometimes  only  every 
third  fallow  is  manured,  and  thus  the  fields  are  only  ameliorated  once  in  six  or 
nine  years.  Many  farmers  who  have  broken  up  their  meadow  and  pasture- 
ground  for  the  purpose  of  converting  it  into  arable  land,  have  found  themselves 
so  much  reduced  by  the  dimmulion  of  fodder  and  straw  as  to  be  unable  to  manure 
even  a  ninth  part  of  their  fields  properly  ;  and  have  frequently  been  compelled 
to  leave  a  great  portion  of  their  arable  land  wholly  untouched,  or  at  most,  able 
only  to  give  it  a  very  slight  covering  of  manure  in  order  to  reserve  the  quantity 
necessary  for  those  fields  which  are  either  better  in  quality  or  nearer  to  the  build- 
ings. This  neglected  part  is  termed  exterior  field  or  out-field  land,  or,  according 
as  it  yields  a  crop  of  rye  in  three,  six,  or  niiie  years,  it  receives  the  appellation  of 
three,  six,  or  nine  year  rye-land. 

Where  the  soil  is  of  a  fertile  clayey  nature,  and  if  properly  cultivated,  it  might 
be  classed  among  wheat  land ;  and  if  spelt  is  also  raised  upon  it,  it  is  called  spelt  land. 

If  the  land  will  produce  ten  bushels  of  spring  and  ten  bushels  of  autumnal 
corn  per  acre,  and  tAvo  thousand  pounds  of  straw  from  the  former  and  one  thou- 
sand from  the  latter,  when  cultivated  according  to  the  triennial  succession  of 
crops,  six  thousand  pounds  of  manure,  or  three  loads  of  twenty  quintals  each, 
will  be  obtained  according  to  the  principles  stated  in  page  \ii;  and  as  at  least 
five  such  loads  are  requisite  for  a  three  years'  manuring,  there  will  yet  be  want- 
ing two  loads  or  four  thousand  pounds  of  manure,  and  these  must  be  procured  by 
means  of  hay.  A  supplement  of  two  thousand  pounds  of  this  last  mentioned 
description  of  fodder  will  therefore  be  requisite,  or  the  produce  of  an  acre  and  a 
quarter  of  meadow  land  of  medium  quality.  Every  agricultural  establishment 
w^hich  has  attained  the  condition  to  be  able  to  furnish  this  quantity  of  manure, 
and  which,  consequently,  possesses  an  acre  and  a  quarter  of  meadow  land  besides 
the  quantity  of  pasture  land  necessary  for  keeping  the  cattle  in  working  condi- 
tion during  the  summer,  for  every  three  acres  of  arable  land,  may  support  this 
rotation  of  crops  without  weakening  itself  in  the  slightest  degree  ;  and  as,  in 
addition  to  the  manures  above  mentioned,  there  is  also  a  quantity  which  the 
cattle,  and  more  particularly  the  sheep,  yield  during  the  night,  it  follows  that  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  must  be  continually  on  the  increase  ;  so  that,  eventually,  those 
kinds  of  grain  which  find  the  readiest  sale,  and  yield  the  greatest  profit,  may  be 
advantageously  cultivated. 

When  the  soil  is  manured  only  once  in  six  years,  and  the  produce  of  the  spring 
and  autumnal  corn  on  land  of  medium  quality  amounts  to  seven  bushels  when 
the  fallow  has  been  manured,  and  to  four  bushels  and  a  half  when  it  has  not  re- 
ceived any  assistance — and  the  produce  of  six  years  may  conseqently  be  estimated 
at  eleven  bushels  and  a  half  of  autumnal  grain,  and  as  many  more  of  spring 
grain,  together  with  2,480  lbs.  of  straw  from  the  former  and  1,150  lbs.  from  the 
latter,  making  in  all  3,630  lbs.,  which  will  yield  7,260  lbs.  or3f  loads  of  manure, 
while  the  land  requires  at  least  5  loads  of  manure — 2,740  lbs.  will,  therefore,  still 
be  wanting  ;  to  produce  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  1,370  lbs.  of  hay.  It 
appears,  then,  that  the  triennial  rotation  can  be  kept  up  and  made  to  yield  the 
average  quantity  of  produce  which  may  be  expected  from  it,  if  there  are  seven 


102  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

acres  of  meadow  land,  besides  an  adequate  extent  of  pasturage  to  every  six  acres 
of  arable  land.  And  that,  by  means  of  these  resources,  and  of  the  manure  pro- 
duced by  the  cattle,  and  especially  by  the  sheep  at  pasture  during  the  night,  the 
land  can  be  preserved  from  that  exhaustion  with  which  it  would  otherwise  be 
threatened. 

The  small  produce  of  those  rotations  in  which  the  manuring  takes  place  only 
once  in  nine  years,  is  well  known  to  every  person,  and  has  been  already  men- 
tioned in  the  sections  above  cited. 

We  have  supposed  that  the  establishments  in  which  the  triennial  rotation  of 
crops  is  adopted,  possess. a  sufficient  quantity  of  pasture  land;  but,  in  reality, 
this  is  seldom  the  case.  If,  Avhere  this  system  is  adopted,  a  sufficient  number  of 
cattle  are  kept  to  convert  into  manure  the  whole  of  the  hay  and  straw  which 
can  be  allowed  them,  there  ought  to  be  as  many  large  cattle  as  there  are  acres 
of  land  to  be  annually  manured.  And  it  is  necessary  to  assign  from  three  to  five 
acres  of  open  pasture  land,  according  to  the  quality,  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  acres 
of  forest-pasture  to  each  beast,  if  we  would  keep  them  in  condition, and  prevent  / 
their  annual  return  of  profit  from  being  far  below  what  it  ought  to  be.  ' 

We  may,  however,  deduct  the  pasturage  which  is  allowed  for  the  draught  | 
cattle  from  this  calculation,  because  these  animals  ought,  properly  speaking,  to 
be  fed  in  the  stable.     Now,  as  it  seldom  happens  that  the  disposable  quantity  of 
pasture  ground  is  so  great  as  here  required  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that,  in 
establishments  in  which  the  triennial  rotation  is  adopted,  the  horned  cattle  yield 
a  very  scanty  return,  even  when  every  necessary  care  is  bestowed  upon  them,  and  [< 
where  they  have  been  well-fed  throughout  the  winter.     The  profit  yielded  by 
cattle  is  therefore  almost  exclusively  derived  from  the  sheep,  and  in  such  estab- 
lishments even  these  animals  are  seldom  supplied  with  sufficiently  ample  pas- 
turage to  enable  them  to  yield  that  amount  which  might  otherwise  be  expected 
from  them.     It  is  often  necessary,  as  Avell  for  the  sake  of  these  animals  as  from 
want  of  pasturage,  to  defer  the  fallowing  until  the  middle  of  the  summer;  a  ' 
course  of  proceeding  Avhich  is  totally  at  variance  with  the  essential  conditions  of  ! 
this  rotation,  and  which,  when  applied  to  argillaceous  soils,  diminishes'  the  quan- 
tity both  of  the  grain  and  of  the  straAv  produced. 

The  name  of  Schubart  will  be  enrolled  in  the  annals  of  Germany  in  indelible 
characters  as  one  of  the  benefactors  of  the  human  race  ;  although  it  must  be 
admitted  that  he,  in  common  with  other  mortals,  v/as  unable  to  steer  wholly 
clear  of  error.     He  labored  with  indefatigable  zeal  to  procure  the  abolition  of  the 
practice  of  letting  the  land  lie  fallow,  and  also  of  the  rights  of  pasturage  over 
fields  as  well  as  that  of  pathway  ;  but  it  was  not  until  long  after  his  death,  and 
after  great  hesitation  on  the  part  of  the  governments,  that  his  wishes  at  length 
met  with  attention,  and  were  adopted  by  Maximilian  Joseph,  king  of  Bavaria,  » 
and  other  princes  of  Germany,  who,  like  enlightened  and  beneficent  fathers  of  | 
their  people,  sacrificed  to  theiii  those  usages  which  had  been  practised  until  that  ^ 
time  for  the  imposition  of  burdensome  taxes  and  exactions,  the  origin  of  which 
were  mostly  very  equivocal. 

This  system  of  Schubart's  revived  the  long-agitated  dispute  respecting  the 
necessity  or  abolition  of  fallows,  in  all  its  original  vigor,  and  this  question  ap- 
peared for  some  time  to  be  more  important  than  any  other  ;  reams  of  paper  were 
consumed  in  the  discussion  of  it,  but  no  satisfactory  result  was  attained. 

As  this  question  relates  chiefly  to  the  triennial  rotation,  we  shall  take  the  pre- 
sent opportunity  of  discussing  it. 

The  principal  misapprehensions,  errors  and  disputes  on  this  point  have  arisen 
from  no  precise  and  definite  meaning  having  been  attached  to  the  term  fallow. 
This  word  originally  signified  the  state  of  a  portion  of  land  which  during  the 
summer,  or,  what  was  better  still,  during  the  whole  year,  was  turned  up  and 
carefully  broken  and  divided  by  means  of  the  plow  or  spade,  in  order  to  prepare 
it,  as  perfectly  as  possible,  for  the  reception  of  the  ensuing  crops. 

Most  of  the  Roman  writers  on  Agriculture  recommended  this  operation,  and 
prescribed  it  as  being  necessary  under  certain  circumstances  ;  and  many  of  them 
have  given  particular  names  to  each  of  the  processes  which  it  includes.  Thus 
they  designate  that  act  which  we  teii,n  breaking  up  by  the  Latin  word  frangere, 
the  second  plowing  by  the  word  vertere,  the  third  by  infringere,  the  fourth  by 
revertere,  the  fifth  by  refrmgere,  the  sixth,  or  that  immediately  before  the  sow- 

(422) 


SYSTEMS  OF  CULTIVATION. 


103 


ing,  by  lirare  ;  just  as  we  have  our  particular  terms  by  which  to  distinguish 
each  of  these  operations. 

But  some  persons  have  attached  a  widely  different  signification  to  the  term 
"fallow."  As  the  fields  were,  either  from  negligence,  from  want  of  pasturage, 
or  from  a  defective  system  of  practice,  and  in  total  opposition  to  the  aim  and  ob- 
ject of  fallows,  frequently  suffered  to  remain  unplowed  until  June,  and  some- 
times even  until  August,  and,  nevertheless,  were  called  fallow-fields,  this  word 
came,  by  degrees,  to  be  used  in  a  corrupt  sense,  and  to  be  applied  to  land  m  a 
state  of  repose  ;  and  this  introduced  a  misunderstanding  and  misconception  into 
the  discussion. 

It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  restore  to  this  word  the  meaning  which  properly 
belongs  to  it.  Thus,  to  put  in  fallow,  is  to  prepare  land  for  the  ensuing  crop  by 
repeated  plowings  performed  during  the  summer,  without  seeking  to  obtain  any 
produce  whatever  from  it  during  that  year.  A  field  cannot,  therefore,  be  said 
to  be  fallow  until  it  has  been  plowed  once,  and  until,  in  short,  it  has  been  fal- 
lowed'; for,  up  to  that  time,  it  can  only  be  termed  a  field  in  a  state  of  repose. — 
When  cattle  are  fed  on  it,  the  pasturage  thus  obtained  is  designated  a  pasture  on 
a  field  in  state  of  repose. 

The  utility  of  plowing  fallow  ground  caxmot  possibly  be  overlooked  or  denied  ; 
and  the  more  tenacious  or  argillaceous  the  soil  maybe,  the  greater  is  the  advan- 
tage which  will  be  derived  from  it. 

A  simple  plowing  in  spring  or  autumn  certainly  will  turn  up   and  break  the 
surface  of  the  land,  but  it  will  not  divide  it  sufficiently  to  break  the  clods  and 
reduce  them  to  loose   earth.     The  soil,  when  clodded  together,  soon  becomes 
hardened  into  compact  masses,  when  it  is  covered  without  being  broken  ;  it  even 
,   preserves  the  impression  made  upon  it  by  the  plow  ;  and  when  the  plowing  has 
(    been  performed  while  the  ground  was  wet,  the  divided  portions,  exposed  to  the 
'    heat  of  the  sun,  become  as  hard  as  a  tile.     Land,  when  suffered  to  acquire  this 
''  state,  is  highly  unproductive,   because  the  greater  part    of  the   plants   having 
fibrous  roots,  are  unable  to  penetrate  these  clods,  and,  consequently,  are  forced 
to  turn  round  them,  and  the  power  of  vegetation  contained  in  the   portion  of 
ground  which  they  occupy  is,  therefore,  wholly  lost.     The  soil  might  as  well  be 
',  composed,  for  the'mo'st  part,  of  stones,  as  of  mould  thus  congl-omerated.    There 
'  is  scarcely  any  means  by  which  these  clods  can  be  effectually  broken,  except  by 
continued  fallowing  during  the  whole  of  the  year — the  effect  of  which  is  to  bring 
them  all  successively  to  the  surface,  where  they  may  be  exposed   to  the  action 
of  the  atmosphere  ;  and  having  imbibed  moisture,   and  become  softened,  they 
may  be  broken  by  the  harrow  and  other  implements.     If  this  process  can  be  con- 
tinued from  the  end  of  summer  to  the  seed-time  of  the  following  autumn,  and 
care  be  taken  that  each  operation  shall  be  performed  when  the  soil  possesses  the 
proper  degree  of  humidity,  the  field  will  become  transformed  into  an  homogene- 
ous light  loose  powder,  and  all  the  nutritive  and  fertilizing  particles  which  it 
may  contain  will  be  brought  into  action  ;  thus,  we  frequently  see   fields  which 
were,  to  all  appearance,  exhausted,  become  exceedingly  fertile  afier  having  been 
carefully  fallowed,  even  though  they  have  not  received  any  additional  supply  of 
manure. 

The  second  benefit  which  fallowing  confers  upon  the  land  is  the  destruction  of 
noxious  weeds  whicii  have  multiplied  in  it,  either  from  their  seeds  or  by  the 
roots.  These  weeds,  being  frequently  torn  up  by  the  harrow,  crushed  by  the 
roller,  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air,  and  to  the  influence  of  the  sun,  ultimately 
perish,  and  enrich  the  soil  by  rotting  upon  it.  As  for  the  seeds  of  these  weeds, 
they  are  brought  to  the  surface  by  the  action  of  the  plow,  <ietachcd  from  the 
clods,  which  frequently  contain  innumerable  quantities  of  them,  and  placed  in  a 
position  which  facilitates  their  germination  ;  and,  at  the  commencement  of  their 
vegetation,  the  plants  which  have  sprung  from  them  are  torn  up  and  destroyed 
by  the  action  of  the  plow  or  harrow,  and  contribute,  by  their  decomposition,  to 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  fallow  ground  is  thus  freed  from  those  quantUies 
of  weeds  Vf  hich  multiply  almost  to  infinity  amongst  the  corn  ;  that  is  to  say,  if 
the  land  has  been  broken  up  a1,  an  early  period,  and  if  sufficient  care  has  been 
bestowed  on  the  plowing  and  tillage — for  the  clearing  of  the  soil  from  weeds  de- 
pends entirely  on  the  nicety  with  which  these  operations  are  performed._ 

In  the  third  place,  experience  has  taught  us,  and  recent  discoveries  in  chem- 

(423) 


■] 

104  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture.  I 

istn'  and  natural  philosophy  have  tended  to  prove  the  fact,  that  even  the  richest 
land  oug.it  to  he  occasionally  exposed  to  ihe  influence  of  the  air,  if  we  would 
have  it  become  and  remain  fertile  ;  and  that  it  derives  certain  particles  of  mutter 
from  the  atmosphere,  Avhich  must  be  combined  with  it  in  order  to  be  transmuted 
into  nourishment  for  plants.  When  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  hardened,  it  is  as 
incapable  of  absorbing  these  particles  of  matter  as  the  clods  themselves.  It  is 
only  where  the  soil  is  loose  and  divided  that  the  atmospheric  air  can  penetrate, 
1 1  and  come  in  contact  with  all  its  component  parts,  and  produce  its  fertilizing  in- 
fluence upon  them.  This  absorption  of  gaseous  matters  takes  place  only  at  a 
very  high  degree  of  temperature,  and  appears  to  be  most  active  during  the  warm 
weather  of  spring.  The  operation  of  fallowing  is  the  mode  best  calculated  to 
ensure  to  a  soil  all  those  advanta^^es  which  are  derived  from  being  frequently 
turned  up,  and  from  its  surface  being  often  changed,  and  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  atmosphere  and  of  light.* 

Lastly,  it  is  by  fallowing  that  the  most  complete  mixture  and  incorporation  of 
the  various  constituent  parts  of  the  soil,  and  of  the  manure  which  has  been  add- 
ed, can  be  obtained.  In  order  that  the  latter  may  produce  the  full  effect,  it  ought 
to  be  brought  in  contact  Avith,  and  to  be  able  to  fertilize  every  particle  of,  the 
soil ;  indeed,  all  husbandmen  are  aware  that  the  efi'ect  of  manure  which  is  placed 
in  the  ground  in  lumps  is  very  trifling.  There  is  no  method  by  which  the  proper 
'  degree  of  admixture  can  be  so  completely  effected  as  by  fallowing;  particularly 
'  when  the  land  is  also  plowed  and  turned  up  several  times  after  the  dung  has 
been  placed  upon  it. 

To  all  these  recommendations  it  must  be  added  that  fallowing  allows  the 
plowing  to  be  executed  with  a  smaller  number  of  cattle  ;  because  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil  and  the  carrying  of  the  manure  for  the  fallows  can  be  performed 
at  a  time  when  there  is  a  respite  from  all  other,  plowing  operations.  In  large 
I  agricultural  estabHshments  which  do  not  possess  an  extra  number  of  teams,  it  is 
frequently  a  difficult  matter  to  get  the  land  ready  for  all  the  sowings,  unless  it 
has  been  prepared  by  fallowing  ;  and  the  sowings  are  not  unfrequently  retarded, 
'    to  the  manifest  detriment  of  the  crops. 

Thus,  notwithstanding  the  expenses  attendant  on  fallowing,  and  the  tempo- 
rary cessation  of  all  return  or  profit  occasioned  by  it,  which  is  very  perceptible, 
especially  where  the  land  is  of  a  superior  quality,  the  advantages  that  result 
'  from  it  are  so  great  that,  without  the  possession  of  some  extraordinary  means  of 
tillage,  it  is  impossible  to  dispense  with  it  in  any  of  those  rotations  in  which  the 
corn  harvests  frequently  succeed  each  other. 

Where  attempts  have  been  made  to  dispense  with  fallows  on   the  well-ma- 
nured lands  in  the  neighborhood  of  toAvns,  the  ground  has  become  filled  with 
weeds,  and,  notwithstanding  the  favorable  appearance  of  the  corn  during  spring, 
'   it  yielded  a  very  scanty  crop  of  grain  ;  so  great,  indeed,  were  the  inconveniences 
I   resulting  from  this  system  of  cultivation,  that  one  fallowing  was  insufficient  for 
correcting  the  defects  which  the  soil  had  contracted,  and  it  was  often  found  ne- 
'  cessary  to  lay  it  down  to  grass  for  some  years,  or  to  expend  a  great  quantity  of 
I   manure  upon  it,  and   then  devote  it  to  the  raising  of  crops  of  various   kinds  of 
fodder  for  cattle,  until,  after  receiving  certain  preparatory  tillage,  it  can  be  again 
sown  with  grain. 

The  only  thing  which  will  enable  us  to  dispense  with  fallows,  and  with  those 

periods  of  repose  which  we  lately  mentioned,  is  an  exceedingly  careful  tillage — 

such,  for  example,  as  that  which  the  Belgians  bestow  upon  their  land,  by  arrang- 

'    ing  and  dividing  the  surface  of  it  in  narrow  beds  or  strips,  after  having,  in  the 

\    first  place,  pulverized  it  by  the  action  of  the  plow,  the  harrow,  the  roller,  and 

other  agricultural  instruments  ;  by  sowing  the  tops  of  the  ridges  only,  and  leav- 

*  The  description  here  given  bj-  the  author,  of  the  process  of  fallowing  land  when  properly  execnted, 
shows  that  he  fuUy  comprehended  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  the  proper  sense  ;  and  he  very  justly  repro- 
bates the  imperfect  perfoimance,  as  being  the  main  cause  of  having  brought  a  discredit  on  the  process  The 
concluding  observation  on  the  mixture  and  incoiTJoration  of  the  constituent  parts  of  soils  and  manures,  as 
forming  one  great  advantage  derived  from  fallowing,  is  highly  scientific,  practical,  and  most  valuable,  and  of 
which  the  benefits  are  yet'forthcoming  ;  for  the  very  best  and  most  improved  practice  of  our  day  has  not 
yet  reached  that  point,  though  clearly  demonstrated  by  observation  and  experienae,  and  also  by  natural  and 
chemical  science.  Clods  of  soil  and  himps  of  manure,  as  the  author  very  judiciously  remarks,  exert  little 
influence  on  each  other;  the  reciprocal  action  of  affinity  is  not  produced  from  want  of  comminution  and 
commixture,  so  as  to  expose  to  mutual  influence  the  gi'eatest  possible  surface  of  particles.  Delta  gi-ounds 
and  alluvial  soils,  and  experience  in  evei-y  cursory  tiial,  fully  corifii-m  the  truth  and  value  of  the  theoiy. 
(424) 


ing  the  sides  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  and  by  the  cultivation 
of  various  kinds  of  plants,  and  by  weeding  and  hoeing  them  with  the  hand — 
which,  although  not  a  general  practice  in  triennial  rotations,  is  very  frequently 
introduced,  and  often  with  very  material  benefit. 

It  is  not  so  necessary  to  repeat  the  operation  of  fallowing  every  third  year,  as 
was  formerly  supposed  ;  the  land  may  often  be  maintained  in  better  condition 
by  being  employed  in  the  cultivation  of  vegetables  destined  for  the  feedmg  of 
cattle,  which  will  be  the  means  of  producing  a  greater  quantity  of  manure  than 
if  it  were  fallowed  every  third  year.  But  this  mode  of  proceeding  requires  very 
great  care  and  attention,  more  extensive  power  and  facilities  at  command  for 
working  the  land,  and  a  period  of  time  of  sufficient  length  between  the  harvest 
and  seed-time  to  allow  a  very  careful  tillage  being  bestowed  on  the  soil.  Fal- 
low crops  are  certainly  far  more  efficacious  than  naked  fallows,  when,  as  is  the 
case  in  some  districts,  these  latter  are  not  commenced  until  after  the  middle  of 
the  summer.  Hence  the  late  barley,  which  frequently  is  not  sown  until  the  mid- 
dle of  June,  is  to  be  recommended  for  such  rotations,  notwithstanding  the  uncer- 
tainty of  the  success.  If  land  which  is  to  be  completely  fallov/ed,  is  very  care- 
fully plowed  at  least  four  times  during  warm  and  dry  weather,  it  ought  to  con- 
tinue clean  and  fertile,  and  free  from  weeds  ;  and  the  farmer  has  a  right  to  ex- 
pect crops  of  clover,  leguminous  plants,  or  other  fallow  crops,  on  the  next  fal- 
lowing, if  not  on  the  two  succeeding  fallowings. 

The  considerations  just  mentioned  have  given  rise  to  che  compound  triennial 
rotations,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  to  the  six,  nine,  and  twelve  year  rotations, 
which  many  farmers  and  agriculturists  are  in  the  regular  habit  of  pursuing. — 
These  systems  comprise  the  following  courses  of  crops  : 

1.  Fallow.  2.  Autumnal  corn.  3.  Spring  corn.  4.  Peas  and  clover,  5.  Au- 
tumnal corn.     6.  Spring  corn. 

Or:  1.  Fallow.  2.  Autumnal  corn.  3.  Spring  com.  4.  Clover.  5.  Autum- 
nal corn.     6.  Spring  corn.     7.  Peas.     8.  Autumnal  corn.     9.  Spring  corn. 

Or:  1.  Fallow.     2.  Autumnal  corn.     3.  Spring  corn.     4.  Clover.     5.  Autum-  ' 
nal  corn.     6.  Spring  corn.     7.  Fallow.     8.  Autumnal  corn.     9.  Spring  corn. — 
10.  Peas.     11.  Autumnal  corn.     12.  Spring  corn. 

It  is  seldom,  however,  that  Ave  meet  with  intelligent  and  observing  agricultur- 
ists Avho  strictly  adhere  to  these  rotations  ;  they  either  sow  their  land  with  clo- 
ver, or  reserve  it  for  leguminous  crops,  or  suffer  it  to  lie  fallow,  according  To  the 
state  of  it  at  the  time  the  barley  is  sown,  or  according  as  it  is  more  or  less  light 
or  free  from  weeds.     They  choose  the  clearest  part  of  the  land  for  clover  and 
peas,  and  do  not  restrict  themselves  to  a  systematic  course  of  crops,  but  are 
guided  by  circumstances — making  it  a  rule  to  sow  clover  in  the  same  place  only 
once  in  nine  years,  experience  having  proved  that  it  does  not  succeed  if  repeated 
oftener.     Wnen  it   happens,  after  having  sown  leguminous  plants,  either  from 
unfavorable  Aveather  or  from  their  having  over-rated  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  they 
',  do  not  obtain  a  sufficiently  abundant  crop  to  cover  the  ground  with  its  leaves, 
'    they  either  have  it  eaten  off  the  ground  Avhile  in  a  green  slate  by  cattle,  or  bury 
'  it  Avith  the  ploAv  and  lay  down  the  land  for  a  naked  fallow. 

Although  the  pure  triennial  rotation  leaves  one-third,  or  very  nearly  that  pro- 
portion, of  the  cultivated  ground  unemployed,  it  has,  nevertheless,  been  frequent- 
I  ly  represented  as  the  best,  and,  indeed,  as  the  only  good  system  of  cultivation 
that  can  exist,  and  for  the  following  reasons: 

1.  From  the  excellence  of  this  system  being  proved  by  its  universality  and  an- 
tiquity ;  it  being  incredible  that  a  defective  system  should  have  received  the  ap- 
proval of  all  nations  and  all  ages,  and  have  been  able  to  extend  and  maintain  its 

'   ground  so  generally. 

2.  From   no   system,  hitherto  known   or  discovered,  producmg   so  great   an 
amount  of  grain.     From  corn  being  the  principal  food  of  man,  the  most  necessary 
kind  of  produce,  and,  consequently,  that  for  which  there  is  the  greatest  demand, 
and  the  production  of  Avhich  is  most  profitably  and   equally  repaid.     From  the 
fact  of  this  system  yielding  a  smaller  amount  of  animal  produce  being,  in  itself,    | 
a  strong  proof  of  the  great  utility,  since  land  will  yield  three   times  as  much 
nourishment  for  the  human  species  in  vegetable  produce  as  in  animal  food. —  , 
From  being  thus  equally  advantageous  and  profitable  to  society,  to  the  State,  ' 
and  to  the  farmer. 

(425) 


106  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

3.  From  labor  being  more  equally  divided  in  this  system  than  in  any  other. — 
From  its  allowing-  more  time  between  the  spring  and  autmimal  sowings  for  till- 
ing the  fallow  ground  and  carting  the  manure.  From  its  being  thus  possible  to 
get  the  land  ready  early  enough  for  the  sowing  of  the  autumnal  corn,  the  crop 
of  which  is  the  richest" and  the  most  important  ;  and,  consequently,  from  being 
possible  to  work  out  this  system  with  a  smaller  number  of  teams. 

4.  From  all  the  agricultural  operations  appertaining  to  this  system  being  sim- 
ple and  requiring  little  skill  ;  and  from  being,  consequently,  possible  to  execute 
them  by  means  of  ordinary  laborers.     From   their  likewise  requiring   the  most   i 
simple  instruments,  and  those  which  are  best  known  and  in  most  common  use.      | 

5.  From  this  system  being  founded  on  an  already  established  division  of  land  ; 
from  the  fact  that  all  the  laVs,  regulations  and  customs  relating  to  Agriculture, 
and  all  its  external  privileges  and  liabilities  being  closely  linked  with  this  sys- 
tem, which  cannot  in  itself  be  altered  without  annihilating  all  these  institutions. 

But  all  these  considerations  vanish  when  tested  by  the  following  facts: — The 
antiquity  and  universality  of  this  sj'stem  admits  of  no  dispute.  It  has  come  down 
to  us  from  the  Romans,  Avho  introduced  it  into  their  remotest  provinces,  and  es- 
pecially into  those  from  which  they  derived  their  corn  ;  but  in  the  environs  of 
Rome," and  in  some  of  the  most  populous  districts  of  Italy,  they  adopted  a  simi- 
lar system  of  tillage  to  that  used  in  gardens,  and  an  alternate  rotation  v.^hich  was  • 
much  more  advantageous.  The  Roman  ecclesiastics,  by  whom  most  of  the  arts 
and  sciences,  and  Agriculture  in  particular,  was  disseminated  among  the  barbar- 
ous nations,  pointed  out  to  them  this  system  as  being  the  most  advantageous. — 
i  These  people  still  pos^ssed  a  superabundance  of  land,  although  it  was  no  longer 
\  possible  to  till  those  uncultivated  and  undivided  lands,  or  keep  and  graze  their 
flocks  over  them,  as  they  had  previously  done. 

In  the  capitular  of  Charlemagne,  de  villis  et  curtis  Impcratoris,  the  triennial 
division  is  positively  dictated  to  his  officers  and  stewards.  It  is  not,  therefore,  at 
all  astonishing  that,  in  an  age  when  authority  predominated  over  every  other 
consideration,  and  the  understanding  ventured  not  to  oppose,  but  blindly  submit- 
ted to  everv  regal  or  positive  enactment,  that  the  triennial  rotation  should  have 
become  so' prevalent  throughout  Christendom,  and  that  laws  and  ordinances, 
whether  relating  to  property,  or  to  agricultural  affairs,  or  to  rural  policy,  should 
have  b«en  based  upon  it. 

It  is,  likewise,  natural  enough  that  no  change  should  have  been  made  in  this 
system  during  the  dark  and  troubled  times  which  followed,  when  Agriculture  \ 
was  entirely  carried  on  by  a  class  of  peasantry,  men  buried  in  the  depths  of  slave-  \ 
ry  and  ignorance,  or  under  the  inspection  of  the  lowest  grade  of  freemen.  Those 
institutions  and  practices  which  custom  had  sanctioned  swayed  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences, for  a  considerable  lapse  of  time,  with  irresistible  poAver  ;  and  any  one  w^ho 
ventured  to  express  the  slightest  doubt  of  their  conformity  with  the  laws  of  rea- 
son was  regarded  as  little  short  of  a  heretic.  It  is  only  of  late  years  that  any 
thing  like  discussion  on  the  virtues  or  defects  of  this  system  has  arisen  ;  and  it 
was  only  on  some  portions  of  land  in  the  Netherlands,  Holstein,  and  in  some 
counties  in  England,  where  any  other  system  of  cultivation  had  been  adopted. — 
This  observation  is  sufficient  to  show  how  slight  is  the  support  which  the  trien- 
nial system  derives  from  antiquity  and  universality. 

Changes  in  the  succession  of  crops  in  the  triennial  rotation  have,  however,  al- 
ready been  frequently  made  with  the  general  consent  of  proprietors,  even  of  por- 
tions of  land  on  which  a  common  right  of  pasturage  was  exercised.  I  know  sev- 
eral villages  in  which   the  helds  are  thus  cultivated : — 1.  Fallow.     2.  Barley. 

3.  Peas.     4.  Rye.     5.  Oats.     6.  Rye.     And  then  the  land  is  fallowed  again  ;  or 
it  is  manured  "for  the  folloAving   succession : — 1.  Barley.     2.  Rye.     3.  FalloAV. 

4.  Rye.     5.  Peas.     6.  Barley.   >.  Rye.     8.  Oats.     9.  Fallow. 

Where  the  soil  is  very  strong,  it  is  scarcely  considered  safe  to  sow  wheat  upon 
manured  fallow  ground,  from  fear  of  the  crop  falling  down.  It  is,  therefore, 
more  usual  to  sow  barley,  which,  according  to  the  general  opinion  in  these  parts, 
is  less  exposed  to  this  accident  than  wheat.  But,  against  all  these  reasons,  the 
triennial  system  still  maintains  its  ground,  and  has  its  supporters. 

In  some  places  the  quadrennial  system  of  cultivation  has  already  been  intro- 
duced and  practised  for  many  years  on  the  common  or  parish  lands.  The  fol- 
lowing is,  then,  the  order  or  succession  of  crops  after  the  fallowing: — 1.  Autum- 

(426) 


SYSTEMS  OF  CULTIVATION. 


107 


nal  corn.  2.  Spring  corn.  3.  Autumnal  and  spring  corn  or  peas,  and  then  an- 
other fallow.  This  last  selection  is  as  contrary  to  all  the  rules  of  Agriculture  as 
can  possibly  be  imagined.  Peas,  when  properly  cultivated,  are  an  excellent  pre- 
paration for  a  corn  crop  ;  and,  after  bearing  them,  there  is  not  the  slightest  occa- 
sion for  the  land  to  lie  fallow. 

Many  land-owners  have  adopted  on  iheir  own  farms,  and  prescribed  to  their 
tenants,  a  sort  of  quadrennial  rotation,  from  which  they  anticipate  very  great  ad- 
vantages. This  system,  which  appears  to  me  to  be  founded  on  a  misconception 
of  the  English  quadrennial  alternate  rotation,  comprises,  first,  a  year  of  clover 
crops,  independent  of  the  one  allowed  for  the  fallow  crops  ;  and  then  crops  of 
corn  in  succession  ;  which  are  to  be  followed  by  clover  on  the  fourth  year.  The 
clover,  as  might  have  been  expected,  was  much  less  successful  under  this  rota- 
tion than  under  the  triennial  rotation.  On  lands  thus  divided,  it  is  now  custom- 
ary to  raise  three  successive  crops  of  corn,  and  then  to  let  the  ground  lie  fallow. 
I  know  but  one  single  instance  of  an  estate  on  which,  for  the  last  five-and-twen- 
ty  years,  the  English  course  of  rotation,  viz. — 1.  Weeded  crops  ;  2.  Barley  ;  3. 
Clover  ;  4.  Autumnal  grain — has  been  strictly  followed.  I  have  already  said 
that  the  above-mentioned  system  is  based  on  a  misconception  of  the  latter ;  in 
fact,  it  was  introduced  about  that  perictd  when  Frederic  the  Great,  perceiving 
the  advantages  of  the  English  system,  caused  it  to  be  introduced  upon  his  estates 
under  the  superintendence  of  an  Englishman  named  Brown,  and  other  experi- 
enced agriculturists  Avhom  he  had  sent  to  study  in  England  ;  and  he  also  endeav- 
ored to  introduce  it  throughout  his  dominions  by  assisting  such  landed  proprie- 
tors and  farmers  as  were  disposed  to  entertain  his  views. 

On  some  estates  bordering  on  villages,  we  meet  with  a  division  into  five  parts 
or  allotments,  with  great  variation  in  the  succession  of  the  crops.  As  : — 1.  Au- 
tumnal corn.  2.  Peas.  3.  Autumnal  corn.  4.  Spring  crop.  This  system  of 
rotation  is  not  faulty,  provided  always  that  the  fallowing  is  complete  and  care- 
fully executed.  These  quadrennial  and  quinquennial  rotations  might  be  much 
more  easily  converted  into  a  good  system  of  cultivation  than  the  triennial,  be- 
cause in  them  the  cultivation  of  plants  for  fodder  occupies  the  proper  place. 

The  summary  of  all  the  modes  of  tillage,  which  I  shall  give  in  a  tabular  form 
at  the  end  of  this  section,  will  throw  additional  light  upon  the  relation  Avhich 
the  triennial  rotation  bears  to  itself  and  to  other  systems  of  cultivation,  as  well 
with  respect  to  labor  and  manure  as  to  the  absolute  produce. 

Alternate  Cultivation — Alternate  Rotations  ivith  Pasturage.* 

This  species  of  cultivation,  in  which  the  land  is  devoted  for  several  successive 
years  to  the  growth  of  corn,  and  then  for  some  others  to  the  pasturage  of  cattle, 
or  occasionally  to  crops  of  fodder  for  these  animals,  has  been  for  a  considerable 
period  designated,  by  the  English,  Getmans,  and  Italians,  by  the  title  of  alter- 
nate cultivation,  an  appellation  which  is  peculiarly  appropriate  to  it.  That 
which  I  have  here  designated  "  alternate  cultivation  and  pasturage,"  comprises 
those  rotations  in  which,  after  a  certain  number  of  years,  the  land  is  sown  with 
grass  seeds,  or  left  to  produce  a  spontaneous  herbage  for  two  or  more  years,  when 
cattle  are  pastured  on  it.  In  Germany,  this  system  of  cultivation  is  generally 
called  koppel  wirthschaft  (enclosure  cultivation),  even  though  the  lands  subjected 
to  it  may  not  be  enclosed.  For  our  own  part,  we  shall  reserve  the  term  "  en- 
closure "  exclusively  for  land  surrounded  by  hedges,  applying  the  term  "  sole  F. 
Schlag  G."  (crop  division)  to  each  of  those  partitions  which  are  made  according 
to  the  rotations  of  crops,  whether  consisting  of  one  separate  and  distinct  piece 
or  comprehending  several,  or  only  a  portion  of  some  more  extensive  division. 
According,  therefore,  to  our  acceptation  of  the  term,  the  crop  divisions  are  por- 
tions of  land  appropriated  to  certain  successions  of  crops  ;  and  after  the  lapse  of 
a  certain  number  of  years,  or  the  term  which  the  rotation  lasts,  each  portion  re- 
turns to  thfe  same  state  as  at  the  commencement  of  the  course.  "We  shall  not  ' 
take  the  trouble  to  consider  whether  or  not  they  are  surrounded  by  hedges  or  \ 
fences,  or  even  whether  all  the  parts  are  united  in  the  same  place ;  a  condition 
which  is  by  no  means  essential,  especially  for  stall-feeding,  in  which,  under  cer- 

*  In  order  to  distinguish  the  subdivisions  of  this  system  in  the  north  of  Germany,  the  author  gives  the 
name  of  the  "  Holstein  system  "  to  that  in  which  the  years  of  pasturage  predominate,  and  of  the  '•  Mecklen- 
beig  system  "  to  that  in  which  there  are  the  greatest  number  of  com  crops  and  fallows. 
(427) 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


tarn  circumstances,  diversity  of  position  may  be  rather  beneficial  than  otherwise. 

The  chief  recommendation  of  tillage  alternating  with  pasture,  appears  to  me 
to  be  a  circumstance  which  all  the  detractors  of  this  system  have  passed  over  In  ' 
utter  silence  ;  namely,  that  these  rotations  embrace  the  whole  extent  of  the  ara- 
ble land  ;  those  portions  only  which  are  too  wet  and  which  cannot  be  drained, 
or  which  are  too  hilly,  or  which  are,  perhaps,  too  far  distant,  are  left  unplowed ; 
the  former  are  reserved  for  meadow,  and  the  latter  for  forest  land,  and  each  is 
devoted  exclusively  to  that  particular  purpose. 

To  this  adva.ntage  must  be  added  the  increase  in  the  profit  derived  from  the 
cattle,  arising  froxii  an  abundant  supply  of  food  throughout  the  Avhole  summer, 
and  from  the  greater  number  of  cattle  which  the  extent  and  the  richness  of  the 
herbage  crops  enables  the  farmer  to  maintain.  Thus,  then,  even  supposing  that 
the  produce  in  grain  should  not  be  at  all  increased,  the  increase  in  the  profit  of 
the  cattle  only,  which  no  person  can  deny  or  doubt,  would  be  quite  sufficient  to 
decide  the  question  in  favor  of  alternate  cultivation  and  pasture. 

The  inhabitants  of  Holstein,  that  is  to  say,  the  greater  number  of  them,  for  i 
there  are  some  few  agricultural  establishments  there  which  are  regulated  ac-  ' 
cording  to  the  Mecklenberg  system- — the  inhabitants  of  Holstein,  I  say,  employ  | 
a  greater  number  of  crop-divisions  and  a  longer  rotation.     They  generally  culti-  i 
vate  several  successive  crops  of  grain,  and  then  lay  the  land  down  to  grass,  and 
leave  it  in  a  state  of  repose  for  a  much  longer  period.     The  usual  proportion  in 
Holstein  is,  one-fifth  autumnal  corn,  one-fifth  spring  corn,  and  three-fifths  pastur-  i 
age.     If  the  land  is  fallowed,  Avhich  is  usually  done  since  the  practice  of  marling 
has  been  generally  introduced,  there  is  only  one-tenth  of  the  land  fallowed.     In 
that  case  the  rotation  is  as  follows: — 1.  Oats  on  the  broken-up  pasture-ground. 
2.  Fallow.     3.  Autumnal  corn.     4.  Spring  corn.     5.  Autumnal  and  spring  corn. 
6,  7,  8,  9,  and  10.     Pasturage. 

There  are  seldom  or  never  less  than  ten  divisions,  and  we  sometimes  find  the 
rotations  extending  over  twelve,  thirteen,  and  fourteen  years,  in  which  the  years 
of  corn  crops  and  those  of  pasturage  succeed  each  other  without  alternating,  but 
with  a  far  greater  proportion  of  the  latter,  for  they  never  cultivate  more  than 
five  successive  corn  crops.* 

The  following  are  the  rotations  usually  adopted  in  Mecklenberg  • — 

The  rotation  of  sin,  years. — This  comprises  one  complete  fallowing,  three  suc- 
cessive corn  crops,  and  two  years  of  pasturage.  It  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  estates 
which  possess  rich  meadows  and  fertile  pasture  grounds.  It  requires  a  great 
deal  of  manure,  either  on  account  of  the  extent  of  the  fallowing,  which  occurs 
every  sis  years,  or  because  two  years  of  repose  are  not  sufficient  to  restore  to  the 
soil  that  degree  of  fertility  which  it  has  lost  by  bearing  three  crops  of  grain. 
Whenever  it  has  been  practised  on  estates  of  only  moderate  fertility,  it  has  inva- 
riably led  to  disadvantageous  results,  arising  from  the  quantity  of  grain  produced 
and  the  consequent  exhaustion  of  the  soil.f 

The  sejnenrdal  rotation  comprises  one  fallowing,  three  successive  crops  of  corn, 
and  three  years  of  pasturage.  This  system  is  the  one  most  in  repute  in  the  pre- 
sent day,  because  three  years  of  pasturage  allows  the  soil  a  sufficient  term  of 
repose,  and  the  grass  is  most  abundant  in  the  third  year  ;  in  consequence  of  this 
latter  circumstance,  the  fallow  can  be  much  more  efficiently  manured  than  under 
the  preceding  rotation,  and  thus  the  soil  gains  the  full  portion  of  nourishment  \ 
requisite  for  the  production  of  three  successive  crops  of  grain.  It  certainly  does  ' 
not  require  less  manure  than  the  following  one  ;  nevertheless,  it  cannot  be  kept 
up  without  some  accessory  meadows.  Latterly,  some  persons  have  attempted 
to  introduce  a  fourth  crop  of  grain ;  but  if  they  do  not  possess  rich  pasturage,  or 
separate  lands  for  the  growth  of  fodder,  an  injurious  exhaustion  must  be  the  re- 
sult, unless,  indeed,  very  great  discernment  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  the 

The  time  that  land  can  profitably  remain  in  pasturage  under  the  alternate  system  of  cultivation,  depends 
whuUy  on  the  quality  of  the  soil.  Good  lands  will  pro'duce  n  grateful  herbage  for  many  years,  and  even 
improve  by  lying  at  rest,  while  inferior  soils  will  not  hold  good  grasses  above  two  or  three  years,  and  hence 
the  necessity  of  renovation.  Whenever  a  quantity  of  vegetable  matter,  less  or  more,  has  been  profitably 
accumulated  by  the  herbage,  an  opportunity  is  presented  of  deriving  benefit  from  the  action  on  future  crops. 
From  this  circumstance  the  superiority  of  the  system  arises. 

t  The  six  years  course  of  cropping  and  others  following  it,  here  mentioned,  difl^rs  from  the  alternate  ro- 
tations in  Britain  in  having  three  or  more  grain  crops  in  succession  before  grasses  are  sown,  and  without 
mtennixture  of  the  grain  "crops  with  the  esculent  and  herbaceous  plants,  and,  consequently,  is  wanting  in 
toe  general  benefits. 

(«2S)  .  ^     ^_ 


SYSTEMS   OF  CULTIVATION.  109 


crops.     We  shall  speak  of  this  system  more  at  large  elsewhere;  at  present  it  is 
'  only  our  wish  to  give  a  mere  sketch  of  those  which  are  in  common  use  in  Meck- 
lenberg. 

The  rotation  of  eight  years  usually  comprises  one  fallowing,  four  crops  of 
grain,  and  three  years  of  pasturage.  It  requires  richer  manure  lor  the  four  crops 
of  grain  ;  and  this  can  only  be  obtained  from  a  larger  supply  of  hay,  because  the 
quantity  of  straw  progressively  diminishes  during  the  third  and' fourth  crops. 
On  estates  which  require  to  be  improved  after  having  been  exhausted  by  crop- 
ping, this  rotation  is  frequently  made  to  include  three  crops  of  grain  and  four 
years'  pasturage  ;  and  the  same  system  is  occasonally  established  upon  exterior 
divisions  which  possess  a  moderate  degree  of  fertility. 

The  rotation  of  nine  years  usually  comprises  one  fallowing,  four  crops  of  grain, 
and  four  years  of  pasturage.  There  being  only  one  fallowing  in  this  rotation, 
and  that  occurring  only  once  in  nine  years,  the  etiect  of  it  is  less  sensible  than 
in  any  other.  Besides,  land  which  enjoys  five  years  repose  has  much  less  need 
of  manure,  and  therefore  a  smaller  extent  of  meadow  land  is  sufficient.  It  is 
true  that  this  system  provides  little  fodder  for  the  winter  maintenance  of  the 
cattle  that  graze  during  the  summer  over  this  wide  extent  of  pasturage.  Some 
agriculturists  have,  made  this  rotation  yield  five  successive  crops  of  grain,  and 
allowed  only  three  years  of  repose  and  pasturage  ;  but  this  course  can  only  be 
supported  on  those  lands  which  are  exceedingly  fertile,  and  such  a  system  ap- 
'\  pears  to  us  to  evince  rather  a  spirit  of  avarice  and  of  covetousness  than  of 
[i   economy. 

The  rotation  of  nine  years  with  two  fallowings,  which  was  formerly  so  much 
in  vogue,  is  now  seldom  or  never  to  be  met  with  ;  it  was,  however,  productive  of 
very  fine  crops  of  corn  on  tenacious  soils  which  require  a  great  deal  of  tillage. 

It  is  only  on  the  exterior  divisions  of  estates^where  we  meet  with  a  rotation 
which  embraces  six  years  of  pasturage,  three  corn  crops,  and  one  fallowing. 

The  rotation  of  ten  years,  comprising  two  fallowings,  four  crops  of  corn  (the 
first  two  of  which  are  separated  from  the  last  two  by  these  fallowings),  and  four 
years  of  pasturage,  is  now  only  met  with  on  a  very  limited  number  of  estates. 
The  smallest  possible  extent  of  meadow  land  is,  however,  quite  sufficient  to 
maintain  the  fertility  of  land  cultivated  according  to  this  system.  In  my  opinion, 
it  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  a  complete  course  of  crops.  If  five  successive  crops 
of  corn  are  raised  upon  land  subject  to  the  rotation  of  ten  years,  as  has  been 
sometimes  attempted,  the  destruction  of  the  soil,  and,  consequently,  that  of  the 
rotation,  is  greatly  precipitated. 

The  rotation  of  eleven  years. — This  yields  two  crops  of  gram  after  the  first 
fallow,  which,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  is  not  manured  ;  in  three  years  after- 
wards comes  the  second  falloAV,  which  is  manured  ;  consequently,  there  are  four 
years  of  pasturage.  This  rotation  was  formerly  preferred  by  the  agriculturists 
of  Mecklenberg  to  all  others,  and  there  are  still  many  persons  who  do  not  repent 
of  having  adhered  to  it. 

In  good  argillaceous  land,  where  the  deficiency  of  manure  is  compensated  by 
repose  and  fallowing,  this  rotation  may  be  made  to  yield  suflicient  nourishment 
for  the  cattle,  and  may  be  supported  without  much  manure,  and,  consequently, 
with  a  very  small  extent  of  meadow  land. 

The  rotation  of  twelve  years,  which  yields  three  crops  of  grain  after  each  fal- 
lowing, may,  as  far  as  the  proportions  are  concerned,  be  compared  with  the  ro- 
tation of  six  years  ;  if  it  yields  as  much  manure  as  the  latter,  a  small  portion  of 
it  may  be  taken  from  the  first  falloAV,  and  the  second  will  receive  a  more  abund- 
ant supply.  It  seems  to  me  to  be  superior  to  the  rotation  of  six  years,  and  for 
this  reason,  that  the  manure  is  saved  where  it  would  not  be  necessary,  and  where 
it  might  cause  the  corn  to  be  laid,  and  is  applied  to  the  land  in  larger  quantities 
)  wherever  there  is  need  of  it. 

X  If  only  one  fallowing  can  be  manured,  that  is  to  say,  if  the  land  can  only  be 
S  manured  once  in  twelve  years,  the  quantity  of  com  obtained  will  be  very  small 
)  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  sowings,  and  yet  the  soil  will  be  sensibly  im- 
\  poverished. 

)  With  a  very  few  exceptions,  the  general  succession  of  crops  of  cereal  plants 
)  which  are  raised  is — autumnal  com  only  after  the  fallow  ;  then  two,  three,  and 
)  sometimes  four  crops  of  spring  corn,  the  first  of  which  is  usually  barley,  and  the 


110  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

others  oats.  But  few  vegetables  are  usually  cultivated  ;  when  peas  are  sown,  it 
is  generally  on  the  last  field.  When  cultivated  in  that  place,  it  cannot  be  expect- 
ed that  the  produce  will  be  very  encoaraging.  The  culture  of  other  leguminous 
plants  is  still  more  rarely  introduced. 

In  Mecklenberg  it  has  not  been  found  advantageoas  to  allow  the  land  to  bear 
grass  more  than  four  successive  years  ;  the  pasturage  begins  to  diminish  in  the 
fourth  year,  and  after  that  term  the  ground  becomes  covered  with  moss,  and  the 
cattle  derive  a  very  scanty  subsistence  from  il.  This  is  occasioned  less  by  the 
ditference  which  exists  between  the  soils  and  climates  of  Holstein  and  Mecklen- 
berg, than  by  the  greater  degree  of  impoverishment  of  the  fields  when  they  are 
laid  down  to  pasture. 

They  seem  to  be  entirely  ignorant  in  that  country  of  the  method  pointed  out 
by  Camillo  Tarello,  namely,  that  of  not  burying  the  dung  until  the  last  sowing, 
or  of  even  spreading  it  over  the  new  turf;  in  fact,  the  adoption  of  this  plan,  ac- 
\  cording  to  which  the  manure  is  only  applied  to  the  soil  as  a  kind  of  capital,  is  \ 
^  perhaps  considered  to  produce  too  great  a  diminution  in  the  corn  harvests,  al-  ^ 
though  the  loss  in  that  point  will,  m  the  end,  be  thoroughly  compensated  by  the 
increased  richness  of  the  pasturage,  and  by  the  abundance  of  the  produce  which 
will  be  obtained  when  the  ground  is  cultivated  again. 

Latterly  the  practice  of  sowing  white  clover  with  the  last  crop  has  become  very 
general :  only  a  few  apathetic  and  indolent  agriculturists,  or  men  who  are  firmly 
wedded  to  old  opinions  and  customs,  neglect  this  practice,  and  consider  natural 
herbage  to  be  quite  as  efficient  and  beneficial  for  the  nourishment  of  cattle  ;  but 
cow-keepers  and  dairy  fanners  are,  almost  invariably,  great  advocates  of  this 
practice,  and  their  opinion  ought  to  possess  some  weight. 

It  makes  a  very  great  difference  in  the  pasturage  of  the  first  year,  and  the 
effects  are  even  sometimes  perceptible  on  that  of  the  second  and  third.     The  pro- 
duce of  the  pasturage  ought  to  be  valued  both  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil  and  the  greater  or  less  disposition  which  it  shows  towards  the  bearing  of 
)  grass,  as  well  as  according  to  the  period  which  has  elapsed  since  it  has  been 
5  without  cultivation. 

•\       The  testimony  of  a  great  many  aged  persons  goes  to  prove  that  a  wide  extent  of 
\  land,  which  had  been  wholly  exhausted  by  the  triennial  rotation,  has  become  so 
!'  much  ameliorated  by  this  system  of  cultivation  in  the  course  of  one  generation, 
\  that  it  is  now  capable  of  producing  a  considerable  surplus  of  corn  for  exportation, 
5   besides  affording  an  abundant  pasturage  to  three  times  as  many  cattle  as  were 
1 1  formerly  fed  upon  it.     This  is  so  striking  a  proof  of  the  superiority  of  the  sys- 
tem over  any  other,  that  it  has  awakened  the  attention  of  all  the  provinces  in 
the  north    of  Germany,  and   has  gained  for  it  a   great  number  of  proselytes 
wherever  the  ancient  laws  and  ordinances  with  respect  to  property  do  not  restrict 
the  free  exercise  of  the  will,  and  where  the  estates  are  sufficiently  extensive  to  ad- 
mit those  great  changes  which  can  only  be  made  gradually,  and,  during  the  first 
years,  with  a  sacrifice  both  of  money  and  of  produce. 

The  following  are  the  principal  advantages  of  the  system  of  alternate  culti- 
vation and  pasturage  :  It  saves  a  great  deal  of  labor,  and  that  which  is  applied  to 
it  is  always  more  profitable  than  that  which  is  applied  to  the  triennial  rotation, 
in  which  land  that  has  not  been  manured  is  too  often  plowed  in  vain,  since  it 
gains  little  more  than  the  equivalent  of  as  much  more  as  the  seed.  The  opera- 
tions succeed  each  other  in  regular  succession,  being  the  same  every  year  and 
also  equally  divided  among  the  different  seasons.  Each  plowing  can  be  performed 
at  the  period  which  is  most  proper  for  it ;  and  as  the  time  at  which  the  land 
ought  to  be  broken  up  occurs  about  autumn,  it  is  easy  to  choose  the  most  favor- 
able periods  for  plowing  and  harrowing.  It  is  a  common  saying,  that  if  any  one 
wishes  to  see  land  carefully  and  perfectly  falloAved,  he  must  travel  through  iVIeck- 
lenberg.  The  manure  is  applied  to  the  soil  at  the  most  suitable  time,  and  it  is 
carefully  mingled  with  the  upper  layer  in  order  that  the  action  on  the  crops  may 
be  direct  and  complete  as  possible.  Every  thing  is  in  readiness  for  the  autum- 
nal sowing,  so  that  the  first  favorable  moment  which  occurs  may  be  embraced 
for  putting  the  seed  into  the  ground  ;  a  circumstance  which  has  considerable  in- 
fluence on  the  success  of  the  crop,  and  the  other  rotations  do  not  possess  the 
same  advantage. 

The  diminution  in  the  amount  of  labor  has  been  made  a  matter  of  reproach 

(4:30) 


SYSTEMS   OF   CULTIVATION.  Ill    j 

to  this  system.  It  is  said  to  be  detrimental  to  general  industry,  and  calculated  ] 
to  diminish  the  population.  But  this  complaint  can  only  be  made  by  those  who  ! 
do  not  consider  or  recollect  that  under  this  system  no  one  portion  of  the  land  is 
suffered  to  lie  uncultivated,  but  that  it  embraces  the  whole  extent  of  the  domain, 
deriving  from  each  portion  that  kind  of  produce  for  which  it  is  best  calculated. 
If  the  population  of  Mecklenberg  has  diminished  since  it  was  first  introduced, 
which  certainly  is  not  the  case,  that  result  could  only  have  been  attributed  to  the 
great  extent  of  the  estates,  and  to  the  scarcity  or  total  want  of  small  farms. 

Besides  the  regularity  in  the  quantity  and  nature  of  the  agricultural  labors  in 
this  system,  the  crops  will,  if  we  except  extraordinary  years,  be  found  to  be  al- 
ways similar,  and  that  not  only  with  respect  to  extent  of  ground,  but  of  the  abso- 
lute produce  ;  at  any  rate,  the  difference  in  the  production  of  certain  years  is  not 
so  sensibly  felt  in  this  system  as  in  many  others.  The  autumnal  corn  seldom  or 
never  turns  out  badly,  because  it  is  sown  early  and  at  a  proper  period.  Unless 
any  unforeseen  accident  occur,  the  amount  of  the  products  may  generally  be  reck- 
oned with  tolerable  accuracy.  It  is  for  this  reason  ihat  those  excessively  abund- 
ant crops,  which  no  one  can  account  for,  are  seldom  obtained  from  any  portion  of 
the  fields,  and  the  certain  and  regular  net  produce  which  may  be  expected  from 
the  estate  can  be  calculated  with  a  much  greater  degree  of  certainty  than  under 
any  other  system. 

In  proportion  as  a  judicious  distribution  of  the  lands,  and  a  pennanent  intro- 
duction of  this  system  of  cultivation,  require  knowledge,  intelligence  and  skill,  in 
like  proportion  will  be  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  carried  on  when  it  is 
once  fairly  established.  Very  extensive  agricultural  undertakings  may  be  put  in 
train  by  these  means,  and  kept  in  good  condition  by  a  very  trifling  amount  of  sur- 
,  veillance.  Every tuing  has  its  proper  course,  and  all  the  operations  succeed  one 
another  in  their  fitting  times  and  places.  There  is  nothing  to  be  attended  to  but 
the  ordinary  routine  of  the  operations  of  plowing,  harrowing,  sowing,  reaping, 
mowing,  and  gathering  in  the  crops  ;  and  these  details  are  so  well  understood, 
and,  in  general,  so  well  executed,  that  every  upper  laborer,  bailiff,  or  over-looker, 
even  if  he  can  neither  read  or  write,  is  perfectly  capable  of  conducting  and  di- 
recting them. 

The  cattle  which  are  kept  for  profit  or  mcome  are  usually  farmed  out,  and  it 
is  the  business  of  the  dairy-farmer  to  look  after  them  ;  and  his  interests  lead  him 
to  pay  particular  attention  to  the  meadow  land,  and  to  raising  crops  of  fodder. — 
In  summer  these  cattle  have  their  regular  pasture-grounds,  and  in  the  winter 
they  con^me  all  the  hay  and  straw  which  the  draught  cattle  do  not  want.  Even 
if  the  year  has  been  otherwise  unfavorable,  and  the  fodder  has  been  rather  scan- 
ty, the  farmer  need  not  trouble  himself  about  anything  else  while  he  is  sure  that 
the  animals  will  not  want  for  actual  necessities.  The  cow-keeper,  in  contracting 
for  the  farming  out  of  his  cattle,  always  takes  care  to  stipulate  that,  come  what 
may,  they  shall  have  a  suflicient  if  not  a  plentiful  supply  of  food. 

It  is  very  evident  that,  with  this  regular  course  of  cultivation  and  this  equality 
of  products,  the  profit  derived  from  agricultural  industry  can  never  be  very  consid- 
erable. An  estate  produces  a  certain  income  ;  which  latter  is,  on  an  average,  al- 
most equal  to  the  net  produce  of  the  cultivation.  An  estate  which  is  completely 
arranged,  a.nd  which  does  not  possess  any  peculiar  or  undiscovered  resources, 
may  be  safely  purchased  ;  but  if  the  same  course  of  cultivation  be  continued  on 
it,  it  will  be  impossible  to  make  it  yield  more  than  the  amount  of  the  rent,  un- 
less, indeed,  some  extraordinary  combinations  of  circumstances  raise  the  price  of 
corn  considerably  beyond  the  natural  value. 

I  do  not  mean  to  infer  that  a  skillful  and  reflective  man  may  not,  by  means  of 
judicious  and  well-directed  ameliorations,  find  opportunities  of  materially  improv- 
ing many  estates,  and  deriving  considerable  advantages  from  them.  But  this  is 
quite  distinct  from  cultivation,  properly  so  called,  and  can  only  be  carried  into 
effect  in  certain  localities.  Although  a  great  number  of  experiments  of  this  na- 
ture have  been  made  with  variable  results,  and  although  it  is  evident  that  they 
cannot  always  be  attended  with  success,  yet  there,  doubtless,  are  numerous  re- 
sources yet  undiscovered  on  estates  at  present  submitted  to  this  species  of  culti- 
vation. 

The  regularity  with  which  the  agricultural  operations  appertaining  to  this  sys- 
tem are  performed  is  so  great  that,  by  means  of  it,  any  person  may  easily  direct 

(43])  "    • 


112  THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

several  separate  estates  at  the  same  time,  without  the  necessity  of  havmg  a  skill- 
ful overlooker  for  each.     It  is  sufficient  occ-asionally  to  see  that   the  machinery 
continues  to  Avork,  and  to  accelerate  the  motion  at  times  when  it  appears  neces- 
sary.    The  book-keeping  is  very  simple,  clear,  and  concise.     In  Mecklenberg  ' 
there  are  many  farmers  renting  large  estates,  who  keep  their  whole  accounts  on   ^ 
their  door-posts  with  a  piece  of  chalk. 

Besides  that  the  work  is  distributed  in  a  more  uniform  manner  under  tnis  sys- 
tem than  under  any  other,  it  is  also  much  less  in  amount.  This  is  one  reason 
that  the  rotation  is  so  well  adapted  for  those  situations  or  districts  in  which  there 
is  a  scarcity  of  laborers,  and,  especially,  where  it  is  difficult  and  often  impossible 
to  engage  supernumeraries  in  the  hour  of  need.  Every  year  it  employs  the  same 
number  of  laborers  and  of  draught  cattle  ;  and  if  the  services  of  the  persons  whom 
it  employs  at  one  period  are  not  required  at  another,  they  at  least  know  what  to 
expect,  and  will  take  care  to  seek  some  other  occupation  during  the  intervals  of 
labor. 

In  less  cultivated  and  less  populous  countries,  where  estates  comprising  large 
extents  of  land,  often  of  little  or  no  value,  render  the  great  culture  incontroverti- 
bly  preferable  to  the  small,  this  system  will  be  found  far  more  convenient  and 
advantageous  than  any  other.  It  has  this  merit,  that  at  any  period  it  may  be  to- 
tally changed  ;  that  it  forms  an  excellent  precursor  to  any  other  rotation  ;  and 
that  it  also  prepares  for  an  advantageous  division  of  large  estates,  since  any  pe- 
culiar cultivation  may  easily  be  introduced  on  any  portion  of  ground  lying  at  rest. 

In  Holstein  the  produce  from  the  cultivation  of  grain  is  too  small,  and  not  pro- 
portionate to  the  nutrition  and  succulent  juices  contained  in  the  soil.  In  Meck- 
lenberg, on  the  other  hand,  the  defect  that  exists  in  cattle  economy  does  not  be- 
long so  much  to  the  number  of  animals,  but  arises  from  a  want  of  sufficient  nour- 
ishment for  them  in  summer  as  well  as  in  winter.  The  results  of  this  defect  { 
are,  not  only  the  absence  of  a  satisfactory  profit  from  this  branch  of  rural  econo- 
my, but,  what  is  still  worse,  a  scarcity  of  manure,  which,  if  the  cultivation  were 
ever  so  good,  would  alone  be  sufficient  to  prevent  the  crops  from  being  so  fine 
and  so  abundant  as  they  might  be  if  the  soil  were  properly  manured. 

Besides,  under  these  two  methods  of  cultivation,  the  produce,  both  in  grain 
and  in  straw,  is  greatly  diminished  by  the  circumstance  of  three,  four,  and  some- 
times more  crops  of  corn  succeeding  each  other  without  interruption  ;  and,  al- 
though the  Mecklenberg  farmer  may,  after  the  fallowing  on  which  he  bestows 
so  much  care  and  labor,  obtain  as  fine  a  crop  of  autumnal  corn  as  the  quality  of 
the  soil  Avill  enable  it  to  bear,  yet  the  other  crops,  and  particularly  the  third  and  ) 
fourth,  are  so  poor  and  scanty  that,  in  general,  they  are  thought  to  produce  well   ^ 
when  they  yield  from  four  to  four  and  a-half  times  the  amount  of  the  seed.     If  a  'j 
more  judicious  choice  of  crops  was  introduced  into  these  two  systems,  there  is  ) 
not  the  least  doubt  that  the  land  would  yield  a  much  greater  profit  both  in  vege-  -l 
table  and  animal  products  ;  and  this  change  might  be  f^arried  into  effect,  as  it  ) 
has  been  by  several  agriculturists,  without  the  necessity  of  making  any  sensible  ^ 
alteration  in  the  established  division,  or  of  introducing  the  practice  of  stall-feed-  <; 
ing,  which  seems  to  be  attended,  as  yet,  by  so  many  difficulties.  S 

In  order  to  demonstrate  the  suitableness  of  these  changes  as  clearly  as  possible,  ) 
and  also  to  point  out  what  ought  to  be  their  nature,  we  will  here  endeavor  to  ^ 
give  a  precise  idea  of  one  of  the  most  essential  parts  of  agricultural  science,  viz.  ) 
/  the  manner  in  which  the  crops  should  be  made  to  alternate  ;  this  subject,  how-  ) 
ever,  ought,  properly  speaking,  to  be  included  in  the  remarks  on  cultivation  and  \ 
on  the  propagation  of  vegetables.  > 

On  the  Succession  of  Crops,  S 

Even  during  the  most  remote  periods,  it  was  remarked,  by  attentive  observers  ) 

of  field  and  garden  tillage,  that  the  soil  produced  incomparably  finer  crops  when  ; 

these  were  constantly  varied,  and  when  two  of  the  same  kind  were  ??ot  suffered  I 

to  cucceed  each  other  in  the  same  place  ;  and  that,  according  to  tne  nature  and  •) 

condition  of  the  soil,  one  series  of  crops  proved  more  advantageous  thaa  another.  5 

Whenever  the  cultivation  Avas  confined  to  one  plant,  or  to  plants  of  one  particu-  I 

lar  species,  it  was  always  judged  necessary  that  the  soil,  after  having  produced  ') 

a  certain  number  of  crops,  should  be  left  in  repose  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  should  be  I 
allowed  time  to  reproduce  and  collect  the  succulent  matters  which  were  proper 

(432) 


r 


SYSTEMS  OF  CULTIVATION.  113 

for  the  nourishment  of  the  crops  it  had  to  bear.  Manure  and  cultivation  certain- 
ly tend  to  facilitate  and  advance  this  action,  but  Nature  requires  time  also  in 
which  to  collect  and  renovate  her  exhausted  energies.  The  gardener,  who  fre- 
quently changes  the  nature  and  species  of  his  crops,  certainty  is  not  obliged  to 
have  recourse  to  repose  ;  but  the  mere  farmer,  whose  only  aim  is  to  raise  corn, 
must,  unless  he  manures  his  land  extravagantly,  allow  it  a  certain  period  of  rest. 
In  those  places  where  the  improvements  in  Agriculture  have  raised  the  price  of 
land,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  this  increase  of  price  does  not  proceed  from  any  differ- 
ence in  the  laws  of  Nature  as  applied  to  the  soil  of  fields  and  gardens,  but  only 
from  the  farmer  having  learned  to  manage  his  cultivation  so  as  to  be  able  to  pro- 
duce, alternately,  all  the  crops  which  he  requires.  The  ancients  founded  their 
Agriculture  on  the  lessons  of  experience,  and  they  raised  it  to  such  perfection  as 
to  be  able  frequently  to  make  the  same  land  yield  two  crops  in  one  year.  The 
Romans  were  well  aware  of  the  beneficial  eflfects  of  careful  tillage,  and  exposure 
to  the  influences  of  the  atmosphere,  on  land  that  was  destined  to  bear  only 
wheat,  barley  and  oats,  or  other  grain  of  this  kind  ;  but  they  also  know  that 

Mutatis  quoque  requiescent  fructibus  arva, 
Nee  nulla  interea  est  inarats  gratia  terrse.* 

Hence  arose  the  following  question : — "  Which  are  the  crops  which  can  be 
made  to  succeed  one  another  with  the  greatest  advantage,  and  which  are  those 
that  have  the  tendency  of  preparing  the  soil  for  the  one  which  is  to  follow  ?  " — 
This  problem  is  the  more  difficult  of  solution  because  experience  aff"ords  us  so 
many  contradictory  answers,  Avhich,  however,  without  doubt  arise  from  the  va- 
riations which  exist  in  the  soils  and  climates  of  difl'erent  localities  and  countries. 
From  the  very  earliest  periods  of  natural  history,  attempts  have  been  made  to  re- 
solve this  question  in  a  theoretical  manner,  either  by  analogy  or  by  inference,  or 
both  ;  and  this  second  problem  has  been  put  forward  : — '•  What  if  each  different 
kind  or  species  of  plant  requires  some  elements  of  nutrition  peculiar  to  itself,  and 
from  which  alone  it  can  derive  the  requisite  degree  of  nourishment  ;  and  what  if 
it  be  impossible  that  it  can  succeed  on  any  soil  which  does  not  contain  these  ele- 
ments ?  "  The  careful  examination  of  numerous  facts  and  experiments  ought  to 
lead  us  to  answer  this  question  in  the  following  m^anner  : — It  is  a  well  known 
fact  that  each  plant  does  not  require  peculiar  elements  for  its  nutrition,  but  that 
its  own  organs  digest  and  assimilate  to  it  those  juices  which  they  extract  from 
all  those  component  parts  of  the  soil  which  are  destined  for  the  nutrition  of  plants 
in  general.  Vegetables  whose  properties  are  the  most  opposite — plants  the  most 
corrosive  and  venomous,  as  well  as  those  which  are  most  beautiful  and  useful — 
those  the  most  opposite  in  variety  and  contradictory  in  nature — Avill  be  found 
growmg  on  the  same  soil  and  flourishing  together^ — a  thing  which  never  could 
occur  if  they  required  different  nutritive  matters  for  their  support.  In  short,  all 
varieties  of  plants,  and  all  their  various  parts  and  juices,  are  composed  of  the 
same  substances — a  fact  which  has  only  lately  been  discovered.  The  constituent 
parts  of  all  organic  substances  are  carbon,  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  with  which  a 
small  portion  of  azote  is  generally  united,  but  very  few  of  them  contain  any  great 
quantity  of  this  latter  element ;  plants  also  contain  earth  and  potass,  and  some 
few  contain  phosphorus  and  sulphur.  These  constituent  parts  are  to  be  met 
with  in  every  fertile  soil,  even  if  they  are  not  imbibed  directly  from  the  atmo- 
sphere. By  means  of  the  functions  and  operations  of  their  different  organs,  the 
plants  assimilate  these  matters  to  their  own  substance,  and  form  all  those  vari- 
ous combinations  of  them  which  are  found  in  the  infinite  variety  of  vegetable 
products.  From  these  facts  the  erroneous  inference  has  been  deduced,  that  a 
soil  which  contains  all  the  requisite  elements  for  the  nutrition  of  one  plant  ought 
necessarily  to  have  in  it  those  that  are  proper  and  suitable  to  others,  and  that  the  ^ 
fertility  of  a  soil  is  produced  merely  by  the  physica]  contexture.  [' 

But  theory  alone  is  quite  sufficient  clearly  to  demonstrate  the  truth  of  the  con-  \ 
trary  opinion  ;  namely,  that  the  plants  contain  and  combine  these  substances  in  / 
very  different  degrees.  It  is  possible  that  the  roots  or  suckers  of  all  kinds  of  i 
plants  possess  a  sensibility  and  a  power  of  choice,  which  enables  them  to  imbibe  ' 
and  appropriate  to  themselves  the  exact  proportion  of  each  of  these  substances 

*  Your  fields  would  repose  equally  as  well  if  you  changed  the  crops,  and  then  you  would  not  have  to  pay 
the  rent  of  land  which  bore  no  crop. 

(433) . 


114  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture.  * 

wtiich  Nature  leads  them  to  require  for  their  support.  But,  in  order  that  they 
may  succeed  in  accomplishing  this  purpose,  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be 
enabled  to  meet  with  the  proper  proportions  and  combinations  of  these  sub- 
stances within  their  own  immediate  sphere.  If  this  proportion  does  not  exist, 
or  if  some  of  these  substances  are  present,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantity  or  in  that 
degree  of  combination  which  the  plant  requires,  then  its  growth  will  be  slower, 
and  it  will  not  thrive  so  well.  In  a  soil  which,  although  not  entirely  without 
some  one  of  these  substances,  yet  does  not  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  it,  the 
plant  must  put  forth  its  roots  in  every  direction,  to  seek  and  absorb  that  which 
IS  absolutely  necesssary  for  its  nourishment.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  soil 
may  contain  too  great  a  proportion  of  some  one  of  these  necessary  substances,  and 
that  the  plant  being  thus  suffocated  by  the  superabundance  of  it,  and  the  scarcity 
or  total  absence  of  all  the  others,  may  fall  from  weakness  and  not  thrive. 

This  reasoning  clearly  explains  the  fact  that  a  succession  of  crops  of  the  same 
nature  always  falls  gradually  off,  and  become  less  and  less  productive,  if  culti- 
vated in  the  same  place,  even  Avhen  the  soil  contains  all  the  component  parts 
usually  considered  necessary  for  their  nutriment  ;  and  also  the  reason  of  the  fiact 
that  they  regain  their  perfection  so  soon  as  the  soil  has  been  suffered  to  repose, 
and  are  made  to  produce  some  other  crops,  and  of  an  ameliorating  nature.     It  is 
easy  to  suppose  that  a  plant  which  absorbs  a  diametrically  opposite  proportion  of 
elementary  substances  to  that  which  is  required  by  another,  will  tend  to  estab- 
lish the  proportion  which  is  best  adapted  to  the  latter,  and  will  cause  it  to  thrive 
far  better  than   it  would  have  done  if  the  soil  had  not  received  this  preparation,  | 
and  had  been  deprived  of  some  of  its  nutritive  qualities.     A  soil  may  be   com-  ! 
pletely  exhausted  by  means  of  this  alternation  of  crops  ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  as 
to  be  incapable  of  affording  nutriment  to  any  plant ;  but  it  is  exhausted  much  ; 
sooner  if  one  particular  species  only  is  cultivated  on  it.     (Einhof,  "  Annal  of  Ag- 
riculture of  Lower  Saxony,"  vol.  viii.  p.  321.)  ', 

If  various  kinds  of  plants  vegetate  on  one  soil  at  the  same  time,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  they  will  yield  much  less  than  they  would  do  if  cultivated  sepa-  ? 
rately  and  singly  ;  for,  Avithout  taking  into  consideration  the  space  both  above 
and  below  the  surface  of  which  they  deprive  each  other,  one  must  absorb  some 
portion  of  those  substances  which  are  necessary  to  the  support  of  vegetable  life 
\  in  general,  and,  consequently,  the  others  are  deprived  of  it. 

But  let  us  return  to  the  data  afforded  us  by  experience :  here  we  find  that  all 

skillful  gardeners,  and  many  farmers,  are  agreed  upon  one  point — namely,  that  it 

is  advantageous  to  cultivate  some  plants  together  ;  that  far  more  abundant  crops 

of  them  are  thus  obtained  than  would  be  the  case  if  they  were  cultivated  sepa 

'  rately  and  on  distinct  portions  of  land. 

In  places  where  the  art  of  gardening  is  carried  to  the  greatest  perfection,  five 
or  six  different  kinds  of  products  may  frequently  be  found  growing  on  the  same 
bed  ;  and  according  to  the  unanimous  assertion  of  all  skillful  gardeners,  an  asser 
tion  which  is  founded  on  experience,  this  proceeding  is  attended  by  a  considera 
ble  saving  both  of  soil,  manure  and  labor, 

In  many  countries  this  system  has  been  applied  to  the  cultivation  of  fields  and 
of  arable  lands,  and  these  intermixtures  of  crops  have  been  raised  with  various 
degrees  of  succes: 

Any  kind  of  vegetable,  as  beans,  peas,  or  vetches,  if  sown  in  conjunction  with 
some  kinds  of  grain,  spring  rye,  barley,  or  oats,  Avill  yield  a  far  more  abundant 
crop  than  if  the  two  were  soAvn  separately.     It  has  long  been  known  that  legu 
minous  plants  when  sown  among  corn  on  a  soil  which  is  so  arid  that  they  could 
not  have  vegetated  alone,  will  yield  well  without  sensibly  diminishing  the  corn 
crop.     Thus,  according  to  the  experience  of  the  majority  of  agriculturists,  wheat 
intermingled  with  rye  may  succeed  on  land  which  cannot  be  made  to  bear  wheat 
alone  ;  and  Avhen  soAvn  in  this  way  the  wheat  crops  are  fmer  than  they  would 
be  in  places  where  they  can  be'cultivated  without  any  other  grain.     This  admix 
ture  also  succeeds  when  it  is  soAvn  on  wheat  stubble,  where  every  one  knows 
from  experience  that  wheat  will  not  thrive  alone,  even  when  the  soil  is  other- 
wise perfectly  adapted  for  its  growth 
,       Experience  likeAvise  confirms  this  hypothesis,  that  by  means  of  an  interme 
I    diate  crop  of  some  other  nature,  that  true  proportion  of  the  elementary  substances 
*  which  is  suitable  to  one  particular  species  of  grain  may  be  reestablished.     W 

(434) 


SYSTEMS  OF  CULTIVATION.  115 

have  just  now  stated  that  wheat  sown  on  wheat  stubble  never  succeeds.  Wheat 
sown  after  barley  does  not  thrive  well,  unless  the  soil  was  so  excessively  rich  that 
it  needed  this  preliminary  crop  to  render  it  suitable  to  the  wheat.  Rye  sown  after 
rye  succeeds  better,  but  even  then  the  produce  in  grain  is  considerably  diminished. 
But  if  a  crop  of  some  of  those  plants  belonging  to  the  class  diadelphia,  as  peas, 
vetches,  beans,  or  clover,  be  interposed,  then  the  second  crop  of  the  cereal  plants 
will  turn  out  well  ;  and  if  the  leguminous  plants  are  cut  while  green,  or  if  the 
second  cutting  of  the  clover  is  plowed  in,  there  is  every  probability  that  the 
second  crop  of  grain  will  surpass  the  tirst.  The  truth  of  this  prmciple  has  been 
so  clearly  demonstrated  by  experience,  and  is  so  well  known  to  every  attentive 
observer^  that  I  shall  refrain  from  adducing  any  farther  examples  or  entering  at 
greater  length  into  the  subject,  and  the  more  especially  as  I  must  return  to  it 
when  I  come  to  treat  of  the  cijltivation  of  each  plant  separately. 

The  cultivation  of  gardens  sufficiently  proves  that  Avhen  the  soil  has  lost 
the  power  of  reproducing  one  species  of  vegetable,  it  is  not  exhausted,  but 
mav  be  made  to  bear  others  with  success.  Beds  of  earth,  after  having  pro- 
duced several  crops  of  one  kind  of  plant,  lose  every  faculty  necessary  for  its 
reproduction,  and  cannot  be  made  to  bear  it  again  until  they  have  been  exposed 
for  several  years  to  the  fertilizing  influences  of  the  atmosphere,  and  imp>egnated 
with  fresh  manure  ;  but  they  are  still  capable  of  bearing  French  beans,  lettuces, 
and  other  vegetables.  Sweet-scented  and  ornamental  flowers,  as  violets,  &c. 
require  that  the  earth  contained  in  the  pots  in  which  they  grow  should  be  fre- 
quently renewed,  even  although  it  may  seem  to  contain  an  abundance  of  nutri- 
tion ;  the  florist  never  sows  the  same  kind  of  flowers  twice  in  one  place,  neither 
ought  young  fruit  trees  ever  to  be  planted  in  the  same  spots  where  others  of  the 
same  kind  have  stood.  In  nursery  grounds  it  is  an  invariable  rule  that  the  soil 
shall  be  changed  at  each  renewal. 

Herr  Einhof  and  myself  have  frequently  prepared  some  experiments  which 
might  enable  us  to  determine  the  nature  and  degree  of  the  changes  which  the 
mould  undergoes  in  a  soil  in  which  one  plant  has  been  cultivated,  until  every  ele- 
ment necessary  for  its  reproduction  is  exhausted.  But  we  have  always  been  in- 
terrupted and  thrown  out  in  these  experiments,  which,  from  having  to  be  made  in 
the  open  air,  are  attended  with  very  great  difficulties,  and  present  obstacles  which 
nothing  but  the  most  uninterrupted  attention  can  overcome.  In  fact,  there  is  no 
known  means  of  guarding  against  those  various  accidents  which,  in  one  moment, 
'  will  destroy  the  Avork  of  years  and  leave  no  satisfactory  result  behind.  In  order 
i|  to  succeed,  the  experimentalist  ought  to  possess  a  garden  enclosed  with  the  most 
scrupulous  care,  devoted  solely  to  his  own  purposes,  and  from  which  it  was  pos- 
sible to  exclude  both  birds  and  insects. 

It  has  generally  been  observed,  that  if  any  crop  fails  or  yields  a  scanty  produce, 
not  from  impoverishment  or  any  other  defect  in  the  soil,  but  merely  from  some 
accidental  cause,  the  same  kind  of  plant  will,  if  sown  in  the  same  place  in  the 
'    followmg  year,  succeed  far  better  than  it  would  otherwise  have  done.     Again,  a 
;    crop  which  succeeds  one  which  formed  a  good  preparation  for  it  will  thrive  and 
r  yield  the  more  abundantly  in  proportion  as  the  former  was  productive  ;  such,  for 
I    example,  is  the  case  where  wheat  is  sown  after  clover  or   beans.     The   more 
abundant  the  produce  which  a  plant  yields,  the  greater  will  be  the  degree  of  ex- 
haustion of  the  soil  which  has  produced  it,  if  the  same  plant  is  sown  on  it  again  ; 
but  such  will  not  be  case  if  it  is  succeeded  by  a  crop  of  another  kind,  and  there 
are  many  instances  in  which  an  abundance  in  the  first  crop  has  proved   rather 
favorable  than  otherwise  to  the  successor. 

That  which  appears  to  exhaust  land  most  is  the  formation  of  grain,  seeds,  and 
other  farinaceous  substances.     All  herbaceous  plants,  therefore,  if  cut  in  their 
\  green  state  and  taken  off  the  ground  at  the  time  of  flowering,  and  of  the  most 
vigorous  vegetation,  will  absorb  little  or  no  part  of  the  nutritive  juices  contained 
in  the  soil,  but  on  the  contrary,  they  seem  in  some  respects  to  ameliorate  it :  this  is 
a  truth  of  which  everyday  affords  new  proofs  to  those  who  will  bestow  the  pains  ' 
of  attentively  considering  the  works  of  Nature.     It  has  not  yet  been  decided  \ 
whether  a  plant  does  or  does  not  absorb  a  greater  quantity  of  nutritive  matter,  . 
and  particularly  of  carbon,  from  the  soil  during  the  period  which  the  grain  takes  ' 
to  ripen  ;  but  it  is  well  known  that  during  that  period  all  the  mucilage  and  juices  S 
secreted  in  the  stalk  and  root,  are  yielded  up  to  the  grain,  and  the  former  become  f 


THAER  S    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


couverted  into  mere  filamentous  substances.  It  is  not,  however,  a  matter  of  indif-  i 
ference  whether  the  root  and  stubbie  which  remains  in  the  ground  has  preserved 
the  vitality  and  nutriment,  or  whether  it  is  dry  Avhen  the  stock  is  detached  from 
it ;  because,  when  the  former  is  the  case,  the  nutriment  contained  in  those  parts 
of  the  plant  which  still  remain  attached  to  the  soil,  is  still  farther  augmented  by 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  which  the  stubble  absorbs  and  communicates  to  the  earth, 
and,  consequently,  the  soil  is  more  ameliorated.  In  the  cultivation  of  spergula,  as 
an  intermediate  crop,  it  has  frequently  been  remarked  that  the  roots  have  this 
effect.  If  this  plant  is  mowed  while  green,  it  ameliorates  the  soil  very  consider- 
ably ;  some  persons  pretend  that  if  it  is  pulled  up,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the 
exhaustive  powers  are  in  equal  proportion.  This  is,  perhaps,  the  cause  of  the  i 
exhausting  effects 'which  are  attributed  ta  a  crop  of  flax.  These  facts  are  so 
well  attested,  that  it  is  not  worth  while  to  consider  all  those  doubts  which  con- 
tradictory spirits  have  raised  Avith  regard  to  this  master. 

However,  I  shall  not  permit  myself  to  carry  out  this  theory  so  far  as  some  per- 
sons when  they  positively  assert  that  the  soil  is  not  deprived  of  any  portion  of 
fertility  and  nutritive  power  by  those  productions,  the  vegetation  of  which  is 
arrested  before  the  formation  of  the  seed  has  commenced.  All  kinds  of  tuber- 
culous plants  collect  within  their  root  or  bulb,  a  store  of  alimentary  juices  for  the 
nourishment  of  their  shoots  in  the  following  year  ;  these  roots  form  a  species  of 
magazine  from  which  these  biennial  plants  derive  the  nutrition  which  is  neces- 
sary for  the  production  of  their  flowers  and  shoots  in  the  ensuing  spring.  Both 
experience  and  trials  have  tended  to  prove  that  if  these  roots  are  left  to  decay  in  the 
soil,  the  effect  on  it  is  exceedingly  beneficial.  If  they  are  gathered,  they  cer- 
tainly subtract  some  portion  of  the  nutrition  contained  in  the  soil ;  although,  on 
the  other  hand,  they  mechanically  ameliorate  it  by  means  of  the  cultivation  be*- 
stowed  upon  them,  and  thus  form  an  excellent  preparation  for  other  crops.  "When 
vegetables  of  this  kind  leave  their  roots,  stalks,  and  some  portion  of  their  leaves 
in  the  ground,  they  restore  to  it  a  part  of  that  nutriment  which  they  have  ab- 
sorbed during  the  process  of  their  vegetation.* 

*  The  theory  of  the  rotation  of  crops  is  of  so  much  interest  to  the  agriculturist,  that  we  shall  make  no 
apology  for  repeating  in  this  place  what  we  have  elsewhere  had  occasion  to  remai-k  ("Farmers'  Encyclo- 
paedia") : — 

"When  catrie,"  says  Davy,  "are  fed  upon  land  not  benefited  hy  their  manure,  the  effect  is  always  an  ex- 
haustion of  the  soil.  This  is  particulai-ly  the  case  where  carrying  horses  are  kept  on  estates;  they  consume 
the  pasture  during  the  night,  and  drop  the  greatest  part  of  their  manure  during  their  labor  in  the  day-time. 
The  exportation  of  comlfi-om  a  cotmtry,  unless  some  articles  capable  of  becoming  manure  are  introduced 
in  compensation,  must  ultimately  tend  to  exhaust  the  soil.  Some  of  the  spots,  now  desert  sands  in  northern- 
Africa  and  Asia  iviinoi*,  were  anciently  fertile  ;  Siciiy  was  the  granary  of  Italy,  and  the  quantity  of  com  car- 
ried off  from  it  by  the  Romans  is,  probably,  a  chief  cause  of  its  present  sterility." 

The  same  theory  is  also  supported  by  M.  Liebig..  In  his  excellent  work  on  •'  Organic  Chemistry,"  p.  158, 
he  remarks  :  "  It  is  evident  that  two  plants  growing  beside  each  other,  will  mutually  injure  one  another,  if 
they  withdraw  the  same  food  from  the  soil.  Hence^  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  Matricaria  Chamomilla  and 
Spartium  Scoparium  impede  the  growth  of  com,  when  it  is  considered  that  both  yield  from  7  to  7-43  per 
cent,  of  ashes  which  contain  6-lOths  of  carbonate  of  potash.  The  darnel  and  the  Erigeron  acre  blossomand  bear 
fruit  at  the  same  time  as  the  com  ;  so  that  when  growing  mingled  with  it,  they  will  partake  of  the  compo- 
nent parts  of  the  soU,  and  in  proportion  to  the  vigor  of  their  growth  that  of  the  com  must  decrease,  for  what 
one  receives  the  others  are  deprived  of.  Plants  wiU,  on  the  contrary,  thrive  beside  each  other,  either  when 
the  substances  necessary  for  their  growth,  which  they  extract  from  the  soil,  are  of  different  kinds,  or  when 
they  themselves  are  not  in  the  same  stages  of  development  at  the  same  time.  On  a  soil,  for  example,  which 
contains  potash,  both  wheat  and  tobacco  may  be  reared  in  succession,  because  the  latter  plant  does  not  re- 
quire phosphates,  salts  which  are  invariably  present  in  wheat,  but  requires  only  alkalies  and  food  containing 
nitrogen.  According  to  the  analysis  of  Posselt  and  Reiinann,  10,000  parts  of  the  leaves  of  the  tobacco  plant 
contain  16  parts  of  phosphate  of  lime,  8-8  parts  of  silica,  and  no  magnesia;  whilst  an  equal  quantity  of  wheat 
straw  contains  47-3  parts,  and  the  same  quantity  of  the  grain  of  wheat  99-45  parts  of  phosphates." 

The  late  George  Sinclair  took  a  similar  view  of  the  cause  of  the  exhaustion  of  soils.  "  If"  he  says,  "  a 
plant  impoverishes  a  soil  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  vegetable  matter  it  produces  on  a  given  s])ace  of 
ground,  the  following  wiU  be  the  order  in  which  the  under-mentioned  plants  exhaust  the  ground,  being  the 
pi-oportion  they  bear  to  each  other  with  respect  to  weight  of  produce  : 

Mangel  Wurzel 25  |  Kohl-rabi  (bulb-stalked  cabbage) 14 

Cabbages 25     Swedish  Turnip 13 

White  Tumip 16     Carrots 11 

Potatoes 15  | 

But  when  we  take  the  weight  of  nutritive  matter  which  a  plant  affords  from  a  given  space  of  ground, 
the  results  are  very  different,  and  will  be  found  to  agree  with  the  daily  experience  in  the  garden  and  the 
farm. 

The  following  figures  represent  the  proportion  in  which  they  stand  to  each  other  with  respect  to  th  !  weight 
of  nutritive  matter  per  acre,  and  in  exhausting  the  land : 


Potatoes 63 

Cabb-ages 42 

Mangel  Wurzel 28 

Carrots 24 

Change  of  crops  also  prevents  very  materially  the  increase  of  the  predatory  grub  and  insects  which 
(436) 


Kohl-rabi 17 

Swedish  Turnip 16 

C  ommon  Tumip 14 


SYSTEMS   OF  CULTIVATION.  117    / 

ludependent  of  their  chemical  qualities,  the  long  cylindrical  roots  of  these 
plants  produce  a  mechanical  effect  which  is  extremely  beneficial  to  tenacious  and 
argillaceous  soils.  Deprived  of  life,  and  yet  no*  decomposed,  they  have  the  same 
effect  as  small  pipes,  keeping  the  soil  loose  and  friable,  and  enabling  the  atmos- 
pheric air  to  penetrate  into  all  the  interstices.  They  loosen  the  soil  as  much  as 
repeated  plowings  would  do  ;  and  after  a  crop  of  these  roots,  it  will  only  require 
to  be  plowed  once  before  the  seed  is  sown  in  it. 

General  experience  thus  seems  to  prove  what  has  long  been  my  firm  opinion, 
that  even  if  we  do  not  admit  that  these  vegetables  require  a  diff'erent  proportion 
of  alimentary  substances,  they  will  not,  when  allowed  to  reach  maturity  and  to 
bear  seeds  and  flowers,  take  from  the  soil  much  more  than  they  bestow  on  it  in 
other  ways.  But  if  they  are  cut  while  green  and  before  the  seeds  have  begun  to 
form,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  they  materially  enrich  the  soil  and  render  it  capa- 
ble of  bearing  crops  which  it  could  not  previously  have  supported. 

Although  those  vegetables  which  are  comprised  under  the  denomination  of 
weeded  plants  deprive  the  soil  of  some  portion  of  its  nutritive  power,  and  render 
it  necessary  to  manure  more  abundantly  in  order  to  remedy  this  defect  than  would 
have  been  requisite  if  it  had  been  submitted  to  the  operations  attendant  on  a  naked 
fallow  ;  nevertheless,  by  means  of  the  cultivation  which  is  bestowed  on  them,  if 
proper  implements  for  the  purpose  are  used,  they  will  form  a  very  advantageous 
.  substitute  for  a  fallow,  and  will  tend  to  loosen  the  soil,  expose  it  to  the  fertilizing 
\  influences  of  the  air,  and  effect  an  intermixture  of  the  various  constituent  parts 
\  with  considerably  less  labor  than  than  could  be  done  in  any  other  way.  If  the 
\'  farmer  chooses  to  have  them  dug  up,  a  portion  of  the  inferior  layer  of  the  ground 
will  be  brought  to  the  surface,  and  the  destruction  of  the  weeds  will  be  thus  ef- 
fected. All  these  things  may,  with  judicious  management,  be  equally  as  well 
attained  by  the  cultivation  of  these  roots  as  by  fallowing  the  land ;  and  the  addi- 
tional amount  of  food  which  these  crops  provide  for  the  cattle,  and  the  conse- 
quent increased  quantity  of  dung  yielded  by  the  animals,  will  more  than  com-  ; 
pens-ate  for  the  extra  manure  they  require.  And  if,  as  is  customary  in  England,  * 
the  cattle  intended  for  fattening  are  made  to  eat  them  on  the  ground,  the  ameli- 
oration thus  retained  is  fully  equivalent  to  a  complete  manuring.  When  the  i 
English  speak  of  long  rotations  without  manuring,  there  are  always  plants  of  this 
kind  interposed  between  the  corn  crops.  Although  this  mode  of  proceeding  ap- 
pears to  savor  more  of  stinginess  than  real  economy,  it  is  not  without  its  advan- 
tages, as  the  cattle  thus  fattened  most  certainly  pay  the  rent  of  the  land  and  the 
expenses  of  the  labor,  if  they  do  not  yield  some  farther  profit ;  whereas  a  fallow,  so 
far  from  yielding  any  profit,  costs  a  considerable  sum. 

Those  root-crops  which  belong  particularly  to  this  class  of  economical  plants 
have  this  peculiarity  :  they  form  a  better  preparation  for  barley  than  fallow,  but 
they  do  not  form  a  good  preparation  for  autumnal  corn.  This  may  arise,  in  a  great 
measure,  from  their  having  a  tendency  to  retard  the  seed-time.  Several  crops  of 
grain  may  be  raised  in  the  same  rotation  without  the  addition  of  fresh  manure,  if 
one  crop  of  leguminous  plants  be  interposed  between  two  of  corn. 

If,  however,  vegetables  are  cultivated  instead  of  these  roots,  and  are  carefully 
tilled  with  the  horse-hoe,  the  autumnal  corn  will  succeed  equally  as  well  after  a 
crop  of  beans,  especially  on  argillaceous  ground,  as  it  would  after  a  fallow,  and, 
in  the  opinion  of  many  persons,  much  better.  Thus  in  Kent,  where  so  great  a 
quantity  of  wheat  is  cultivated,  beans  sown  in  rows  are  considered  as  the  best 
preparation  which  the  ground  can  receive.  Many  vegetables  which  yield  advan- 
tageous produce  and  particularly  cabbages,  if  transplanted  or  sown  in  rows,  may 
be  substituted,  if  a  sufficient  quantity  of  manure  can  be  procured,  and  if  there  is 
superabundance  of  fodder. 

In  order  effectually  to  destroy  weeds,  it  is  of  importance  that  the  various  kinds 
of  grain  should  be  sown  alternately  ;  because  some  of  the  cereal  plants  favor  the 
growth  of  noxious  weeds  far  more  than  others.     This  is  a  very  important  subject 

more  or  less  prey  upon  the  farmer's  crops.  The  parent  of  the  wire-worm,  for  instance,  which  is  the  larva 
of  a  small  beetle,  the  Elator  segetis,  may  be  seen  in  the  summer  months,  depositing  its  eggs  on  lays 
or  meadows  abounding  with  the  cereal  grasses  ;  for  instinct  teaches  it  to  place  its  eggs  where  the  young 
wire-worm  will  meet  with  its  natural  food,  which  are  the  cereal  grasses.  Change  of  crops,  therefore.  no° 
only  checiis  the  deposit  of  the  eggs,  but  by  removing  the  natural  food  of  the  young  vermin,  it  materially 
prevents  increase,  or  even  their  continuance  ■  which  otherwise,  as  is  the  case,  for  instance,  with  the  wire- 
1,  niiffht  for  four  or  five  years  be  a  pest  to  the  soil. 
(437) 


118  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

of  consideration  before  making  choice  of  a  rotation  for  any  piece  of  ground,  and 
especially  if  it  is  infested  with  weeds,  as  by  means  of  a  judicious  selection  of 
crops  the  land  may  sometimes  be  completely  cleared. 

These  facts  and  motives  form  the  rules  by  which  we  nught  to  be  governed  in 
our  choice  of  the  crops  which  are  to  form  a  rotation  ;  but,  while  arranging  this 
matter,  the  cattle,  and  the  fodder  requisite  for  their  sustenance,  must  not  be  lost 
sight  of,  and  ought  to  be  considered  under  two  points  of  view:  first,  with  regard 
to  the  profit  which  may  be  derived  immediately  from  them  ;  and  secondly,  to  the 
advantage  which  may  be  derived  from  the  manure  which  they  produce. 

Those  rules  which  lead  us  to  select  certain  alternations  of  crops  do  not,  as 
some  persons  have  supposed,  require  that  half  the  fields  shall  be  exclusively  de- 
voted to  the  cultivation  of  plants  for  fodder.  There  are  many  places  even  in 
England  where  the  alternate  succession  of  crops  has  been  practised  from  time 
immemorial,  and  where,  so  far  from  cultivating  vegetables  for  fodder,  they  even 
sell  the  straw  at  the  market  towns,  and  keep  few,  if  any,  cattle,  because  the 
marine  and  aquatic  plants  thrown  on  the  coast  and  mixed  with  mud  and  slime, 
collected  with  great  care,  furnish  them  with  an  abundance  of  manure.  The  in- 
habitants of  these  places  principally  cultivate  and  alternate  crops  of  podded  plants 
with  the  cereals,  a  portion  of  which  they  send  to  the  London  market. 

But,  at  any  rate,  these  rules  require  the  most  judicious  care  and  management ; 
they  mostly  need  that  a  large  portion  of  the  fields  shall  be  devoted  to  the  culti- 
vation of  fodder  for  cattle,  because  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  the  manure  which 
they  will  produce  depends  entirely  on  the  nature  and  quantity  of  the  fodder  which 
they  receive  ;  and  the  manure  again,  in  its  turn,  exercises  a  powerful  influence 
on  the  crop  of  grain.  It  will  sometimes  be  found  that  great  and  durable  advan- 
tages arise  from  the  choice  of  a  rotation,  in  which  one-half,  two-fifths,  three- 
eighths,  or  four-sevenths  of  the  whole  is  devoted  to  the  production  of  plants  for 
fodder  ;  while,  in  other  cases,  one-fourth,  one-fifth,  or  one-sixth  part  will  be  found 
to  be  quite  sufficient,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  land  may  be  appropriated  to  the 
growth  of  products  destined  for  sale,  and  alternated  in  the  proper  manner. 

However  evident  the  propriety  of  such  a  proceeding  may  have  been,  very  few 
persons  ever  thought  of  modifying  the  quadrennial  rotation  ;  and,  instead  of 
sowing  first  autumnal  corn,  then  spring  corn,  and  then  peas,  to  sow  first  autum- 
nal corn,  then  peas,  and  then  spring  corn,  and  then  fallow.  But  those  agricultur- 
ists who  have  pursued  this  course  find  that  it  answers  exceedingly  well,  as  they 
obtain  an  additional  quantity  both  of  grain  and  straw.  Many  German  agricul- 
turists, and  especially  Eckart,  in  his  "  Experimental  Economy,"  have  approached 
very  near  to  this  practice  ;  but  in  the  present  day  many  persons  are  so  blinded  by 
prejudice  that  they  cannot  see  the  most  palpable  objects,  or  rather  that  they  ob- 
stinately shut  their  eyes  to  every  thing  which  appears  to  be  in  contradiction  to 
their  preconceived  opinions. 

Woellner  and  Germershausen  also  advocate  this  rotation  of  crops.  But  though 
almost  every  farmer  well  knows  that  the  grain  crops  are  improved  by  being  va- 
ried and  separated  by  others  of  a  different  kind,  and  no  one  refuses  his  assent  to 
this  opinion  as  a  theory,  yet  how  very  few,  if  any,  can  be  brought  to  renounce 
the  old  triennial  rotation.  The  greater  number  of  adherents  are  certainly  pre- 
vented from  leaving  it  by  laws  which  compel  them  to  follow  this  established 
system  ;  but  there  are  many  proprietors,  both  of  small  and  extensive  estates,  who 
have  the  liberty  of  cultivating  their  lands  according  to  their  own  discretion. 

For  my  own  part,  accident  and  necessity,  and  not  the  perusal  of  any  publication 
on  English  Agriculture,  or  any  reflection  on  the  subject,  led  me  to  adopt  this  alter- 
nate, perfectionated  system  of  cultivation.  As  I  have  been  honored  with  the 
title  of  the  father  of  this  system  in  Germany,  I  trust  I  may  here  be  permitted  to 
relate  the  circumstances  which  induced  me  to  adopt  it.  I  was  an  a-rdent  disciple 
,  of  Schubart's  system  of  clover  and  stall  feeding,  and  consequently  wished  to  in- 
I  troduce  that  plant  into  my  rotation,  and  to  cultivate  it  during  the  third  year  in- 
stead of  fallowing  the  ground.  But  it  did  not  succeed  ;  the  field  became  infested 
with  weeds  ;  the  autumnal  corn  which  I  sowed,  after  a  single  plowing,  com- 
pletely failed,  although  I  manured  the  land  after  plowing  the  clover,  and  it  had 
been  already  manured  in  the  previous  winter.  With  the  assistance  of  a  toler- 
able field  of  lucerne  and  green  oats,  I  obtained  sufficient  green  food  to  keej)  my 
cattle  during  the  summer,  but  in  the  winter  I  felt  the  want  of  the  fodder  I  had 

(438) 


SYSTEMS   OF   CULTIVATION. 


expected  to  derive  from  my  field  of  clover  ;  all  that  I  had  to  give  them  was  some 
pototoe-s  and   turnips,  grown  on  the  lucerne  held  after  it  was  broken  up   and  a 
small  quantity  of  natural  hay.     Filled  with  gratitude  to  these  two  vegetables  for    , 
the  valuable  assistance  thev  afforded  me,  I  had  a  portion  of  that  land  on  which  ,; 
the  c]  over  had  failed  brokeii  up  and  planted  with  potatoes,      ihe  crop  yielded  by  i 
the  roots  was  abundant,  but  late  ;  and  as  the  weather  proved  wet  and  unpropi-    , 
tious,  I  was  not  able  to  sow  rye  on  this  ground,  as  had  originally  been  my  inten-  ,; 
lion.     I  therefore  sowed  barley  on  it  the  following  spring  ;  and,  as  I  was  fully  < 
determined  to  have  a  supply  of  clover,  I  sowed  the  seeds  of  it  thickly  with  the 
barley.     The  following  year  I  had  some  good  clover  for  the  first  time  ;  while  an-  j 
other  field  which  had  been  manured  during  the  winter,  and  on  which  the  clover 
had  been  sown  after  a  second  crop  of  grain,  produced  very  little  besides  sorrel.  ) 
After  yielding  a  miserable  cutting,  this  last-mentioned  field  was  plowed  three 
times  previous  to  being  sown  with  rye  ;  while  the  former  was  plowed  only  once 
after  having  yielded  a  second  cutting  of  clover,  and  yet  it  produced  a  decidedly 
finer  crop  of  rye  than  the  other ;  and  these  circumstances  had  the  effect  of  deter- 
mining  my  choice  of  a  rotation.  .  .i,   ..    j:-  r       ^ 

Nevertheless,  I  was  far  from  attaching  any  value  to  it  beyond  that  of  peculiar  i 
adaptation  to  my  own  circumstances  and  situation.  On  the  contrary  I  felt  some  { 
degree  of  shame  at  the  idea  of  becoming  a  disciple  of  the  system  advocated  by 
Pfeifer,  Meyer,  Schubart,  and  Gugemus— a  mere  grower  of  potatoes  and  an  imi- 
tator of  all  the  petty  gardeners  in  my  neighborhood  who  cultivated  their  acre  of 
ground,  all,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the  same  manner.  However,  when  I  came 
fo  consult  and  converse  with  them,  I  found  that  their  experience  coincided 
entirely  with  my  own.  I  made  only  one  difference,  namely,  the  introduction 
of  a  hoe  from  Mecklenberg,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  mould  round 
the  roots  of  my  potatoes,  and  which  has  now  come  into  general  use  throughout 

I^vaJ'not  until  some  time  afterwards  that  chance  threw  in  my  way  the  works 
of  some  of  those  English  authors  who  regarded  this  rotation,  or  a  similar  one, 
as  the  only  basis  of  good  cultivation ;  who  advise  that  the  fallow  should  be  re- 
placed by  crops  planted  in  rows,  and  carefully  tilled  ;  and  consider  clover  to  be 
only  an  ameliorating  crop  when,  sown  with  the  first  crop  of  grain,  it  finds  the 
soil  thoroucrhly  loosened  and  cleaned  by  the  fallow  crops,  and,  consequently,  ve-  -, 
cretates  solhickly  and  luxuriantly  as  to  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the  ground  ^ 
with  a  shade  ;  and  who,  when  this  is  the  case,  regard  the  cultivation  of  this 
plant  as  an  excellent  preparation  for  wheat ;  but  who  would  deem  it  a  trans- 
gression  of  all  the  principles  of  good  Agriculture  to  sow  wheat  on  anyplace  / 
where  the  clover  had  turned  out  badly,  at  least  until  that  spot  has  been  allowed  ( 
to  rest  for  a  time,  or  been  clea-ned  by  a  summer  fallow.     I  thought  it  my  duty  to 
make  this  system  known  to  tlie  German  public,  and  also  some  English  experi-  j 
meuts,  which  I  learned  were  made  about  the  same  time,  and  which  seemed  to 
coincide  with  my  own  views.     I  accordingly  published  it,  first  in  the  Hanoverian 
Magazine,  and  subsequently  in  my  "  Introduction  to  a  Knowledge  of  English 
Agriculture."  ,        ,  .  .       ,        ,         j     •        - 

It  is  not,  therefore,  entirely  without  reason  that  this  rotation  has  been  desig-  < 
nated   ike' English  system,  although  it  is  not  in  general  use  even  there,  but  is 
only  practised  in  some  particular  counties,  and  on  the  estates  of  some  few  en- 
lightened agriculturists,  whence  it  will  doubtless  become  every  year  more  and 
more  diffused.  ^   ,  .  „      ,  .       . 

The  following  are  the  principal  advantages  of  this  system  of  cultivation  :— 

1  The  abolition  of  the  dead  fallow  ;  in  the  place  of  which,  after  a  certain 
number  of  years,  plants  are  cultivated  either  as  fodder  for  cattle  or  for  sale,  / 
which,  during  their  vegetation,  admit  light  plowings,  or  tillage  with  the  hoe  or  ,^ 
horse-rake  being  applied  between  the  rows  both  lengthwise  and  across,  by  which  ', 
means  the  soil  obtains  as  much  benefit  as  it  would  receive  from  a  fallow.  There  / 
certainly  may  be  some  fields  which  Avill  require  a  dead  fallow  at  the  commence-  ; 
ment  of  this  rotation  ;  but  that  operation  having  once  been  thoroughly  performed,  \ 
they  never  ought  to  need  a  repetition  of  it.  The  principal  amelioration  ought  to  ; 
be  bestowed  on  this  first  division  ;  every  particle  of  manure  which  can  be  spared  ', 
should  be  devoted  to  it,  and  the  quantity  bestowed  ought  to  exceed  that  which  , 
I  would  be  proper  for  any  other  species  of  crops  ;  indeed,  it  is  almcst  impossible  ,; 

I  ^439) 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


that  these  crops  can  be  too  plentifully  manured.     This  manure  tends  to  divide 
the  soil  and  also  to  destroy  all  the  germs  of  Aveeds  which  are  contained  in  it. 

2.  These  weeded  crops  ought  to  be  succeeded  by  spring  corn — first,  because  it 
is  usually  so  late  before  they  are  removed  that  there  is  not  time  left  to  sow  au- 
tumnal corn  ;  and  secondly,  because,  in  general,  experience  teaches  us  that  the  , 
former  yields  a  much  finer  crop  than  the  latter,  especially  on  argillaceous  land,  i 
and  also  leaves  the  soil  in  sufficient  condition  to  bear  a  succeeding  crop  of  autum- 
nal corn.  This  spring  corn  may  be  Avheat,  oats,  or  barley,  the  latter  is  most 
usually  sown,  and  especially  a  species  of  rice  barley,  or  two-rowed  barley,  or  bar- 
ley without  skin,  [Hordeu?n  celeste  nudum.)  Should  the  soil,  either  from  not 
having  been  sufficiently  cultivated,  or  in  consequence  of  a  very  wet  summer,  not 
have  been  properly  cleaned  and  divided,  we  must,  in  this  particular  case,  give 
the  preference  to  the  small  or  four-rowed  barley,  because  it  allows  time  for  the 
ploAvings  to  be  repeated  before  the  sowing  takes  place.  But,  in  general,  these 
plowings  are  so  wholly  unnecessary  that  the  spring  sowings  require  little  prepa- 
ration besides  that  Avhich  may  be  given  with  the  extirpator  or  harrow,  which,  in 
this  season,  when  there  is  usually  such  a  press  of  labor,  is  a  very  great  advantage. 

Many  persons  fear  that  the  spring  cereal  plants  will  be  laid  if  they  are  sown 
on  so  rich  a  soil :  but  experience  ougjit  to  reassure  them  such  will  never  be  the  . 
case,  if  they  will  only  take  care  not  to  sow  the  seed  too  thick- — a  practice  which  / 
is  at  once  superfluous  and  highly  injurious.     Deep  plowing  will  always  prevent 
the  corn  from  being  laid. 

3.  The  following  fundamental  rule  must  not  be  lost  sight  of,  namely,  that  two 
crops  of  grain  should  never  be  allowed  to  succeed  each  other,  but  that  they  should 
always  be  separated  by  an  intervening  crop  at  least,  unless  it  occurs  at  the  end 
of  the  rotation,  when  the  fallow  crops  are  to  succeed,  and  the  products  cannot  be 
so  much  injured  by  the  grounds  being  hardened  and  infested  with  weeds. 

The  farmer  must  be  guided  in  the  selection  of  these  intervening  crops  by  the 
number  of  the  divisions  of  land,  and  by  the  wants  of  the  establishment.  They 
may  be  composed  of  clover,  vegetables,  oleaginous  plants,  and,  in  short,  of  any 
kind  which  does  not  belong  to  the  gramineous  class. 

4.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  clover  should  be  sown  on  a  good  soil,  which 
has  been  well  tilled  and  thoroughly  manured.  It  is  usually  sown  Avith  the  crop 
which  succeeds  the  Aveeded  plants.  Where  this  is  the  case,  there  is  no  reason 
to  fear  the  success,  provided  it  is  soAvn  in  a  proper  manner :  the  roots  then  pene- 
trate so  far  into  the  soil,  Avliich  has  been  deeply  loosened,  that  it  has  little  to  fear 
from  the  inclemency  of  Avinter  ;  and  the  old  saying  with  regard  to  clover,  doubt- 
less founded  on  experience,  that  the  soil  becomes  tired  of  it,  is  not  applicable 
here,  since  the  experiments  of  tAventy  years  may  be  adduced  to  prove  that,  al- 
though it  should  be  sown  in  the  same  place  every  fourth  year,  it  will  flourish 
better  in  each  successive  crop. 

5.  In  rotations  of  longer  duration,  in  Avhich  the  agriculturist  endeavors  to  ob- 
tain the  utmost  possible  quantity  of  manure  and  of  fodder,  and  to  bring  the  soil 
into  the  highest  possible  degree  of  fertility  of  Avhich  it  is  capable,  it  Avill  be  found 
very  advantageous  betAveen  two  crops  to  raise  one  Avhich  shall  not  be  suffered  to 

!'  arrive  at  maturity,  but  is  mown  Avhile  green  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  the  cattle. 
\  Vetches  and  buckAvheat  are  best  adapted  for  this  purpose,  as  the  stubble  leaves 
*  the  land  thoroughly  prepared  for  the  reception  of  the  autumnal  corn.     By  means 
of  products  of  this  nature,  it  is  possible  to  obtain,  in  the  same  year. 

Double  crops.  With  this  system  of  cultivation  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  would 
be  possible  to  obtain  double  crops  on  several  divisions  at  once  ;  but  in  the  climate 
of  the  north  of  Germany,  and  on  extensive  farms  which  cannot  command  a  suffi- 
ciency either  of  laborers  or  of  teams,  it  is  not  so  easy  a  matter  as  at  first  sight  it 
may  appear  to  be.  ^ 

Crops  of  roots  sown  on  the  plowed  stubble  of  autumnal  corn  certainly  do  some- 
times succeed  very  Avell  in  this  country  ;  but,  in  order  to  obtain  a  crop,  they  must 
be  sown  very  quickly,  and  in  the  midst  of  all  the  numerous  labors  that  attend 
the  period  of  harvest.  I  cannot,  from  my  oAvn  experience,  offer  an  opinion  with 
regard  to  the  practice,  recently  so  much  vaunted,  of  soAving  carrots  in  the  spring 
among  the  autumnal  crop  of  rye  ;  and  I  cannot  discover  any  trace  of  the  existence 
of  such  a  practice  among  the  English,  who  are  generally  endeavormg  to  multiply 
their  crops  as  much  as  possible.     I  am  perfectly  well  aAA-'are  that  it  is  by  no 

(440) 


SYSTEMS  OF  CULTIVATION. 


121 


means  difficult  to  obtain  a  second  crop  in  a  field  of  beans  or  maize,  planted  in  \ 
rov/s,  and  cultivated  with  the  horse-hoe  ;  and  roots  may  be  advantageously  sown 
between  the  rows  of  these  plants,  when  all  the  operations  belonging  to  their  cul- 
tivation have  been  performed.  A  field  of  vetches  will  produce,  first,  vetches  to 
be  mown  while  green  ;  then  black  wheat,  which  may  also  be  mown  while  green, 
and  which  is,  in  general,  perfectly  successful;  or  turnips,  which  may  be  sown 
equally  as  soon,  and  which  will  fully  repay  the  expenses  of  their  cultivation  : 
sometimes  vetches  are  sown  twice  in  close  succession,  for  the  purpose  of  being 
moAvn  while  green. 

7.  If  in  a  long  rotation  it  is  found  necessary  to  manure  the  land  twice,  the  sec- 
ond amelioration  is  never  applied  to  a  crop  of  grain,  but  to  one  of  some  other 
kind ;  and  then  the  preference  is  always  given  to  a  crop  which  may  be  mown 
while  green,  because  the  vegetation  will  never  be  so  great,  and  the  weeds  which 
germinate  and  vegetate  amongst  it  will  never  materially  injure  the  crop.  The 
plowing  which  is  bestowed  on  the  ground  immediately  after  the  removal  of  this 
crop,  mixes  and  incorporates  the  manure  with  the  soil,  and  the  former  is  thus 
deprived  of  that  degree  of  fermenting  warmth  which  tends  so  much  to  accelerate 
the  vegetation  of  young  wheat  plants,  and  too  often  to  lay  them. 

8.  This  system  of  cultivation  does  not  require  that  one-half  of  the  fields  shall 
be  devoted  to  the  purpose  of  raising  fodder  for  cattle  ;  but,  as  must  be  evident 
from  what  has  already  been  said,  merely  that  one-half  of  divisions  shall  be  de- 
voted to  the  production  of  grain  crops.  The  farmer  is  perfectly  at  liberty  to  cul- 
tivate all  or  any  kind  of  products  for  sale  on  the  remaining  portions  ;  and,  pro- 
vided he  has  a  sufficiency  of  manure,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  him  frcm  culti- 
vating those  plants  or  vegetables  which  are  likely  to  prove  most  profitable.  But, 
in  order  to  secure  that  abundance  of  manure  which,  when  combined  with  skillful 
cultivation,  is  capable  of  producing  such  astonishing  effects,  it  is  frequently  neces- 
sary that  the  farmer  should  content  himself,  during  the  first  rotation,  with  a  small 
portion  of  saleable  products,  in  order  to  raise  a  store  of  future  provender  for  his 
cattle. 

By  means  of  this  alternation  of  crops,  the  farmer  has  it  in  his  power  either  to 
pasture  his  cattle  on  a  portion  of  the  fields,  or  to  feed  them  entirely  in  the  stable. 
In  the  former  case,  the  rotation  with  pasturage  is  brought  to  its  highest  degree 
of  perfection  ;  and  the  latter  affords  undeniable  advantages  in  those  positions  and 
circumstances  which  render  stall-feeding  diflicult.  The  highest  possible  degree 
of  produce  can  only  be  obtained  from  the  soil  by  means  of  this  system  ;  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  highest  amount  of  profit  is  thus  obtained  from  the  labor 
which  is  applied  and  the  capital  which  is  invested. 

We  will  next  proceed  to  examine  the  system  of 

Alternate  Cultivation,  accompanied  by  a  suitable  Succession  of  Crops  and  Pas- 
turage. 

In  this  mode  of  cultivation,  one  portion  of  the  land  is  laid  down  as  pasture  for 
cattle,  and  sometimes  for  sheep  only.  But  the  soil  is  used  for  this  purpose  while 
in  very  good  condition  ;  and,  in  order  that  it  may  produce  the  desired  effect,  it  is 
sown  with  the  seeds  of  those  plants  which  are  best  fitted  for  pasturage  ;  and  thus 
it  is  made  to  yield  a  very  rich  and  abundant  herbage,  which  is  capable  of  either 
maintaining  a  greater  number  of  cattle,  or  of  feeding  those  which  are  kept  on  a 
smaller  space.  Besides  this  advantage,  other  kinds  of  fodder  are  likewise  culti- 
vated, either  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  a  few  or  all  the  cattle  in  the  stalls  during 
the  summer,  or  of  feeding  them  conjointly  in  the  stalls  and  on  the  pastures,  so 
that  it  may  never  be  necessary  to  turn  the  animals  on  the  pastures  too  early  in 
the  spring,  or  to  overstock  them. 

This  system  of  cultivation  is  never  profitable  unless  the  rotation  comprehends 
at  least  eight  years.  If  the  cultivation  of  grain  be  not  much  restricted,  and  if 
one  division  is  set  aside  for  the  growth  of  fodder,  the  land  does  not  bear  herbage 
for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  allow  the  realization  of  all  the  advantages  which 
might  be  expected  to  be  derived  from  it.  Excepting  in  small  farms,  on  wh'ch 
stall-feeding  is  always  more  profitable  than  pasturage,  I  would  alter  the  period 
allowed  for  the  rotation  from  six  or  seven  to  twelve  or  fourteen  years,  which 
numbers  would  render  the  transition  far  from  difficult. 

Eight  is  the  smallest  number  of  divisions  which  I  consider  to  be  suitable  to 

(441) 


this  species  of  cultivation  ;  and  I  should  recommend  the  following  rotations  (this 
mark  **  will  denote  the  times  when  it  will  be  necessary  to  bestow  a  complete 
amelioration,  and  this  one  *  will  mark  the  period  when  a  moderate  manuring 
will  be  sufficient) : 


.or  b* 
.      b 

.      b 
.      h 
.      b* 
.      b 

.or  S* 
.      b 
.      b* 

.      b 

3tches. 
3om. 

sown  ^ 
movvin 

Spring  grain. 

Vetches. 

Autumnal  soil 

7.  and  8.  Pasturage,  with  white  clover  and  grasses. 

Spring  com. 

4*0  Vetches 

Autumnal  com. 

5.  a  Spring  com. 

6.  a  Clover  lor  mowing. 

7.  Pasturage. 

In  nine-crop 
1.     Oats  on  the  broken  pasturage. 
2.**Weeded  crops  sown  in  Hnes 

3.  Barley. 

4.  Clover. 

5.  Autumnal  com. 

Or 
1.     Oats  on  the  broken  up  pasturage. 
2.**  Weeded  crops. 
3.     Barley. 

divisions : 
6.*  Peas  and  v 

7.  Autumnal 

g'  I  Pasturage 

6.     Clover  for 

8.  >  Pasturage 

vith  grasses. 

4.*  Peas  and  vetches  9.   ) 
5.  Autumnal  com. 

In  ten-crop  divisions : 

1.     Oats  on  the  broken  up  pasturage.  6.*  Peas  and  vetches. 

2.**  Weeded  crops.  7.     Autumnal  com. 

Barley.  8.) 

-  "  •  9.  > 


Clover  for  mowing. 
Autumnal  com. 


10.  ) 


Gramineous  plants  sown  for  pasturage. 


thus  arranged ; 


Should  the  farmer  wish  to  have  more  clover  and  less  pasturage,  he  can  allow 
the  former  to  remain  for  two  years,  and  deduct  one  year  from  the  period  allotted 
to  pasturage. 

Or  the  rotation  may  be  thus  arranged  : 
1.**  Cabbages  and  puac.  6.    Autumnal  com. 

2.     Autumnal  com.  '  7.     Spring  com. 

3.*  Weeded  crops.  8.  '^ 

4.  Barley.  9.  {  Pasturage. 

5.  Clover.  10.) 

Or,  if  !i)e  soil  is  of  a  sandy  nature,  it  may 

1.  Black  wheat  6.     Rye. 

2.  Rye.  7.- 
3.**Weeded  crops                                                 8. 

4.  Oats.  9. 

5.  Sptirvey.  10. 

In  eleven  divisions : 

1.  Oats.  7.* 
2.**  Weeded  crops  8. 

3.  Barley.  9.'^ 

4.  Clover.  10.  >  Pasturage. 

5.  Autumnal  com.  11.  ) 

6.  Vetches  to  be  mown  while  green. 

Cabbage  should  never  be  cultivated  unless  there  is  a  plentiful  supply  of  ma- 
nure.    Whenever  this  is  not  the  case,  the  vetches  must  be  succeeded  by  a  cro|) 
\   of  autumnal  com,  and  four  years  devoted  to  pasturage. 

Or,  the  rotation  may  be  arranged  as  follows: 
1.*' Cabbage.  7.*  Peas  and  vetches. 

2.  Autumnal  com.  8.     Autumnal  and  spring  com. 

iTarlf  °''"  X?:  J  Pasturage. 

5.  Clover.  11.     Pasturage  until  the  middle  of  summer. 

6.  Autmnnal  com. 
(442) 


Autumnal  com. 


SYSTEMS  OF  CULTIVATION. 


123 


Wheu  divided  into  twelve  years : 

1.  Vetches.  7-*  Peas. 

2.  Autumnal  corn.  8.     Autumnal  com. 

3.  Clover  for  mowing.  9 A 

5.**Weeded  crops.  11.  J  '^ 

6.     Barley.  12.j 

In  this  rotation,  likewise,  the  pasturage  in  the  twelfth  year  may  be  broken  up 
about  the  middle  of  summer  ;  cabbages  may  also  be  substituted  for  vetches  in 
'No.  1,  if  there  is  a  sufficiency  of  manure. 


Vetches. 
Autumnal  com. 
*  Weeded  crops. 
Barley. 
Peas. 
Autunmal  corn. 


"  Cabbages. 

Autiunnal  com. 

Peas. 

Autumnal  com. 
*  Weeded  crops. 

Barley. 

Clover. 


7.  Beans  weeded. 

8.  Oats. 

9.  Clover  for  mowing. 
10.-^ 

11.  >  Pasturage. 
12.) 

When  there  are  fourteen  divisions : 


Clover. 
Autumnal  com. 


Pasturage. 


1.  Oats. 

2.**  Weeded  crops. 

3.  Barley. 

4.  Clover. 

5.  Clover. 

6.  Autumnal  com. 

7.  Peas. 


Or,  the  rotation  may  proceed  thus : 
8,     Barley. 
9.** Beans  weeded. 
10.    Wheat. 
11. 

^^'  [-Pasturage. 


Rotations  comprising  a  greater  number  of  years  may  be  considered  merely  as 
repetitions  of  those  already  mentioned,  and  only  attended  with  various  modiMca- 
tions.  I  shall  only  subjoin  a  rotation  of  twenty-four  years,  which  has  actually 
been  introduced  on  an  estate  on  which  three  dairies  and  the  fields  appertaining 
to  them  are  contiguous,  so  that  these  are  all  included  in  one  whole  ;  this  rotation 
is  practised  on  an  extent  of  3,000  acres,  and  is  as  follows : 


*  Cabbages. 
Autumnal  com. 
Potatoes. 
Barley. 
Clover  for  mowing. 

Do.  do. 

Autumnal  com. 
Peas  and  vetches. 
Autumnal  com. 


10.^ 

11.  >  Pasturage. 

12.  > 

13.  Oats. 


14.**  Beans  weeded. 

15.  Autumnal  corn. 

16.  Clover  for  mowing. 

17.  Autumnal  com. 

18.  Vetches  for  mowing,  and  then  roots. 

19.  Spring  corn. 

20.  Peas. 

21.  Autumnal  corn. 

22.  Clover  for  pasturage 

23.  Pasturage. 

C  Pasturage  of  spring  to  he  broken  up  early 

24.  /      in  order  to  allow  time  for  planting  cab 
(^     bages. 


If,  in  this  rotation,  it  should  be  necessary  to  fallow  the  ground  completely  or 
to  manure  it  with  marl,  it  should  be  done  as  much  as  possible  on  those  divisions 
which  are  least  in  use,  and  even  then  some  kind  of  product  may  be  derived  from 
the  soil  both  in  spring  and  in  autumn  ;  as,  for  example,  a  crop  of  vetches,  to  be 
mown  while  green,  or  a  crop  of  radishes. 

The  rotation  of  which  we  are  about  to  speak  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  keeping 
large  flocks  of  sheep,  t)  w'lich  the  pasturage  is  devoted,  while  the  cattle  are  for 
the  most  part  fed  in  tLe  stalls. 

Alternate  Cultivation — with  Stall-Feeding  of  the  Cattle. 
The  following  is  one  of  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  this  system  of  cul- 
tivation :  the  cattle  are  fed  all  the  year  round  on  fodder,  cut  expressly  for  that 
purpose,  and  are  never  turned  out  to  pasture  except  towards  the  end  of  the  sum- 
mer.    They  are  fed  in  stalls,  or  in  courts  or  yards  constructed  for  the  purpose,  or 

(443) 


124  thaer's.  principles  of  agriculture. 

in  strong  moveable  enclosures,  the  situation  of  which  is  changed  every  year,  and 
placed  near  to  those  divisions  of  land  which  are  intended  to  furnish  the  principal 
part  of  the  fodder.  In  some  points  of  vieAv,  the  practice  so  much  esteemed  in 
some  countries  may  be  comprehended  under  this  head — namely,  giving  the  cattle 
a  good  feed  in  the  stable  before  they  are  turned  out  to  pasture. 

This  is  not  the  place  for  entering  into  any  arguments  relative  to  the  advantages 
of  the  one  of  these  systems  over  the  other  ;  all  that  we  have  to  do  at  present  is 
to  coBsider  the  relation  in  which  they  stand  to  cultivation  in  general. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  advantages  attendant  on  this  species 
of  cultivation : 

1.  The  same,  or  even  a  larger,  number  of  cattle  can  be  maintained  on  the  pro- 
duce of  a  much  smaller  extent  of  ground. 

(a)  Because,  under  this  system,  the  fields  receive  a  preparation  which  fits  them 
for  the  production  of  those  vegetables  which  are  used  as  fodder.  Nor  is  the  pro- 
pagation of  herbage  left  to  Nature  alone :  the  farmer  sows  and  plants  the  seeds 
of  those  plants  which  are  best  adapted  for  the  nourishment  of  cattle,  and  which 
are  most  likely  to  succeed  in  the  soil  which  is  destined  to  receive  them.  By  this 
means  the  generative  powers  of  Nature  are  brought  into  full  action,  and  the  soil 
is  made  to  produce  an  incomparably  greater  quantity  of  fodder  than  could  be  ob- 
tained from  it  under  any  other  course  of  cultivation, 

(b)  Because  this  species  of  culiivation  allows  the  plants  destined  for  herbage 
to  attain  their  highest  state  of  vegetation,  and  to  reach  that  point  of  development 
at  which  they  yield  the  utmost  amount  of  produce  of  Avhich  they  are  capable, 
both  as  regards'  quantity  and  quality.  In  fact,  the  development  and  growth  of 
most  of  the  plants  destined  for  fodder  progressively  increases  to  a  certain  point, 
and  this  increase  is  greater  m  proportion  as  they  approach  the  highest  degree  of 
perfection  which  they  can  attain:  in  the  early  part  of  their  existence,  the  vege- 
tation is  very  weak  for  a  time,  but,  as  the  plant  becomes  more  and  more  devel- 
oped, the  vegetation  is  accelerated  ;  but  when,  as  is  the  case  on  pasture  lands, 
they  are  not  suflFered  to  attain  their  full  maturity,  the  utmost  amount  of  produce 
cannot  be  derived  from  them.  The  plant,  hov/ever,  ceases  to  grow  as  soon  as  it 
has  flowered ;  and,  in  proportion  as  the  seed  is  developed,  the  stalk  and  leaves 
lose  some  part  of  the  nutritive  juices  which  they  previously  contained.  It  is, 
therefore,  evident  that  it  is  only  by  mowing  that  they  can  be  made  to  yield  the 
highest  advantages,  as,  when  this  is  performed  at  the  jproper  season,  the  plant, 
not  having  been  weakened  by  the  formation  of  seeds,  will  frequently  put  forth 
new  shoots,  which,  if  allowed  to  remain,  may  attain  an  equal  degree  of  perfec- 
tion. 

(c)  Because,  in  this  system,  the  plants  are  not  crushed,  destroyed,  and  trodden 
down,  or  their  vegetation  retarded  by  the  pressure  of  the  feet  of  the  cattle. 

Experience  proves  that  by  this  method  one-half  of  a  given  extent  of  land  may 
be  made  to  yield  an  equallv  abundant  and  rich  provender  as  that  which,  under 
other  circumstances,  would  be  derived  from  the  whole  ;  and  thus  one-half  will 
be  left  at  liberty  to  be  applied  to  any  other  purpose,  and  yet  an  equal,  if  not  a 
larger,  number  of  animals  may  be  profitably  kept. 

2.  Cattle  are  kept  principally  for  the  dung  which  they  yield,  and  it  is  only  un- 
der this  system  that  it  is  possible  to  collect  and  obtain  the  utmost  quantity  of 
manure. 

In  every  system  of  cultivation  wherein  the  cattle  are  fed  on  the  pastures,  the 
principal  part  of  the  dung  voided  by  them  during  the  summer  is  scattered  abroad. 
Those  excrements  which  fail  on  the  herbage  are  totally  lost  for  all  purposes  of 
cultivation,  and  they  appear  to  afford  but  little  benefit  to  those  spots  on  which 
they  fall ;  for  the  dung  which  is  voided  over  old  pasture  grounds,  on  which  cat- 
tle constantly  graze,  dees  not  appear  to  augment  the  vegetation  of  the  herbage 
in  an  equal  proportion.  It  frequently  produces  no  other  effect  on  the  plants  on 
which  it  falls  than  giving  it  a  disagreeable  taste,  which  disgusts  the  cattle  ;  and 
the  knowledge  of  this  fact  frequently  leads  the  herdsmen  to  collect  the  lumps, 
and  appropriate  them  to  their  own  use.  The  loss  is  not  so  great  where  the  dung 
is  voided  over  fields  laid  down  to  rest ;  but  even  then  the  principal  part  of  it  is 
evaporated,  and  the  land  does  not  derive  one-tenth  part  of  the  advantage  which 
would  accrue  to  it  if  the  same  quantity  of  manure  was  carefully  collected,  pre- 
pared, and  properlv  mingled  with  the  soil. 

(444) 


SYSTEMS  OF  CULTIVATION.  125 

3.  In  cultivation  combined  with  stall-feeding  of  cattle,  it  is  much  easier  to 

make  crops  of  fodder  and  of  grain  succeed  each  other  alternately,  than  under  any 
other  system  ;  and,  therefore,  all  the  numerous  advantages  that  attend  this  union 
and  alternation  of  products  are  better  attained.  It  admits  those  plants  which 
are  destined  for  fodder  to  be  cultivated  in  such  an  order  and  succession  as  shall 
offer  the  least  possible  degree  of  interruption  to  the  succession  of  crops  destined 
for  sale,  and  particularly  to  the  corn  crops  ;  and  as  the  former  are  a  preparation 
for  the  latter,  and  are  principally  intended  to  clean  the  soil,  and  render  it  loose 
and  fertile,  they  render  the  operation  of  fallowing  altogether  superfluous,  and 
i    form  a  very  advantageous  substitute. 

I       4.  This  system  likewise  furnishes  the  cattle  with  a  regular  and  abundant  sup- 

!  ply  of  succulent  and  agreeable  food  all  the  year  round,  provided  the  proportion 
and  succession  of  the  fodder  crops  is  properly  regulated.  Consequently,  the  health 
and  strength  of  the  animals  is  preserved  and  sustained,  and  they  are  thus  ren- 
dered more  capable  of  work,  and  made  to  yield  a  higher  amount  of  profit.  When 
cattle  are  fed  on  pastures,  this  will  never  be  the  case,  unless  the  herbage  is  un- 
commonly rich  and  abundant,  on  account  of  the  inequality  which  is  frequently 
found  to  exist  in  the  fertility  of  pastures  in  different  years,  whether  distant  or 
successive. 

Where  stall-feeding  is  practised,  the  excess  of  fodder  which  the  cattle  do  not 
consume  in  one  year  may  be  reserved  for  some  other  season  which  is  less  fertile  ; 
besides,  it  is  very  beneficial  to  the  cattle  to  have  dry  food  mingled  with  their 
green  meat. 

By  means  of  this  system,  therefore,  it  is  not  only  possible  always  to  feed  the 
cattle  regularly,  but  also  to  preserve  a  steady  equilibrium  in  all  the  other  parts 
of  the  rural  economy  ;  since  not  only  an  average  quantity  of  manure  may  be  reck- 
oned upon  every  year,  but  the  farmer  may  likewise  consider  that,  when  he  has  a 
superabundance  of  fodder,  he  can  ahvays  increase  the  number  of  his  live  stock,   > 

.  if  he  thinks  proper,  or  deems  that  such  a  course  will  tend  to  augment  either  his  |i 

;  profits  or  the  quantity  of  manure  likely  to  be  derived.  !' 

5.  Lastly,  it  has  not  only  been  proved,  by  the  results  of  innumerable  experi-  \ 

!  ments,  that  cattle  can  be  maintained  in  perfect  health  by  means  of  stall-feeding,   ; 

I  especially  if  occasionally,  when  they  are  taken  out  to  water  or  to  bathe,  they  are  ' 
allowed  some  exercise  in  the  open  air,  but  also  that  they  are  thus  preserved  liom 
several  very  dangerous  diseases  to  which  animals  that  are  depastured  are  liable,   / 
such  as  inflammation  of  the  spleen,  &c. ;  and  that  they  are  far  less  disposed  to  ) 
catch  infectious  diseases :  so  much,  indeed,  is  this  the  case,  that,  in  some  coun- 
tries where  this  system  of  feeding  is  generally  established,  it  seldom  happens 
that  any  disease  spreads  very  far.     At  any  rate,  it  is  evident  that,  at  such  a  pe- 
riod, this  mode  of  feeding  has  decid-^d  advantages  over  the  grazing  of  cattle  in 
open  fields  or  pasture  grounds,  even  if  it  is  not  superior  to  pasturing  them  in  en- 
closures, t 

.  It  is  evident  that  the  objections  alleged  against  stall-feeding,  and  the  conse-  ', 
quent  perfection  of  cultivation,  are  not  tenable  if  separately  considered  ;  never-  [< 
theless,  it  cannot  be  denied  that,  when  united  together,  they  may,  under  certain  / 

I  circumstances,  render  the  expediency  of  the  adoption  to  be  very  doubtful,  and  S 
even  plead  strongly  in  favor  of  pasturage  Avhen  combined  Avith  a  good  rotation. 
In  districts  or  countries  where  the  details  and  arrangements  connected  Avith  stall- 
feeding  are  yet  unknown,  or  where  the  servants,  or  those  charged  with  the  duty 
of  inspecting  all  the  operations  and  proceedings,  are  prejudiced  against  it,  this 
system  will  require  more  minute  and  careful  attention  than  can  be  bestoAved  up- 
on it  by  a  person  who  is  at  the  same  time  occupied  in  directing  several  other 
branches  of  rural  economy.     Previous  to  the  introduction  of  stall-feeding,  it  will 

/  always  be  necessary,  in  order  to  secure  success,  to  hire  men,  expressly  for  that 

I    purpose,  who  are  capable  of  managing  it  properly. 

This  system  requires  a  considerably  larger  circulating  capital,  not  so  much  for 
tself  as  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Vigorous  cultivation  with  which  it  is  asso- 
ciated. It  therefore  appears  to  be  peculiarly  suited  to  those  places  and  circum- 
stances in  which,  so  far  from  being  obliged  to  derive  a  great  portion  of  his  in- 

■  come  from  the  soil,  the  agriculturist  possesses  a  surplus  on  which  he  can  draw 
whenever  occasion  requires  it ;  because,  if  the  contrary  was  the  case,  he  might 

C  always  find  it  easy,  in  a  large  undertaking,  to  raise  the  necessary  funds  for 
(445) 


126  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


defraying  the  cost  of  labor,  and   the  other  expenses  attendant  on  this  system. — 
Wherever  the  quantity  of  capital  is  circumscribed,  alternate  perfectionated  culti- 
vation with  pasturage  will  be  found   much  more  advantageous,  especially  at  the 
i    commencement,  and  afterwards  it  will  be  much  easier  to  make  the  transition  to 
''  stall-feeding.     On  the  other  hand,  the  advantages  attendant  on  this  mode  of  feed- 
^    ing  cattle  are  increased  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  soil,  and  the  tillage  and 
ameliorations  which  are  bestowed  upon  it. 

There  is  no  case  in  which  so  little  profit  is  derived  from  this  system  as  when 
it  is  practised  on  estates  composed  for  the  most  part  of  sandy  earth,  which  con- 
tains less  than  twenty-five  parts  in  every  hundred  of  argillaceous  clay  and  mould. 
Soils  of  this  nature  are  materially  benefited  by  long  periods  of  what  is  called 
"repose,  or  rest,"  by  being  left  un tilled,  and  by  being  pastured  by  cattle:  they 
thus  acquire  some  degree  of  consistency,  which,  however,  they  would  soon  en- 
tirely lose  if  they  were  too  frequently  plowed. 

Land  c.f  this  kind  is  also  less  suitable  for  cattle  than  for  pasturing  sheep,  and 
for  which  animals  stall-feeding  has  yet  been  introduced.  Notwithstanding  the 
abundant  manuring  Which  this  system  enables  the  farmer  to  bestow,  there  is 
always  a  great  degree  of  uncertainty  attending  the  cultivation  of  plants  for  sum- 
mer fodder,  on  account  of  the  occurrence  of  periods  of  drouth.  However  sure 
the  farmer  may  feel  of  the  success  of  the  crops  of  roots  destined  for  the  winter 
fodder,  he  never  can  divest  himself  of  a  dread  of  the  failure  of  the  other  crops. 

A  distinction  has  been  made  between  complete  and  partial  stall-feeding.  The 
latter  does  not  signify  the  practice  which  is  sometimes  met  with,  that  of  feeding 
one  half  of  the  animals  in  the  stable  while  the  others  are  turned  out  to  pasture, 
but  it  is  giving  all  the  animals  one  portion  of  their  food  in  the  stable  and  the  rest 
on  pasture  grounds. 

Many  persons  have  regarded  this  mode  as  by  far  the  most  profitable  manner  of 
feeding'  cattle,  and  the  more  so  as  the  quantity  of  milk  obtained  from  cows  fed  in 
this  way  is  much  greater  than  under  any  other  circumstances.  The  change  hi 
the  kind  of  food  is  certainly  calculated  to  give  the  animals  a  better  appetite,  and 
also  to  stimulate  their  digestive  organs  to  healthy  action.  This  practice  is  pecu- 
liarly adapted  to  farms  which  are  contiguous  to  lands  v/hich,  either  from  the 
dread  of  inundations  or  from  some  other  cause,  can  only  be  used  as  pastures,  and 
wh.'h,  nevertheless,  are  not  sufficiently  extensive  or  fertile  to  supply  the  cattle 
with  all  the  food  which  they  require  for  their  maintenance  during  the  summer. 

Stall-feeding  may  be  associated  with  various  systems  of  cultivation,  among 
which  the  three  following  are  the  principal  modes  : — 

The  first  and  most  ancient  method  of  procuring  a  supply  of  green  provender 
for  the  cattle  during  the  summer,  consists  in  devoting  certain  enclosures  or  fields 
to  the  growth  of  clover.  Pieces  of  land  near  to  the  farm  buildings  are  usually 
chosen  for  this  purpose;  and  these  are  sown  every  third  year,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  in  the  first  year  and  with  the  first  crop  of  corn  with  clover,  which  is  to 
be  CTit  while  green ;  or,  where  the  nature  of  the  soil  will  admit,  with  lucerne. 
When  this  fodder  is  taken  off  the  land,  roots  or  cabbages  are  cultivated  for  one 
or  two  years,  and  sometimes  a  crop  oJF  corn  or  of  some  leguminous  plant,  and 
then  the  land  is  sown  anew  with  fodder-plants.  But  these  enclosures  consume 
a  very  great  quantity  of  the  manure,  and  without  frequent  and  repeated  amelio- 
rations, the  clover  crops,  following  so  quickly  on  each  other,  caimot  be  made  to 
succeed  at  all.  The  principal  object  of  the  cultivation  of  fodder,  and  of  stall- 
feeding  in  general — that  of  procuring  the  greatest  quantity  of  manure  for  the 
whole  extent  of  the  fields — is  here  entirely  lost ;  and  thus  the  otherwise  absurd 
reproach  so  often  made  to  the  cultivation  of  green  fodder,  namely,  that  it  re- 
quires more  manure  than  can  or  ought  to  be  bestowed  on  it,  becomes,  in  some 
\  respects,  true.  Another  consequence  of  this  method  is  the  annihilation  of  a 
second  advantage  attendant  on  the  stall-feeding  of  cattle,  and  the  consequent 
cultivation,  viz  :  the  alternate  succession  of  green  crops  with  crops  of  grain  on  i 
the  fields  ;  a  dead  fallow  must  be  introduced,  or  the  land  will  speedily  become  ' 
infested  with  weeds.  It  is  only  when  sown  on  open  fields  and  introduced  into  > 
the  general  rotation,  that  the  green  crops  can  fully  attain  the  end  for  Avhich  they  ' 
were  destined,  that  they  will  effect  a  chemical  amelioration  in  the  soil  by  means 
of  the  manure  which  is  applied  to  them,  and  a  mechanical  amelioration  in  it  by 
means  of  the  loosening  and  cleansing  tendency,  c 


r 


SYSTEMS  OF  CULTIVATION.  127 


The  cultivation  of  plants  for  fodder  on  separate  enclosures  can  therefore  only- 
he  regarded  as  a  very  injudicious  if  not  a  pernicious  means  of  procuring  some 
additional  provender  for  the  cattle,  on  farms  submitted  to  the  systems  of  fallows, 
or  of  non-perfectionated  alternate  cultivation  with  pasturage  ;  and  it  is  utterly 
opposed  to  the  end  which  stall-feeding,  as  it  is  generally  conducted,  has  /i  view. 
An  enclosure  of  inconsiderable  extent  situated  near  the  farm  buildings,  a.  d  sown 
with  perennial  fodder  plants,  or  with  lucerne  or  grasses  for  mowing,  may,  never- 
tlieless,  occasionally  be  found  useful,  and  may  tend  to  facilitate  the  complete 
stall-feeding  of  cattle  by  furnishing  a  supply  of  provender  at  periods  when  it 
could  not  be  obtained  elsewhere. 

The  second  method  of  obtaining  fodder  by  cultivation  consists  in  introducing 
the  crops  into  the  triennial  rotation  in  the  place  of  the  fallow.     We  have  ah-eady 
spoken  of  this  method,  which  was  principally  propagated  by  Schubart,  and  have  ^ 
stated  the  advantages  which  may  be  expected  from  it,  and  the  evils  it  possibly  J 
may  produce.     This  mode  does  not  deprive  the  soil  of  any  portion  of  fertility  ;  ; 
'  but,  on  the  contrary,  when  the  clover  is  vigorous,  thick,  and  free  from  weeds,  it   ( 
communicates  additional  succulency  and  nutrition  to  the  land.     But  the  clover   *■ 
crop  can  only  be  expected  to  possess  these  three  advantages  under  the  triennial 
rotation,  where  it  has  been  sown  on  peculiarly  fertile  ground,  and  where  it  is 
only  sown  once  in  nine  years  in  the  same  place.     The  occasional  failure  and  the 
frequent  scantiness  of  the  crops  on  estates  which  do  not  possess  that  additional 
extent  of  meadow  land  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  secure  an  adequate 
maintenance  for  the  cattle  throughout  the  summer  and  winter,  has  caused  this 
method  to  be  everywhere  abandoned  except  in  the  most  fertile  districts  ;  and  the 
system  of  stall-feeding  has,  in  consequence,  fallen  into  disuse.    Where  the  failure 
of  the  clover  has  been  attributable  to  accidents,  many  industrious  and  persever- 
ing agriculturists  have  endeavored  to  remedy  the  evil  by  sowing  vetches,  or  a 
mixture  of  various  plants  which  may  be  mown  while  green,  or  by  cutting  down 
their  peas  to  feed  the  cattle  ;  but  where  this  failure  has  repeatedly  occurred,  and   > 
has  evidently  been  occasioned  by  some  fault  in  the  system  itself,  they  have  found   ) 
themselves  compelled  to  renounce  it  altogether ;  some  few  farmers  have  persisted    , 
in  this  mode  of  cultivation  until  their  land  became  completely  choked  with  ) 
weeds.  ( 

The  third  method,  and  the  only  one  which  has  hitherto  appeared  to  be  really  ( 
successful,  on  which  stall-feeding  can  be  based  with  any  degree  of  certainty,  is  } 
that  of  alternate  -perfectionated  cultivation,  in  which  clover  is  always  sown  on  a  ( 
soil  that  has  been  deeply  plowed,  and  still  retains  all  the  fertility  produced  by  { 
the  recent  amelioration,  and  where  it  is  possible  to  procure  an  auxiliary  by  the  > 
cultivation  of  other  plants,  as  fodder  for  the  middle  of  summer,  autumn,  and  ? 
winter,  so  that  the  cattle  may  receive  rich,  abundant,  and  succulent  food  in  every  ) 
season  of  the  year.  We  have  already  given  a  detailed  account  of  the  principles  ) 
on  which  this  system  is  founded ;  and  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  allude  to  it  ( 
again  Avhen  treating  of  the  cultivation  of  plants  and  the  feeding  of  cattle,  we  > 
\-  shall  not  enlarge  farther  upon  it  at  present.  f 

'  We  shall  here  confine  ourselves  to  an  enumeration  of  those  rotations  which,  ( 
taking  into  consideration  the  number  of  divisions  of  the  land,  produce  the  great-  , 
est  quantity  of  fodder,  and  consequently,  of  manure,  and  with  the  sacrifice  of  the  • 
least  possible  portion  of  the  crops  destined  for  sale. 

We  will  suppose  that  the  soil  consists  of  argillaceous  earth,  which  contains  at 
least  thirty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  alumine  and  humus,  and  at  most  seventy  parts 
of  silex  in' a  hundred  ;  such  a  soil  as  in  wheat  land  would  be  termed  second-rate, 
in  barley  land  first  and  second-rate,  or  among  good  soils  would  be  classed  as  aye- 
rage  or  middling  land.  Clover  certainly  will  also  succeed  on  a  lighter  soil,  which  | 
contains  from  tAventy-five  to  thirty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  alumine,  provided  that 
the  land  has  been  properly  manured  ;  but  the  success  is  so  very  uncertain  in  dry 
years  that  no  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  it,  where  all  the  fields  or  even  where 
only  some  of  the  divisions  are  composed  of  land  of  so  light  a  nature  ;  on  estates 
of  this  kind,  therefore,  as  we  have  already  said,  alternate  perfectionated  cultiva- 
tion is  always  less  casual.  In  making  choice  of  the  crops  which  are  to  form 
parts  of  these  rotations,  attention  must  always  be  paid  to  the  more  or  less  argil- 
laceous nature  of  the  soil,  as  well  as  to  the  calcareous  matter  and  to  the  humus 
which  has  been  more  recently  added  to  it.     We  shall  ^ive  some  directions  with 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


regard  to  the  manner  in  which  these  considerations  ought  to  influence  the  choice 
of  the  rotation  : — 

Four  Crop  Divisions. 

1.**  "Weeded  crops,  and  in  this  number  beans  sown  in  rows  may  be  included. 

2.  Barley. 

3.  Clover. 

4.  Rye  or  wheat. 

From  some  incomprehensible  misconception,  this  rotation,  which  is  practised 
by  a  great  number  of  English  agriculturists,  and  which  I  used  formerly  to  follow 
upon  a  small  farm  of  my  own,  has  been  regarded  by  many  persons  as  the  only 
form  of  alternate  cultivation.  It  is,  however,  suitable  to  estates  of  a  very  limit- 
ed extent ;  on  large  properties  it  is  found  advantageous  to  increase  the  number 
of  divisions. 

Five  Crop  Divisions. 

After  the  autumnal  corn,  a  crop  of  oats  may  be  obtained  from  the  land  without  , 
causing  any  bad  effects,  the  succeeding  Aveeded  crop  being  intended  to  clear  and 
clean  the  ground.  In  the  experiments  which  I  have  made  with  regard  to  the 
rotation,  I  find  that  oats,  when  compared  with  other  crops,  are  not  sufficiently 
profitable  to  induce  me  to  persevere  in  cultivating  them.  In  those  places  where 
the  great  object  in  view  is  to  secure  as  large  a  proportion  of  fodder  for  the  cattle 
as  possible,  the  clover  may  be  suffered  to  remain  upon  the  ground  for  two  years. 

Six  Crop  Divisions. 

The  first  four  follow  in  the  same  order  as  those  mentioned  above. 

5.*  Peas  ;  which,  if  neccessary,  may  be  succeeded  by  vetches  to  be  mown  while  green.  i 

6.     Ry-  ' 

In  these  rotations  I  usually  prefer  autumnal  com  to  spring  corn  ;  the  produce 
of  the  former  being  more  to  be  depended  upon,  the  crop  yielding  a  much  greater 
quantity  of  straw,  and  the  operation  of  sowing — especially  if  carried  into  efl'ect  , 
with  the  proper  instruments — being  much  more  easily  accomplished  after  the 
fallow  crops.  Should  any  unforeseen  occurrence  prevent  the  whole  of  the  land 
from  being  sown  in  the  autumn,  it  is  always  possible  to  sow  the  remaining  part 
with  spring  corn. 

Seven  Crop  Divisions. 

Here,  also,  a  crop  of  oats  may  be  obtained  after  the  rye  crop.  In  .the  greater 
number  of  cases,  however,  those  persons  who  wish  to  preserve  the  fertility  of  \ 
their  land,  and  also  to  establish  the  stall-feeding  of  their  cattle  upon  a  secure  i 
foundation,  will  do  well  to  allow  the  clover  to  remain  upon  the  ground  for  two 
years,  and  content  themselves  with  two  crops  of  autumnal  grain,  one  of  spring 
corii,  and  the  half  or  tAvo-thirds  of  a  division  sown  with  peas.  Here,  and  in  every 
case  where  a  superabundance  of  root  crops  is  found  in  the  first  division,  beans, 
sown  in  rows  and  tilled  with  the  hoe,  may  be  substituted  ;  and,  after  these  have 
received  the  last  tillage,  radishes  may  be  sown  with  advantage  betAveen  the 
rows  ;  and  these  latter  may  also  be  sown  after  vetches  which  have  been  mown 
while  green  ;  but  they  must  be  removed  very  early,  in  order  to  make  way  for  the 
autumnal  corn. 

Eight  Crop  Divisions. 
l.**'Weeded  root  crops.  5.*  Peas. 

2.  Barley.  6.     Rye. 

3.  Clover.  7.    Vetches. 

4.  Oats.  8.    Rye. 

Or: 
l.**"Weeded  root  crops.  5.     Rye. 

2.  Barley.  6.*  Peas  and  vetches. 

3.  Clover.  7.     Rye. 

4.  Clover.  8.     Oats. 

Nine  Crop  Divisions. 
l**'Weeded.  root  crops.  6.*  Peas. 

2.     Barley.  7.     Barley. 

3  and  4.     Clover.  8.    Vetches. 

5.  Rye.  9.     Rye. 
(448) 


Ten  Crop  Divisions. 
1.**  Weeded  root  crops.  6.     Wheat. 

2.  Barley.  ■  7.    Peas. 

3.  Clover.  8.     Rye. 

4.  Clover,  broken  up  after  ihe  first  cutting.       9.*  Vetches  to  be  mown  while  green. 
5.*  Cabbages.  10.     Rye. 

In  order  to  cultivate  cabbages,  which  crop  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  this  rota- 
tion, the  farmer  must  have  an  abundance  of  manure  at  his  disposal ;  but,  with 
such  a  succession  of  crops,  he  will  soon  be  possessed  of  that  powerful  auxiliary 
to  his  cultivation. 

Eleven  Crop  Divisions. 

The  same  as  the  foregoing,  with  the  addition  of  a  crop  of  oats  after  the  rye. 

Twelve  Crop  Divisions. 


1.**  Weeded  root  crops. 

7. 

Wheat. 

2.     Barley. 

8. 

Peas  and  vetches. 

3.     Clover. 

9. 

Rye. 

4.     Clover. 

10.* 

Beans  sown  in  rows,  and  radishes. 

5.     Clover  broken  up  after  the  first  cutting. 

11. 

Barley. 

6.*  Cabbages. 

12. 

Rye. 

Or,  should  it  be  deemed  expedient  to  endeavor  to  obtain  a  still  greater  quan- 
tity of  those  products  which  find  a  ready  and  profitable  sale,  the  farmer  may,  if 
J  he  finds  himself  in  possession  of  a  sufficiency  of  manure,  break  up  the  clover  on 
'    the  fourth  division  immediately  after  the  first  cutting,  and  arrange  the  latter  part 
of  the  rotation  as  follows  :* 

o.*  Cabbages.  9.**  Tobacco. 

6.  Wheat.  10.     Wheat. 

7.  Vetches.  11.     Beans,  succeeded  by  radishes, 

8.  Rye.  12.     Barley. 

*  The  temperature  of  the  north  of  Germany,  for  which  these  rotations  are  particularly  adapted,  is  too  un- 
favorable to  lucerne  to  admit  of  the  author's  introducing  that  plant  into  his  successions  of  crops  ;  but  such  is 
not  the  case  in  France,  for  lucerne  always  thrives  wonderfully  well  there  ;  and  when  it  is  cultivated  on  land 
that  has  been  properly  manured,  deeply  and  carefully  plowed,  and  thoroughly  cleaned  from  weeds,  and 
which  is  not  of  too  argillaceous  a  nature,  nor  too  much  disposed  to  become  dry  and  hard,  but  has  a  tenden- 
cy to  retain  water  and  moisture,  this  plant  will  prove  the  most  advantageous  of  all  those  which  are  cultivated 
for  the  puvpo.'^e  of  feeding  cattle.  Whhout  any  wish  to  anticipate  those  details  which  properly  belong  to 
that  portion  of  the  work  which  treats  of  the  cultivation  of  vegetables,  I  must,  nevertheless,  here  observe  that 
lucerne  will  yield  plentiful  crops  for  four,  six,  ei^ht,  and  sometimes  ten  years,  according  to  the  care  bestowed 
upon  the  sowing  and  the  treatment  of  it ;  but  the  finest  and  most  abundant  crop  is  produced  in  the  third 
year :  from  that  time  it  becomes  more  or  less  mixed  with  weeds,  which,  in  the  end,  entirely  choke  it.  In 
places  where  there  is  a  great  extent  of  meadow  land,  and,  consequently,  where  the  wind  scatters  the  seed 
of  gramineous  jdants  in  all  directions,  the  lucerne  becomes  deteriorated  much  sooner  than  in  those  situations 
where  the  greater  part  of  the  land  by  which  it  is  suiTounded  is  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  plow  and  to  a 
good  rotation.  But  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  plants  which  thus  become  mingled  with  the  lucerne  are 
so  well  adapted  for  fodder,  and  yield  such  a  plentiful  and  useful  produce,  that  it  still  continues  to  be  advan- 
tageous to  suffer  the  lucerne  to  remain  on  the  ground. 

The  propriety  and  utility  of  cultivating  old  lucerne  ground  will  depend,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  local 
consideraiions,  and  upon  the  relative  advantages  which  the  soil  might  be  made  to  produce  in  each  of  these 
occujjaiions  ;  but  if  the  lucerne  has  been  suffered  to  remain  upon  the  ground  until  the  plants  perish  of  their 
own  accord,  it  becomes  absolutely  indispensable  that  the  soil  should,  be  thoroughly  and  abundantly  manured, 
carefully  cleared  of  weeds,  and  also  allowed  a  very  considerable  interral  of  repose ;  without  the  fulfilment 
of  these  conditions,  there  will  be  every  reason  to  fear  that  the  lucerne  will  not  succeed  when  sown  afresh. 

In  districts  where  the  soil  is  easily  tilled,  and  where  laborers  are  not  scarce  or  wages  expensive,  it  appears 
to  be  advantHgeous  to  allow  the  lucerne  to  remain  on  the  ground  for  five  years  only,  and  then  to  plow  it  up 
and  sow  autumnal  corn,  for  which,  under  these  circumstances,  this  plant  forms  an  excellent  preparation  — 
'  After  one,  or  even  two,  consecutive  crops  of  winter  cereal  plants,  which  will  succeed  very  well  without  ma- 
nuring, and  in  which  it  is  only  necessary  to  keep  the  soil  free  from  weeds,  a  cleaned  crop  may  be  made  to 
supervene,  such  as  potatoes  or  beet-root,  which  seem  to  me  in  this  place  to  succeed  better  than  carrots  or 
ruta-bagas. 

I  will  here  give,  as  an  example  of  this  kind  of  cultivation,  the  excellent  rotation  which  M.  Charles  Pictet 
has  used  for  some  years  past.  This  gentleman  is  a  zealous  agriculmrist,  and  one  who  devotes  his  whole  at-  . 
tention  to  the  study  of  that  science,  and  to  the  propagation  of  new  and  enlightened  views  of  every  portion  of  ' 
it.  I  extract  this  rotation  from  No.  12  of  the  "Bibliothica  Britannica,"  Dec.  1810,  in  which  work  the  author 
describes  it  in  a  manner  which  is  at  once  lucid,  instructive  and  interesting.  I  must  also  add  that  I  have  had 
frequent  oppoitunities  of  observing  the  admirable  manner  in  which  it  acts  on  an  estate  cultivated  by  M.  Pic- 
tet, at  Lancy : 

1.  Potatoes,  preceded  by  the  ground  having  been  deeply  dug  up  with  a  spade. 

2.  Wheat,  thoroughly  manured  with  dung  spread  over  the  seed  in  the  winter,  which  improves  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  and  ensures  the  success  of  the  clover,  which  is  sown  on  it  in  the  spring,  and  then  covered 
by  a  long-tined  harrow. 

J         3.  Two  cuttings  of  clover. 

'        4.  Wheat,  and  sometimes  roots  as  a  second  crop. 
5.  Potatoes,  as  in  the  first  year. 
(449) 9 


130  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

The  Transition  from  one  'Rotation  to  another. 

No  prudent  agriculturist  will  exchange  his  present  system  of  cultivation  for  an- 
other, even  a  better  one,  without  maturely  weighing  and  considering  all  the  cir- 
cumstances of  his  situation.  We  are  now  about  to  lay  down  a  few  general  rules 
on  this  head,  which  will  be  found  applicable  to  almost  every  situation  and  locality. 

In  the  first  place,  the  transition  to  a  more  perfect  rotation  cannot  be  eflected 
without  the  outlay  of  a  considerable  capital.     There  certainly  are  cases  in  which 
this  end  may  be  attained  by  the  outlay  of  a  large  or  a  small  sum,  but  much  \ 
sooner  and  more  effectually  with  the  former  than  with  the  latter,  supposing  that  S 
the  director  of  each  undertaking  possesses  an  equal  degree  of  skill.     In  order  to  \\ 
augment  the  quantity  of  fodder  Avhich  is  the  groundwork  of  all  ameliorations  a  'I 
temporary  sacrilice  of  some  portion  of  the  saleable  products  must  be  made  ;  and  ' 
this  can  only  be  done  by  diminishing  the  extent  of  ground  sown,  and  which  di-  i| 
minution  cannot   be  compensated  by  any  augmentation  of  the  produce  of  the  re-  ( 
mainder  ;  or  else  by  diminishing  the  allowance  of  manure,  and  employing  a  \' 
'    portion  of  it  in  the  cultivation  of  plants  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  cattle.     To  / 
this  must  be  added  the  expenses  attendant  on  the  necessary  increase  of  live  stock,  \ 
'  servants,  and  laborers.     It  is  quite  a  mistaken  notion,  however,  to  reckon  these  ^ 
outlays  as  so  many  sacrifices  :  they  are  neither  more  nor  less  than  sums  advanced 
for  the  purpose  of  communicating  fresh  vigor  and  greater  activity  to  all  the  ope- 
rations;  and,  unless  some  extraordinary  ill-fortune  attends  the  agriculturist,  the 
capital  thus  expended  v/ill,  in  a  short  time,  be  repaid  with  interest.     Neverthe- 
less, it  is  perfectly  useless  for  any  one  who  cannot  command  the  necessary  funds 
to  attempt  this  transition,  at  least  with  any  chance  of  success. 

The  requisite  amount  of  capital,  as  we  have  already  said,  varies  in  different 
cases.  If  the  agriculturist  wishes  to  proceed  with  tolerable  rapidity,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  with  all  requisite  circumspection,  he  must  possess  a  capital  at  least 
double  in  amount  of  the  net  produce  which  the  estate  formerly  yielded.  He 
must  not  be  in  too  great  haste  to  increase  the  number  of  his  live  stock  ;  neither 
must  he  make  any  changes,  alterations,  or  additions  to  his  farm  buildings,  which 
are  not  absolutely  and  palpably  necessary. 

It  is  impossible  to  effect  any  profitable  modification  in  the  cultivation  of  an 
estate  without  the  outlay  of  a  certain  capital ;  wherever  such  a  thing  appears  to 
have  been  done,  it  has  either  been  effected  by  a  continued  system  of  economy  car- 
ried through  every  branch  of  the  farm  management,  or  by  means  of  the  applica- 
tion of  additional'labor.  The  want  of  capital,  or  at  least  of  the  will  to  employ 
'  it  in  furtherance  of  this  end,  is  the  great  cause  of  most  of  the  failures  in  enter- 
prises of  this  nature.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  all  persons  should  be 
impressed  with  a  conviction  of  this  truth,  and  that  those  prejudices  which  still 
exist  against  it  should  be  wholly  removed. 

Another  absolutely  essential  preliminary  is  that  the  farmer  shall  be  sole  and 

absolute  master  of  all  his  land,  free  to  act,  and  unfettered  by  any  trammels 

'    and  servitudes  ;  and  whenever  the  contrary  is  the  case,  his  first  step  must  be  to 

obtain  an  exemption  from  all  restrictions  which  mignt  confine  his  freedom  of 

action. 

The  process  of  effecting  a  transition  from  a  triennial  rotation  with  fallowing 
to  an  alternate  rotation  associated  with  stall-feeding,  on  an  estate  already  di- 

i        6.  AVheat.  as  in  the  second  year,  but  with  this  difiference,  that  lucerne  is  sown  instead  of  clover  in  the 
spring. 

7  and  8.  Lucerne. 

9.  Lucerne,  thoroughly  manured  during  the  winter. 

10.  Lucerne,  broken  up  in  the  summer. 

11.  Wheat. 

12.  Wheat,  succeeded  by  radishes. 

This  rotation  is  far  from  being  an  expensive  one  to  M.  Pictet,  and  for  the  following  reason.  The  greater 
part  of  the  potatoes  are  cultivated  by  the  poor  people  in  the  neighborhood,  who,  in  return,  receive  one-half 
of  the  produce,  which  serves  to  prevent  them  from  suffering  from  want.  Thus  M.  Pictet  is  the  benefactor 
of  a  great  number  of  poor  famiUes,  at  the  same  time  that  he  derives  his  own  share  of  benefit.  1  would  ad- 
vise all  my  readers  to  penise  the  account  which  this  gentleman  himself  gives  of  his  rotation,  and  only  regret 
that  1  cannot  transcribe  the  whole  of  it  here.  Sainfoin  ought  not  to  be  forgotten  :  this  plant  is  calculated  as 
■well  as  lucerne  for  alternate  rotations.  The  produce,  certainly,  is  not  so  abundant  as  the  other ;  but  it  does 
not  require  so  much  manure,  and  will  flourish  on  sandy  and  gravelly  soils,  where  lucerne  can  never  be 
made  to  veeetate  with  any  degree  of  success.  Besides  the  seed  of  sainfoin  being  much  more  exjjensive 
than  that  of  lucerne,  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  sow  fields  with  this  plant  merely  for  a  limited  number  of 
years.  [French  Trans. 

(450) 


SYSTEMS  OF  CULTIVATION.  131 

vided,  is  not  attended  with  difficulty  if  each  of  the  lields  have  been  regularly- 
ameliorated.  But  in  those  places  where  it  has  only  been  possible  to  manure 
thoroughly  a  portion  of  the  arable  land,  and  where  the  remainder  has  been  but 
slightly  or  not  at  all  ameliorated,  much  greater  obstacles  are  met  with,  nor  can 
it  be  expected  that  this  object  can  be  effected  without  the  aid  of  extraneous 
means.  As  it  is  not,  however,  absolutely  indispensable  in  this  case  that  the 
divisions  should  be  contiguous  and  that  the  numbers  should  follow  each  other  in 
regular  succession,  as  in  all  rotations  that  are  associated  with  pasturage,  every 
thing  will  be  gradually  got  into  the  proper  order.  If,  as  is  generally  the  case, 
the  lands  which  were  not  comprehended  in  the  rotation  lie  at  some  distance  and 
contiguous  to  each  other,  it  will  generally  be  more  advantageous  to  adopt  two  or 
more  courses  of  cropping,  or  to  divide  the  arable  land  into  exterior  and  interior 
divisions,  and  in  the  first  place  to  ameliorate  the  latter  and  then  wait  until,  the 
fertility  of  these  fields  and   the  abundance  of  manure  produced  by  them,  shall 

\  make  it  easy  to  bestow  some  amelioration  on  the  former.  If  this  mode  cannot 
be  adopted,  the  manuring  of  the  principal  divisions  will  be  delayed,  and  it  will 
be  necessary  to  abstain  for  a  longer  period  from  the  cultivation  of  vegetables  for 
sale. 

Should  the  position  and  form  of  the  fields  appear  to  render  it  necessary,  mat- 
ters may  be  so  arranged  that  each  fertile  division  shall  have  a  supplementary 
portion  of  poor  and  ill-conditioned  land,  even  though  if  should  not  be  contiguous. 
This  additional  part  must  be  gradually  amended  and  improved,  in  the  course  of 
cultivation,  until  it  becomes  equally  good  with  any  of  the  other  portions.  In 
order  to  effect  this  result,  it  must  be  allowed  a  longer  period  of  repose,  and  only 
occasionally  made  to  produce  a  crop  of  the  same  kind  as  that  borne  by  the  prin- 
cipal division. 

In  efi'ecting  this  transition  from  a  rotation  with  fallows  to  the  alternate  system, 

^  the  principal  object  to  be  kept  in  view  is  the  speedy  augmentation  of  the  quan- 
tity of  fodder  in  order  to  obtain  a  larger  supply  of  manure.  This  can  only  be 
done  by  diminishing  the  grain  crops:  but  the  retrenchment  must  not  be  made  on 
the  autumnal  corn,  or  in  the  manure  which  ought  to  be  devoted  to  them  ;  because 
that  crop  not  only  yields  a  larger  produce  in  grain,  but  also  furnishes  a  greater 
quantity  of  straw. 


Section  III. 
AGRONOMY; 

OR,  A  TREATISE  ON  THE  CONSTITUENT  PARTS  AND  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  THE  SOIL, 
AND  THE  BEST  METHOD  OF  ACQUIRING  A  KNOV\^LEDGE  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  EARTHS, 
AND  ASCERTAINING  THEIR  VAI.UE. 


"  What  may  not  enlightened  citizens  accomplish,  who  have-  discarded  the  false  and  bustling  pleasures  of 
towns,  and,  carrying  into  the  country  the  knowledge  they  may  have  acquired,  apply  to  Agriculture  the  rich 
and  vaiied  assistance  of  the  physical  sciences  i"  [Fourcroi/. 

The  soil  bears  the  same  relation  to  agricultural  industry  as  primitive  sub- 
stances do  to  manufactures  in  general.     The  agriculturist  endeavors  to  find  land 
that  shall  unite  all  the  qualities  he  requires,  with  the  same  anxiety  and  Gare  that 
a  manufacturer  bestows  on  the  selection  of  the  materials  best  adapted  for  his  . 
purpose.     Each  of  these  persons  exercises  all  possible  judgment  in  forming  a  just  ' 
estimate  of  the  value  of  the  article  which  he  is  about  to  purchase  or  obtain  pos-  \ 
session  of,  in  order  to  avoid  giving  more  value  for  it  than  it  is  worth.     Each  of  e 
them,  also,  when  he  has  obtained  the  substance  or  matter  which  he  requires  to  f 

(451)  ^      ^JJ^ 


"work  with,  examines  its  merits  or  demerits  more  narrowly,  gives  to  each  of  its 
parts  that  destination  for  which  it  appears  to  be  best  adapted,  and  by  means  of 
which  he  may  derive  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  profit  both  from  the  sub- 
stance itself  and  from  the  labor  which  is  applied  to  it. 

The  manufacturer  loses  both  time  and  money  when  he  attempts  to  fabricate 
fine  cloth  from  coarse  or  jagged  wool,  and  lessens  the  value  of  the  materials 
when  he  endeavors  to  make  coarse  cloths  from  superfine  wool.  He  must,  there- 
fore, divide  and  arrange  all  his  wools  according  to  their  various  degrees  of  fine- 
ness;  and  in  order  to  be  able  to  do  so  properly,  he  will  require  much  more  ex- 
perience and  a  far  greater  knowledge  of  the  subject  than  is  necessary  to  assist 
him  in  the  comparatively  simple  act  of  making  his  purchases.  In  the  same  way,, 
the  agriculturist  must  not  content  himself  with  understanding  the  directions  given 
in  a  previous  section  of  this  work  for  the  choice  and  purchase  of  an  estate,  if  he 
would  derive  the  most  satisfactory  amount  of  profit,  both  from  the  soil  which  he 
has  to  work  on  and  from  the  labor  that  he  applies  to  it ;  if  such  be  his  aim,  it 
can  only  be  effected  by  means  of  a  judicious  selection  of  products,  based  upon  a 
thorough  knowledge  and  just  appreciation  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  the 
soil  in  W"hich  they  are  to  be  sown. 

The  seeds,  roots,  and  germs  furnished  by  nature  are  to  the  agriculturist  what 
the  designs  and  models  fashioned  by  art  are  to  the  manufacturer.  The  principal 
aim  and  study  of  the  farmer  ought  to  be  to  allot  to  each  of  these  seeds  the  soil 
which  is  most  proper  for  it,  and  to  bestow  on  that  soil  the  species  of  cultivation 
best  adapted  to  its  nature  ;  and  the  more  thoroughly  he  has  made  himself  ac- 
quainted with  the  properties  of  the  land  he  has  to  work  on,  the  better  will  he 
be  able  to  fulfil  his  task. 

But  a  just  appreciation  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  the  soil  can  only  be 
founded  upon  sound  notions  of  chemistry  and  of  physics.  Although  practical 
knowledge  acquired  from  long  experience  may  be  sufficient  to  enable  persons  to 
recognize  and  appreciate  certain  particular  kinds  of  land,  yet  it  can  never  be  ap- 
plied generally  to  all  varieties  ;  experience  with  respect  to  one  kind  would  only 
lead  to  error,  if  the  results  deduced  from  it  were  applied  indiscriminately  to  all 
others,  many  of  which  are  of  a  totally  diflTerent  nature,  although  perhaps  appa- 
rently the  same  to  one  whose  knowledge  is  merely  superficial,  and  not  based  oil 
science  and  on  a  careful  study  of  the  subject. 

We  shall  now,  therefore,  enter  into  a  minute  examination  of  the  different  kinds 
of  land,  taking  for  cur  guidance  those  discoveries  in  natural  philosophy  whfch 
have  latterly  thrown  so  much  light  upon  this  subject.  So  short  a  period  has 
elapsed  since  the  united  attention  of  agriculturists  and  naturalists  has  been 
seriously  directed  to  this  point,  that  there,  doubtless,  still  remains  a  wide  field 
for  useful  investigation,  and  a  vast  number  of  points  which  require  to  be  better 
understood  ;  but  the  knowledge  which  we  have  already  obtained  is  sufficient  to 
enable  us  to  form  more  just  ideas  on  many  subjects,  and  to  avoid  former  errors  ; 
and,  with  study  and  perseverance,  there  is  little  doubt  that  we  shall  speedily 
arrive  at  that  precision  and  exactness  which  is  so  desirable  to  be  attained.  In 
order  that  we  may  be  able  to  profit  by  the  experience  and  discoveries  of  learned 
men,  it  is  highly  necessary  that  we  should  enter  the  domains  of  natural  history, 
and  endeavor  to  acquire  clear  and  distinct  notions  of  all  the  constituent  parts  of 
the  soil,  and  of  their  properties  ;  and  as  these  considerations  will  lead  us  to  the 
theory  of  manures,  or  of  the  chemical  amelioration  of  the  soil,  they  will  prepare 
us  to  enter  on  that  subject  when  it  comes  before  us. 

The  surface  of  our  planet,  being  composed  of  that  loose  friable  matter  which 
we  call  the  soil,  or,  in  other  words,  the  earth,  is  an  assemblage  and  combination  , 
of  a  variety  of  heterogeneous  substances.  In  common  language,  we  call  this  ■ 
mixture  "  earth ;"  but  it  comprises  matters  which  would  not  be  classed  under  that 
denomination  by  any  chemist  or  natural  philosopher,  though  the  greater  part  of 
it  does  consist  of  earths  properly  so  called.  The  constituent  parts  of  this  mix- 
ture are  the  earths  silica,  alumina,  lime,  and  sometimes  magnesia  ;  portions  of 
iron  and  other  elementary  substances  are  also  found  in  it,  but  these  latter  are 
always  in  smaller  proportions  than  the  earths.  Besides  these  simple  substances, 
fertile  land  contains  an  exceedingly  compound  matter,  which,  on  account  of  the 
pulverulent  form,  has  been  called  mould,  vegetable  mould,  vegeto-animal  earth, 
&CC. ;  and  which  differs  so  materially  from  earths  properly  so  called,  that  it  ought 

(452) 


AGRONOMY.  133 


never  to  be  confounded  with  them.  In  order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  primitive  i 
earths,  we  have  thought  proper  to  designate  it  by  the  Latin  word"/mmws,"  ' 
which  we  shall  henceforth  use  exclusively  in  this  sense.  ^ 

The  following  is  one  of  the  principal  distinctions  between  earths  and  humus. 
That,  as  yet,  no  agent  has  been  discovered  by  means  of  which  the  former  can  be 
decomposed  ;  they  appear  to  be  immutable,  and  cannot  be  destroyed  or  essentially 
changed  by  any  known  power  in  organized  nature.  The  humus,  on  the  contrary,  \ 
is  very  susceptible  of  decomposition ;  it  is  a  matter  produced  solely  by  animal 
and  vegetable  life,  and  can  be  changed  and  destroyed  in  itself  and  by  itself,  and 
particularly  by  the  action  of  exterior  bodies.  It  is  reproduced  upon  the  surface 
of  our  soil  by  organic  action,  and  consequently  at  different  periods  ;  and  is  found 
even  in  the  same  place  to  vary  in  quantity  as  well  as  in  quality. 

We  will  commence  by  considermg  those  immutable  earths  which  form  the 
basis  of  the  soil,  and  which  are  on  this  account  termed  "  elementary  earths ;" 
we  will,  in  the  first  place,  consider  them  generally,  then  subsequently  hi  their 
pure  state,  and  lastly  under  all  those  combinations  and  mixtures  in  which  they 
most  frequently  occur.  From  the  position  in  which  these  earths  are  found,  being 
mingled  together  on  the  surface  of  our  globe,  it  appears  probable  that  they  did 
not  originally  exist  in  the  pulverized  state  in  which  we  now  find  them,  but  rather  I 
that  the  surface  once  consisted  of  a  solid  mass  of  enormous  mountains  and  valleys, 
somewhat  similar  to  those  Avhich,  by  the  aid  of  good  astronomical  instruments,  ' 
we  can  trace  on  the  surface  of  the  moon.  This  solid  mass  has  been  gradually 
loosened  and  worn  away  by  the  action  of  fire,  air,  and  water.  It  is  well  known 
that  lands  situated  above  the  level  of  the  sea  attract,  in  proportion  to  their  mag- 
nitude, a  larger  portion  of  that  aqueous  vapor  which  the  heated  atmosphere  con- 
tinually absorbs  from  the  surface  of  seas  and  lakes  ;  by  this  means  the  higher 
regions  become  permanent  reservoirs  of  water,  which  occasionally  breaks  the 
limits,  rushes  down  the  declivities  with  great  velocity,  irrigating  the  valleys  and 
plains  below,  and  carrying  v/ith  it  fragments  of  earth,  rock,  and  stones  of  all 
sizes,  which  are  deposited  at  the  bottom,  and  successive  layers  of  earth  are  thus 
formed.  There  cannot  indeed  be  a  shadow  of  doubt  tha't  the  strata  of  earth 
which  we  meet  with,  especially  in  countries  bordering  upon  mountains,  have 
been  produced  and  transported  there  by  inundations  and  torrents,  and  by  the  con- 
stant action  of  water  ;  we  do  not  mean  to  assert  that  they  have  been  formed  at 
once,  but  that  they  have  been  the  work  of  time,  and  of  the  depositions  of  repeat- 
ed inundations.  One  fact  which  appears  to  confirm  this  supposition  is,  the 
circumstance  of  these  strata  being  seldom  or  never  deposited  according  to  their 
specific  gravity,  but  usually  alternating  in  a  totally  opposite  manner. 

The  motive  which  principally  induces  us  to  dwell  on  this  subject  is  our  sense 
of  the  vast  importance  which  a  knowledge  of  it  may  be  to  an  agriculturist,  as 
enabling  him  to  discover  springs  and  subterraneous  water-courses,  to  conduct  the 
operations  of  draining,  mining,  and  digging,  in  search  of  valuable  earths  or  stones, 
as  marl,  lime,  coals,  &:c.,  of  all  which  substances  we  shall  presently  have  occa-  i 
sion  to  speak. 

On  plains  and  flat  surfaces  the  layers  of  earth  are  generally  found  to  be  depos- 
ited in  a  horizontal  or  slightly  inclined  position,  very  similar  those  strata  which 
we  see  formed  by  the  depositions  of  water.  Sometimes  these  layers  extend,  in 
one  uniform  thickness  and  similar  composition,  for  an  immense  distance,  so  that 
they  appear  to  have  been  gradually  deposited  over  the  whole  surface  one  after 
another  by  repeated  general  inundations.  At  other  times  they  form  a  kind  of 
bank,  thrown  up,  as  it  were,  at  different  periods  by  currents  of  water,  or  are 
forced  into  the  clefts  or  sinuosities  of  the  rocks  in  jets  or  veins;  they  are  also 
frequently  found  heaped  irregularly  together,  forming  a  promiscuous  mass  of 
earth  and  stones,  which  has  every  appearance  of  having  been  torn  up  and  thrown 
together  by  some  convulsion  of  Nature.* 

*  "  Rooks,"  said  Davy,  "  are  generally  divided  by  geologists  into  two  grand  divisions,  distinguished  by  the 
names  of  primary  and  secondary.  The  primary  rocks  are  composed  of  pm-e  crystaline  matter,  and  con- 
tain no  fragments  of  other  rocks.  The  secondary  rocks,  or  strata,  consist  only  partly  of  ci^staline  matter, 
contain  fragments  of  other  rocks  or  strata,  often  abound  in  the  remams  of  vegetables  and  marine  animals, 
and  sometimes  contain  the  remains  of  land  animals.  The  number  of  primary  rocks  which  are  commonly 
observed  in  nature  are  eight : — 1.  Granite,  composed  of  quartz,  felspar,  and  mica  ;  when  these  are  arranged 
in  regular  layers  in  the  rock  it  is  called  Gneiss.  2.  Micaceous  schist,  composed  of  quartz  and  mica.  .3.  Sienite, 
which  consists  of  hornblende  and  felspar.  4.  Serpentine,  composed  of  felspar  and  resplendent  hornblende. 
5.  Porphyry,  which  consists  of  felspar.  6.  Granular  marble,  or  pure  carbonate  of  Ume.  7.  Chlorite  schist, 
(453) 


134  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  mountains  of  the  second  order,  and  indeed  in  all  moun- 
tainous countries,  numerous  irregularities  are  perceptible.  The  layers  of  earth 
and  stone  are  sometimes  fourjj  in  a  horizontal  position,  but  as  they  approach  the 
bights  they  assume  a  different  direction,  being  now  oblique,  now  parallel  with 
the  surface  ;  and  sometimes  the  oblique  layers  are  intersected  by  vertical  ones. 
Even  in  this  formation,  however,  a  certain  degree  of  order  is  observable  ;  the 
perpendicular  and  oblique  layers  appear  to  have  been  thrown  up  by  some  subter- 
raneous power  or  volcanic  action,  and  torn  from  the  beds  on  which  they  formerly 
reposed. 

Beds  of  various  kinds  are  met  with  on  the  very  summits  of  mountains,  which, 
if  sought  for  on  the  plains,  would  be  found  situated  at  a  considerable  depth  be- 
low the  surface.  If  some  particular  kind  of  stone  or  earth  is  found  at  the  outlet 
of  an  opening,  or  on  the  summit  of  a  mountain,  we  may  expect  to  find  the  same 
kind  occupying  a  like  situation  among  the  layers  on  the  plains,  if  we  dig  deep 
enough  to  reach  it.  But,  as  the  profundity  at  which  these  beds  must  be  sought 
for  in  the  plains  is  in  proportion  to  the  elevation  of  the  mountain,  it  often  be- 
comes impossible  to  reach  them  at  all.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  it  is 
necessary  to  seek  for  coal,  lime,  or  marl,  on  the  mountains  and  elevations,  al- 
though there  is  not  a  doubt  that  the  plains  contain  an  equal  quantity  of  these 
substances.  Even  on  the  mountains,  these  layers  of  earth  usually  show  them-  J 
selves  on  that  side  towards  which  they  incline,  and  whence  the  greater  quantity  , 
of  water  oozes,  because  this  fluid  carries  away  with  it  the  superior  layers  of  loose 
soil. 

I  imagine  that  most  of  my  readers  are  conversant  with  the  elements  of  Chem- 
istry ;  but  we  must,  nevertheless,  enter  with  some  degree  of  precision  into  that   \ 
portion  of  the  science  which  treats  of  earths,  and  which  is  calculated  to  enable 
us  to  form  a  just  appreciation  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  the  soil  with  refer- 
ence to  Agriculture  in  general.     In  fact,  although  many  writers  have  latterly 
discussed  this  subject  in  a  manner  likely  to  prove  conducive  to  the  end  in  view, 
yet  many  portions  of  it  still  remain  for  deeper  research,  and  require  to  be  treated 
in  a  manner  better  adapted  to  benefit  agricultural  pursuits  than  they  have  yet  ' 
been  ;  especially  as  the  unexplored   portions,  left  in  different  places,  appear  to 
have  given  rise  to  numerous  and  very  serious  errors  and  misunderstandings.     A 
knowledge  of  this  department  of  Science  is  indispensable  to  an  enlightened  agri- 
culturist, for  such  a  knowledge  can  alone  point  out  to  him  thc^  causes  of  the  dif- 
ferent phenomena  which  occur  in  the  course  of  his  operations,  and  afford  him  a 
satisfactory  explanation  of  various  results  which  must  otherwise  appear  contra- 
dictory.   A  perfect  acquaintance  witb  the  earths  and  their  properties  also  teaches 
the  agriculturist  how  to  derive  the  greatest  possible  advantage  from  those  pov/- 
ers  which  Nature  has  placed  at  his  disposal  in  the  land  which  he  possesses,  and   ' 
where  it  will  be  profitable  to  establish  lime-kilns,  glass-houses,  manufactories  of  i 
tiles,  potteries,  &c.     Lastly,  it  is  this  knowledge  only  which  can  afibrd  a  sure 
guidance,  if  he  would  profit  by  the  extensive  means  of  improving  and  enriching   ' 
his  land,  afforded  him  by  the  power  of  extracting  various  kinds  of  earths  from 
the  substrata  of  the  earth,  and  spreading  them  over  the  surface.     It  is  for  these^ 
reasons  that  I  have  considered  it  absolutely  necessary  to  introduce  this  portion  of 
Chemistry  here. 

Until  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  chemists  admitted  the  existence  of  only 
one  elementary  earth  which  they  supposed  to  be  the  principal  constituent  portion 
of  our  globe,  mdestructible  in  the  highest  degree,  and  entering  more  or  less  into 
the  composition  of  all  solid  bodies      It  was  not  until  that  time  that  the  diflerence 

a  green  or  grey  substance  somewhat  analogous  to  mica  and  felspar.  8.  Quartoze  rock,  composed  of  quartz. 
The  secondary  rocks  are  more  numerous  than  the  primary  ;  but  twelve  varieties  include  all  that  are  usually 
foundin  these  islands:— 1.  Grauwacke.  which  consists  of  fragments  of  quartz  or  chlorite  schist,  imbedded 
in  a  cement  piincipally  composed  of  felspar.  2.  Silicious  saiidstovi,  which  is  composed  of  tine  quartz,  or 
sand  united  by  a  silicious  cement.  3.  Limestone,  or  carbonate  of  lime,  more  compact  in  its  texture  than  in 
the  granular  marble,  and  often  abounding  in  marine  exuvia.  4.  Aluminous  si  hist,  or  shale,  consisting  of  the 
decomposed  materials  of  difl'erent  rocks,  cemented  by  a  small  quantity  of  feri-uginous  or  silicious  matter, 
and  often  containing  the  impressions  of  vegetables.  5.  Cilcareous  sa-rtdsJowp.  which  is  calcareous  sand 
cemented  by  calcareous  matter.  6.  Ironstone,  formed  of  nearly  the  same  materials  as  aluminous  schist  or 
schale,  but  containing  a  much  larger  quantity  of  oxide  of  iron.  7.  Basalt  or  wMnstone.  which  consists  of 
felspar  and  hornblende.     8.  BiJ-i/minous  or  common  coal.     9.  Gypsum,  or  sulphate  of  lime.     10.  Rocksalt. 

11.  CAatt,  which  usually  abounds  in  remains  of  marine  animals,  and   contains  horizontal  layers  of  flints. 

12.  Plum-puddinsr  stone,  consisting  of  pebbles  cemented  by  ferruginous  or  silicious  cement." 

iElem.Agri.Chem.  p.  192. 

(454) 


between  alumina  and  silica  began  to  be  perceived.  Lvjne  was  not  included  among 
the  number  of  earths,  but  regarded  as  a  compound  body.  But,  as  chemists  ex- 
tended their  researches  farther  into  the  mineral  kingdom,  they  began  to  appre- 
ciate the  principal  characteristics  which  serve  to  distinguish  not  only  the  ele- 
montary  earths  already  knoAvn,  but  also  several  new  substances  w:  ich  Avere  in- 
cluded in  the  class  of  bodies  which  do  not  admit  of  decomposition. 

The  previously  received  opinion,  that  earth  was  a  tasteless  and  insipid  body, 
and  insoluble  in  water,  was  abandoned  :  the  theory  of  one  single  elementary  earth 
was  exploded,  and  each  separate  kind  regarded  as  a  distinct  element. 

The  word  "  earth,"  as  denoting  a  body,  or  any  determinate  kind  of  matter, 
ought,  perhaps,  to  be  altogether  banished   from  the  science,  or  applied  to  those 
'i   only  which  are  insipid  and  insoluble  in  water  ;  it  is  not  possible  to  give  any  sat- 
\'  isfactory  definition  of  that  substance  which  chemists  call  "  earth."  \ 

Silica  and  alumina  are  the  most  abundant  of  all  the  earths,  and,  I  may  also 
add,  whose  properties  are  the  best  defined.     Next  to  them  lime  is  most  abundant, 
and  exhibits  the  most  marked  characteristics  ;  but  it  resembles  the  alkalies  more 
than  either  of  the  former,  which  possess  no  alkaline  nature.     Magnesia,  which    < 
was  so  long  confounded  with  the  other  earths,  has  at  length  been  recognized  as    | 
a  distinct  substance.    It  now  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the  insoluble  earths    i 
and  the  alkalies,  and  the  connection  thus  formed  may,  for  the  present,  justify  the   I 
association  of  all  the  natural  crude  earths  in  one  class.     The  decomposition  of 
certain  mineral  products  and   stony  bodies  has  successively  brought  to  light  a 
number  of  new  simple  substances  which  may  all  be  ranged  in  the  cl^ss  of  earths  : 
some  of  these  are  nearly  allied  to  silica  and  alumina,  and  others  to  the  alkalies. 
A  few  years  ago  there  was  a  rage  for  the  discovery  of  elementary  bodies,  and, 
consequently,  many  chemical  products  which  have  since  been  discovered  to  be 
compounds  were  then  set  down  as  simple  elements.     Most  chemists  of  the  pres- 
ent day  reckon  nine  sorts  of  elementary  earths,  and  of  this  number  five  are  wholly 
uninteresting  to  us,  because  they  are  seldom  or  never  found  in  the  form  of  earths 
on  the  surface  of  our  soil. 

Since,  notwithstanding  all  the  endeavors  which  have  been  made,  no  one  has 
yet  succeeded  in  decomposing  the  pure  earths  before  mentioned,  they  must  be  / 
considered  as  simple  or  elementary  bodies.     Nevertheless,  various  phenomena 
which  have  been  minutely  observed  render  it  no  longer  doubtful   that  these  are 
compound  substances,  since   they  are  formed  in  organized  bodies.     Schrader,  of 
Berlin,  has  proved  that  gramineous  cereales  which  have  been  carefully  prevented 
from  coming  in  contact  with   lime,  contained   more  lime  and  silica  than  the  seed 
from  which  they  grew.     De  Saussure   has  also  found  a  quantity  of  lime  in  the 
ashes  of  various  kinds  of  wood  which  had  grown  upon  a  soil  absolutely  free  from 
(|   that  substance,  and  the  same  observation  has  been  also  made  of  Einhoff.     Vau- 
\   quelin  has  shown  that    the  excrements  and  eggs  of  chickens  contain  a  much    | 
greater  quantity  of  lime  than  the  food  given  to  these  birds.     Now  since,  accord-   \ 
ing  to  the  atomic  theory,  all  effects  in  nature  consist  in  the  motion  and  reciprocal 
action  of  substances  already  existing,  it  is  evident  that  no  body  can  be  produced   ' 
by  natural  processes,  unless  the  elements  are  already  in  existence.     A  substance 
cannot,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  simple  when  the  time  of  the  formation  can  be 
fixed  ;  it  must,  on  the  contrary,  be  regarded  as  a  compound.* 

The  earths  are  indestructible  by  fire,  and  they  may  be  exposed  to  the  most  vio- 
lent heat  without  volatilizing  :  they  are  all  infusible  when  exposed  separately  to 
the  action  of  heat ;  neither  can  they  be  fused  in  a  fire  fed  with  oxygen  gas  :  but 
it  is  a  very  remarkable  fact  that  they  lose  this  character  when  several  of  them 
are  mixed  together.  Silica,  lime  and  alumina  are  infusible  when  exposed  sepa- 
rately to  any  degree  of  heat,  but  are  easily  melted  when  put  together  in  a  mass. 
According  to  the  greater  number  of  experiments,  the  earths  have  no  affinity  for 

*  The  discoveries  of  Davy  and  others  have  shown  that  the  earths,  such  as  lime  and  magnesia,  are  really 
compound  bodies,  composed  of  metals  and  oxygen.  The  correctness  of  the  experiments  to  vehich  M.  Tha- 
er  alludes,  with  regard  to  the  supposed  power  of  certain  plants  and  animals  to  form  the  earths  from  other 
substances,  we  cannot  but  regard  as  exceedingly  doubtful. 

These  earths  have  been  found  by  modem  chemists  to  be  compounds  of  peculiar  metals  with  oxygen  gas, 
or  vital  air,  in  the  following  proportions  : 

Lime    is  composed  of  calcium,        71-42   parts;  oxygen,  71-42  parts. 
Alumina  "  aluminum,    56-895    "  "        43-105     " 

Silica  "  silicon,  49-888    "  "        50-112    " 

"  magnesium,  40-  "  "        60-  " 


oxygen,  and,  for  this  reason,  they  are  incombustible.  Nevertheless,  Humboldt 
has  thought  that  several  of  them,  and  particularly  alumina,  have  some  affinity 
for  oxygen,  even  when  in  a  state  of  perfect  purity.  Others,  again,  have  denied 
the  truth  of  this  assertion,  believing  that  the  affinity  in  question  has  no  existence 
unless  the  earth  contains  a  metallic  oxide  or  some  combustible  matter.  This 
question,  however,  is  not  so  important  with  regard  to  the  art  of  fertilizing  the 
soil  as  many  persons  may  imagine,  because  there  is  no  soil  wholly  free  from  me- 
tallic oxides  and  combustible  matter. 

The  color  of  all  the  earths  is  a  pure  white ;  the  hue  which  they  exhibit  in 
their  natural  state  arises  from  the  admixture  of  other  substances,  and  chiefly  of 
oxide  of  iron  in  various  modifications  ;  if  that  substance  did  not  exist,  the  surface 
of  our  globe  would  appear  perfectly  white. 

The  earths  differ  from  one  another  in  their  relations  to  water.  It  has  already 
been  observed  that  lime  and  some  other  earths  are  slightly  soluble  in  water  ;  lime 
requires  680  times  its  weight  of  water  to  dissolve  it  completel^^  Alumina  and 
silica  are  absolutely  insoluble  ;  and  as  to  magnesia,  water  dissolves  an  extremely 
small  portion  of  it,  not  more  than  the  ten-thousandth  part.  All  earths,  however, 
contract  a  mechanical  union  with  water,  and  retain  a  greater  or  less  portion  of  it 
after  admixture.  We  shall  designate  this  property  by  the  term  "  cohesive  attrac- 
tion ;"  it  not  cnly  varies  in  the  different  earths,  but  also  in  the  mixtures  formed 
with  them :  so  that,  according  to  general  experience,  the  quantity  of  water  which 
these  bodies  retain  when  mixed  is  not  equal  to  the  total  amount  which  would 
have  been  retained  by  them  all,  if  the  quantity  of  it  present  in  the  mixture  had 
remained  separate.  Thus,  alumina  and  silica  retain  a  much  greater  quantity  of 
water  when  mixed  together  than  they  would  have  absorbed  in  a  separate  state. 
It  is  very  important  to  determine  the  degree  of  cohesive  attraction  existing  be- 
tween water  and  the  various  kinds  of  earthy  mixtures.  In  order  to  accomplish 
this,  a  portion  of  the  earth  to  be  examined  must  be  dried,  until  its  weight  is  no 
farther  decreased,  even  by  exposure  to  a  temperature  equal  to  that  of  boiling 
water.  A  weighed  quantity  of  it  should  then  be  carefully  mixed  with  water, 
and  the  mixture  poured  upon  a  horse-hair  sieve,  the  weight  of  which  has  been 
previously  ascertained  ;  the  superabundant  water  must  then  be  allowed  to  drop 
or  drain  out,  and,  when  the  water  is  no  longer  emitted,  the  earth  should  be 
weighed  again,  together  with  the  sieve  :  the  weight  of  the  sieve,  and  that  of  the 
earth  before  it  was  mixed  with  water,  must  then  be  deducted  from  the  amount 
of  the  present  weight,  and  the  result  will  show  the  quantity  of  fluid  which  the 
earth  has  absorbed. 

As  there  are  many  soils  which  absorb  water  in  larger  quantities  without  per- 
mitting it  to  drain  away,  and,  nevertheless,  allow  it  to  evaporate  Avilh  greater  or 
less  facility  when  they  are  heated,  it  is  likewise  necessary  to  pay  attention  to  this 
tendency.  In  order  to  determine  the  degree  of  cohesive  attraction  of  earth  for 
water  in  this  respect,  various  kinds  of  earth  must  be  exposed  to  the  same  degree 
of  heat,  and  observations  made  of  the  time  which  each  of  them  takes  in  becom- 
ing perfectly  dry. 

The  earths,  and  especially  alumina,  never  entirely  part  with  water,  but  retain 
a  portion  of  it  even  when  they  appear  to  be  perfectly  dry  ;  nor  can  they  ever  be 
altogether  deprived  of  it,  except  by  exposure  to  a  very  high  degree  of  heat,  such 
as  that  of  incandescence  or  becoming  white.  In  this  operation,  also,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  take  for  a  standard  a  certain  degree  of  temperature  at  which  the  drying 
is  carried  on. 

It  is  true  that  the  earths  cannot  be  made  to  combine  with  pure  nitrogen,  car- 
bon, or  hydrogen  ;  there  are,  however,  several  reasons  for  believing  that  they  en- 
ter into  combination  with  these  substances  when  the  latter  have  previously  been 
united  among  themselves,  and  that  they  absorb  and  incorporate  jointly  the  organic 
i  matter  produced  by  this  combination,  such  as  the  gases  and  other  results  of  pu- 
trefaction. Various  phenomena  of  vegetation  appear  to  demonstrate  this  suppo- 
sition.    We  shall  have  occasion,  hereafter,  to  revert  to  this  subject. 

The  alkaline  earths  combine  with  sulphur,  both  when  these  substances  are 
fused  together  and  when  they  are  boiled  in  water  ;  these  combinations  are,  in 
general,  very  similar  to  those  formed  by  the  union  of  sulphur  with  the  alkalies. 
They  formerly  received  the  name  of  "  livers,"  because  they  bear  a  certain  resem- 
blance to  that  viscus,  (they  are  the  sulpliurets  of  modern  chemists.)     It  is  proba- 

(456) 


SILICA. 


137 


ble  that  these  earths  form  similar  combinations  with  carbon  strongly  hydrogen- 
ated,  and  particularly  with  that  which  contains  a  small  portion  of  azote — that  is 
to  say,  with  the  result  of  putrefaction  ;  hut  that  these  combinations  are  speedily 
decomposed  at  a  higher  temperature. 

All  the  simple  earths,  except  silica,  have  a  great  affinity  for  acids,,  and  are  so- 
luble in  them.  The  acid  becomes  saturated  and  neutralized — that  is  to  say,  it 
loses  its  acid  properties  ;  but  a  similar  effect  is  produced  upon  the  alkaline  earths, 
as  they  lose  their  peculiar  action  upon  plantr,  and  organic  matter  when  combined 
with  acids.  The  products  of  these  combinations  are  earthy  neutral  salts,  either 
mjore  or  less  soluble,  or  perfectly  insoluble  in  water.  It  is  chiefly  from  their  ac- 
tion when  brought  into  contact  with  acids,  viz.  the  formation  of  earthy  salts  and 
the  neutralization  of  the  acids,  that  the  earths  are  distinguished  from  each  other. 

But  the  elementary  earths  have  also  an  electric  afiinity  or  chemical  attraction 
for  each  other.  Many  earthy  matters  and  minerals  which  we  meet  with  in  Na- 
ture are  not  merely  mixtures,  but  absolute  combinations  of  earths,  in  the  forma- 
tion of  which  the  metallic  oxides  seem  to  be  concerned.  Earths  may  be  made  to 
combine  chemically  by  being  melted  together ;  but  it  also  appears  that  this  union 
may  be  brought  about  in  other  ways.  According  to  the  experiments  of  Guy  ton 
and  Godelin,  some  earths — as,  for  example,  lime  and  silica,  and  alumina  and  sil- 
ica— precipitate  one  another  from  their  solutions,  not  by  the  one  combining  with 
the  acid  or  alkali  in  which  the  other  is  dissolved,  and  so  separating  them,  but  by 
entering  into  combination  with  the  other  earth  itself.  This  intimate  union  of  the 
earths  will  be  of  very  great  scientific  importance  when  the  phenomena  of  the  soil 
shall  have  been  more  examined  and  is  better  understood. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  treat  of  those  simple  insoluble  substances  called 
"silica"  and  "alumina,"  in  their  state  of  chemical  purity,  and  point  out  their 
leading  properties,  and  then  go  on  to  examine  all  the  various  combinations  in 
which  they  present  themselves  to  us  in  nature.  Having  discussed  these  matters, 
and  having  entered  into  a  more  complete  examination  of  the  vegetable  soil,  we 
shall  consider  the  alkaline  earths  in  their  pure  state,  and,  subsequently,  the  com- 
pounds which  result  from  the  union  of  other  earths  with  them.  All  these  sub- 
jects will  be  considered  with  reference  to  the  use  which  may  be  made  of  them 
in  explaining  and  teaching  the  theory  of  the  soil,  of  manures,  and  of  vegetation ; 
which  theory  ought  to  be  altogether  based  upon  the  physico-chemical  doctrine  in 
question. 


This  earth  derives  its  name  from  "  silex,"  which,  as  well  as  "  quartz,"  is  al- 
most entirely  composed  of  it ;  and,  in  consequence,  it  was  formerly  called  ^^quartz- 
earth  ;"  and  from  the  circumstance  of  forming  glass  when  combined  with  alkalies, 
'^vitreous-earth  ;''''  and  lastly,  since  in  the  opinion  of  ancient  chemists  it  was  the 
primitive  earth,  and  as  it  actually  does  exhibit  in  an  eminent  degree  all  the  pro- 
perties attributed  to  earths  in  general,  it  Avas  called,  "  elementary  earth." 

Silica  occurs  ia  nature  more  frequently  and  abundantly  than  any  of  the  other 
earths.  All  hard  stones  which  give  out  sparks  when  struck  by  steel :  the  enor- 
mous mountain  masses  of  granite,  porphyry,  gneiss,  &c.,  together  with  the  vast 
oceans  of  sand  in  deserts  and  in  plains,  are  mainly  composed  of  silica. 

Generally  speaking,  there  are  very  few,  if  any,  stones  in  nature  which  do  not 
contain  more  or  less  of  this  substance,  and  there  is  scarcely  a  single  plant  that 
does  not  contain  and  yield  it  after  combustion  in  the  form  of  ashes.  Grasses,  in 
particular,  contain  large  quantities  of  it ;  and  it  is  sometimes  found  crystallized 
in  the  epidermis.  But,  like  the  other  earths,  it  is  rarely  found  in  a  state  of  ab- 
solute purity  ;  and  quartz  itself,  of  which  it  forms  the  greatest  part,  also  contains 
an  admixture  of  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron. 

It  is  only,  in  fact,  by  means  of  artificial  processes  that  silica  can  be  exliibited 
pure  and  free  from  all  other  mineral  substances.  It  then  appears  in  the  form  of 
a  very  fine  white  impalpable  powder,  adhering  a  little  to  the  fingers,  and  t-xhib- 
iting  a  kind  of  roughness  when  pressed  or  rubbed.  It  is  totally  devoid  of  taste 
and  smell.  -  It  undergoes  no  change  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  fire,  and 
neither  fuses  nor  volatilizes,  whatever  degree  of  heat  may  be  applied. 

Silica  has  no  afiinity  for  water ;  indeed,  without  the  aid  of  an  intermediate 
suljstance,  it  is  impossible  to  dissolve  the  smallest  portion  of  it  in  that  fluid. 

(457) 


138  THAER  S   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


When  mixed  wilh  water  it  speedily  falls  to  the  bottom,  without  leaving  behind 
the  least  portion  in  solution.  There  are,  nevertheless,  certain  natural  springs 
which  contam  silica  in  solution,  but  in  which  the  minutest  researches  of  Berg-  , 
mann  and  Klaproth  failed  to  discover  the  slightest  trace  of  any  substance  capable  ' 
of  facilitatmg  this  conbination  ;  and  we  cannot,  therefore,  explain  the  manner  by 
which  Nature  has  brought  it  about.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  phenomena 
is  that  of  Geiser,  in  Iceland:  a  very  hot  spring  which  deposits  a  border  of  silica 
around  its  basm,  and  forms  crystals,  stalactites,  and  incrustations. 

The  mechanical  cohesion  between  silica  and  water  is  also  very  trifling.  When 
silica  is  moistened,  it  does  not  imbibe  the  water  with  avidity  ;  neiiher  does  it 
form  a  tenacious,  ductile,  and  unctuous  paste  with  that  fluid:  at  the  utmost  it 
never  retams  more  than  half  its  weight  of  water,  and  it  also  allows  that  fluid 
to  evaporate  very  quickly. 

The  following  is  one  of  the  characteristics  by  which  silica  is  chiefly  distin- 
guished from  most  other  bodies  ;  that  it  is  not  operated  upon  or  dissolved  by  any 
acid,  excepting  the  fluoric.  Silica  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  may  be  boiled  with 
sulphuric,  nitric,  or  muriatic  acid,  without  the  smallest  portion  of  it  being  taken 
up.  It  is  only  when  in  a  state  of  fusion  that  borax  and  phosphoric  acid  combine 
with  it.  Fluoric  acid  is  the  only  one  that  dissolves  it,  forming  with  it  a  gaseous 
compound,  and  thus  possessing  the  power  of  carrying  the  fixed  substance  with  it 
when  evaporated. 

The  fixed  alkalies,  on  the  contrary,  whether  in  their  caustic  state  or  combined 
with  carbonic  acid,  easily  unite  with  silica,  and  quickly  dissolve  it.     If  potassa 
or  soda  be  fused  in  contact  with  silica,  it  will  cause  the  silica  to  fuse  and  enter 
into  combination  with  it.     The  product  resulting  from  this  combination  varies  in  , 
\    its  nature  according  to  the  proportions  of  the  component  substances  employed, 
when  silica  is  the  predominating  ingredient,  the  resulting  compound  is  the  useful 
substance  of  glass.     The  greater  the  quantity  of  silica,  the  more  capable  is  the 
glass  of  resisting  the  action  of  air  and  acids.     If,  on   the  contrary,  too  great  a 
quantity  of  alkali  has  been  used,  the  glass  soon  becomes  dulled  by  exposure  to 
i  the  atmosphere,  and  is  likewise  much  more  susceptible  of  the  action  of  con- 
'  centrated  acids.     During  the  fusion,  metallic  oxides  are  absorbed  by  the  glass, 
to  which  thev  impart  various  colors.     The  green  hue  so  frequently  seen  is  pro- 
duced by  oxide  of  iron  being  combined  with  the  silica.     When  this  glass  is  sub- 
sequently de-oxidized  by  the  act  of  the  solar  rays,  it  loses  the  transparency,  and  . 
becomes  tinted  with  the  various  hues  of  the  rainbow. 

When  the  alkali  predominates,  and  the  mixture  is  composed  of  four  parts  of 
alkali  and  one  of  silica,  the  product  is  a  vitreous  transparent  mass,  which  quickly 
absorbs  moisture  from  the  air,  and  resolves  into  a  thick  liquid.  This  substance 
is  perfectly  soluble  in  water,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  silicious  liquor,  or 
solution  of  flints. 

We  thus  obtam  a  solution  of  silica,  but  only  through  the  medium  of  its  com- 
bmation  with  an  alkali.  If  the  alkali  be  neutralized  by  an  acid,  the  silica  will 
be  precipitated  from  the  solution,  and  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  It  is  only 
when  the  silicious  solution  contains  too  great  a  proporion  of  Avater,  or  when  an 
excess  of  acid  has  been  added  to  it,  that  the  precipitation  does  not  take  place 
until  the  liquid  has  been  evaporated.  This  phenomenon  has  received  several 
very  different  explanations  ;  the  probable  cause  is  the  excessive  weakening  of  the 
attraction  of  cohesion  between  the  particles  of  the  silica.  A  more  systematic 
and  certain  method  of  obtaming  pure  silica  is,  therefore,  to  evaporate  the  silicious 
solution  diluted  and  saturated  with  an  excess  of  acid,  then  again  to  dilute  the 
residue  with  water,  and  wash  the  precipitate  several  times. 

Among  the  bodies  in  whose  composition  silica  forms  the  principal  ingredient, 
and  which  exhibit  its  characters  in  the  hightt  Jegree,  we  shall  notice  the  fol- 
lowing, as  those  of  which  it  may  be  useful  to  the  a^rioiiAaiisi  .o  possess  some 
knowledge. 

1.  All  precious  stones,  with  the  exception  of  the  diamond :  viz.,  the  ruhy,  sap- 
phire, emerald,  chrysolite,  topaz,  hyacinth, amethyst,  chalcedony,  rnrnelian,  agate, 
and  garnet. 

2.  Fire-flints  and  petro-silex.  The  first  of  these  are  found  Ir.  neaps  or  all 
plains,  especially  in  countries  which  have  a  sandy  soil,  and  also  m  chaiit  uills, 
embedded  in  the  purest  chalk.     Geologists  have  long  betn  endeavorli  g  to  dis- 

(458) 


SILICA. 


139 


cover  how  the  flints  came  to  be  lodged  or  produced  in  such  a  situation.  There 
is  some  plausibility  in  the  supposition  that  the  lime  has  been  converted  into  silica, 
for  the  transition  of  lime  into  a  state  of  flint  is  often  observed  ;  and  organic  re- 
mains are  frequently  found  in  the  middle  of  the  flint,  thus  proving  its  recent 
formation.  The  utility  of  this  kind  of  flint  is  as  notorious  as  it  is  extensive. 
The  fabrication  into  gun-flints  is  of  great  importance.  Formerly,  this  art  was 
only  known  and  practiced  in  England,  Spain  and  France  ;  it  is  now  understood 
and  used  in  the  Austrian  States.  We  may  also  observe  that  the  ideas  formerly 
entertained  with  relation  to  this  kind  of  manufacture  were  rather  singular  ;  it 
was  thought  that  the  stones  were  found  in  a  rough  state  upon  the  mountains,  and 
cut  and  sharpened  by  machinery.  At  present,  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  are 
manufactured  by  steel  tools  worked  by  the  hands  of  skillful  workmen.  All  fire- 
flints,  however,  are  not  equally  well  adapted  for  this  purpose  :  some  are  too  soft  ; 
while  others,  when  struck  by  the  hammer,  fall  into  irregular  fragments.  Fred- 
eric William  the  First,  king  of  Prussia,  sent  an  armorer  to  St.  Ange,  to  work 
there,  and  learn  the  art  of  making  gun-flints.  This  man  learned  the  art,  and  re- 
turning after  a  lime,  made  flints  with  the  stone  found  in  Prussia  ;  but  they  were 
so  brittle  that  they  flew  to  pieces  on  the  second  firing. 

Besides  this  use  of  them,  fire-filints  are  also  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
enamel,  and  of  stone-wares  ;  likewise  for  polishing  glass,  making  burnishers  for 
book-binders  and  gilders,  and  in  the  composition  of  glass,  especially  of  that  beau- 
tiful substance  called  English  flint-glass. 

Petro-silex,  or  the  horn-stone  of  the  Germans,  bears  some  resemblance  to  the 
preceding,  but  it  has  the  dull  appearance  of  horn  and  a  scaly  fracture. 

3.  Felspar  has  a  lamellated  texture,  and  is  frequently  flesh-colored  ;  it  breaks 
into  rhomboidal  fragments.  It  is  found,  in  beds  and  veins,  in  several  other  kind.s 
of  stones.* 

4.  Quartz  is  composed  of  crystalline  and  vitreous  particles.  It  breaks  into  an- 
gular fragments.  It  is  often  found  of  a  white  hue  and  transparent,  sometimes  in 
large  masses  and  sometimes  in  crystals.  When  these  latter  are  large,  transpa- 
rent, and  of  a  columnar  shape,  it  is  called  rock-crystal. 

5.  Granite,  gneiss  and  -porfhyry  are  composite  minerals,  possessed  of  great 
hardness,  and  are  formed  of  difl'erent  stones.  They  constitute  the  basis  of  primi- 
tive rocks,  and  are  also  met  with  in  large  masses  in  plains.  Granite  is  composed 
of  quartz,  felspar,  and  another  stone  of  an  argillaceous  nature,  called  "wiica."t 
The  grain,  as  well  as  color,  varies  in  diflTerent  ways.  Gneiss  closely  resembles 
granite  ;  it  is  composed  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica ;  the  parts  are  more  inti- 
mately united  than  those  of  granite,  and  it  generally  presents  a  schistose  and 
lamellated  texture.  Porphyry  consists  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  hardened  clay  or 
jasper,  and  sometimes  also  of  a  portion  of  mica. 

6.  8and  is  probably  formed,  for  the  most  part,  of  quartz,  as  it  does  not  diflfer 
essentially  from  that  mineral  in  its  chemical  composition.  Immense  floods  of 
water,  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  and,  probably,  also  that  of  fire  and  other 
agents,  have  reduced  the  quartz  to  fragments,  which  have  subsequently  acquired 
a  rounded  form  by  rubbing  against  each  other,  in  consequence  of  the  motion  com- 
municated 10  them  by  the  air  and  water. 

Sand  is  divided  into  three  principal  varieties,  distinguished  from  each  other  by 
the  size  and  transparency  of  the  grains. 

[a)  River  sand  is  composed  of  fine,  clear,  colorless  grains  ;  it  is  generally  de- 
posited by  springs  and  rivers. 

{b)  Pearl  sand  is  composed  of  large,  round,  semi-transparent  grains.  It  is 
very  frequently  found  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  likewise  washed 
up  and  deposited  by  running  water. 

(c)  Moving  sand.  The  grains  of  this  kind  are  of  various  sizes.  It  is  mixed 
with  various  heterogeneous  matters,  and  generally  carries  alumina,  and,  some- 


*  Common  felspar  is  composed  of— 

Parts. 

Silica 62-82 

Alumina 17-02 

Lime 3-00 

Oxide  of  iron 100 

Potash    ....1300 

Loss 3-50 

,       ,  =100 

(459) 


t  Common  raica  is  composed  of — 

Parts. 

Silica 47-00 

Alumina 20-00 

Oxide  of  iron 15-55 

Oxide  of  manganese 1-70 


Potash 
Loss 


.14-55 
.  1-20 
=  100 


This  simple  earth  is  mostly  contained  in  the  compound  mass,  called  potier^s 


140  THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

times,  also  lime,  along  with  it.  It  is  easily  moved  by  the  wind,  and  hence  de^ 
rives  its  name.  It  is  frequently  heaped  up  in  valleys  by  currents  of  air  and  Ava 
ter,  or  collected  in  large  quantities  at  the  base  of  some  obstacle.  These  heaps, 
if  not  united  at  the  surface  by  the  roots  of  plants  growing  on  them,  or  by  a  cer 

/  tain  portion  of  vegetable  mould,  are  often  carried  away  by  the  wind,  and  cause 
great  damage  to  fertile  meadows  and  plains  on  to  which  they  are  drifted.  / 

Below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  sand  is  found  in  veins,  or  elongated  strata,   / 
belAveen  other  layers  of  earth.     It  is  to  these  beds  of  sand  that  we  are  indebted 
for  our  purest  springs.     Water,  as  it  filters  through  them,  deposits  the  heteroge- 
neous matters  which  it  contains,  and  increases  in  clearness  during  the  whole  of 
its  course. 

Although  the  grains  of  sand  are,  for  the  most  part,  composed  of  silica,  they  al- 
ways contain  small  portions  of  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron.  Sand  has  as  little  at- 
traction for  Avater  as  pure  silica  ;  and  tjience,  as  well  as  from  the  circumstance 
of  its  not  having  the  attraction  of  cohesion  for  humus,  arises  the  sterility  that  at- 
tends soil  composed  in  too  large  proportions  of  that  earth.  When  the  sand  is 
united  into  hard  masses  by  adhesive  matter,  such  as  clay  or  lime,  or  by  mechan- 
ical compression,  it  is  called  sand-stone.  There  are  various  kinds  of  this  sub- 
stance, all  differing  from  one  another  in  fineness  and  in  density.  They  are  taken 
out  of  the  ground  in  a  soft  state,  and  cut  for  building  purposes,  to  make  door-  'i 
jambs  and  window-sills  ;  also,  mill-stones,  and  wheels  for  grmding  polishing-  ^ 

*l  tools,  are  made  from  them.     To  this  class  also  belong  filtering-stones,  which  al-  <, 
low  water  to  pass  through  them  like  a  sponge,  and  are,  therefore,  used  to  purify  | 

']  muddy  water.     This  sand-stone  was  formerly  scarce;  but  abundant  quantities  of  ( 

'!  it  are  now  found  in  Saxony  and  in  other  countries.  i 


','  earth  or  day.  Hence  the  ancient  name  of  argillaceous  earth  is  derived;  but,  as 
\  it  is  one  of  the  most  essential  constituents  of  a  salt  known  by  the  name  o{  alum, 
'•  modern  chemists  have  thought  proper  to  give  it  the  appellation  by  which  it  is  at 
present  distinguished.  It  is  composed  of  a  metallic  basis,  called  aluminum, 
united  with  oxygen.  It  must  not  be  confounded  with  clay,  which  is  a  very  com- 
pound body :  clay,  of  which  we  shall  presently  have  to  speak,  is  a  mixture,  in 
various  proportions,  of  alumina  with  silica  and  oxide  of  iron. 

Alumina  is  the  earth  which,  next  to  silica,  is  found  most  frequently,  and  in  the 
greatest  abundance,  in  our  soils.  Clay,  into  the  composition  of  Avhich  alumina 
always  enters,  exists,  ia  a  greater  or  less  degree,  in  every  soil,  and  is  also  found 
\  in  extensive  strata  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Moreover,  alumina  forms  a 
constituent  part  of  most  stones,  and  in  some  it  is  the  principal  ingredient.  Or- 
ganic substances  contain  a  very  small  portion  of  it ;  and  a  trifling  quantity  is 
found  in  the  ashes  of  most  vegetable  substances. 

This  earth  is  of  great  importance  to  the  agriculturist  As  a  constituent  part  '' 
of  clay,  it  always  enters  into  the  composition  of  vegetable  mould.  A  perfect  ac-  \ 
quaintance  with  it  is  also  essential  to  the  agriculturist,  in  order  to  enable  him 
duly  to  appreciate  the  influence  of  clay  upon  his  fields,  and  the  improvement  or 
deterioration  of  soil  which  it  occasions.  Clay,  likewise,  deserves  attention  on 
account  of  its  utility  in  the  manufacture  of  tiles  and  pottery.  All  these  consider- 
ations should  induce  the  agriculturist  attentively  to  study,  first,  the  properties  of 
pure  alumina  ;  and,  secondly,  those  of  clay. 

Although  the  utility  of  clay,  and  its  employment  in  the  fabrication  of  tiles, 
bricks,  and  earthenware,  have  caused  it  to  be  known  from  the  very  earliest  pe- 
riods, it  was  not,  until  very  recently,  regarded  as  an  elementary  substance.  It 
was  for  a  long  time  confounded  with  earth  in  general,  and  afterwards  assimilated 
sometimes  with  lime,  and  at  others  with  silica,  and  supposed  to  have  acquired 
an  unusual  character  by  the  action  of  acids  and  other  substances.  It  was  not  un- 
til the  middle  of  the  last  century  that  alumina  was  proved  to  be  a  peculiar  earth, 
which  ought  not  to  be  confounded  with  others  ;  and  it  was  only  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  century  that  its  metallic  basis  was  discovered.  Notwith- 
standing the  abundance  of  alumina,  it  is  never  found  in  nature  in  a  state  of  abso- 
lute purity;  it  is  usually  combined  with  other  earths  and  metallic  oxides,  and, 
sometimes,  also  with  acids.     In  the  garden  attached  to  the  college  at  Halle, 

(460) 


white  earthy  substances  were  found,  which  were  for  a  time  regarded  as  pure 
alumina ;  but,  on  the  one  hand,  it  was  proved,  by  a  more  precise  chemical  anal- 
ysis, that,  although  consisting  chiefly  of  alumina,  it  also  contained  lime  and  oxide 
of  iron  ;  and,  on  the  other,  it  is  probable  that  the  substance  in  question  was  not 
a  product  of  Nature,  but  of  the  labors  of  certain  alchemists  who  had  resided  up- 
on the  spot. 

It  is  by  chemical  processes  alone  that  alumina  can  be  obtained  perfectly  pure, 
and  separate  from  all  foreign  bodies.  The  easiest  and  most  common  method  of 
'  obtaining  it  in  this  state  is  to  prepare  ic  from  alum,  in  which  it  exists  in  combi- 
nation with  sulphuric  acid.  The  alum  having  been  dissolved  in  water,  the  sul- 
phuric acid  is  neutralized  with  an  alkali,  and  the  alum  precipitated.  Certain 
other  processes  are,  however,  necessary  to  purify  it  completely  from  the  hetero- 
gesneous  substances  with  which  it  is  mixed. 

Alumina  is  incapable  of  combining  with  carbonic  acid,  or,  at  all  events,  of  form- 
ing a  solid  compound  with  it,  as  is  the  case  with  lime  and  magnesia ;  and  this 
property  particularly  distmguishes  it  from  magnesia.     Several  authors  have,  un- 
'  doubtedly,  spoken  of  the  combination  of  alumina  with  carbonic  acid  ;  but  De 
I  Saussiire  has  shown  that,  chemically,  pure  alumina  has  not  the  slightest  affinity 
for  carbonic  acid. 

The  physical  properties  of  this  earth  are  varied,  to  a  certain  extent,  by  the 
means  which  are  taken  to  separate  it  from  the  substances  with  which  it  is  united, 
and  by  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  agents  employed.  Properties  appertain- 
ing to  clay  have  frequently  been  ascribed  to  alumina  ;  and  hence,  undoubtedly, 
haA^e  arisen  the  variations  in  the  accounts  Vvrhich  different  chemists  have  given  of 
it.  These  discrepancies  are  not,  however,  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  cause  alum- 
ina to  be  confounded  with  other  earths. 

It  is  a  white  pulverulent  substance,  and  soft  to  the  toucn :  it  has,  properly 

speaking,  no  taste  ;  but,  when  placed  on  the  tongue,  causes  a  peculiar  sensation, 

I  arising  from  the  absorption  of  moisture.     The  peculiar  odor  given  out  by  crude 

!  clay,  especially  when  moistened  by  breathing  upon  it  or  in  any  other  manner,  is 

not"  characteristic  of  pure  alumina  ;  and  those  who  have  considered  it  to  be  so  are 

in  error. 

Alumina  appears  to  have  a  greater  affinity  for  water  than  any  of  the  other  ele- 
'  mentary  earths,  since  it  retains  a  greater  quantity  of  it ;  it  likewise  contracts  a 
I  much  stronger  mechanical  cohesion  with  this  fluid  than  the  others.  But  this  lat- 
ter property  is  found  to  differ  considerably  in  the  various  preparations  that  are 
made  with  alumina.  When  it  has  been  recently  precipitated,  it  often  contains, 
before  it  is  dried,  a  quantity  of  water  equal  to  six  times  its  own  weight ;  where- 
as, after  having  been  dried  at  a  moderate  heat,  it  is  incapable  of  retaining  more 
than  one  and  a  half  times,  or,  at  most,  twice  its  own  weight,  without  dropping. 
When  it  has  been  made  red  hot,  or  even  dried  at  a  very  high  temperature,  it  be- 
comes incapable  of  retaining  more  than  a  very  small  portion  of  water. 

Alumina,  when  moistened  with  water,  forms  a  paste  possessing  more  or  less  of 
an  unctuous  character  ;  but  this  paste,  when  made  with  pure  alumina,  is  never 
so  ductile  as  that  which  is  formed  of  crude  clay,  neither  does  it  receive  any  shape 
which  may  appear  desirable  to  give  it  with  the  same  facility. 

This  earth  is  insoluble  in  pure  water.  When  it  is  mixed  with  a  large  quanti- 
ty of  that  fluid,  the  particles,  being  separated  to  a  considerable  distance  from  one 
another,  appear  to  be  semi-transparent ;  it  becomes  divided  into  extremely  small 
molecules,  which  fall  very  slowly  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel — the  water  not  re- 
taining the  smallest  quantity  in  solution.  But  if  we  impregnate  that  fluid  with 
carbonic  acid,  it  is,  according  to  De  Saussure,  then  capable  of  dissolving  a  small  ( 
quantity  of  the  alumina  ;  this  combination  is,  however,  so  feeble,  that  it  soon  de-  ) 
composes  when  exposed  to  the  air — the  liquid,  which  was  at  first  limpid,  becom- 
ing turbid,  and  depositing  the  alumina  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  in  the  form  of 
a  light  gelatinous  sediment. 

At  a  gentle  heat  of  about  18  or  20  degrees  of  Reaumur,*  alumina  allows  the 
water,  which  is  imperfectly  united  with  it,  to  evaporate  ;  but  this  degree  of  tem- 
perature is  not  sufficient  to  deprive  it  of  all  the  fluid  it  contains — which,  accord- 
ing to  Buchholtz,  amounts  to  28  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  earth,  and,  ac- 

*  From  22  deg.  50  m.  to  25  deg.  of  the  centigrade  [French  Trans. 

From  72J  deg.  to  77  deg.  of  "  ' 
(461) 


142  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

cordina:  to  De  Saussure,  to  a  considerably  greater  quantity.     A  very  intense  heat 
is  required  to  effect  an  entire  separation  of  the  water  from  it. 

Alumina  is  infusible  at  all  ordinary  temperatures  ;  but  in  the  focus  of  a  large 
burning  mirror,  or  in  a  fire  fed  by  a  stream  of  pure  oxygen  gas,  it  undergoes  a 
species  of  fusion,  which  does  not,  however,  produce  a  complete  vitrification. — 
When  mixed  with  lime,  it  maybe  completely  fused  ;  and,  when  united  to  silica, 
its  tendency  to  fusion  is  increased.  Incandescence,  however,  always  causes  a 
very  considerable  alteration  in  its  properties:  the  effect  produced  is  not  exactly 
that  of  fusion,  but  a  kind  of  coagulation  ;  the  alumina  loses  the  cohesive  attrac- 
tion for  water,  and  becomes  hard  to  the  touch  ;  when  mixed  with  that  fluid  it  no 
longer  forms  an  unctuous  paste,  and,  upon  the  whole,  approximates  more  nearly 
in  its  properties  to  silica.  Hence  it  happens  that  clay  partly  loses  the  ductility 
by  the  action  of  the  fire.  This,  also,  in  some  measure,  explains  to  us  the  good 
effects  that  are  produced  by  burning  argillaceous  soils.  Alumina,  which  has  been 
made  red  hot,  can  only  be  restored  to  the  primitive  state  by  dissolving  it  in  acids, 
and  then  precipitating  by  means  of  an  alkali. 

The  earth  in  question  does  not  appear  to  possess  any  alkaline  properties,  as  it  [ 
produces  no  change  in  the  tint  of  the  colored  papers  which  are  used  as  tests  for 
'  alkalies.  It  is  also  incapable  of  combining  with  sulphur  like  the  alkalies,  lime, 
!'  and  magnesia.  We  are  not  acquainted  with  any  direct  experiment  which  proves 
'[  that  alumina,  in  a  state  of  purity,  can  enter  into  combination  with  oxygen,  hydro- 
'.  gen,  nitrogen,  or  carbon  ;  it  is,  nevertheless,  probable  that  it  has  an  affinity  for 
i  these  substances  ;  at  all  events,  it  has  an  affinity  for  their  compounds,  as  is  seen 
^  in  the  humus. 

'        On  the  other  baud,  alumina  has  a  very  powerful  affinity  for  the  other  earths, 
1    and,  in  certain  cases,  enters  readily  into  chemical  combination  with  them.     It 
has  a  very  great  tendency  to  unite  with  silica,  and,  according  to  Guyton,  can  even 
precipitate  that  substance  from  its  solution  in  an  alkali.     It  is  in  consequence  of   i 
!'  this  affinity  that  we  so  often  firrd  silica  in  nature  combined  with  alumina  in  form- 
ing the  compound  called  clay. 
\        Lime,  also,  has  a  strong  affinity  for  alumina.     This  explains  the  great  fusibil- 
.    ity  of  these  earths  when  mixed,  and  still  more  clearly  proves  the  power  of  alum- 
ina to  decompose  lime-water,  and  separate  the  lime  from  its  solution.     If  recent- 
ly precipitated  alumina  be  thrown  into  lime-water,  the  liquid  loses  the  alkaline 
taste,  and  the  alumina  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  carrying  the  lime  along 
with  it.     This  separation  of  the  latter  can  only  result  from  the  chemical  affinity 
of  the  alumina  for  it,  and  from  an  actual  combination  of  the  two  earths. 

Alumina  is  easily  dissolved  in  acids  when  it  has  been  only  partially  dried  ;  but, 
after  having  been  ignited,  the  dissolution  is  attended  with  greater  difficulty. — 
The  solution  takes  place  without  effervescence  or  any  rise  of  temperature.  But 
this  earth  does  not  possess  the  poAver  of  depriving  acids  of  all  their  acidity,  and 
of  wholly  neutralizing  them  ;  and  in  this  respect  it  differs  essentially  from  the 
alkalies  and  alkaline  earths.  The  solutions  have  an  astringent  tatte,  and  com- 
municate a  reddish  tint  to  blue  litmus  paper.  The  results  of  compounds  of  alum- 
ina with  acids  are  salts,  some  of  which  are  crystallizable,  and  others  are  not ;  but 
naost  of  them  are  easily  soluble  in  water.  Alumina  has  a  strong  affinity  for  sul- 
I  phuric  acid,  in  combination  with  which  it  forms  a  viscous  substance,  which  soon 
':  becomes  moist  when  exposed  to  the  air  ;  if  a  little  potassa  is  added  to  this  com- 
',  pound,  alum  is  formed.  This  earth  may,  however,  contain  a  small  portion  of 
sulphuric  acid  without  forming  a  saline  compound  ;  it  is  on  this  account  that 
it  is  often  difficult  to  effect  a  complete  separation  between  these  two  bodies. 
When  precipitated  from  a  solution  of  alum,  the  alumina  carries  with  it  a  small 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  from  which  it  can  only  be  purified  by  repeated  wash- 
ings. 

The  muriatic,  nitric  and  phosphoric  acids  do  not  form  crystallizable  salts 
when  brought  into  combination  with  alumina ;  most  of  them,  on  the  contrary, 
produce  viscous  solutions. 

The  alkalies  exert  an  action  on  alumina  which  it  is  very  important  to  notice, 
both  because  it  may  serve  as  a  distinguishing  characteristic  of  this  earth,  and 
because  it  is  frequently  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  separating  alumina  from 
other  substances.  Lii'ne  and  magnesia  are  not  operated  upon  by  pure  alkalies, 
whereas  alumina  is  comj-letely  dissolved  by  them.     The  combination  takes  place 

(4C2) 


CLAY.  143 

the  more  easily,  in  proportion  as  the  alumina  has  been  more  recently  precipitated, 
and  contains  a  greater  quantity  of  moisture ;  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  effect  it 
when  the  earth  has  been  previously  ignited. 

Ammonia  will  disclose  a  very  small  quantity  of  alumina,  but  potassa  and  soda 
dissolve  a  much  greater  portion  of  it  and  with  much  greater  rapidi'.y.  When 
moistened  alumina  is  thrown  into  a  warm,  caustic,  alkaline  lye,  it  dissolves,  and 
the  liquid  becomes  transparent ;  but  when  the  alkalies  are  completely  saturated 
with  carbonic  acid,  they  no  longer  dissolve  this  earth. 

All  the  alkalies,  together  with  lime  and  magnesia,  have  a  stronger  Pxffi.nity  for 
acids  than  alumina  possesses  ;  they  may,  therefore,  be  used  to  separate  the  latter 
from  its  combinations.  Thus,  for  example,  the  solution  of  alumina  in  an  alkali 
is  immediately  decomposed  by  the  addition  of  an-acid  ;  and  the  alumina  itself  is 
precipitated  from  its  solution  in  an  acid  by  the  addition  of  any  of  the  alkalies, 
the  atiinity  of  which  for  acids  is  greater  than  that  of  alumina. 


Clay,  as  we  have  already  observed  is  a  compound  of  silica  and  alumina.  These 
two  earths  are  not  merely  mingled  together  in  it,  as  is  generally  ■supposed,  but 
chemically  combined.  A  large  proportion  of  the  clay  found  in  nature  is  also 
mixed  with  an  extra  quantity  of  silica,  which  exists  in  it  in  the  form  of  sand  of 
various  degrees  of  fineness.  This  sand  may,  however,  be  sepjirated  from  it  by 
simple  washing,  or  by  a  mode  which  experiment  has  lately  shown  to  be  much 
better,  by  boiling  the  mixture  in  water  ;  but  that  portion  of  silica  which  is  in 
direct  combination  with  the  alumina  can  only  be  separai;ed  by  the  action  of 
chemical  re-agents.  Clay  not  only  differs  in  appearance  both  from  silica  and  alu- 
mina, but  even  its  properties  do  not  correspond  in  that  degree  which  might  be  ex- 
pected from  the  proportion  in  which  these  two  substances  are  united  in  it.  It 
has  peculiar  properties  which  a  mechanical  mixture  of  silica  and  alumina  cannot 
be  made  to  exhibit.  Nature  seems,  indeed,  to  have  reserved  to  herself  the  power 
of  effecting  this  intimate  union ;  for,  although  means  have  been  discovered  of 
effecting  the  combination  of  silica  and  alumina  by  chemical  processes,  the  com- 
pound thus  formed  does  not  constitute  a  true  clay. 

Clay  always  contains  iron  in  a  higher  or  a  lower  state  of  oxidation  ;  and  it  is 
probable  that  vhis  metal  constitutes  an  essential  part  of  it.  Oxide  of  iron  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  metal  with  oxygen,  and  this  combination  is  easily  effect- 
ed by  the  action  of  moisture.  The  colors  of  the  oxide  vary,  according  to  the  de- 
gree of  oxidation,  from  black  to  yellow,  brown,  and  red  ;  the  black  tint  indicates 
the  loAvest  degree  of  oxidation,  and  the  red  the  highest.  Oxide  of  iron  is  an 
insipid,  inodorous  powder,  insoluble  in  water,  but  easily  soluble  in  acids,  and  in 
combination  with  these  latter  it  forms  salts,  which  have  the  smell  of  ink.  These 
ferruginous  salts  are,  in  their  turn,  decomposed  by  alkalies,  because  the  latter 
have  a  superior  affinity  for  acids.  Astringent  vegetables,  or  those  which  con- 
tain tannin,  such  as  gall-nuts  and  oak-bark,  separate  the  iron  from  the  acid  ;  and 
the  precipitated  iron  being  divided  into  very  minute  particles,  tinges  the  fluid 
with  a  black  hue. 

iron  is  sometimes  operated  upon  in  the  ground  by  an  acid,  generally  by  car- 
bonic acid,  with  which  it  forms  an  iasoluble  compound,  wholly  devoid  of  taste, 
and  indifferent  if  not  useful  to  vegetation.  Other  acids  expel  the  carbonic  acid 
from  this  compound,  causing  an  effervescence  like  that  produced  Avhen  an  acid  is 
poured  upon  chalk.  This  circumstance  once  led  me  into  error  in  a  superficial 
examination  which  I  was  making  on  a  sample  of  clay  that  was  supposed  to  con- 
tain marl. 

Oxide  of  iron  is  sometimes  combined  with  phosphoric  acid,  especially  in 
{  naarshes,  where  that  acid  is  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  organic  bodies. 
This  compound  is  equally  insoluble  with  the  last,  but  it  is  nevertheless  thought 
*  to  be  injurious  to  vegetation. 

When  iron  is  combined  in  the  soil  with  sulphuric  acid,  produced  by  the  decom- 
position of  iron-pyrites,  it  forms  the  neutral  salt  commonly  calleo  "green  vitriol." 

This  salt,  when  mixed  in  a  very  small  proportion  of  clay,  appears  always  to 
exert  an  injurious  action  upon  vegetation  ;  indeed,  sulphuric  acid  has  never  been 
found  to  be  favorable  to  vegetation  excepting  upon  calcareous  soils,  in  which  the 

(463) 


144  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


acid  immediately  combines  with  lime,  and  thus  forming  gypsum,  instead  of  beincr 
united  Avith  iron.  ^  oj  t-  o 

It  is  only  when  combined  with  vegetable  mould,  or  other  substances  containing 
large  quantities  of  carbon,  and  even  then  used  in  very  small  quantities,  that  the 
sulphate  of  iron  (green  vitriol)  has  produced  a  fertilizing  effect,  or  any  great  im- 
provement of  the  soil.  We  shall  enlarge  farther  on  this  subject  when  we  come 
to  treat  more  particularly  of  manures. 

Clay  has  probably  been  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  hard  rocks  or  stones. 
Many  compact  minerals,  composed  of  alumina,  silica,  and  oxide  of  iron,  are  de- 
composed by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  and  transformed  into  clay  ;  amono- 
the  prmcipal  of  these  are  argillaceous  schists,  which  are  frequently  met  with", 
aud  in  some  places  compose  whole  mountain  chains,  and  also  felspar.  This  kind 
,  of  decomposition  is  constantly  going  on  before  our  eyes,  naked  rocks  of  clay-slate 
;,  becommg  covere^d  with  a  stratum  of  clay,  in  which  vegetables  speedily  take  root, 
i  his  light  covering  may  easily  be  thickened  and  increased  by  separating  the  lay- 
ers of  the  schist  by  means  of  a  plow,  and  decomposing  them  with  fresh  manure, 
which  seems  to  have  the  power  of  accelerating  the  disintegration. 

The  clay  formed  by  this  insensible  operation  of  nature  was,  probably,  in  for- 
mer ages,  displaced  by  the  action  of  running  water,  and  deposited  in  the  plains 
as  we  see  it  at  present.  Besides,  it  has,  according  to  all  appearance,  attracted 
certain  substances  from  the  atmosphere,  particularly  oxygen. 

The  three  substances  of  which  clav  is  chiefly  composed,  viz.,  alumina,  silica, 
and  oxide  of  iron,  are  united  in  it  in  very  different  proportions,  and  we  seldom 
hnd  two  kinds  of  clay  exactly  the  same  composiiion.  In  the  greater  number  of 
cases,  silica  is  the  predominating  ingredient ;  the  quantity  of  this  substance  fre- 
quently amounts  to  93  parts  in  100  without  the  mixture  losing  the  properties  of 
clay.     Alumina  very  rarely  forms  the  principal  coupon ent  part. 

From  the  results  of  recent  experiments  made  in  our  laboratory,  we  have  found 
that  clay  which  has  been  freed  from  sand  by  washing  the  silica,  is  still  found  to 
exist  in  two  different  states.  First,  when  this  clay  is  boiled  for  a  considerable 
time  and  m  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  it  deposits  a  kind  of  silica  Avhich  cer- 
tainly cannot  be  called  sand,  but  which  is  nevertheless  composed  of  grains  even 
less  minute  than  those  which  are  precipitated  from  a  solution  of  flints.  The 
quantity  of  this  silica  which  can  be  thrown  off  by  ebullition,  varies  in  different 
kinds  of  clay,  and  cannot  be  separated  from  them  without  great  difficulty  ;  and 
even  when  the  separation  has  been  effected  with  all  possible  care,  there  still  re- 
mains a  large  quantity  of  silica  in  the  clay,  which  can  only  be  got  rid  of  by 
chemical  re-agents.  We  are  still  carefully  prosecuting  these  researches,  princi- 
pally with  the  view  of  arriving  at  some  positive  conclusion  with  respect  to  a  fact 
which  at  present  Ave  consider  probable  ;  viz.,  that  all  kinds  of  clay,  when  freed, 
from  that  portion  of  silica  which  is  united  Avith  them  by  a  less  intimate  and 
merely  in  a  mechanical  combination,  contain  equal  or  nearly  equivalent,  portions 
of  that  earth  and  alumina.  i 

The  quantity  of  oxide  of  iron  contained  in  clay  varies  from  one  to  ten  or  twelve 
parts  in  a  hundred. 

Sometimes  clay  contains  oxide  of  manganese  also  ;  but  this  substance  is  rarely 
met  with,  and  only  in  small  quantities. 

Clay  is  not  always  of  one  color :  it  is  found  to  be  white,  grey,  broAvn,  red, 
black,  and  m  all  the  various  shades  of  these  colors.     Sometimes  the  variations   , 
are  chiefly  attributable  to  combustible  matters,  such  as  humus,  and  to  a  kind  of   ' 
bituminous  substance  ;  these  latter  communicate  to  the  clay  a  grey  tint,  inclining  !' 
to  black,  and  sometimes  make  it  quite  black.     But  such  clays,  Avhen  submitted 
to  the  action  of  fire,  become  perfectly  white  ;  because,  during  this  action,  the  car- 
bon combmes  with  oxygen,  and  escapes  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid.     The  colors,  t 
hoAvever,  mostly  arise  from  the  presence  of  oxide  of  iron,  and  sometimes,  also,  \ 
from  that  of  oxide  of  manganese  ;  the  different  shades  depending  partly  upon  the 
relative  quantities  of  these  substances  contained  in  the  clay,  and  partly  upon  the 
degrees  of  oxidation.     The  color  approaches  the  more  nearly  to  bright  yellow, 
deep  yellow,  or  red,  as  the  iron  may  be  in  a  higher  state  of  oxidation.     Clays  of 
this  description  do  not  become  white  when  ignited ;  on  the  contrary,  the  oxide  of 
iron  which  they  contain  takes  up  an  additional  quantity  of  oxygen— the  iron  be- 
coming peroxidized— and  the  color  then  changes  to  brick-red.     All  clavs  which 

(464)  ■' 


CLAY 

contain  from  four  to  six  parts  in  a  hundred  of  oxide  of  iron,  acquire  this  tint  by 
ignition — the  depth  of  the  color  increasing  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  oxide 
that  is  present. 

Sometimes  the  clay  derives  the  color  from  the  joint  presence  of  oxide  of  iron, 
vegetable  ixiould,  and  of  bituminous  substances.  Clays  of  this  kind  acquire  a 
lighter  color  by  ignition,  because  the  vegetable  matter  from  which  their  color 
partly  arises  is  volatilized  ;  but  they  never  become  perfectly  white,  because  the 
oxide  of  iron,  which  is  also  concerned  in  the  production  of  the  color,  remains  be- 
hind. The  loss  of  color  which  these  clays  experience  from  ignition  depends, 
therefore,  upon  the  relative  quantities  of  oxide  of  iron  and  of  combustible  matter 
which  they  contam:  where  the  color  is  very  materially  diminished  in  intensity, 
we  may  conclude  that  it  was  chiefly  produced  by  the  presence  of  combustible 
matters  ;  if  the  contrary,  that  it  arose  principally  from  oxide  of  iron.  Clays  are 
sometimes  found  which  are  perfectly  white,  and  these  do  not  contain  any  inflam- 
mable substances.  They  are  not,  however,  wholly  free  from  oxide  of  iron,  but 
the  substance  is  present  in  the  lowest  degree  of  oxidation,  and  incapable  of  com- 
municating any  tint  whatever  to  the  clay.  If,  however,  clays  of  this  description 
are  exposed  to  a  Avhite  heat,  the  iron  becomes  more  highly  oxidized,  and  the  clay 
acquires  a  yellow,  and  sometimes  a  bright  red  tint.  Should  any  white  clays  not 
change  the  color  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  fire,  we  may  venture  to  conclude 
that  they  contain  a  very  small  quantity  of  iron. 

Clay  possesses  the  property  of  exciting  a  peculiar  sensation  in  the  organs  of 
taste  and  smell  in  as  high  a  degree,  at  least,  as  alumina;  and  it  may  thus  be 
easily  distinguished  from  other  earths.  When  powdered  and  introduced  into  the 
nose,  or  applied  to  the  tongue,  it  absorbs  the  moisture  from  the  organ  to  which 
it  is  applied,  and  adheres  firmly  to  it.  Clay  has,  moreover,  a  peculiar  odor  not 
possessed  by  alumina,  and  which  is  called  earthy.  This  is  exhaled  very  copi- 
ously Avhen  clay  which  has  been  dry  for  some  time  is  moistened  :  and  hence  the 
odor  which  generally  pervades  the  atmosphere  when  rain  falls  after  a  drouth. — 
De  Saussure  attributes  this  effect  to  oxide  of  iron,  but  it  is  given  out  as  strongly 
by  clays  which  contain  a  small  portion  of  that  oxide  as  by  those  which  contain  it 
in  much  greater  abundance.  It  is,  at  present,  a  doubtful'point  whether  this  odor 
is  exhaled  by  the  clay,  or  is  the  consequence  of  some  peculiar  change  in  the  at- 
mosphere which  surrounds  it. 

Among  the  properties  of  clay,  Aone  are  so  remarkable  as  their  relations  to  wa- 
ter. When  in  a  state  of  comparative  dryness,  although  not  absolutely  free  from 
moisture,  it  absorbs  water  with  facility ;  and  when  it  contains  a  considerable 
quantity  of  that  fluid,  it  forms  a  more  or  less  tenacious,  adhesive,  and  ductile 
mass,  which  easily  takes  and  retains  any  impression  that  may  be  given  it,  and 
is,  therefore,  capable  of  being  moulded  into  all  sorts  of  shapes.  The  property  in 
question,  which  renders  this  kind  of  earth  so  useful,  is  not  possessed  in  the  same 
degree  by  all  clays  ;  those  which  possess  it  in  the  greatest  perfection  are  called 
fat  or  soft  clays,  and  those  which  have  it  in  a  less  degree  poor  clays.  The  plas- 
tic nature  of  this  substance  ought  not  to  be  attributed  solely  to  the  presence  of 
alumina,  for  that  earth  in  its  pure  state  does  not  possess  these  qualities  in  so 
high  a  degree  ;  they  seem  rather  to  result  from  the  combination  of  alumina  with 
silica,  and  even  the  oxide  of  iron  seems  to  be  partly  concerned  in  their  produc- 
,  tion.  It  is  true  that  the  fattest  and  most  ductile  clay  contains  the  largest  por- 
tion of  alumina,  and  the  brittle  or  poor  clay  the  least  quantity  ;  but  the  degree  of 
ductility  is,  nevertheless,  not  in  exact  proportion  with  the  quantity  of  this  earth 
which  is  present. 
i  Clay,  when  saturated  with  water,  is  no  longer  pervious  to  that  fluid.  When 
I  water  is  poured  upon  a  cake  or  basin  made  with  clay  paste,  it  remains  on  the 
surface  without  filtering  through  it.     This  faculty   imparts  great  importance  to 


I  the  presence  of  clay  in  the  upper  stratum  of  the  soil,  and  even  to  those  which 
are  underneath.  It  is  the  clay  thus  situated  which  prevents  water  from  pene- 
trating to  a  greater  depth  ;  were  it  not  for  this  stoppage  we  should  not  meet 
with  any  springs  without  boring  down  to  the  solid  rock.  These  beds  of  clay, 
alternating  with  strata  of  earth  permeable  to  water,  are  the  most  ordinary  source 
of  springs,  because  the  water  retained  by  them  can  only  force  a  passage  for  itself   ' 

,  in  a  direction   parallel  with   them.     These  beds  are  also   the   cause  of  those    ! 
swamps,  or  collections  of  stagnant  water,  which  are  sometimes  met  with  in  fields 

(513) lO 


'!  and  plains ;  the  water,  not  being  able  to  penetrate  into  the  e^rth,  remains  on  the 
top  ot  the  clay  strata  unti"  '    '     ' 
the  surface  of  the  ground 

When  clay  is  macerated  in  i  large  quantity  of  water,  it  renders  that  fluid  tur- 
bid, and  remams  suspended  m  it,  but  the  water  does  not  dissolve  the  smallest 
portion.  A  considerable  time  elapses  before  this  fluid  again  becomes  completely 
limpid.  It  is  in  consequence  of  this  property  that  the  water  of  rivers  whose  beds 
are  composed  of  clay  is  always  more  or  les's  turbid  ;  the  detached  and  finely-di-  .' 
vided  particles  of  the  clay  not  being  able  to  settle  at  the  bottom,  by  reason  of  ' 
the  constant  motion  of  the  stream.  It  is  also  from  the  same  cause  that  lands  in- 
undated by  rivers  Avhich  have  burst  their  banks  are  generally  covered  with  clay; 
for  the  sand  which  the  waters  carry  with  them,  bemg  heavier,  quickly  sinks  to 
the  bottom,  and  is  deposited  at  random  in  heaps ;  while  the  clay,  being  very  mi- 
nutely divided,  and,  as  it  were,  diffused  through  the  mass  of  water,  is°carried  to 
a  greater  distance,  and  not  deposited  until  the  water  has  become  stagnant.* 

When  clay  is  exposed  to  frost,  cracks  or  fissures  are  formed  in  it ;  indeed,  it  is 
sometimes  completely  disintegrated.     This  separation  of  masses  of  clay  and  com- 

*  All  the  ewths  found  in  cultivated  soils  have  a  very  considerable  atU-action  for  atmospheric  moi=ture  • 
and  when  they  are  mixed  ivith  organic  decomposing  substances,  or  pulverized,  this  power  is  materially  in- 
creased. This  property  of  the  soils  he  cultivates  cannot  be  too  carefully  kept  in  view  by  the  farmer  "it  is 
one  of  the  chief  reasons  v.hy  fallowing,  deep  plowing  or  subsoilmg  are  so  fertilizing  in  their  etfects  •  and  why 
plants,  growing  on  cultivated  soils,  are  able  to  maintain  themselves  in  health,  even  in  the  dryest  seasons  — 
The  extent  of  this  attractive  propertj'  of  the  earths  and  soils  may  be  ascertained,  experimentally  by  either 
exposing  a  given  weight  of  the  previously  well-dried  earth  to  a  moist  atmosphere  for  a  stated  period  and 
then  weighing  it  again  to  discover  the  amount  of  the  moisture  absorbed ;  or  else,  by  confinmg  a  given  por- 
non  of  the  dried  earth  m  a  confined  portion  of  air,  and  then,  by  the  hygi-ometer,  detennining  the  degree  of 
drj-ness  which  has  been  produced  by  the  earth  confined  in  it. 

In  the  experiments  of  Professor  Leslie,  made  with  a  very  delicate  hygrometer,  when  thorou'^hly  dried 
garden  mould,  mtroduced  into  a  confined  portion  of  air,  saturated  with  moisture,  indicated  a  drjTiess  of  95 

The  same  weight  of  alumina,  under  the  same  cii-cumstances,  indicated  a  dryness  of     84  de'Tees      * 

Carbonate  of  magnesia Y5      °" 

Carbonate  of  lime jq        „ 

Pipe-clay...  ■■■^- ■::::"::::::;:::::::::::::85    - 

Shelly  sea-sand 7q        „ 

Greenstone  resolved  into  soil go        " 

Silica ..^"W^^W'.'.V.'.'."'.'.""  40 

In  my  own  experiments  with  various  earths  and  soils,  the  specimen  was  previously  dried  in  a  tempera- 
ture of  2120,  aua  then  exposed  to  air  saturated  with  moisture,  at  60°,  for  three  hours^-under  these  circum- 

1,000  parts  of  clay  gaiaed  29  parts.  I  1.000  patts  of  gypsum  gained  9  parts. 

1.000        "        coal  ashes       "      14      "  1.000        '■        Shalk  "      4      " 

1.000       "        lime  "      11     "  I 

And  when  exposed  for  eighteen  hours  to  air  at  the  temperature  of  62^  ("  Essay  on  Salt,"  p.  7) 

1.000  parts  of  rich  soil,  near  Maldon,  in  Essex,  worth  two  guineas  an  acre,  gained. .'      '         ^5  parts 
1,000  parts  of  the  same  field,  which  had  been  salted  with  12  btishels  of  salt  per  acre  gained  27    •' 
1,000,  which  had  been  salted  with  6  bushels  per  acre,  gained 26    " 

In  the  experiments  of  Professor  .Schubler,  the  amount  of  the  moisture  absorbed  by  "the"  earths  was  a=cer- 
tamed  at  four  different  periods,  viz.  12,  24,  48.  and  72  hours ;  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  in  which 
they  were  exposed  was  between  59  and  65°  ("Journal  English  Ag.  .Sec."  vol.  i  p  196),  and  each  earth  was 
spread  over  a  surface  of  fifty  square  inches.     Tlie  amount  absorbed  is  stated  in  grains  • ' 

1,000  gi-ains  of     12  hours.  24  krs.     48  hrs.     72  hrs.  \      1,000  gi-ains  of     12  hours.  24  hrs     48  hrs     72  hri 

.SiUcious  sand 0  0  0  0         Grey  pure  clay 37  42  48'        49* 

(Calcareous  sand 2  3  3  3         Fine  lime 26  31 

Gypsum  powder 1  1  1  1         Fine  macTiesia fi9         '76 

Kiindyclay 21  26  28  28        Garden  mould 35  45  50 

Loamy  clay 25  30  .34  35         Arable  soil 16  2^  o-j 

Stift'clay 30  36  40  41      I  Slaty  marl 24  29  3<> 

Davy  saw  this  property  of  all  soils  in  its  true  light.  "  The  soils,"  he  said,  '•  that  are  the  most" efficient  in 
supplying  the  plant  with  water,  by  atmospheric  absorption,  are  those  in  which  there  is  a  due  mixture  of 
sand,  fmely-dmded  clay,  and  carbonate  of  lime,  (chalk,)  with  some  animal  or  vegetable  matter-  and  -H-hich 
are  so  loose  and  light  as  to  be  freely  permeable  to  the  atmosphere.  With  respect  to  this  quaUtv  carbona'e 
01  hme  and  animal  and  vegetable  matter  are  of  gi-eat  use  in  soils  ;  they  give  absorbent  poweV'to  the  soiL 
without  giving  It  tenacity.  Sand,  on  the  contrary,  which  also  desfroys  tenacitv.  gives  little  absorbent  power 
I  have  compared  the  absorbent  power  of  many  soils  with  respect  to  atmospheric  moisture  and  I  havo  al- 
ways  found  it  greatest  m  the  most  fertile  soils;  so  that  it  aflbrds  one  method  of  jtidging  of  the  nie J ticti lio- 
ness of  land."  ^ 

].000  parts  of  a  celebrated  soil,  from  Ormiston  in  East  Lothian,  when  dried  at  a  temperan>re  of  "nso 
gained  in  an  hour,  by  exposure  to  air  saturated  with  moisture  at  temperature  62°,  18  parts  1  000  parts"  of  a 
very  fertile  soil  from  the  banks  of  the  river  Pairelt,  in  .Somersetshire,  under  the  snme  circumstances  o-ained 
16  parts.  1.000  parts  of  a  soil  from  Mer.=ea.  in  Essex,  worth  4.5/!.  an  acre,  gained  23  parts  1  000  Tiart?  of  a 
fine  sand  from  Essex,  wortli  28.'^.  an  acre,  gained  11  parts.  1.000  parts  of  a  coarse  sand,  worth  l,5ran  acre 
gained  8  parts.  1,000  parts  of  the  soil  of  Pagshot  Heath  gained  only  three  parts.— (•'  Elements  of  A  tic  ulturai 
Chemistrj-,"  183.)  ^ 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  ihc  i:owcr  of  absorbing  moisture  is,  in  a  great  decice,  the  mea-sure  of  the  fer- 
nhty  of  all  soils. 

_  The  quantity  of  w.^ter  required  ro  thoroughly  saturate  the  various  earths  is  also  a  question  of  considerable 
importarice  to  the  farmer  This  has  been  re-ceiitly  determined  experimentally  by  M.  Schubler  whose  work 
(514) 


35  35 

80  82 

50  52 

23 
33 


mmution  of  their  parts,  is  caused  by  the  expansion  which  water  undergoes  in  freez- 
ing, in  which  the  crystals  or  needles  of  ice  separate  the  particles  of  clay  one  from 
the  other.  On  this  account  clay  which  is  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  improving 
and  ameliorating  land,  is  always  first  submitted  to  the  action  of  frost,  in  order 
that  by  the  perfect  comminution  and  division  of  the  particles,  it  may  be  better 
idapted  for  mixing  and  amalgamating  with  the  soil  on  which  it  is  laid. 

Moistened  clay,  even  when  subjected  to  the  action  of  heat,  parts  with  the  wa- 
ter with  very  great  reluctance,  and  the  more  so  in  proportion  to  its  fatness  ;  and 
it  retains  that  fluid  more  tenaciously  than  any  other  earth.  After  the  evaporation 
of  the  water  it  becomes  more  or  less  hard,  according  as  it  is  rich  or  poor.  Moist 
clay,  when  exposed  to  a  high  degree  of  heat,  often  breaks  and  falls  to  pieces 
the  vapor,  by  its  elastic  power,  opening  a  passage  for  itself,  and  breaking  the  sub' 
stance  in  which  it  is  enclosed.  This  is  the  reason  that,  in  making  tiles,  it  is 
necessary  to  dry  them  first  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  then  to  heat  them  gradually 
in  the  kiln. 

Clay,  in  drying,  always  contracts  and  loses  a  portion  of  its  bulk.  This  con- 
traction arises  from  the  evaporation  of  the  water,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
particles  of  clay  approach  each  other  more  closely  ;  and  this  quality  produces  the 
fissures  which,  during  very  hot  and  dry  weather,  are  formed  on  the  surface  of 
argillaceous  soils.     The  same  circumstance  also  renders  it  necessary  to  model 

on  this  subject  has  been  translated  by  James  Hudson,  Esq.  the  excellent  Secretary  to  the  English  Agricul- 
tural Society.  The  following  table  shows  the  result  of  the  German  Professor's  researches  ("  Journal  Eng. 
Agri."  vol,  i.  p.  184) : 

Real  qiumtity  of  water 
in  a  cubic  foot  when 
saturated. 

Calcareous  sand* 318  lbs. 

Silicious  sand 273 

Gypsum  powder 27-4 

Sandy  clay 38-8 

Loamy  clay 41  4 

Stitf  clay,  or  brick  earth 45-4 

Pure  gi"ey  clay 48-3 

Pipe  clay 47'4 

The  carbonate  of  lime 47*5 

Fine  carbonate  of  magnesia 62-6 

Garden  mould 48-4 

Arable  soil 40  8 

Fine  slaty  marl 35-6 

Another  important  property  of  soils  to.be  considered  by  the  farmer,  when  he  is  endeavoring  to  improve 
the  composition  of  his  land  by  an  admixture  of  earths,  is  the  property  which  these  possess  of  retaining  their 
moisture  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  This  property  has  also  been  examined  by  Pro- 
fessor Schubler.  and  his  experiments  are  very  valuable  to  the  cultivator  as  comparative  results  ;  otherwise, 
experiments  of  this  kind,  earned  on  in  a  close  room,  always  diflfer  very  materially  in  the  amount  of  evapo- 
ration from  that  of  the  same  soil  in  situations  exposed  to  the  wind  and  sun.  The  mode  adopted  in  these 
experiments  was  as  follows  (Ibid.  p.  109)  :— "  We  place  on  a  round  surfece  of  tin  plate,  having  a  raised 
border,  a  given  quantity  of  the  earth  to  be  examined.  Having  previously  saturated  this  fully  wfth  water, 
we  spread  it  out  evenly,  and  ascenain  the  weight  of  the  whole  ;  we  suffer  it  to  remain  for  several  hours  in 
a  close  room  to  evaporate  and  again  weigh  it,  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  water  evaporated.  If  we  make 
the  experiment  with  many  earths  at  once,  we  shall  be  able  to  institute  a  comparison  among  them  with  the 
greatest  certainty  in  reference  to  this  point.  To  obtain  accurately  the  quantity  of  water  contained  in  the 
earth  at  the  commencement  of  the  experiment,  we  afterward  dry  it  in  an  artificial  heat,  and  thus  easily  re- 
duce the  quantity  of  evaporated  water  to  hundredth  parts  of  that  contained  in  the  earth.. 

Let  the  weight  of  a  wet  earth  be. ... . 310  grains. 

The  weight  of  the  same  earth  after  24  hours 260 

The  weight  of  the  perfectly  dry  eaith 200 

Therefore,  the  amount  of  water  evaporated  in  24  hours  vfill  be 50 

And  the  water  in  the  earth  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment 110 

The  following  table  contains  the  results  of  my  experiments,  in  reference  to  this  point,  with  200  grains  of 
the  several  earths,  at  a  temperature  of  65^°,  spread  out  over  a  surface  of  ten  square  inches ;  and,  in  stating 
the  results  of  all  these  experiments,  the  quantity  of  evaporation  is  given,  as  from  every  IOC  parts  of  water 
contained  in  the  earth. 


Weight  of  a  cubic 

When  dry. 

foot  when  satu- 

rated with  water 

113  6  lbs. 

141-3  lbs. 

1113 

136-1 

91-9 

127  6 

97  8 

1297 

88'5 

124-1 

80-3 

119-6 

75-2 

115  8 

479 

1021 

53-7 

103-5 

15-8 

76-3 

68-7 

102  7 

84-5 

119-1 

112-0 

140-3 

Sihcious  sand evaporation  in  4  hours,  88-4  1  Pure  grey  clay. 

Calcareous  sand "  "  75-9     Fine  Ume 

Gypsum  powder "  "  71-7     Magnesia 

Sandy  clay "        .        "        .     52  0     Garden  mould. 

Loamy  clay : "  "        .    45-7     Arable  soil 

Stiff  clay,  or  brick  earth.  "  "  34-9  1  Slaty  marl 

This  reluctance  to  part  with  the  moisture  with  which  the  soil  is  combined  increases,  the  cultivator  is  well 
awai-e.  with  the  tenacity  of  his  land  ;  his  experience  in  this  respect  agi-ees  entirely  with  the  experiments,  of 
Professor  Schubler.  [Johnson  on  the  Fertilizers,  p.  264. 


.evaporation  in  4  hours,  31-9 
28-0 
10-8 
24-3 
32-0 


*  The  reason  why  the  real  quantity  of  moistui-e  in  a  soil  cnnnot  be  accur.-itely  determined  by  merely  com- 
paring the  weight  of  a  given  measure  when  dry,  with  the  same  measure  when  wet,  is,  that  some  soils  when 
they  are  dried  matei-ially  contract,  and  expand  when  wet,  as  every  cultivator  of  a  clay  soil  can  attest. 
(515) 


148  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

tiles  and  earthenware  vessels  one  size  larger  than  that  which  is  required  after 
baking. 

Clay -can  only  be  completely  deprived  of  moisture  when  heated  to  a  bright  red 
heat ;  it  then  contracts  still  farther,  and  undergoes  a  kind  of  condensation  which 
brings  the  particles  still  more  closely  together.  The  terms  of  "  shrinking  "  and 
"  contraction  "  are  used  to  denote  this  approximation  of  the  particles  of  clay  occa- 
sioned by  the  action  of  heat,  to  which  rich  clays  are  more  exposed  than  those  of 
inferior  quality. 

But  the  contraction  of  any  particular  kind  of  clay  is  always  the  same  when 
subjected  to  a  definite  degree  of  heat ;  or,  in  other  words,  when  it  is  submitted 
to  any  one  particular  temperature,  the  clay  will  always  experience  a  similar 
diminution  of  volume.  This  property  has  introduced  clay  in  the  construction  of 
pyrometers  for  measuring  very  high  temperatures. 

Clay  does  not  fuse  with  the  heat  of  an  ordinary  coal  fire  ;  but  when  the  fire  is 
strongly  increased  by  a  bellows,  or  fed  with  oxygen  gas,  the  fusion  takes  place. 
The  addition  of  lime  greatly  augments  the  fusibility  of  clay,  and  the  same  effect 
is  produced  by  oxide  of  iron.  Hence,  a  large  addition  of  lime  or  of  oxide  of  iron 
in  the  fabrication  of  bricks  and  of  earthenware  is  very  injurious,  because,  as  fre- 
quently happens,  the  bricks  or  vessels  so  formed  melt  and  fall  to  pieces  when  the 
temperature  of  the  furnace  is  very  high.  But  in  small  quantities  these  sub- 
stances may  be  of  service,  as  they  induce  the  commencement  of  vitrification,  a 
greater  condensation  of  the  particles,  and,  consequently,  an  increase  of  solidity  in 
the  mass. 

The  properties  of  clay  which  has  been  heated  to  redness,  differ  greatly  from 
those  of  the  same  substance  in  its  natural  state.  The  fragments  of  the  former 
are  often  sufficiently  hard  to  give  out  sparks  when  struck  with  steel,  and  cannot 
be  softened  by  immersion  in  water.  When  pulverized  and  mixed  with  that  fluid, 
they  no  longer  form  an  adhesive,  unctuous,  and  ductile  paste,  but  the  powder 
allows  water  to  pass  through  it,  retaining  a  very  small  quantity,  and  then  it 
resembles  sand  or  silica.  No  artificial  process  can  restore  that  ductility  to  baked 
clay  which  it  previously  possessed  ;  nevertheless  the  action  of  the  atmosphere, 
of  moisture,  and  of  animal  manures,  seem  to  bring  it  back  by  degrees  to  the 
natural  and  original  state. 

Generally  speaking,  air  appears  to  exercise  a  very  powerful  influence  on  clay, 
whether  baked  or  unbaked.  This  action  is  peculiarly  apparent  in  the  beneficial 
effect  produced  upon  land  by  clay  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  long  time. 
It  is  generally  known  that  the  earth  of  old  walls  and  ovens  forms  an  excellent 
manure,  and  increases  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

It  was  formerly  thought  that  clay  absorbed  the  nitre  contained  m  the  air.  It 
has,  indeed,  been  ascertained  that  it  favors  the  formation  of  nitrate  of  potassa  in 
saltpetre  houses  ;  but  the  atmosphere  never  contains  nitre  ready  formed.  Various 
observations  and  experiments,  however,  tend  to  induce  the  belief  that  clay,  when 
exposed  to  the  air,  absorbs  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  and  all  the  other  animal  exhala- 
tions contained  in  the  atmosphere.  When  kneaded,  clay  is  exposed  for  a  con- 
siderable period  in  large  masses,  and  in  a  damp  situation  it  assumes  all  the  char-  < 
acters  of  putrefaction.  Ammonia  is  then  formed  m  it,  thus  proving  the  presence  ' 
of  nitrogen,  which  is  a  constituent  portion  of  ammonia.  ! 

Even  if  it  has  not  yet  been  proved  that  pure  alumina  absorbs  oxygen  from  the   ^ 
atmosphere,  there  is  no  doubt  of  that  property  being  possessed  by  clay.     Hum-  ' 
boldt  has  satisfactorily  ascertained  its  existence  in  all  the  kinds  of  clay  which  he 
has  examined,  and  even  in  compact  slate.  ' 

The  absorption  of  various  substances,  both  knovpn  and  unknown,  from  the  at-  ^ 
mosphere,  renders  clay  lighter,  thinner,  and  less  tenacious.     This  fact  is  estab- 
lished by  several  chemical  experiments  and  analytical  examinations.     I  have    . 
analyzed  clay  taken  from  the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  well  as  that  taken  from  a 
considerable  depth  ;  both  were  found  to  contain  the  same  proportions  of  alumina, 
silica,  and  oxide  of  iron,  but  the  former  was  decidedly  poorer  than  the  latter. 
Since  the  action  of  the  air  renders  clay  less  compact,  we  can  easily  understand 
the  cause  of  the  benefit  which  a  very  argillaceous  soil  derives  m  this  respect  i| 
from  the  operations  of  turning  it  up,  plowing,  digging  it  with  a  spade,  sec. ;  for  the 
upper  stratum  of  the  soil  is  thus  brought  into  contact  with  the  atmosphere  at  a 
I  greater  number  of  points,  the  air  is  enabled  to  penetrate  more  deeply  into  the 


ground,  and  convey  a  large  quantity  of  those  substances  which  it  contains  ;  and  < 
thus  the  soil  is  rendered  lighter,  and  a  more  complete  separation  of  its  parts  is 
effected. 

Acids  exert  little  action  upon  those  clays  which  are  free  from  lime.  They  do 
not  produce  any  effervescence  unless  a  large  quantity  of  carbonate  of  iron  is  pre- 
sent. Alumina  and  oxide  of  iron  certainly  are,  when  in  a  free  state,  easily  solu- 
ble by  acids  ;  but,  when  mixed  in  clay,  they  are  protected  from  the  influence  of 
these  substances  by  the  silica  with  which  they  are  surrounded  or  united.  Acids, 
when  poured  upon  clay,  undoubtedly  dissolve  a  portion  of  these  component  parts, 
but  not  the  whole  of  them.  The  quantity  dissolved  is  greater  in  proportion  as 
these  substances  predominate  over  the  silica.  Thus,  a  rich  clay  will  give  a  larger 
■  portion  of  alumina  to  an  acid  than  a  poor  one.  Acids  will  also  absorb  a  larger 
quantity  of  oxide  of  iron  from  a  clay  which  is  rich  in  that  metallic  body  than 
from  one  which  contains  little  of  it.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  land  which 
contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  oxide  of  iron  is,  in  consequence  of  that  very 
circumstance,  inferior  in  point  of  fertility  to  other  land  which,  although  similarly 
constituted  in  all  other  respects,  contains  a  smaller  portion  of  this  oxide.  This 
substance  is  not  in  itself  injurious  to  vegetation,  and  only  becomes  so  when  com- 
bined with  certain  acids.  Nevertheless,  as  acids  are  easily  formed  in  the  ground, 
and  as  they  more  readily  operate  upon  clay  which  is  rich  in  oxide  of  iron  than 
on  that  which  contains  a  small  quantity,  their  deleterious  effects  must  necessarily 
be  more  sensible  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter  kind  of  soils. 

Most  acids,  then,  do  not  possess  the  power  of  completely  decomposing  clay ; 
that  is,  of  effecting  a  thorough  separation  between  the  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron, 
and  the  silica.  Clay  may  be  boiled  in  nitric  or  muriatic  acid  without  the  alumina 
and  oxide  of  iron  being  completely  dissolved.  Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  is  the 
only  one  which  is  capable  of  producing  an  entire  solution,  and  it  can  only  do  so 
when  employed  in  considerable  quantities  and  boiled  for  a  long  time  in  contact 
with  the  clay.  An  easier  method  of  separating  the  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron, 
is  to  mix  the  clay  with  an  alkali  (caustic  alkalies  answer  the  purpose  best)  and 
expose  the  mixture  to  a  red  heat,  when  a  quantity  of  acid  sufficient  not  only  to 
saturate  the  alkali,  but  also  to  leave  an  excess  of  it,  must  then  be  poured  upon 
the  fused  mass.  This  excess  of  acid  soon  dissolves  the  alumina  and  oxide  of 
iron,  and  the  silica  may  then  be  completely  separated.  The  alkali  seems  to  di- 
minish the  attraction  of  cohesion  between  the  silica  and  the  oxide  of  iron,  and  / 
to  weaken  the  resistance  which  this  oxide,  when  mixed  with  alumina,  opposes 
to  the  action  of  acids.  This  process  is  the  surest  and  the  easiest  way  of  decom- 
posing clay. 

Besides  those  bodies  which  belong  essentially  to  clay,  viz :  silica,  alumina,  and 
oxide  of  iron,  we  frequently  find  other  substances  in  a  state  either  of  mixture  or 
of  combination. 

Clay  generally  contains  sand  in  fine  grains,  which  cannot  be  completely  re- 
moved by  ebullition  ;  and  it  is  also  frequently  mixed  in  greater  or  less  quantities 
with  a  coarse  kind  of  sand,  which  is  easily  separated  from  it  by  washing.  This 
mixture  is  called  argillaceous  earth.  We  shall  have  occasion  to  mention  it  again 
presently.  Humus,  or  vegetable  mould,  is  often  found  in  clay,  and  appears  to  be 
rather  combined  than  simply  mixed  with  it.  All  clays  which  lie  on  the  surface 
of  the  land,  or  at  a  small  depth  below  it,  contain  more  or  less  of  this  substance- 
We  have  found  a  very  considerable  quantity  of  it  in  clay  which  was  five  toises 
below  the  surface.  Clay  is  often  accompanied  by  lime  in  countries  where  that 
substance  is  very  plentiful ;  indeed,  it  is  oftener  found  united  with  this  earth  than 
without  it.  Sometimes  the  lime  is  mixed  with  it  in  small  pieces,  and  it  is  then 
easily  distinguishable  by  sight ;  in  other  cases  these  substances  are  so  combined 
together  that  the  lime  can  only  be  detected  by  chemical  analysis.  Lime  is  also 
found  in  clay,,  in  a  state  of  union  with  sulphuric  acid,  in  the  form  of  gypsum  or 
the  sulphate  of  lime.  When  the  quantity  of  lime  contained  in  clay  reaches  a 
certain  proportion,  the  combination  is  distinguished  by  the  name  of  marl,  a  sub- 
stance which  we  shall  hereafter  examine  more  particularly. 

The  physical  properties  of  clay,  the  ducLlity  and  power  of  retaining  water, 
may  be  greatly  modified  by  these  combinations,  and  in  proportion  to  the  quanti- 
ties in  which  these  substances  are  mixed  with  it.  Clay,  mingled  with  coarse 
silica,  sand,  vegetable  mould,  and  lime,  diffuses  itself  more  easily  through  water    ' 

(S17) 


150  THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


:] 


retains  a  less  quantity  of  that  fluid,  dries  more  rapidly,  and  does  not  harden  so 
much  as  pure  clay.     When  moistened,  it  is  also  less  unctuous  and  ductile. 

The  quantities  in  which  these  substances  combine  with  clay  are  subject  to  in- 
finite variation  ;  hence,  also,  the  properties  of  clay  itself  are  infinitely  variable. 
In  addition  to  this  fact,  it  must  be  observed  that,  as  the  essential  and  constituent 
parts  of  clay,  viz.,  alumina,  silica,  and  of  oxide  of  iron,  influence  the  physical 
properties,  there  must,  necessarily,  be  an  endless  variety  of  clays,  all  of  which 
— at  least  as  far  as  composition  goes — may  be  regarded  as  pure.  It  is,  therefore, 
impossible  to  arrange  these  diff'erent  kinds  in  any  definite  classification,  because 
the  several  varieties  are  not  marked  by  any  distinguishing  characteristics,  there 
being,  on  the  contrary,  an  endless  variety  of  gradations  from  the  richest  kind  of 
clay  to  the  poorest.  We  shall,  however,  distinguish  some  of  the  most  remark- 
able by  particular  names,  and  describe  their  most  essential  properties,  because 
a  knowledge  of  them  may  be  interesting  to  agriculturists  as  well  as  useful  in 
thereby  enabling  them  to  derive  the  greatest  possible  profit  from  the  land  at  their 
disposal. 

The  kaolin  or  porcelain  earth  is  the  purestand  finest  of  all  the  clays,  and  is  the 
variety  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  fine  porcelain.  It  is  found  in  diff'erent 
countries  :  in  Germany,  near  to  Aue  in  the  Hartz  mountains  ;  near  to  Giehren, 
Strablow,  Teichenau  and  Tarnorwits,  in  Silesia ;  near  to  Grunnerits  in  the  circle 
of  Saal ;  near  to  Vienna  in  Austria,  Passau,  Hochst,  &c. 

Kaolin  has  probably  been  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  felspar.  It  is  of  a 
white,  or  greyish  white,  or  yellowish  white  color,  sometimes  even  inclining  to 
red  :  it  falls  to  powder  spontaneously  when  immersed  in  water  ;  when  pounded 
in  a  dry  state  it  forms  a  powder  which,  although  dry,  is  soft  to  the  touch  and 
adheres  slightly  to  the  tongue  :  it  is  sometimes  found  mingled  with  particles  of 
lime  and  mica.  The  proportions  of  their  constituent  parts  vary  much.  Accord- 
ing to  Wedgewood,  the  kaolin  found  in  Cornwall  contains  sixty  parts  in  a  hun- 
dred of  alumina,  and  twenty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  silica  ;  other  varieties  contain 

'  smaller  portions  of  these  constituent  parts.     It  does  not  contain  either  iron  or  the 

I  oxide  in  large  quantities. 

Good  porcelain  is  also  obtained  by  mixing  together  certain  proportions  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  clay. 

Pipe-clay  is  employed  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  pipes  for  smoking.  Next 
to  kaolin,  it  has,  of  all  kinds  of  clay,  the  purest  color  ;  its  shades  and  hues,  how- 
ever, vary  considerably ;  it  is  found  white,  grey,  inclining  to  blue,  and  even 
black  ;  and  often  contains  combustible  matters,  which  give  to  it  a  deeper  hue. 
When  heated  in  the  fire  it  becomes  white  ;  sometimes,  however,  preserving  a 
reddish  tint.  It  falls  to  pieces  in  water,  and  does  not  acquire  any  great  degree 
oi  tenacity  by  uniting  with  that  fluid.  Various  qualities  of  it  are  met  with  :  that 
found  near  Cologne  is  reckoned  among  the  best ;  that  from  the  environs  ot 
Maestrecht  the  next  in  quality  ;  but  very  good  pipe-clay  is  also  found  near 
Buntzlau  and  Plauen  ;  likewise  at  Weissensprtlnck  in  the  Electoral  March,  and 
in  Hesse,  Wurtemberg,  &c. 

Bole  is  one  of  the  fattest  of  all  the  clays :  it  is  manufactured  into  little  tables, 
which,  when  stamped,  are  sold  under  the  name  of  sealing-earth  {seigel-erde.) 
Its  color  is  tile-red,  brown,  and  occasionally  pure  white.  The  Armenian  bole  is 
generally  considered  to  be  one  of  the  best  and  most  valuable  of  all  the  varieties. 
This  kiiid  of  clay  is  very  soft  to  the  touch:  when  mixed  and  united  with  water, 

'  it  forms  a  very  tenacious  and  unctuous  paste.     It  dries  and  becomes  exceedingly 
hard  when  exposed  first  to  the  air,  and  then  to  the  action  of  the  fire.     While 

;  bole  acquires,  from  ignition,  a  yellowish  tint,  or  a  color  slightly  inclining  to  red. 
Blood-stone  or  red  ochreous  day  is  a  kind  of  bole  which  is  very  rich  in  oxide 
of  iron.     It  is  found  in  various  places;  but  that  which  comes  from  Striegau, 
Zittau,  and  Neuremberg,  is  the  best  in  Germany. 

Potter's-day  or  tile-day  derives  its  name  from  the  use  which  is  made  of  it  in 
the  manufacture  of  tiles  and  common  earthenware.  In  fiat  countries  it  s  found 
in  abundant  and  exter  sive  strata.  It  is  very  tenacious  and  unctuous,  but,  never- 
theless, often  contain.-  a  small  quantity  of  sand  and  lime.  It  is  soft  to  the  touch, 
and  if  placed  on  the  tongue  adheres  firmly  to  it.  It  possesses  in  an  eminent  de- 
gree the  power  of  absorbing  water,  but  does  not  fall  to  powder  on  being  im- 

c   mersedin  that  fluid,  but  becomes,  on  the  contrary,  very  tenacious  and  ductile, 


LIME.  15J 

It  becomes  very  much  hardened  by  drying,  and  has  a  great  tendency  to  split. 
When  ignited,  it  is  rendered  as  hard  as  stone,  and  it  can  then  no  longer  be  pul- 
verized by  rubbing  between  the  fingers;  or,  indeed,  in  any  way  without  con- 
siderable difficulty. 

Fuller' s-earth  is  a  poor  clay,  used  for  the  purpose  of  removing  dirt  or  grease 

from  cloth,  &c.     It  was  formerly  imagined  that  this  substance  was  not  to  be 

fouad  any  where  except  in  England  ;  but  it  is  now  well  known  that  many  kinds 

of  clay  found  m  Germany,  are  equally  well  adapted  for  the  purposes  just  men- 

^  tioned.     The  exportation  of  Hampshire  fuller's-earth  was  formerly  forbidden  in 

I  England. 

<       Fuller's-earth  is  friable  ;  it  soon  falls  to  powder  in  water,  without,  however, 

)  becoming  much  divided,  or  forming  a  mixture  like  the  plastic  mass  used  in  pot- 

/  tery.     English  fuller's-earth  is  brown,    and  intersected    with   yellowish  veins; 

after  ignition  it  assumes  a  black  tint,  which  it  again  loses  if  the  incandescence 

be  long  continued.* 

The^kind  of  clay  which,  in  the  classification  of  the  different  soils,  I  distinguish 
by  the  name  of  marshy  earth,  may,  as  far  as  regards  the  quality  and  other  pro- 
perties, be  assimilated  to  fuller's-earth.  It  contams  only  a  small  portion  of  alu- 
mina, but  equally  as  much  silica,  and  sometimes  also  a  small  portion  of  lime. 
The  degree  of  tenacity  and  adhesiveness  possessed  by  it  is  very  trilling  ;  it  is 
tolerably  hard  ;  but,  nevertheless,  always  forms  dust ;  and  it  breaks  without  dif- 
ficulty as  soon  as  it  is  moistened  :  so  that  water  courses  made  in  it  do  not  remain 
open  for  any  long  time,  but  are  speedily  filled  with  mud.  When  it  is  dry  and 
formed  into  clods,  they  easily  break  and  separate  themselves  after  a  light  rain. 
I  distinguish  it  from  soft  or  plastic  argillaceous  earth,  because  the  latter  is  a 
mixture  of  rich  or  poor  clay  with  coarse-grained  silica  or  chalk. 

Clay  iron  ore,  or  marshy  ferruginous  earth  is,  for  the  most  part,  composed  of 
clay,  and  a  large  proportion  of  carbonate  and  phosphate  of  iron,  and  which  to- 
gether form  a  hard  mass.  Wot  only  the  nature  of  it,  but  also  the  phosphate  of 
iron  which  it  contains,  renders  it  very  injurious  to  vegetation,  both  when  it  is 
disposed  in  strata  immediately  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  when  it  is 
partly  dissolved  and  brought  into  contact  with  the  roots  of  plants.  It  is  decom- 
posed by  long  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  and,  therefore,  can  only  be  used  for 
subterranean  structures  ;  at  all  events,  this  is  the  case  with  many  varieties  of  it. 
It  is  very  durable  under  water.  The  color  is  either  brown  or  an  intermediate 
hue  between  deep  brown  and  deep  yellov/,  and  it  often  contains  veins  of  a  bluish 
black  tint. 

It  has  sometimes  been  worked  for  the  extraction  of  iron,  and  hence  is  usually 
included  by  mineralogists  in  the  list  of  iron  ores. 

When  this  earth  or  mineral  exists  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  it  renders  the 
soil  unfit  for  vegetation  of  any  kind,  even  pines  cannot  grow  upon  it.  The  only 
means  of  rendering  such  lands  available  for  cultivation,  is  to  dig  up  the  earth  to 
a  certain  depth  :  this  method  has  actually  been  applied  on  pieces  of  land  of  small 
extent,  and  often  at  a  very  great  expense. 


Lime  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  substances  in  nature  ;  it  forms  whole  moun- 
tain chains,  and  together  with  other  earths  and  metallic  oxides  constitutes  a 
great  number  of  minerals.  It  also  exists  in  large  quantities  in  the  bodies  of  ani- 
mals, forming  the  principal  ingredient  of  bones  and  shells.  It  likewise  forms  a 
constituent  part  of  all  vegetables  ;  at  all  events,  it  is  invariably  found  in  their 
ashes,  and  it  exists  in  solution  in  almost  all  natural  waters. 

Lime,  till  lately,  has  been  regarded  as  an  elementary  substance  ;  modern  ex- 
periments and  observations  have  shown  that  it  is  a  compound.  It  is  composed, 
in  fact,  of  a  peculiar  metal  called  calcium  and  oxygen.  The  frequent  occurrence 
of  lime  in   the  bodies  of  animals,  the  numerous  impressions  and  petrifactions  / 

*  The  constituents  of  fuller's-earth,  according  to  Klaproth,  are  as  follows  : —  / 


Specimen  from  Spe.r.imen,   from   St. 

Reigate,  Surrey.  Nhnptch  in  Silesia. 

Silica 53.0  48-5 

Alumina 10.0  15.5 

Lime 0.5  

Macnesia 1.25  1.5 

Oxfde  of  iron 9.75  7.0 

(519) 


Specimen  from  Specimen  from   St.    , 

Reigate.  Surrey.  Nimptch  in  S" 

Common  salt 0.1  

Water 24.0  25.5 

Loss 1.4  2.0 


152  THAERS  PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

found  in  calcareous  rocks,  the  evidence  by  which  it  is  proved  that  this  lime  is  , 
derived  from  testaceous  animals,  and,  lastly,  the  numerous  reasons  which  induce 
us  to  believe  that  organic  bodies  produce  lime— all  these  considerations,  taken 
collectively,  have  led  naturalists  to  suppose  that  lime  is  a  product  of  organic  na- 
ture. But  this  opinion  is  contradicted  by  the  existence  of  the  substance  in  ques- 
tion in  primitive  rocks,  and  at  elevations  where  neither  petrifactions  nor  impres- 
sions of  organic  bodies  are  found. 

Lime  belongs  to  the  class  of  alkaline  earths,  and  its  properties  seem  to  bear 
a  close  resemblance  to  those  of  the  alkalies.  It  has  a  strong  tendency  to  com- 
bine with  acids ;  and,  as  it  occurs  everywhere,  v/e  always  find  it  in  combination 
'  with  oiie  or  the  other  of  those  bodies,  except,  indeed,  in  the  craters  of  volcanoes, 
in  which  we  occasionally  meet  with  lime  in  a  pure  state,  being  robbed  of  the 
carbonic  acid  by  the  action  of  heat.  The  acids  with  which  it  is  most  frequently 
combined  are  the  carbonic  and  sulphuric  ;  though  we  occasionally,  but  not  so  often, 
find  it  united  with  the  phosphoric,  muriatic,  boracic,  and  nitric  acids. 

Carbonate  of  lime,  also  known  by  the  name  of  crude  lime,  is  the  base  of  lime- 

-   stone  and  chalk,  and  also  forms  a  constituent  part  of  other  minerals.     It  exists  in 

marl  in  combination  with  clay,  and  in  many  soils  it  is  found  mixed  more  or  less 

\  abundantly  with  clay  and  sand.     It  can  be  separated  from  every  mixture,  and, 

by  means  of  certain  artificial  processes,  may  be  exhibited  in  a  state  of  purity. 

'  Pure  carbonate  of  lime  is  a  light,  white,  insipid,  and  inodorous  powder.  Ac- 
cording to  the  inost  accurate  analysis,  it  is  composed  of  56  parts  in  a  100  of  pure 
lime,  40  parts  of  carbonic  acid,  and  4  parts  of  water.  This  latter  portion  is 
essential  to  it,  and  forms  part  of  the  fundamental  constitution,  and  is  not  evapo- 
rated by  a  moderate  heat  ;  carbonate  of  lime  ceases  to  be  such  before  it  parts 
with  the  water.  This  fluid  is  not  contained  by  it  in  a  liquid  form,  but  as  a  solid, 
and  in  a  state  of  crystalization. 

Carbonate  of  lime  easily  mixes  with  pure  water,  but  does  not  dissolve  in  it ; 
and  if  the  fluid  is  left  quiet,  the  carbonate  soon  subsides.     When  mixed  with 
water  so  as  to  form  a  thin  paste,  and  then  placed  upon  a  horse-hair  seive,  it  re- 
tains a  quantity  of  the  fluid  equal  to  half  its  own  weight,  but  allows  it  to  evapo- 
rate even  more  easily  than  it  escapes  from  sand.      But  this  substance  may  also 
be  dissolved  in  water  which  is  saturated  with  carbonic  acid.     In  order  to  effect 
this  solution,  it  is  only  necessary  to  stir  the  substance  repeatedly  in  the  water. 
The  quantity  of  carbonate  dissolved  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  carbonic  i 
acid  that  is  contained  in  the  water,  and  will  increase  or  diminish  in  exact  pro-  v 
portion  with  it.     This  compound  is  called  the  solutio?i  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  '■ 
loater  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid.     It  is  frequently  met  with  in  nature,  and 
the  waters  of  most  springs  and  especially  of  those  which  issue  from  calcareous 
mountains,  are  of  this  kind. 

A  solution  of  lime  in  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid,  Avhether  produced  by  natural 
or  artificial  means,  is  rapidly  decomposed,  and  the  carbonate  of  lime  separates  > 
from  the  fluid  as  soon  as  the  acid  is  removed.  This  cflect  is  produced  by  mere  \ 
contact  Avith  the  atmosphere,  especially  when  the  water  is  agitated  ;  and  this  is,  i 
doubtless,  the  reason  that  certain  waters  used  for  irrigation  produce  so  very  much  \, 
greater  an  effect  upon  meadows  when  they  flow  over  them  immediately  after  / 
issuing  from  their  source,  than  when  they  are  conducted  to  a  considerable  dis-  <[ 
tance,  and  exposed  all  the  while  to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere.  In  the  lat-  \ 
ter  case  the  water  which  was  previously  limpid  becomes  turbid,  and  deposits  the  ' 
lime  which  it  held  in  solution.* 

When  calcareous  earth  is  dissolved  in  v/ater,  it  adheres  to  the  vessel  which 
contains  it,  and  forms  a  crust,  or  collects  in  masses,  becomes  agglomerated,  and 
falls  into  various  shapes.  AVhen  a  solution  of  lime  in  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid 
is  boiled,  the  acid  escapes  yet  more  rapidly  ;  and  this  may  account  for  the  fact 
that  spring  water,  Avhen  boiled,  becomes  turbid,  and  deposits  a  sediment,  which 
forms  a  crust  round  the  vessel.  This  crust  is  formed  by  the  precipitated  carbo- 
nate of  lime,  although  many  uneducated  persons  take  it  for  nitre. 

*  That  the  portion  of  saline  matters  contained  in  sprin£  water  is  diminished  by  bein^used  for  the  pur- 
poses of  iiTisation,  has  been  proved  by  the  experiments  of  Dr.  H.  R.  Madden,  who  found  that  a  gallon  of  wa- 
ter, "  clear  as  crystal."  issuing  from  the  base  of  the  Pentland  Hill,  contained  before  passing  over  a  meadow 
,     ten  grains  of  common  salt,  and  four  gi-ains  of  carbonate  of  lime,  (chalk.)  but  after  passing  over  the  meadow, 

a  sallon  of  the  same  water  contained  onlv  tive  grains  of  common  salt  and  two  of  carbonate  of  lime. 
I  "  iTrans.  High.  Sue,  Vol.  \'iii.  p.  6S7. 


Bodies  which  absorb  carbonic  acid,  also  precipitate  lime  from  the  water  which 
held  it  in  solution.     The  caustic  alkalies,  potassa,  soda,  and  ammonia,  instantly 
produce  this  effect  by  uniting  with  the  acid,  which  dissolve  the  lime,  thus  pre- 
cipitating the  latter.     The  alkalies,  even  in  their  ordinary  stale  of  carbonate,  gen- 
'   erally  have  the  same  effect,  for  they  are  not  entirely  saturated  with  carbonic  acid. 

Carbonate  of  lime  undergoes  no  change  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  mode- 
rate heat,  except  that  it  parts  with  some  or  all  of  the  water  which  adheres  to  it, 
and  becomes  drier.  But  when  exposed  to  a  violent  heat  it  loses  the  whole  of  the 
water,  as  well  as  the  carbonic  acid  ;  becomes  caustic,  and  acquires  alkaline  pro- 
perties. In  this  state  only,  lime  can  be  regarded  as  chemically  pure  ;  and  it  is 
then  called  calcined  or  quick-lime.  This  substance  has  in  all  ages  and  in  all 
countries  been  \ised  for  the  purposes  of  building.  We  shall  not  here  attempt  to 
describe  the  preparation  of  lime  on  a  large  scale,  but  content  ourselves  with  con- 
sidering its  physical  and  chemical  properties,  in  order  to  be  enabled  to  account 
for  all  the  remarkable  phenomena  it  produces,  as  well  as  the  effects  when  it  is 
employed  as  a  manure  or  as  mortar. 

Quick  or  calcined  lime  has  an  alkaline,  caustic,  and  very  disagreeable  taste ; 
and,  like  the  alkalies,  it  possesses  the  property  of  alternating  vegetable  colors. 
When  fragments  of  lime  in  this  state  are  moistened  with  water,  they  absorb  a 
considerable  quantity  of  that  fluid  and  yet  remain  dry.  A  disengagement  of  heat 
is  soon  observed,  which  gradually  increases  ;  and  finally  the  fragments  split,  burst 
asunder,  and  fall  into  a  very  while  and  light  powder,  which  is  soft  and  dry  to  the 
touch.  The  degree  of  heat  produced  by  this  combination  of  lime  with  water 
sometimes  exceeds  that  of  boiling  water  ;  and  when  a  considerable  quantity  of 
lime  is  slaked  in  a  dark  place,  light  is  frequently  emitted. 

Even  when  lime  is  united  with  a  quantity  of  water  equal  to  the  fourth  part  of 
its  own  weight,  it  does  not  then  become  moistened,  but  absorbs  and  solidifies  the 
whole  of  the  fluid,  and  its  own  weight  is  proportionably  increased.  This  solidi- 
fication of  the  water  affords  an  explanation  of  the  temperature  always  attendant 
on  the  operation  of  slaking  lime,  and  formerly  all  sorts  of  imaginary  causes  were 
assigned  to  account  for  this  phenomenon.  The  water  absorbed  by  the  lime  passes 
from  a  liquid  to  a  solid  state  ;  and  the  caloric  to  which  this  liquid  doubtless  owes 
its  fluidity,  is  set  at  liberty  and  escapes.  The  water  which  has  entered  into 
combination  with  lime  passes  into  a  solid  state,  and  can  only  be  separated  from 
it  when  that  substance  is  heated  to  ignition. 

Lime  that  has  been  slaked  may  easily  be  mixed  with  water,  and  the  union 
takes  place  without  any  farther  disengagement  of  heat.  When  diffused  through 
a  large  quantity  of  water,  lime  forms  a  kind  of  fluid  paste  ;  and  if  ihe  quantfty  ' 
of  water  be  still  farther  increased,  a  thin  liquid  will  be  formed,  known  by  the  '', 
name  of  ?nilk  or  cream  of  lime.  Lime  when  slaked  is  still  caustic,  although  not  '' 
to  so  great  a  degree  as  quick-lime  ;  it  has  an  acrid,  disagreeable  taste,  and  alters  / 
the  color  of  paper  stained  with  vegetable  juices  from  blue  to  green. 

Lime  which  has  been  calcined,  but  not  slaked,  likewise  becomes  changed  by 
exposure  to  the  air  ;  its  fragments  fall  to  powder  more  or  less  quickly  in  propor-  i 
tion  to  the  degree  of  humidity  contained  in  the  surrounding  atmosphere;  it  ab- 
sorbs the  moisture  of  the  air,  and  thus  becomes  slaked  of  itself,  often  exhibitino' 
a  perceptible  increase  of  temperature.  But  it  also  becomes  changed  in  another 
way,  gradually  losing  its  causticity  and  taste,  and  becoming  unfit  to  be  made  into 
mortar.  It  also  absorbs  carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  and  thus  gradually  repasses 
to  the  state  of  a  carbonate,  so  that  it  cannot  be  restored  to  iis  former  condition 
unless  it  be  calcined  afresh. 

The  time  requisite  to  effect  the  passage  of  quick-lime  into  a  carbonate  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air  depends  upon  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  quantity 
of  carbonic  acid  which  it  contains.     The  greater  the  quantity  of  moisture   and    I 
of  carbonic  acid,  the  more  rapidly  does  the  transition  take  place.     Calcined  lime  ; 
does  not  absorb  any  carbonic  acid  from  dry  air,  even  when  that  acid  is  present  in    ' 
large  quantities  :  moisture  is  absolutely  necessary  to  bring  about  a  union  of  these 
two  substances.     Calcined  lime  may,  therefore,  be  kept  in  a  dry  place  for  a  con- 
siderable  time  without  losing  its  properties.     It  is  not,  however,  safe  to  trust  to 
this  method  in  cases  where  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  lime  perfectly  pure,  as,  for 
example,  when  it  is  to  be  used  as  a  remedy  for  swellings  on  the  bodies  of  ani- 
mals ;  it  ought,  in  such  cases,  to  be  kept  in  closely  stopped  glass  v 

(521) 


!  154  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

Calcined  lime  may  be  completely  dissolved  in  pure  water  without  the  inter- 
vention of  any  other  substance,  and  it  does  not  lose  this  property  even  when  it 
has  been  previously  slaked.  But  a  very  large  quantity  of  water  is  necessary  in 
order  to  dissolve  it  completely,  viz.,  780  parts  of  water  to  one  of  lime.  In  order 
to  effect  this  solution,  it  is  only  necessary  to  agitate  either  quick  or  slaked  lime 
in  water.  The  solution  thus  formed  is  called  lime  water ;  it  is  perfectly  clear 
and  transparent,  and  has  the  alkaline  taste  of  lime.  Its  effect  on  vegetable 
colors  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  produced  by  the  solution  of  an  alkali. 

When  lime-water  is  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  a  white  crust  forms  over  its 
surface,  which  ultimately  becomes  so  heavy  that  it  fails  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel  and  is  succeeded  by  another,  until  the  whole  of  the  lime  is  precipitated 
from  the  solution.  The  mixture  thus  formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  is  called 
cream  of  lime.  The  effect  just  mentioned  is  produced  by  the  absorption  of  the 
carbonic  acid  contained  in  the  air  by  the  lime.  This  acid  combines  with  the 
lime,  which  being  thus  converted  into  a  carbonate,  can  no  longer  be  held  In  solu- 
tion by  the  water.  Lime-water  must,  therefore,  be  kept  in  tightly  stopped  glass 
vessels. 

Lime  which  is  completely  dissolved  in  water,  and  even  that  which  is  only 
mechanically  mixed  or  suspended  in  that  fluid,  as  is  the  case  in  the  milk  of  lime, 
quickly  absorbs  carbonic  acid,  and  becomes  saturated  with  it,  when  it  is  briskly 
agitated  in  that  gas.     All  Avaters  containing  carbonic  acid  are  robbed  of  it  by  the  i 
action  of  lime  ;  hence  it  also  decomposes  a  solution  of  lime  in  an  excess  of  car-  ' 
bouic  acid.      Lime  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  best  reagents  that  can  be  employed 
.  for  detecting  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  in  liquids  or  gases.     It  is  by  a  process    ' 
'    somewhat  of  this  nature  that  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  contained  in  the  at-    ! 
mosphere  or  in  water  is  determined. 

Calcined  lime  easily  combines  with  sulphur,  producing  various  phenomena, 
according  to  the  maimer  in  Avhich  the  combination  is  effected.     When  caustic  or 
quick-lime  in  a  state  of  powder  is  mixed  with  powdered  sulphur,  and  this  combi-  / 
nation  is  heated  to  redness,  it  becomes  brown,  and  the   two  substances  unite. 
The  product,  which  is  called  sulphur et  of  lime,  or  liver  of  sulphur,  has  no  smell,  \ 
and  is  simply  a  compound  of  lime  and  sulphur.    When  it  is  exposed  to  the  air,  > 
or  moistened  with  water,   the  peculiarly  fetid  odor  of  sulphureted  hydrogen  is  ? 
given  off;  part  of  the  sulphur  decomposes  the  Avater  ;  the  hydrogen  of  the  latter  s 
dissolves  a  portion  of  the  sulphur  and  produces  an  acid,  which  immediately  unites  ) 
with  the  lime,  and  thus  the  hydro-sulphuret  of  lime  is  formed.  ) 

The  same  compound  is  obtained  by  boiling  sulphur  in  lime-water,  or  milk  of  < 
lime  ;  the  liquid  becomes  brown  and  exhales  the  same  odor.  This  compound  of  ; 
sulphur,  when  prepared  in  the  dry  way  and  afterwards  moistened  with  water,  ( 
undergoes  decomposition  by  exposure  to  the  air,  the  sulphur  absorbing  oxygen.  S 
When  mixed  Avith  acids  it  is  rapidly  decomposed,  and  gives  out  an  additional  / 
quantity  of  sulphureted  hydrogen  ;  very  good  artificial  imitations  of  natural  sul-  c 
phureted  baths  may  thus  be  made.  \ 

Lime  and  phosphorus  may  also  be  made  to  combine  by  being  fused  together.  > 
The  resulting  compound  is  a  brown  substance  called  -phosiphuret  of  calcium,  Avhich  ( 
possesses  even  to  a  greater  degree  than  the  sulphuret  the  poAver  of  decomposing  s 
water.  In  this  combination  a  great  quantity  of  phosphureted  hydrogen  gas  is  > 
disengaged,  part  of  Avhich  escapes  and  takes  fire  upon  coming  in  contact  Avith  c 
the  air,  while  the  rest  is  retained  by  the  lime,  and  cannot  be  disengaged  except  \ 
By  the  intervention  of  other  acids.*  ) 

^  As  far  as  present  experience  goes,  it  does  not  appear  that  lime  combines  Avith  { 
pure  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  or  carbon  ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  of  its  being  able  to  j 
unite  Avith  these  substances  when  they  are  combined  together,  or  of  its  capability  ) 
of  uniting  Avith  carbureted  hydrogen  and  the  compounds  of  carbon,  nitrogen,  and  ( 
hydrogen.  This  fact  shoAvs  us  the  reason  that  organized  bodies  are  attacked  and  j 
destroyed  by  quick-lime.  When  such  bodies  are  placed  in  contact  Avith  the  lime,  ) 
'  they  lose  their  cohesion  and  color,  and  are  reduced  to  a  friable  mass.  Carcasses  \ 
'    covered  with  lime  are  rapidly  decomposed  Avithout  exhaling  those  noxious  vapors  S 

*  The  phosphuret  of  calcium  decomposes  the  water,  the  hydrogen  of  which  comtiines  wath  the  phospho-  \ 

rus,  forming  phosphureted  hydrogen;  while  its  oxygen  combines  partly  with  the  calcium,  forming  lime,  and  ( 

partly  with  the  phosphorus,  forming  phosphoric  and  hypo-phosphoric  acids.     These  acids  unite  with  the  ( 

lime  and  foiTiapiiosphate  and  hypo-phosphate  of  lime.  ^ 


which  accompany  their  putrefaction  under  other  circumstances.  It  is  on  this 
account  that  quick-lime  is  placed  in  the  coffin  with  the  bodies  of  those  individuals 
who  have  died  of  contagious  diseases.  Even  living  organized  bodies,  as  tender 
plants  and  seeds,  insects  and  their  larvae,  are  also  attacked  and  rapidly  destroyed 
by  quick-lime. 

These  phenomena,  which  are  produced  by  lime  as  well  as  by  the  alkalies, 
sufficiently  prove  that  it  has  an  affinity  for  the  elements  of  which  organized 
bodies  are  composed,  viz.,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitrogen,  as  it  is  impossible  to 
believe  that  a  substance  which  acts  with  so  much  energy  upon  organic  bodies, 
can  be  destitute  of  affinity  for  their  elements  ;  we  are  rather  led  to  conclude  that 
it  tends  to  combine  with  some  one  or  more  of  these  elements,  which  are  united 
in  all  organic  bodies  in  certain  definite  proportions  ;  and  that  by  its  combination 
it  destroys  the  equilibrium  of  the  whole  mixture.* 

Slaked  lime  does  not  produce  these  effects  to  the  same  extent  as  quick-lime, 
because  its  action  is  not  assisted  by  that  increase  of  temperature  which  accom-  ! 
paoies  the  action  of  the  latter  ;  nevertheless,  it  has  sufficient  power  to  accelerate    ' 
the  decomposition  of  organic  substances.     On  this  decomposing  power,  the  bene- 
ficial eflect  which  it  produces  when  used  as  manure  in  a  great  measure  depends 
It  accelerates  the  decomposition  and  disintegration  of  the  manure  already  con 
tained  in  the  soil,  and  causes  those  portions  which  are  most  advantageous  to    i 
plants  to  be  developed  in  the  greatest  quantity.     For  the  same  reason,  it  tends  to  / 
accelerate  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil;  which,  consequently,  is  rendered  more  ', 
sterile  if  it  be  not  speedily  ameliorated.     It  is  this  action  which  makes  it  so  |> 
necessary,  where  lime  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  land,  to  manure 
it  at  the  same  time  with  a  quantity  of  dung  or  some  such  matters.     But  it  must 
also  be  allowed  that  carbonate  of  lime  exerts  a  similar  influence  upon  organic 
bodies,  especially  where  putrefaction  and  decomposition  have  already  commenced. 
The  carbonate  also  appears  to  possess,  althougJi  in  an  inferior  degree,  the  power 
of  acting  upon  certain  combinations  of  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon,  taking  up 
a  certain  portion  of  them,  and  thus  weakening  or  perhaps  destroying  their  ori- 
ginal stale  of  combination. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  properties  of  lime — a  property  which  renders  it 
so  eminently  useful  as  a  building  material — is,  that  it  hardens  when  mixed  with 
certain  stony  substances  and  made  into  a  fluid  paste,  and  forms  with  them  a  mat- 
ter which  possesses  the  firmness  of  rock.  Mortar,  made  of  sand  and  slaked 
lime,  soon  dries  when  exposed  to  the  air.  This  composition  not  only  possesses 
great  cohesion  in  itself,  but  also  adheres  firmly  to  other  stony  substances,  and 
serves  to  unite  them  together.  This  cohesive  power  arises  from  the  strong  affin- 
ity which  exists  between  silica  and  lime.  A  mixture  of  lime  and  water  presents 
numerous  points  of  contact  to  sand,  stones,  and  other  kinds  of  hard  substances 
which  are  chiefly  composed  of  silica,  and  thus  its  cohesion  with  them  is  strength- 
ened ;  the  water  evaporates,  and  by  so  doing  still  farther  arguments  f'le  cohe- 
sion ;  finally,  the  lime  absorbs  carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  and  thus  uniergoes  a 
sort  of  crystalization,  which  increases  to  a  yet  greater  extent  both  its  own  cohe- 
sion and  its  adhesion  to  bodies  of  a  silicious  nature. 

Lime  cannot,  even  by  the  most  intense  heat,  be  made  to  fuse,  unless  it  is  mixed 
with  other  substances.  Too  great  a  degree  of  heat  does,  however,  produce  a 
certain  change  in  its  properties,  rendering  it  insoluble  in  water  and  unfit  for  ma- 
king mortar.  This  tendency  is  well  known  to  those  who  have  the  management 
of  lime-kilns,  and  they  cautiously  endeavor  to  guard  against  it.  When  it  has  un- 
dergone this  alteration,  it  is  called  dead  or  burnt  lime.  This  condition  is  that  of 
a  species  of  vitrification  or  agglomeration  ;  the  cohesion  of  the  integral  parts  is 
augmented,  and  the  affinity  for  water  is  greatly  diminished  by  this  change.  But 
lime  may  be  completely  fused  when  mixed  with  silica. 

Lime  has  a  powerful  affinity  for  acids,  and  for  most  of  them  its  affinity  is  even 
greater  than  that  of  the  alkalies  properly  so  called.  It  attracts  carbonic  acid 
more  powerfully  than  potassa,  soda,  or  ammonia  do,  and  can  even  deprive  these 

*  When  lime  is  mixed  with  tallow,  and  certain  other  organic  substances,  it  fonns  a  soap.  Lime,  and 
gome  of  its  salts,  when  mixed  with  common  alkahne  soap,  decomposes  it,  and  fonns  a  soap  of  lime;  which, 
being  insoluble  in  water,  forms  a  white  curdy  matter  which  swims  upon  the  surface  of  the  water.  Waters 
which  owe  their  hardness  to  the  presence  of  either  sulphate  of  lime,  (gypsum)  or  cai-bonate  of  lime  (chalk), 
always  produce  this  eifect  upon  soap. 


156  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

substances  of  the  carbonic  acid  which  they  may  possess  ;  it  is,  therefore,  employjd 
as  the  best  means  of  converting  the  alkaline  carbonates  into  caustic  alkalies.  It 
has,  also,  a  greater  affinity  than  the  pure  alkalies  for  the  sulphuric,  nitric,  muri- 
atic, and  phosphoric  acids  ;  the  alkalies,  therefore,  cannot  decompose  the  com- 
pounds of  lime  with  these  acids. 

AVhen  acids  are  brought  in  contact  with  calcined  lime  that  has  been  previously 
slaked,  the  combination  takes  place  promptly  and  without  effervescence.  If  the 
acid  used  be  the  nitric  or  muriatic,  both  of  Avhich  form  soluble  neutral  salts  with 
lime,  the  latter  is  dissolved  by  the  liquid  and  ceases  to  be  visible,  the  fluid  be- 
coming perfectly  clear.  But  if  the  compound  be  a  neutral  salt  which  is  insoluble, 
or,  at  all  events,  difficult  of  solution,  as  is  the  case  Avhen  sulphuric  or  phosphoric  . 
acid  is  used,  the  lime  remains  suspended  in  the  liquid,  and  separates  anew  after 
having  entered  into  combination  with  the  acid.  J 

When  liquid  acids  mixed  with  water  are  poured  upon  lime  which  has  been 
calcined,  but  not  slaked,  a  disengagement  of  heat  takes  place,  which  causes  the 
liquid  to  effervesce.  This  effect  is  due  less  to  the  action  of  the  acids  than  to  the 
absorption  or  crystalization  of  the  water,  and  is  very  different  from  the  efferves- 
cence which  accompanies  the  action  of  acids  upon  the  carbonate  of  lime. 

Carbonate  of  lime  dissolves  in  acids  quite  as  readily  as  calcined  lime  ;  while 
this  solution  is  going  on,  carbonic  acid  escapes  in  the  form  of  gas.  This  gas 
rises  to  the  surface  of  the  fluid  in  the  form  of  bubbles,  and  causes  a  violent  effer- 
vescence. As  this  phenomenon  always  accompanies  the  solution  of  carbonate  of  ' 
lime  in  an  acid,  it  has  been  regarded  as  a  certain  indication  of  the  presence  of 
that  substance  in  any  earthy  body.  If  effervescence  takes  place  Avhen  an  acid  is 
poured  upon  the  earth,  the'presence  of  lime  may  be  inferred  ;  but  this  evidence 
must  not,  however,  be  regarded  as  conclusive  or  unexceptionable.  If  an  addition 
of  acid  causes  no  effervescence,  it  may  then  be  reasonably  believed  that  the  earth 
does  not  contain  carbonate  of  lime,  at  least  in  any  appreciable  quantity ;  but  the 
contrary  does  not  so  necessarily  follow,  because  the  same  phenomenon  is  produced 
by  the  disengagement  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  carbonate  of  magnesia  or  iron 
when  acted  upon  by  acids  ;  the  effervescence  attributed  to  the  carbonate  of  lime 
may,  therefore,  be  caused  by  the  presence  of  one  of  these  substances. 

When  calcined  lime  combines  with  acids,  it  loses  the  causticity  and  alkaline 

properties,  and  the  acids  themselves  also  lose  their  distingaishing  characteristics. 

.    The  effect  is  the  same  whether  it  be  the  carbonate  or  calcined  lime  which  com- 

/  bines  with  the  acids.     In  either  case  the  resulting  compound  is  a  simple  combi- 

j  nation  of  lime  with  the  acid  employed. 

5       The  neutral  salts  which  lime  forms  by  its  combination  with  acids,  exhibit  dif- 
i\  ferent  properties  with  the  acids  by  which  they  were  produced;  they  are,  also,   / 
*   sensibly  different  from  those  which  the  same  acids  form  with  other  earths.     We 
shall  not  here  attempt  to  enter  into  a  minute  examination  of  more  than  one  of 
these  salts,  viz.,  the  sulphate  of  lime,  or  gypsum. 

Among  the  calcareous  minerals  essentially  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  we 
distinguish  the  following  : 

1.  Calcareous-spar. — Is  composed  entirely  of  carbonate  of  lime  ;  it  is  found  in 
crystals  or  in  masses  in  the  interior  of  strata,  and  not  unfrequently  serves  as  a 
matrix  for  metallic  ores.  Its  crystals  vary  betAveen  the  forms  of  the  prism,  the 
pyramid,  the  rhomboid,  &c.  Calc-spar  is  more  or  less  transparent,  colorless,  and 
breaks  into  rhomboidal  fragments.  The  transparent  rhomboidal  crystals  of  calc- 
spar  have  the  property  of  multiplying  the  objects  seen  through  them. 

2.  Limestone.     Whole  mountain  chains  are  found  composed  of  this  rock  ;  it  is  < 
extracted  in  order  to  be  calcined  and  converted  into  lime,  a  purpose  for  which  it 
is  peculiarly  adapted.     It  is  hard,  and  usually  of  a  greyish  hue,  inclining  to  red 
or  yellow  ;  occasionally  it  is  found  variously  colored.     The  grey  variety  is  the 
bes't.     It  is,  moreover,  distinguished  by  the  form  of  its  fracture  ;  some  kinds  "of   , 
limestone   having   an   earthy,  some  a  scaly,  and  others   a   schistous  fracture.    ' 
Limestone  always  exhibits  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  hardness,  but  is  never 
sufficiently  hard  to  emit  sparks  on  being  struck  with  steel.     It  does  not,  naturally, 
possess  either  lustre  or  transparency,  but  sometimes  acquires  the  former  from 
polishing.     Limestone  often  exhibits  impressions  and  petrifications  of  testaceous 
animals  ;  sometimes  it  is  impregnated  with  bituminous  substances,  and,  in  that    i 
case,  on  its  fragments  being  rubbed  together,  it  emits  a  fetid  odor  similar  to 


LIME.  157 


that  of  garlic.     This  variety  is  called  stinking  stone,  or  swine  stone,   or  lapis 

suillus. 
1       Limestone  is  not  generally  so  pure  as  calc-spar,  and  it  often  contains  oxide  of 
\    iron,  alumina,  and  silica.     According  to  Simon,  one  hundred  parts  of  Riiders- 

dorff  limestone  contain — 

Chalk 53-0  parts.  I  Iron - 0-75  parts. 

Carbonic  Acid 42-50     "      |  Water 1-63      " 

Silica 1-12     "  

Alumina -1-0       "      \  100-0 

According  to  the  same  author,  Swedish  limestone  contains  rather  more  silica, 
alumina,  and  oxide  of  iron,  and  likewise  a  little  of  the  oxide  of  manganese.* 

Marble  is  a  species  of  concrete  limestone,  which  is  only  distinguished  from  the 
others  by  the  small  admixture  of  foreign  bodies  which  it  contains,  by  being  con- 
siderably harder  and  finer  grained,  and  by  the  variety  of  its  hues,  which  latter 
often  give  to  it  a  very  beautiful  appearance. 

3.  Chalk.  This  is  a  species  of  concrete  lime,  of  different  degrees  of  hardness, 
meagre  to  the  touch,  slightly  inclined  to  stain  or  soil  whatever  it  comes  in  con- 
tact with,  and  capable  of  being  easily  reduced  to  powder.  It  is  of  a  white  or 
yellowish  Avhite  color,  and  derives  its  name  from  the  Isle  of  Crete  or  Caudia,  in 
which  large  quantities  of  very  fine  chalk  are  found.  It  may  also  be  procured 
from  other  countries,  in  some  of  which  there  are  large  hills  composed  entirely  of 
it— as,  for  example,  in  England,  Denmark,  France,  &c.  Chalk  may  be  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  lime,  and  is  also  in  daily  use  for  various  other  purposes. — 
There  are  other  fossils  which  are  often  called  by  the  same  name,  but  which,  nev- 
ertheless, must  not  be  confounded  with  this  substance.  Spanish  chalk  is  a  spe- 
cies of  stealite,  which  belongs  to  the  class  of  magnesias.  Black  chalk  is  of  the 
schistous  species. 

4.  Pulverulent  lime.  In  hills,  plains,  and  low  grounds,  a  species  of  friable 
white  earth  is  often  found,  bordering  in  hue,  more  or  less,  on  yellow  or  grey,  and 
which  is  principally  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  meagre  to  the  touch, 
possesses  a  small  degree  of  consistency,  and,  when  impregnated  with  wa+er,  does 
not  form  a  concrete  mass.  We  call  it  pulverulent  or  earthy  lime,  bn  m  many 
places  it  is  known  as  marly  lime,  and  is  sometimes  denominated  rnarl.  It  con- 
sists of  too  great  a  proportion  of  lime,  containing  at  least  ninety  parts  of  it  in  a 
hundred,  to  admit  of  its  being  classed  among  marls.  It  is  moulded  into  the  form 
of  tiles,  in  order  to  be  reduced  to  quick  lime  by  calcination,  but  it  may  be  advan- 
tageously employed  as  a  manure  without  being  submitted  to  the  action  of  fire — 
and  the  more  so,  as  the  simple  action  of  the  atmosphere  is  sufficient  to  reduce  it 
to  powder.  It  is,  therefore,  of  great  importance  to  the  agriculturist,  as,  in  all 
probability,  its  origin  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  kind  we  are  now  about  to  mention. 

■*  The  common  varieties  of  lime,  used  by  the  English  farmers,  are  procured  by  calcining  either  chalk  or 
limestone.  Such  lime  is,  therefore,  rarely,  if  ever,  chemically  pure,  for  it  almost  always  contains  a  portion 
of  silica  (flint),  alumina  (clay),  and  some  red  oxide  of  iron.  These,  however,  are  not  often  present  in  suffi- 
cient quantities  to  influence  the  fertilizing  powers  of  the  lime  to  any  material  extent,  as  will  readily  be  seen 
by  the  analysis  of  the  limestones,  and  the  chalk  usually  employed  by  the  lime  burners. 

Carbonate  of  lime 95-05  parts.  I 

Water 1-63      "  100  parts  of  common  chalk  contain — 

SUica 1-12      "         Lime 56-5  parts. 

Alumina 1-00      •'         Carbonic  Acid 43-0      " 

Oxide  of  Iron 0-75       '       '   i\  aler 0'5      " 

united  with  various  smaU  proportions  of  the  other  earths.  There  is  also  a  very  considerable  proportion  of 
lime  made  in  ttie  north  of  England,  from  the  magnesian  limestones,  called  by  the  Yorkshire  farmers  "  hot 
lime  "  all  <">f  which  differ  considerably  in  composition  ;  that  from  Sunderland  containing  in  100  parts — 

Oarbnnat?.  of  Lime 56.8  parts.  I  Clay,  Water,  &c 2-00  parts. 

Carbonate  uf  Magnesia 40-84    ■'       |  Oxide  of  Iron - 0-36      " 

This  "  hot  lime,"  which  is  well  known  by  the  fai-mej-s  in  the  neighborhood  of  Doncaster,  and  other  parts 
of  the  north  of  England,  can  only  be  applied  in  limited  quantities,  for  the  calcined  magnesia  of  the  limestone 
remains  for  a  considerable  period  in  its  pure  caustic  form,  without  absorbing  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  at- 
mosphere, and  in  this  state  its  effect  is  very  pernicious  to  many  kinds  of  plants.  It  is  only  when  pure,  how- 
ever, that  magnesia  is  prejudicial  to  vegetation  ;  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  it  gradually  and  slowly  ab- 
sorbs carbonic  acid  gas,  becomes  carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  in  this  state  forms  a  part  of  many  cultivated 
plants.  Some  of  the  most  fertile  soils  of  our  island,  in  fact,  contain  it,  in  this  form,  in  considerable  quan- 
tities. 

The  action  of  the  fire  upon  the  chalk  and  the  limestones  merely  deprives  them  of  their  water  and  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  or  fixed  air.  The  farmer  must  not  fall  into  the  very  common  error  of  supposing  that  any- 
thing is  added  by  the  fire  to  the  lime  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  loses  very  materially  in  weight,  by  being  deprived 
of  its  carbonic  acid  gas,  a  loss,  however,  which  it  gradually  recovers  by  exposure  to  tTie  atmosphere,  which 
always  contains  this  elastic  vapor.  "  [Johnson's  Farmers'  Eiicyclo. 

(525) 


l: 


THAERS  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


5.  Lamellated  or  shell  lime.     This  variety  is  sometimes  found  in  mountains, 
but  more  frequently  in  plains,  covered  by  a  thick  layer  of  black  marshy  earth. — 
On  the  surface  there  is  usually  a  layer  of  shells,  which,  as  we  penetrate  deeper, 
exfoliate  into  flakes  ;  underneath  these  is  a  layer  of  loose  friable  lime  ;  and,  far- 
.   thei    down  still,  a  species  of  lime  almost  as  hard  as  a  stone.     It  is  here  easily 
••'  perceptible  that  lliis  substance  has  been  formed  from  the  remnants  of  testaceous 

limals,  and  that  it  has  gradually  become  hardened  into  stone. 
/  6.  Stalactites  and  calcareous  crystalized  concretiojis.  These  varieties  have 
been  produced  by  the  droppings  of  water,  which  has  dissolved  a  great  deal  of 
carbonate  of  lime  by  means  of  the  carbonic  acid  which  they  contain.  In  propor- 
tion as  this  acid  has  become  evaporated,  the  lime  has  been  deposited  and  har- 
dened on  itself,  or  on  any  other  bodies  which  it  met  with  in  its  descent.  Stalac- 
tites of  various  remarkable  forms  are  frequently  found,  principally  in  grottoes, 
and  especially  in  those  called  Bauman's  or  Biell's  Hohle,  in  the  Hartz  mount- 
ains, in  the  Grotto  of  Antiparos,  &c. 

The  calcareous  sandy-stone  is  a  concretion  which  is  formed  by  the  depositions 
of  water.     It  is  found  at  Carlsbad  in  Silesia,  among  the  Hartz  mountains,  and  in 
,  almost  all  places  where  there  are  calcareous  mountains.     Sometimes  it  assumes 
\'  the  form  of  little  balls,  adhering  to  one  another,  which  are  either  hollow  or  con- 
tain a  kernel  of  sand.     They  are  called  stones  of  peas,  or  fossil  lentil. 

Gypsum,  or  Sulphate  of  Lime. 
Of  all  the  various  concretions  which  are  formed  by  combinations  of  lime  with 
difi'erent  acids,  we  shall  only  enter  into  an  examination  of  one,  namely,  that 
which  results  from  the  union  of  lime  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  is  commonly  called 
gypsum,  but  which  is  known  to  scientific  men  by  the  name  of  sulphate  of  lime. 
This  body  is  perfectly  insipid,  and  can  with  difficulty  be  dissolved  in  water  ; 
when  it  has  been  purified,  either  by  some  combustible  matter  or  metallic  oxide, 
it  is  always  of  a  whitish  color.  According  to  Buckholtz,  it  takes  461|  parts  ot 
water  to  dissolve  one  part  of  gypsum,  but  the  data  with  regard  to  this  point  vary 
considerably.  Buckholtz  also  stales  that  the  dissolving  powers  of  warm  and  cold 
water  on  this  substance  are  almost  equal ;  but  other  authors  assert  that  warm 
water  dissolves  the  greatest  quantity  of  it.  The  difficulty  in  dissolving  gypsum 
is  the  reason  that  it  can  never  be  produced  in  the  form  of  crystals.  The  solution 
oi  iv  only  produces  a  few  crystaline  grains.  It  is  also  on  this  account  that  large 
quantities  of  lime,  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid,  cannot  be  obtained  m  a  liquid 
form,  and  that  it  always  remains  behind  in  the  filter.  If  sulphuric  acid,  diluted 
with  water,  is  poured  upon  lime,  a  combination  certainly  takes  place  ;  but  the 
gypsum  which  results  from  it  presents  itself  in  the  form  of  a  white  indissoluble 
powder,  only  a  very  minute  portion  being  held  in  solution  by  the  fluid. 

The  solution  which  contains  this  small  portion  of  gypsum  exactly  resembles 
pure  Avater  ;  it  has,  however,  a  slight  taste,  although  the  powder  itself  is  abso- 

1  lutely  insipid.  This  taste  is  not  easily  described  ;  it  is  remarked  in  most  water 
that  contains  a  solution  of  gypsum,  and  it  is  then  called  hard  water.  If  this  so- 
lution be  gradually  evapoiated,  gypsum  will  continue  to  be  precipitated  during 
the  whole  of  the  process,  for  the  remaining  fluid  will  only  retain  that  quantity 
which  it  can  hold  in  solution.  Water  containing  carbonic  acid  dissolves  a  much 
greater  portion  of  gypsum  than  pure  water  ;  but,  in  proportion  as  the  acid  evapo- 
rates, the  substance  held  m  solution  will  be  precipitated:  thus,  if  the  fluid  be  ex- 
posed to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  it  loses  the  chief  part  of  its  gypsum  ; 
and,  if  it  be  boiled,  the  whole  of  the  substance  will  be  found  deposited  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  vessel.  Waters  impregnated  with  gypsum,  or,  in  other  words,  hard 
waters,  are  totally  unfit  for  many  purposes  ;  but  when  applied  to  the  irrigation  of 
meadows,  the  effects  are  ameliorating  and  fertilizing. 

According  to  the  experiments  made  by  Buckholtz,  gypsum  is  composed  of 

,  thirty-three  parts  in  a  hundred  of  lime,  forty-three  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  twenty- 

/  four  of  water  of  crystalization.     There  may,  however,  exist  varieties  of  this  sub- 

'I  stance  which  contain  different  pre  portions. 

When  exposed  to  the  atmosrhere,  gypsum  does  not  lose  its  water  of  crystal- 
ization ;  but,  if  submitted  to  the  action  of  fire,  the  water  is  immediately  evapo- 
rated, without,  however,  the  gv]  sum  being  cracked  or  broken.  It  loses  in  weight 
(all  the  water  which  it  previous!',  contained.  In  order  to  produce  this  effect,  it  is 
(526) 


GYPSUM.  1 


59 : 


not  necessary  that  any  very  great  degree  of  heat  should  be  applied  ;  it  may  even 
be  mierior  to  that  which  is  requisite  to  effect  the  calcination  of  lime.  AVhen 
gypsum  which  has  been  broken  into  moderate-sized  pieces  is  passed  through  the 
fire,  it  becomes  calcined,  and  is  at  the  same  time  rendered  perfectly  soft,  so  much 
so  that  it  can  be  easily  crushed  between  the  fingers. 

Gypsum  which  has  thus  been  deprived  of  its  water  of  crystalization  by  the  ac- 
tion of  fire,  is  termed  calcined  gypsum  or  plaster.  When  in  this  state,  it  may  be 
used  as  mortar,  or  formed  into  moulds  or  casts.  When  the  plaster  is  reduced  to 
a  verv  fine  powder,  and  mixed  with  water,  it  rapidly  absorbs  that  fluid,  and  so- 
lidifies and  combines  with  it,  the  same  as  with  the  water  of  crystalization.  In 
this  change  a  disengagement  of  heat  takes  place,  similar  to  that  which  results 
from  the  combination  of  lime  and  water  ;  but  the  elevation  of  temperature  is  not 
so  sensible  in  this  instance,  because  the  union  does  not  take  place,  so  promptly,  c 
If  more  water  is  added  than  the  plaster  requires  for  the  purpose  of  crystalization, 
the  mixture  remains  for  some  moments  in  the  form  of  a  thick  paste,  but  event- 
ually unites  into  crystals,  and  forms  a  compact  mass.  It  is  this  property  which 
renders  it  so  useful  as  a  stucco. 

Calcined  gypsum,  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  gradually  absorbs  moist- 
ure, which  it  combines  with  in  the  form  of  water  of  crystalization,  and  thus  in- 
creases in  weight,  but  at  the  same  time  loses  its  faculty  of  effervescing  when 
mixed  with  mortar,  and  also  its  utility  as  mortar.  When  this  is  the  case,  it  can 
only  be  restored  to  its  pristine  state  by  being  calcined  afresh  ;  when  this  has  been 
done,  it  is  once  more  available  for  mortar. 

If,  during  the  process  of  calcination,  gypsum  should  be  exposed  to  too  great  a 
degree  of  heat,  it  undergoes  an  alteration  similar  to  that  which  lime  experiences 
in  like  circumstances.  When  burned,  it  no  longer  effervesces  when  brought  into 
contact  with  water,  loses  its  beneficial  effects  as  a  manure,  and  cannot  be  made 
into  stucco. 

G-ypsum  can  only  be  fused  by  means  of  a  very  intense  and  prolonged  degree  of 
h.it.  AVhen  it  has  undergone  this  process,  it  not  unfrequently  evolves  light 
when  placed  in  a  dark  place.  The  heat  does  not  effect  the  decomposition  and 
separation  of  the  sulphuric  acid  from  the  lime  ;  it  only  deprives  the  gypsum  of 
Its  Avater.  This  substance  is  only  decomposed  when,  along  with  coal  or  vegeta- 
ble bodies,  it  is  absolutely  ignited  ;  then  only  does  its  sulphuric  acid  become  de- 
prived of  oxygen  ;  and  a  portion  of  the  sulphur  thus  separated  is  evaporated, 
while  the  rest  remains  combined  with  the  lime,  thus  forming  sulphuret  of  lime 
or  liver  of  sulphur.  This  will  account  for  the  sulphurous  smell  which  alv/ays 
prevails  in  the  neighborhood  of  gypsum  kilns. 

It  is  probable  that  a  similar  combination  is  effected,  though  much  more  slow- 
ly, at  a  less  elevated  temperature,  when  the  gypsum  is  united  with  bodies  im- 
pregnated with  carbon,  and  which  are  in  a  state  of  putrefaction  ;  a  portion  of  the 
beneficial  eflect  of  gypsum  in  ameliorating  land  arises  from  this  circumstance. — 
When  water  impregnated  with  gypsum  is  foul  or  muddy,  it  gives  out  a  fetid  sul- 
phurous odor.  Fourcroy  attributes  the  bad  smells  which  prevail  in  some  towns 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris  to  this  quality. 

Lime  has  a  greater  affinity  for  sulphuric  acid  than  the  alkalies  have,  and,  con- 
sequently, gypsum  cannot  be  decomposed  by  these  substances  ;  but  alkaline  car- 
bonates easily  effect  a  complete  decomposition  of  it  by  means  of  a  double  combi- 
nation. If,  for  example,  powdered  gypsum  is  boiled  in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of 
potassa,  this  latter  combines  with  the  sulphuric  acid,  while  the  lime  unites  with 
the  carbonic  acid.  The  lime  then  passes  in  the  form  of  a  white  powder  into  the 
stale  of  carbonate  of  lime,  while  the  alkaline  sulphate  is  dissolved  in  the  fluid. 

The  gypsum  which  is  met  with  in  the  mineral  kingdom  sometimes  constitutes 
entire  mountains.  It  is  found  under  various  forms — sometimes  as  a  pulverulent 
body,  at  other  times  in  large  masses,  and  occasionally  crystalized.  The  follow- 
ing are  some  of  the  kinds  most  frequently  met  with  : 

1.  Powdered  gypsum,  celestial  farina.  This  gypsum  is  pulverulent ;  it  is 
•\  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  gypseous  rocks,  from  which  it  has  been  separated 
I  and  reduced  to  powder  by  the  action  of  water.  In  some  places  it  is  seen  issuing 
'  from  the  earth.  At  a  period  of  scarcity  and  famine,  this  substance  was  supposed 
i'  to  be  meal  or  flour  sent  down  from  heaven  ;  it  was  gathered  up,  mixed  with  real 
flour,  and  made  into  bread,  which,  as  might  have  been  expected,  was  not  calcu- 

(527) 


160  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

laied  for  the  sustenance  of  mankind,  but  which,  nevertheless,  was  not  so  imme- 
diately injurious  as  many  persons  may  be  disposed  to  believe. 

2.  Common  compact  gypsum.  This  variety  is  found  in  large  masses  in  second- 
ary mountains.  It  is  not  very  hard,  breaks  with  a  crackling  sound  when  crushed 
between  the  teeth,  cannot  be 'polished,  and  is  so  tenacious  that  it  is  scarcely  pos- 
sible to  reduce  it  to  powder.  It  is  met  Avith  of  different  colors,  but  is  generally 
either  grey  or  white.  Alabaster  belongs  to  this  species,  and  bears  the  same  re- 
lation to  gypsum  that  marble  does  to  lime  ;  it  is  a  semi-crystalized  stone,  capa- 
ble of  receiving  a  high  degree  of  polish,  and  is  used  for  various  kinds  of  sculp- 
ture, vases,  statues,  &c.  Sometimes  it  is  beautifully  variegated  with  all  kinds 
of  colors,  which  are  produced  by  metallic  oxides.  Alabaster  is  not  capable  of  so 
high  a  polish  as  marble,  because  it  is  not  so  hard  or  compact,  and  is  apt  to  be- 
come deteriorated  by  exposure  to  the  air. 

3.  Gypseous  spar,  or  crystalized  gypsum.     This  variety  is  frequently  found  in 
places  where  there  are  considerable  quantities  of  gypseous  stone  or  compact  gyp' 
sum,  and  is  closely  combined  with  it.     It  is  more  or  less  transparent,  variously  ,' 
shaded,  and  may  be  split  with  a  knife  into  thin,  soft,  and  transparent  flakes.  ' 

The  kind  called  glacies  maria  also  belongs  to  this  variety,  which  is  found  in 
large  rhornboidal  crystals,  and  can  easily  be  cut.     Sometimes  the  gypseous  spar 
!    is  met  with  in  large  crystals,  bearing  the  form  of  tables  or  pyramids.     This  sub- 
stance is  likewise  very  tenacious,  and  can  with  difficulty  be  powdered. 

4.  Gypseous  stalactites  have  originated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  calcareous    ' 
stalactites ;  that  is  to  say,  they  have  been  formed  by  the  depositions  of  carbon- 
ated waters  which   held  a  considerable  quantity  of  gypsum  in  solution.     Some- 
times gypsum  and  carbonate  of  lime  are  found  mixed  together.     These  calcare- 
ous gypsums  effervesce  when  brought  in  contact  with  acids. 

There  are  many  waters  whicli  hold  gypsum  in  solution.  This  is  frequently 
the  case  with  spring  water,  which  is  then  called  hard  or  rough,  and  is  unfit  for 
various  purposes,  and  especially  for  the  distillation  of  brandy.  Gypsum  is  occa- 
sionally met  with  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  combination  with  lime  or  clay  ;  it 
is  likewise  found  in  the  ashes  of  certain  vegetables  ;  but,  in  all  probability,  it 
does  not  exist  in  plants,  but  has  been  produced,  during  the  combustion,  by  the 
combination  of  the  sulphuric  acid  with  lime. 

MARL. 

This  substance,  which  is  of  so  much  importance  in  Agriculture,  has  long  been 
knoAvn  to  many  farmers  as  an  active  agent  in  ameliorating  and  increasing  the 
fertility  of  land.     In  many  countries  there  are  whole  districts  which  have  former- 
ly been  improved  by  the  use  of  marl.     Its  properties  in  this  respect  were  known  \ 
and  recognized  by  the  Romans  ;  but  it  is  only  lately  that  the  marling  of  land  has 
attracted  general  attention,  and  there  are  still  many  agriculturists  Who  have  not 
a  distinct  idea  of  this  substance,  although  a  small  amount  of  chemical  knowledge 
is  requisite  to  enable  them  to  distinguish  it  from  other  earths.    It  is  this  total  ig- 
norance of  the  nature  of  marl  which  frequently  causes  them  not  only  to  deny  its  | 
beneficial  properties,  but  even  to  decry  it ;  and  hence  it  is  that  they  pretend  to  !| 
have  seen  such  evil  consequences  to  result  from  the  use  of  it.     There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  substance  which  they  applied  to  their  land  as  marl  was  some  more  tena- 
cious and  ferruginous  clay,  or  some  other  kind  of  earth  which  did  not  agree  with 
the  soil.    We  shall  hereafter  speak  of  marl  as  a  manure  ;  at  present  we  have  only 
to  explain  its  nature  and  the  manner  in  which  it  generally  exists  in  the  soil. 

Marl  is  a  combination  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  clay.  These  two  bodies  are 
usually  found  in  so  complete  a  state  of  amalgamation  that  it  is  impossible  to  dis- 
tinguish the  particles  of  one  from  those  of  the  other,  either  Avith  the  naked  eye 
or  with  the  aid  of  a  microscope.  The  agents  by  means  of  which  this  union  is  ef- 
fected have  not,  as  yet,  been  discovered  ;  for,  when  clay  and  lime  are  mixed  to- 
gether artificially,  the  substance  formed  is  very  different  from  natural  marl— for 
example,  it  does  not  possess  the  faculty  of  losing  its  aggregation,  when  exposed 
to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  and  crumbling  to  dust  like  natural  marl. 

The  proportions  in  which  clay  and  lime  are  found  combined  in  marl  are  many 
and  various.  Sometimes  there  are  equal  quantities  of  each  of  these  substances, 
while  in  others  the  one  predominates  considerably  over  the  other.  Nature  does 
not  seem  to  have  prescribed  to  herself  anv  rule  for  the  regulation  of  the  propor- 

(••528)  ^^..^..^..^ 


MARL. 


tions  in  which  they  shall  he  united.  Marl  has  heen  classed  under  different  heads, 
according  to  the  proportions  of  lime  or  clay  of  which  it  is  composed.  The  class-  ! 
ification  adhered  to  by  Andrea,  in  his  work  on  the  various  species  of  earth  in 
Hanover,  is  decidedly  the  best,  and  is  the  one  generally  adopted  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  Germany.  According  to  this  author, -marl  is  simply  a  combination 
of  nearly  equal  parts  of  clay  and  lime.  If  the  former  predominates  so  much  as 
to  constitute  nearly  or  quite  tw-o-thirds,  the  mixture  is  then  called  argillaceous 
marl ;  and  if  the  proportions  of  clay  are  still  greater,  so  that  there  are  three  parts 
of  that  substance  to  one  of  lime,  it  is  then  called  calcareous  or  marly  clay.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  lime  predominates  and  forms  nearly  or  quite  two-thirds  of 
the  mixture,  it  receives  the  name  of  calcareous  marl  ;  and  when  the  quantity  of 
this  substance  is  still  farther  increased,  so  that  it  constitutes  three  parts  while 
there  is  but  one  part  clay,  then  the  combination  is  termed  argillaceous  lime. 

Marl,  in  all  its  varieties,  is  met  with  in  a  great  number  of  countries.  Indeed, 
there  is  no  daubt  that,  if  carefully  sought,  it  will  be  found  in  most  places ;  it  has 
been  proved  that  almost  all  the  inferior  strata  of  the  soil  contain  some  portion  of 
it.  There  are  very  few  countries  in  which  it  does  not  exist,  or  in  Avhich  it  is  too 
deeply  imbedded  in  the  earth  to  be  extracted  with  any  degree  of  profit.  It  is  no- 
where met  with  in  such  abundance  as  in  hilly  or  mountainous  countries,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  stratiform  or  secondary  mountains,  of  Avhich  it  constitutes  the 
principal  part  of  the  inferior  layers  of  the  soil,  and  is  disposed  in  continuous 
banks.  It  is  not  so  easily  found  in  dry,  flat,  or  marshy  countries  ;  and  it  is  there 
deposited  in  heaps,  at  unequal  distances  and  at  various  depths.  The  existence 
of  a  stratum  of  marl  beneath  the  soil  may  generally  be  inferred  when  certain 
plants  are  found  upon  the  surface,  viz.  tussilago  or  coltsfoot  [tussilago  farfara), 
tussilago  alpina,  yelloio  Jioicered  sage  {salvia  glutinosa),  ?neadoiu  sage  (salvia 
■pratensis) — all  which  flourish  much  better  in  marly  than  in  any  other  soils.  It 
is  not  the  presence  of  the  plants  alone  which  may  be  regarded  as  indicative  of 
the  existence  of  marl ;  wherever  they  are  observed  to  multiply  and  flourish  with 
peculiar  richness  of  vegetation,  they  will  generally  serve  as  guides  to  the  discov- 
ery of  marl. 

The  presence  of  black  medic  or  nonsuch  [medicago  lupulina),  on  a  soil  which 
has  not  been  manured,  may,  in  my  opinion,  be  considered  as  an  indication  of 
'  marh  This  substance,  or,  at  any  rate,  marly  clay,  may  generally  be  found  under 
\  briars.  AVhea  marl  exists  in  heaps,  at  a  certain  depth  below  the  surface,  it  fre- 
i\  quently  shows  itself  at  the  edges  of  ravines,  or  in  uneven  roads,  from  which  the 
\  layer  of  earth  which  covered  it  has  fallen  or  has  been  rubbed  off.  These  heaps 
'  of  marl  are  frequently  again  covered  by  clay;  wherever  this  latter  body  is  found 
',  intermingled  with  grains  of  lime,  there  is  every  probability  that  marl  will  be  met 
with  if  we  penetrate  sufficiently  deep  into  the  soil.  The  beds  of  marl  are  not  by 
'  any  means  equal  in  thickness  throughout  their  whole  extent ;  this  observation 
I  applies  particularly  to  argillaceous  marl.     There  is  generally  less  of  lime  in  the 

superior  than  in  the  inferior  strata ;  and,  usually,  the  lower  we  descend  the  more    i 
^  calcareous  does  the  bed  become. 

Both  clay  and  lime  contribute  to  constitute  the  properties  of  marl ;  in  this  mix- 
ture these  two  kinds  of  earth  form  a  mutual  exchange  of  their  reciprocal  quali- 
ties.    The  tenacity  and  unctuous  quality  of  the  clay  is  tempered  by  the  lime — 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  harshness  or  stiffness  of  the  lime  is  softened  by  the 
/   admixture  of  the  clay.     According  as   one  or  the  other  of  these  substances' pre- 
<[   dominate,  so  do  the  characteristics  of  it  predominate  in  the  marl. 

Marl,  properly  so  called,  is  composed  of  equal  parts  of  clay  and  lime,  and  can- 
not be  assimilated  to  either  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  substances  ;  the  proper- 
!   ties  of  both  are  amalgamated  in  equal  proportions.     Argillaceous  marl  or  calcar- 
i   eous  clay  approaches  more  to  the  qualities  of  clay  ;  therefore,  when  impregnated 
with  water,  it  becomes  unctuous,  more  ductile,  emits  a  clayey  odor,  and,  in  dry- 
]  ing,  reunites  into  hard  clods,  which  are,  however,  malleable.     Marly  clay,  when 
moistened,  is  frequently  more  difl[icult  to  work  than  clay  deprived  of  marl ;  but 
it  is  much  more  easily  dried.     Calcareous  marl  and  argillaceous  lime  assimilate 
more  to  lime,  when  dry  ;  they  are  less  rough  to  the  tou  h  when  moist ;  they  have 
less  cohesion;  and,  when  the  fragments  are  dried,  they  can  easily  be  crushed  be- 
tween the  fingers.     It  depends  a  great  deal  upon  the  nature  of  the  clay  which   / 
'    enters  into  the  composition  of  these  marls,  whether  they  are  rich  or  poor.    A  rich  ' 

(529) H 


162  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


1 


clay  requires  the  addition  of  a  larger  quantity  of  lime,  in  order  to  correct  its  de- 
fects ;  while  in  a  poor  clay  a  much  smaller  proportion  will  produce  the  same  ef- 
fect. Two  varieties  of  marl  are  often  met  with — one  of  which,  in  its  external 
appearance,  greatly  resembles  argillaceous  marl,  and  the  other  is  like  calcareous 
marl — and  yet  both  of  these  contain  equal  quantities  of  lime  ;  but  the  former  is 
composed  of  rich  tenacious  clay,  while  the  latter,  on  the  contrary,  consists  of  clay 
of  a  poorer  quality.  The  nature  of  the  latter  substance  has  also  a  considerable 
influence  upon  the  qualities  of  the  marl. 

Marl  is  of  different  colors — being  sometimes  white,  yellow,  brown,  grey,  vie-  ? 
let,  red,  blue,  or  black.     These  colors  are  produced  partly  by  the  oxides  of  iron   S 
or  manganese  Avhich  it  contains,  and  partly  by  combustible  matters,  as  bitumens   ; 
or  humus.     Those   varieties  of  marl  which  contain  only  the  latter  are  usually  ( 
grey,  bluish,  or  bla    t,  and  combustion  renders  them  white.     Those  which  are   ( 
impregnated  with  bitumen  give  out  the  color  peculiar  to  that   substance  when  ? 
heated,  or  when  pieces  of  it  are  rubbed  together.    The  color  of  the  marl  is  a  very  f 
uncertain  indication ;  at  most,  it  can  only  enable  us  to  appreciate  the  quantity  of  ) 
combustible  matter  or  metallic  oxide  which  it  contains  ;  it  will  not  serve  to  dis- 
tinguish the  nature  of  the  marl,  or  the  proportions  of  clay  and  lime  which  com- 
pose it.     Marls  of  the  same  color  frequently  differ  essentially  in  the  proportion 
of  their  elements  ;  while  others,  Avhich  in  external  appearance  are  perfectly  dis- 
similar, show  no  differences  in  point  of  composition. 

With  respect  to  the  consistence  and  contexture  of  their  parts,  the  marls  differ 
essentially  among  themselves.     Sometimes  they  are  soft  to  the  touch  as  dust,  or 
possess  so  slight  a  degree  of  consistency  that  they  may  easily  be  crumbled  to 
pieces  between   ihe  fingers  ;  while  others  are  hard  as  a  stone.     The  farmer  are 
called   "  earthy,"  and  the  latter  "  concrete  "  marls.     This  latter  species  is  still 
farther  distinguished  by  its  contexture:  it  either  has  a  schistous  fracture,  and  is 
composed  of  flakes  laid  over  each  other,  which  can  be  separated  with  a  knife  ; 
or  it  has  no  uniform  layers,  but,  v/hen  broken,  flies  into  irregular  pieces.     The 
former  of  these  is  callecl  "  schistous,"  and  the  latter  "  stone  "  marl.     ]No  decisive 
conclusions  with  respect  to  the  nature  and  composition  of  marl  can  be  deduced 
from  these  differences  of  conformation.     Sometimes  concrete  marl  contains  a  su- 
perabundance of  marl,  and  at  others  a  superabundance  of  lime  ;  and,  when  this 
I  is  the  case,  it  bears  a  greater  resemblance  to  limestone.     If  we  find  a  marl  be- 
longing to  the  species  wh>ch  we  call  calcareous,  we  must  not,  on  that  account, 
infer  that  it  contains  a  superabundance  of  lime  :  for  it  is  possible  that  the  clay 
was  naturally  poor,  so  that  the  marl  had  not  a  great  deal  of  consistence.    When 
water  is  poured  upon  marl,  that  fluid  penetrates,  with  greater  or  less  facility,  in- 
to all  the  pores,  destroys  the  cohesion  of  the  parts,  separates  them  from  one  an- 
other, and  reduces  them  to  a  fine  powder.     This  is  one  of  the  essential  properties 
which  serves  as   the  first  distinction  of  marl,  and  by  means  of  which  this  sub- 
stance ameliorates  the  soil,  by  mingling  completely  with  its  surface.     The  air 
shows  itself  in  bubbles  which  rise  in  the  water,  sometimes  making  a  slight  noise 
and  occasioning  a  kind  of  effervescence.     It  certainly  cannot  be  admitted  as  a   f 
principle  that  any  kind  of  earth  which  loses  its  aggregation  in  water  must  neces-   s 
sarily  be  marl,  since  very  pooir  clays  are  affected  in  the  same  manner  ;  but  if  any  I 
kind  of  earth  is  not  spontaneously  reduced  to  powder  by  the  action  of  water,  we   { 
may  feel  convinced  that  it  is  not  marl.     Every  kind  of  marl,  even  that  which  is   ^ 
called  "  stony,"  becomes  soft  and  pulverized  in  water.     This  substance  likewise  ? 
loses  its  cohesive  attraction  Avhen  exposed   to  the   humidity  of  the  atmosphere,   ( 
and  is  reduced  to  powder  in  the  same  manner  as  by  the  action  of  water,  only  the   5 
process  occupies  more  time.     It  is  this  property  which  renders  marl  so  useful  as  ) 
a  manure.     It  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  pulverize  it  before  it  is  put  into  the  soil  s 
which  is  to  be  ameliorated — that  operation  may  be  left  entirely  to  the  infiuence  ( 
of  the  air  ;  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  penetrates  into  the  marl  deposited  in 
the  soil,  and  reduces  it  to  powder.     Frost  contributes  materially  towards  effect- 
ing a  total  division  of  the  particles;  and,  indeed,  with  concrete  and  tenacious 
i    marls,  its  assistance  is  often  absolutely  necessary ;  and  this  is  the  reason  that 
!  these  marls  are  generally  laid  on  before  the  approach  of  winter.     The  moisture 
'  which  the  marl   has  absorbed   is  expanded  by  the  frost,  and   forces  the  parts 
,'  asunder. 
I       The  time  which  is  required  to  reduce  marl  spontaneously  to  powder  by  thr 

*  (530) 


actioa  either  of  air  or  water,  depends  in  a  great  measure  upon  the  proportion  of  clay 
which  this  substance  contains  ia  its  composition,  and  upon  the  degree  of  hard- 
ness and  of  the  cohesion  which  exists  between  its  parts.  Pure  compact  lime- 
stone will  not  resolve  into  powder,  neither  will  pure  solid  clay.  If,  therefore, 
lime  forms  the  predominating  ingredient  in  marl,  this  latter  does  not  lose  its  ag- 
gregation ;  the  same  effect  is  evident  where  clay  forms  the  chief  constituent  part, 
or,  at  any  rate,  the  division  is  effected  very  slowly.  In  order  that  the  cessation 
of  cohesion  may  be  promptly  brought  about,  it  is  evidently  necessary  that  there 
should  be  a  certain  proportion  of  these  two  substances,  and  the  degree  of  this 
proportion  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  nature  and  the  richness  or  poverty  of 
)  the  clay, 

^  In  marls  composed  of  similar  clays,  hut  which  contain  proportionately  differ-  ' 
i  ent  quantities  of  lime,  the  substance  which,  properly  speaking,  ought  to  be 
;  called  marl  is  that  which  is  most  easily  deprived  of  its  cohesive  qualities  ;  and, 
(  on  the  other  hand,  calcareous  and  argillaceous  marls  are  those  which  oppose  the 
S  greatest  resistance  to  the  action  of  fire,  water,  and  air.  The  division  is  never  so 
)  tilowly  effected  as  when  the  parts  have  acquired  the  hardness  of  a  stone,  as  in 
c  the  case  of  stony  marls  ;  while  among  the  number  of  concrete  marls,  those  which 
are  of  a  schistous  nature  lose  their  aggregation  much  sooner  than  those  which 
are  found  in  homogeneous  masses. 

Marl  produces  a  very  great  effervescence  when  brought  into  contact  with  acids 
or  acidulated  tluids.  If  the  latter  are  poured  upon  this  substance,  they  combine 
with  the  lime ;  while  the  alumina  remains  untouched,  so  long  as  the  acids  have 
any  lime  left  to  dissolve  ;  it  is  only  when  all  the  lime  has  been  absorbed  and  the 
acid  still  remains  unsaturated,  that  it  attacks  and  dissolves  a  small  portion  of  the 
alumina  and  of  the  oxide  of  iron. 

It  is  well  known  that  carbonate  of  lime  cannot  be  fused  without  the  agency 
of  some  other  substances,  and  that  clay  is  scarcely  vitrified  even  by  the  hottest 
fire  ;  but  that  if  these  two  earths  are  united,  they  may  then  be  melted  without 
difficulty ;  marl,  therefore,  is  a  substance  capable  of  being  fused  and  vitrified.  It  does 
not  require  any  great  degree  of  heat  to  melt  it,  and  this  is  the  reason  of  its  being 
used  for  the  purpose  of  separating  metals  and  facilitating  the  fusion  of  metallic 
gangues.*     It  is  sometimes  used  to  procure  iron. 

Marl  is  occasionally  found  intermingled  with  other  substances,  which  do  not, 
properly  speaking,  belong  to  its  composition.  Of  these,  magnesia,  sand,  and 
gypsum  are  most  frequently  met  with.  Magnesia  is  often  found  in  marl,  and 
especially  in  that  kind  the  beneficial  effects  of  which  as  a  manure  are  most  evi- 
dent. It  also  exists  there  in  a  state  of  carbonate,  effervescing  when  brought  in 
contact  with  acids,  and  dissolving  in  them.  These  circumstances  have  caused 
magnesia  to  be  frequently  confounded  with  lime  when  the  marl  is  only  superfi- 
cially examined.  But  as  we  are  as  yet  ignorant  of  the  effect  which  it  produces, 
it  IS  very  important  that  it  should  be  properly  distinguished  and  inquired  into. 
Marl  which  contains  magnesia  is  called  "  magnesian  marl,"  and  it  is  still  farther 
distinguished  by  the  terms  "  argillaceous"  or  "calcareous  magnesian  marl,"  ac- 
cording as  the  clay  or  lime  predominates.  This  substance  always  contains  a 
small  portion  of  sand ;  when  the  quantity  is  considerable,  the  marl  which  con- 
tains it  is  called  argillaceous  or  calcareous  sandy  marl.  If  the  proportion  of  sand 
amounts  to  sixty,  seventy,  or  eighty  parts  out  of  a  hundred,  then  the  substance 
IS  called  "  sandy  marl."  A  slight  admixture  of  sand  in  marl  is  highly  beneficial 
to  that  substance,  causing  it  more  rapidly  to  part  with  its  aggregation.  Marl 
likewise  contains  some  portion  of  gypsum,  which  occasionally  shows  itself  in 
small  crystaline  veins,  and  is  rendered  still  more  susceptible  when  the  marl  is 
heated  ;  the  presence  of  gypsum  probably  ameliorates  the  marl,  and  renders  it 
more  friable  ;  but  we  have  not,  as  yet,  any  certain  information  on  this  point.  If 
I  the  marl  contains  considerable  quantities  of  gypsum,  it  is  then  called  argilla- 
ceous, or  calcareous  gypseous  marl. 

The  external  appearances  under  which  marl  is  found  are  many  and  various. 
The  following  are  sotm  if  the  principal  varieties,  not  classed  according  to  their 
internal  composition,  but  according  to  their  external  appearance : 

(a).  Stony,  and  frequently  schistous  marl.     This  kind  is,  in  most  cases,  toler- 

*  "Gangue,"  a  German  word,  Bignifying  the  rock  to  which  the  metal  or  mineral  is  attached  in  the  bowcla 
of  the  earth. 

(531) 


164  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

ably  friable  while  in  the  earth  ;  it  is  only  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  that  it 
aardens  and  changes  color,  and  then  the  lapse  of  tAvo  or  three  years  is  barely 
sufficient  to  deprive  it  of  its  aggregation.  This  marl  is  often  very  calcareous,  and 
so  much  resembles  limestone  thai  it  is  sometimes  calcined  in  order  to  be  made 
into  lime,  or  used  in  its  rough  state  as  rnarl.  But  the  lime  produced  from  this 
substance  is  impure  and  bad  in  quality.  This  marl  occasionally  has  the  hard- 
ness and  all  the  other  appearances  of  common  lime;  however,  the  proportion  of 
alumina  and  silica  contained  in  it  is  usually  greater  than  in  lime. 

{bj.  Argillaceous  or  clayey  marl.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  distinguish- 
ing characteristics  of  this  variety. 

(c).  Lamellated  marl.     This  kind  is  only  found  in  thin  layers. 

[d).  Shell-marl,  on  the  surface  of  which  the  remains  of  marine  and  land  shells 
are  frequently  found.  Farther  do^vn  it  resembles  dirty  chalk,  and  lower  still  it 
is  sometimes  crystalized  and  stony.  This  marl  is  hardly  ever  found  except  in 
i  plains,  under  turf,  peat,  black  or  marshy  earth,  and  in  places  where  water  has 
formerly  been  stagnated.  It  is  principally  composed  of  lime  ;  and  has,  therefore, 
been  called  marly  lime,  and  is  frequently  calcined  and  used  as  lime.  It  is  sepa- 
rated by  the  action  both  of  air  and  water;  and  when  mixed  with  a  suitable  pro- 
portion of  that  fluid,  although  without  being  calcined,  it  is  used  for  bleaching. 
When  applied  to  land^  this  marl  does  not  act  so  promptly  as  might  have  been 
expected  ;  it  often  contains  phosphoric  acid. 

The  first  variety  (a)  is  hardly  ever  found  excepting  in  mountainous  countries; 
the  second  [b)  is  generally  met  with  in  hills  covered  with  brown  clay,  in  which 
briars  have  taken  root.  Sometimes  these  hills  are  anything  but  fertile,  even 
when  the  clay  Avhich  is  on  the  surface  contains  calcareous  particles.  The  mart 
appears  to  have  rapidly  consumed  the  humus,  or  perhaps  this  latter  substance 
having  been  rendered  more  soluble  by  the  marl,  has  been  carried  away  by  heavy 
rains.  But  the  fertility  of  these  places  will  soon  be  restored  if  they  are  abtind- 
^  antly  manured.  I  state  this  fact  in  order  that  agriculturists  may  not  be  prevented, 
"  by  tile  apparent  sterility  of  the  land,  from  digging  it  up  in  order  to  discover  the 
marl.     The  last  two  varieties  (c  and  d)  are  only  found  in  flat  grounds  and  plains. 

MAGNESIA. 

-    This  earth  is  less  diffused  throughout  nature  than  either  of  the  preceding.     It 
IS  never  met  with  pure,  but  always  mixed  with  other  earths  and  combined  with 
acids.     Several  minerals  contain  portions  of  it;  springs,  rivers,  the  sea,  and  salt 
water  also  contain  it,  but  it  is  then  principally  combined  with  the  muriatic  and 
sulphuric  acids.     It  also  enters  into  the  construction  of  animal  bodies,  and  is  then 
generally  united  with  phosphoric  acid.     The  ashes  of  most  vegetables  contain 
more  or  less  of  it ;  it  sometimes  forms  a  very  considerable  constituent  part  of  the 
layer  of  vegetable  mould,  and  of  that  marl  which  is  best  adapted  for  the  purpose 
of  manure.     This  earth,  which  has  not  long  been  discovered  and  distinguished, 
has  latterly  awakened  great  attention  as  regards  its  relation  to  Agriculture.     Berg- 
mann  and  other  authors  have  represented  it  as  very  fertile  ;  butTennant,  anEng-   > 
lish  chemist,  observ^es  that  some  calcined  lime  which  had  been  used  to  amelio-  } 
rate  land  had  produced  quite  a  contrary  eflFect ;  and  on  being  analyzed,  it  was  i 
found  to  contain  a  great  deal  of  magnesia  ;  and  thence  he  arrives  at  the  conclu-  > 
sion  that  the  eff'ects  of  this  earth  are  always  prejudicial.     In  its  natural  state  it  < 
rather  resembles  carbonate  of  lime  in  all  its  points.     Lampadiers  found  it  to  be  ^ 
very  favorable  to  the  vegetation  of  barley  ;  and  Einhoff",  when  analyzing  a  pecu-  ^ 
liarly  ameliorating  marl,  found  it  to  contain  twenty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  mag-  ( 
nesia.  / 

Carbonate  of  magnesia  is  both  insipid  and  inodorous.  When  moistened  and  ( 
mixed  with  water,  it  forms  a  consistent  matter  which  soon  dries  up.  With  re- 
gard to  its  disposition  to  retain  water,  it  may  be  assimilated  to  carbonate  of  Imie, 
and,  indeed  its  relations  to  water  are  generally  the  same  as  those  of  that  sub- 
stance. Carbonate  of  magnesia  is  insoluble  in  pure  water  ;  it  can  only  be  dis- 
solved in  water  which  has  been  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Pure  magnesia,  freed  from  carbonic  acid,  is  easily  distinguishable  from  lime. 
It  is  neither  caustic  nor  alkaline  like  that  substance  ;  it  does  not  emit  any  heat 
when  mingled  with  water;  the  paste  which  results  from  this  mixture  does  not 
harden  in  drying  ;  and  when  sand  is  combined  with  it,-  a  mortar  is  not  produced. 

(532) 


MAGNESIA.  165 


1 

: '. ( 

Tu  fact,  it  appears  to  absorb  water  and  appropriate  it,  but  without  depriving  it  of 
its  fluidity.     It  effects  a  very  slight  alteration  in  blue  vegetable  colors. 

The  following  are  the  fossils  which  contain  magnesia,  and  which  are  greasy  , 
and  soapy  to  the  touch  : 

1.  The  serpentine-stone.  This  is  a  hard,  fine-grained  stone  of  a  dark  green  or 
grey  hue,  occasionally  striped  or  spotted  Avith  red.  It  is  found  in  beds  which 
sometimes  constitute  entire  mountains.  The  best  quarry  of  this  kind  of  stone  in 
Germany,  is  at  Topplitz,  in  Saxony,  where  an  almost  incredible  quantity  of  it  is 
worked.     It  is  manufactured  into  snuflf-boxes,  fancy  boxes,  vases,  candlesticks, 

|.  mortars,  and  all  kinds  of  cups  and  vessels  by  means  of  turning  machines;  and 
! .  afterwards  polished  with  fine  free-stone.     The  constituent  parts  of  this  substance 
are  magnesia,  silica,  and  oxide  of  iron. 

2.  Talc.  This  substance  has  a  lamellated  fracture :  it  is  very  greasy  to  the 
touch,  and  is  sometimes  found  in  the  form  of  earth  ;  at  others,  under  that  of 
stone.  The  former  is  composed  of  unctuous  and  slightly  luminous  parts,  and  is 
in  general  nearly  or  quite  white  ;  the  latter,  on  the  contrary,  is  harder,  and  may 
be  divided  into  thin  flakes,  which  frequently  have  the  brilliancy  of  gold  or  silver, 
on  which  account  it  has  been  called  ar gentium.  It  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  di- 
minishing friction  in  machinery,  and  is  one  of  the  best  agents  which  can  be  em- 
ployed, being  far  preferable  for  that  purpose  to  either  soap  or  oil,  because  it  does 
not  occasion  any  dilatation  of  the  wood,  and  it  also  preserves  the  metal  from  the 
alniust  insensible  effect  occasioned  by  friction. 

Talc  is  composed  of  forty-four  parts  in  a  hundred  of  magnesia,  and  flfty-six  of 
silica  and  alumina. 

3.  Lapis  ollaris,  or  soap-stone,  is  a  variety  of  talc  ;  it  is  greyish,  grey,  or  deep 
green,  and  may  be  turned  and  made  into  all  kinds  of  vases,  &c.  It  is  principally 
found  in  Switzerland. 

4.  Soap-rock,  or  earth,  is  a  species  of  opaque  smooth  stone,  as  unctuous  as 
soap,  which  may  be  scraped  off  with  the  finger  nail,  and  stains  or  soils  every  ob- 
ject with  which  it  comes  in  contact.     There  are  several  varieties  of  it,  some  of 

■'  which  are  soft,  and  others  compact ;  the  latter  is  also  called  Spanish  chalk,  be- 
cause it  was  originally  brought  from  that  country.  By  means  of  it,  figures  or 
words  may  be  drawn  upon  glass ;  and,  although  all  traces  of  the  writing  vanish 
when  the  glass  is  washed,  they  reappear  as  soon  as  it  is  exposed  to  a  moist 
temperature.  It  is  also  used  for  drawing  designs  for  embroidery,  and  is  found  in 
several  parts  of  Germany,  and  particularly  in  Bareuth. 

5.  Amiantus,  or  asbestos.  This  kind  of  stone  is  composed  of  a  filaceous  tissue, 
the  filaments  of  which  are  either  arranged  in  parallel  lines  or  transversely :  in 
the  former  case,  these  threads  are  flexible,  and  it  is  then  called  "  amiantus."  It 
is  generally  of  a  whitish  hue,  bordering  upon  green,  or  a  greyish  green.  Several 
other  species  are  likewise  found,  which  are  called  "  salamander'' s  hair,''''  "  leather 
fossil,"  &c.,  on  account  of  some  resemblance  or  fancied  resemblance  which  they 
bear  to  the  substances  from  which  they  derive  their  names.  This  stone  prevails 
in  Saxony,  Silesia,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  Sweden.  Those  manufactures  of  in- 
combustible linen,  paper,  and  wicks  for  candles,  which  at  one  time  appeared  so 
incomprehensible,  are  formed  of  amiantus.  In  order  to  make  linen,  the  thin 
flexible  threads  of  the  amiantus  are  spun  with  flax  ;  it  is  then  woven,  and  the 
cloth  passed  through  the  fire.  When  paper  is  to  be  made,  the  filaments  are 
pounded  and  bruised  until  they  are  reduced  to  a  pulp  ;  all  the  usual  processes  at- 
tendant on  paper-making  are  then  gone  through. 

6.  Alcyonium,  or  froth  of  the  sea.  The  bowls  or  heads  of  those  pipes  which 
are  so  much  prized  are  made  of  this  substance.  There  formerly  used  to  be  some 
doubt  with  regard  to  its  origin  :  it  was  thought  to  be  a  marine  production  ;  and 
hence  derives,  its  name  ;  but  it  is  known  now  to  every  person  to  be  obtained  from 
the  village  of  Klitschik,  not  far  from  Conia  or  Iconium,  in  Natolia.  It  is  found 
in  veins  in  the  cavities  of  a  grey  calcareous  schist,  a  little  below  the  surface  of 
the  soil.  When  first  extracted,  it  resembles  a  soft  paste,  which,  however,  soon 
hardens  when  exposed  to  the  air  ;  it  is  made  into  the  heads  or  bowls  of  pipes, 
and  sold  at  Constantinople,  where  these  are  colored,  or  baked  in  oil  or  wax,  and 
then  exported  to  Germany,  where  they  are  worked  afresh  :  pipes  of  a  second-rate 
quality  are  made  from  the  fragments  of  those  which  are  broken.  JMotwithstand- 
mg  its  softness,  this  substance  possesses  a  great  deal  of  consistency,  and  is  less 

(533) 


166  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

liable  than  most  of  the  other  fossils  to  snap  to  pieces.  According  to  Wiegleb  it 
is  composed  of  equal  parts  of  magnesia  and  silica  :  he  asserts  that  it  may  be  found 
in  Spain,  not  far  from  Madrid  ;  in  Hungary  ;  and  in  North  America. 

IRON. 

We  have  already  stated  when  speaking  of  clay  that  the  soil  frequently  con- 
tains iron,  which  presents  itself  under  various  forms.  We  meet  with  it'as  an 
oxide  totally  free  from  acids,  and  under  various  degrees  of  oxidation,  of  a  white, 
green,  black,  or  red  hue,  and  intimately  combined  with  alumina ;  in  this  state  it  ; 
imparts  all  those  diflerent  shades  of  color  to  clay  which  that  substance  is  fre- 
quently found  to  possess.  We  do  not  as  yet  know  exactly  what  influence  it  has 
upon  vegetation,  or  whether  or  not  it  tends  to  ameliorate  the  soil.  In  many 
kinds  of  clay,  we  find  oxides  of  iron  in  a  state  of  carbonization  :  when  in  this 
state.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  any  influence  at  all  on  vegetation  ;  and,  at  all 
events,  it  is  not  prejudicial  to  it.  If  stronger  acids  are  then  poured  upon  it,  the 
carbonic  acid  is  disengaged  and  efl'ervescence  takes  place  ;  therefore,  this  effei- 
vescence,  which  is  regarded  by  so  many  persons  as  a  certain  sign  of  the  presence 
of  lime  or  marl,  is  a  very  deceptive  indication. 

We  also  find  iron  combined  in  the  soil  with  sulphuric  or  phosphoric  acid,  but 
not  very  frequently.  When  in  combination  with  the  former,  it  produces  that 
substance  which  is  commonly  called  vitriol  (sulphate  of  iron)  ;  land  containing 
this  compound  is  often  called  vitriolic  earth.  This  matter  is  only  found  in  those 
places  where  there  are  sulphurous  pyrites,  the  composition  of  which  produces 
the  acid  which  combines  with  the  iron.  It  may  occasionally  be  met  with  in 
clay  situated  in  damp  places,  but  occurs  most  frequently  in  peat  marshes,  from 
which  vitriol  may  sometimes  be  extracted  with  advantage.  Wherever  large 
quantities  of  vitriol -are  found,  it  is  prejudicial  to  vegetation,  and  destroys  the 
plants  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  soil  contains  only  a  small  portion, 
and  particularly  when  that  is  combined  with  bodies  which  contain  carbon,  as 
with  coal  or  stone,  it  possesses  a  fertilizing  property  :  this  has  been  well  attested 
by  ancient  as  well  as  modern  experiments  and  experience. 

Iron  is  generally  found  combined  with  phosphoric  acid  in  that  substance  which 
is  called  marshy  iron.     This  body  becomes  diluted,  and  often  mingles  with  the 
superior  layer  of  the  soil ;  where,  being  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air,  it  grad- 
ually loses  all  those  properties  which  are  prejudicial  to  vegetation.     Land  in 
,  which  the  layer  of  vegetable  earth  rests  upon  marsh  iron,  is  always  of  the  very 
'  worst  quality,  and  very  sterile. 

We  must  also  mention  oxide  of  manganese,  which  frequently  enters,  although 
but  in  a  slight  degree,  into  the  composition  of  the  superior  layer  of  the  soil,  and 
which  is  generally  found  in  plants  and  animals.  We  have  not  as  yet  succeeded 
in  discovering  whether  or  not  it  has  any  influence  on  vegetation. 

We  have  now  briefly  mentioned  the  nature  of  those  fixed  and  incombustible 
earths,  or  portions  of  the  soil,  which,  by  means  of  the  proportions  in  which  they 
are  united,  constitute  all  those  innumerable  varieties  of  land  to  which  we  shall 
have  to  recur  when  we  have  examined  another  constituent  part  of  every  soil 
adapted  for  vegetation,  to  which  it  owes  its  fertility,  and  which,  properly  speak- 
ing, is  neither  more  nor  less  than  that  portion  of  the  food  of  plants  which  they 
derive  from  the  soil :  we  allude  to  the  humus. 

HUMUS. 

The  name  usually  given  to  this  substance  is  "mould."  This  term  has  been 
misinterpreted  by  many  persons,  who  have  understood  it  to  mean  the  layer  of 
vegetable  earth,  and  not  a  particular  portion  of  its  constituent  parts.  Several 
very  clever  agricultural  writers  have  fallen  into  the  same  error  ;  and  thus  the 
obscurity  which  enveloped  this  part  of  the  science  has  been  increased.  It  is  on 
this  account  that  I  have  adopted  the  word  humus,  about  Avhich  there  can  be  no 
mistake.  In  a  scientific  point  of  view  the  term  "  earth"  is  not  at  all  applicable 
to  this  substance  ;  properly  speaking  it  is  not  an  earth,  and  has  only  been  called 
I    so  on  account  of  the  pulverulent  form. 

[  Humus  is  always  more  or  less  a  constituent  part  of  the  soil.  The  fertflity  of 
'  the  land  depends  entirely  upon  its  presence,  for,  if  we  except  water,  it  is  to  this 
,  substance  alone  in  the  soil  that  plants  owe  their  nutriment.     It  is  the  residue  of 

\  (534) 


r 


HUMUS.  167 


animal  and  vegetable  putrefaction,  and  is  a  black  body  ;  when  dry  it  is  pulveru- 
lent, and  when  wet  has  a  soft  greasy  feel.  It  is  varied  in  its  qualities  and  com- 
position according  to  the  substances  from  which  it  has  been  formed,  and  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  the  putrefaction  or  decomposition  took  place  ;  there  are, 
however,  certain  properties  which  are  inherent  to  it,  and  in  genera!  it  is  similar 
in  itself.  It  is  the  produce  of  organic  power — a  compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  such  as  cannot  be  chemically  composed  ;  for  in  inert  bodies 
these  substances  only  enter  into  simple  combinations  of  some  two  amongst  them, 
and  do  not  unite  altogether  as  is  the  case  here.  Besides  the  four  essential  ele- 
ments of  humus,  it  contams  other  substances  in  smaller  quantities,  viz.,  phos- 
.  phoric  and  sulphuric  acids  combined  with  some  base  ;  and  also  earths,  and  some- 
times diii'erent  salts. 

Humus  is  the  product  of  living  matter,  and  the  source  of  it.  It  affords  food  to 
organization  ;  without  it  nothing  material  could  have  life,  at  least  the  most  per- 
fect ammals  and  plants  could  not  exist ;  and,  therefore,  death  and  destruction  are 
necessary  and  accessory  to  the  reproduction  of  animal  and  vegetable  life.  The 
greater  the  number  of  living  creatures,  the  more  humus  is  produced,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  supply  of  the  elements  for  the  nutrition  of  life  is  increased.  Every 
organic  being  in  life  appropriates  to  itself  a  daily  increasing  amount  of  the  raw 
materials  of  nature  ;  and  these,  after  having  been  digested,  resolve  into  humus, 
which  increases  in  proportion  as  men,  animals,  and  vegetables  are  multiplied  in 
any  spot  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  It  is,  however,  diminished  by  the  processes 
of  vegetation,  wasted  by  being  carried  into  the  ocean  by  water,  and  by  being 
conveyed  into  the  atmosphere  by  the  agency  of  the  oxygen  contained  in  the  air, 
which  unites  with  and  gradually  converts  it  into  a  gaseous  matter. 

We  have  only  to  observe  the  progress  of  vegetation  upon  naked  rocks  in  order 
to  understand  the  history  of  humus  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  world.  At 
first,  only  lichens  and  mosses  are  found  there,  from  the  decomposition  of  which 
more  perfect  plants  derive  their  nourishment ;  these,  in  their  turn,  die  and  aug- 
ment the  mass  of  mould  by  their  putrefaction :  and  thus  at  last  a  bed  of  humus 
is  formed,  capable  of  affordmg  nourishnoent  to  the  largest  trees.* 

Voigt,  in  his  supplement  to  the  researches  of  Saussure,  justly  observes,  "  that 
vegetable  mould  is  vegetable  n:iatters  partly  decomposed,  but  not  completely  dis- 
organized. It  is  a  vase  pervading  plant  without  organization,  which  itself  bears 
and  nourislies  other  plants,  as  a  tree  affords  nutrition  to  all  its  branches  and 
shoots.  This  vegetable  mould  is  composed  of  vegetable  bodies,  and  it  may  again 
be  transformed  into  others  of  the  same  or  of  a  similar  nature  ;  it  is  frequently 
prepared  very  carefully  Avith  a  view  to  this  end." 

liumus  bears  some  analogy  to  the  bodies  from  which  it  is  produced,  as  well  as 
10  their  constituent  parts  ;  but  the  elementary  substances  enter  into  a  fresh  com- 
bination, and  some  portion  is  evaporated.  According  to  Saussure,  humus  con- 
tains less  oxygen  but  more  carbon  and  nitrogen  than  the  vegetables  from  which 
It  is  derived.  But  the  circumstances  under  which  it  is  formed  will,  doubtless, 
have  no  slight  influence  upon  the  proportions  of  its  elements  and  the  various 
combinations  which  take  place  between  the  elementary  parts.  Thus,  for  exam- 
ple, humus  formed  in  the  open  air  Avill  not  be  exactly  similar  to  that  which  has 
been  formed  in  a  confined  place  where  the  atmosphere  could  not  come  in  contact 
with  it ;  neither  is  it  the  same  when  placed  where  it  can  imbibe  a  great  deal  of 
moisture,  as  it  would  have  been  if  kept  in  a  drier  place.  All  these  are  self-evident 
facts,  although  as  yet  neither  the  circumstances  which  influence  the  formation  of 
humus,  nor  the  deviations  attendant  on  them,  have  been  sufficiently  analyzed. 

Even  when  the  humus  is  formed  it  is  not  beyond  the  reach  of  alteration  and 
destruction,  as  it  is  in  constant  action  and  reaction  with  atmospheric  air.  When 
placed  under  a  receiver  closed  with  mercury,  it  forcibly  attracts  the  oxygen  gas, 
communicates  carbon  to  it,  and  changes  it  into  carbonic  acid  gas.  If  the  receiver 
is  closed  with  water,  it  creates  a  vacuum,  into  which  the  water  penetrates  by  ./ 

'  Humus  is  the  modem  tenn  given  by  some  chemists  to  the  very  finely  divided  organic  matters  which  all 
cultivated  soils  contain.  "  Woody  fibre  in  a  state  of  decay  (observes  Liebig)  is  the  substance  called  humus. 
The  humic  acid  of  chemists  is  a  product  of  the  decomposition  of  humus  by"  alkalies  ;  it  does  not  exist  in  the 
humus  of  %-egetable  physiologists.  Humus  does  not  nourish  plants  by  being  taken  up,  and  assimilated  inita 
unaltered  stats  ;  but  by  presenting  a  slow  and  lasting  source  of  carbonic  acid,  which  is  absorbed  by  the 
roots,  and  is  the  principal  nutriment  of  young  plants  at  a  time  when,  being  destitute  of  leaves,  they  are  una- 
ble to  extract  food  from  the  atmosphere."— Or.^.  Chem.  p.  46. 
(535) 


168 


THAERS   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE, 


absorbing  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  an  almost  imperceptible  consumption  of  the 
humus  is  thus  eifected.  It  is  probably  by  thus  producing  carbonic  acid  gas  that 
the  humus  acts  upon  vegetation  either  directly  or  through  the  medium  of  the 
soil,  especially  when  the  stalks  and  herbage  of  the  plants  cover  the  ground  so 
closely  as  to  prevent  too  sudden  an  evaporation  of  the  column  of  air  evolved  by 
carbonic  acid  gas.  De  Saussure  found  that  plants  filled  Avith  succulency,  and 
half  dry,  recovered  themselves  much  sooner  when  placed  in  a  bed  of  humus,  or 
in  a  soil  abundantly  provided  with  that  substance,  than  when  deposited  in  a 
poor,  damp  soil.  From  the  experiments  made  Avith  the  receiver,  some  idea  may 
be  formed  of  the  enormous  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas  which  an  acre  of  land, 
rich  in  humus,  may  be  expected  to  disengage. 

Humus  likewise  experiences  another  alteration,  which  De  Saussure  has  also 
taught  us  to  appreciate  in  a  more  particular  manner.  It  forms  a  certain  matter 
which  is  soluble  in  water,  and  is  termed  extractive  matter.  This  substance  may 
be  separated  from  it  by  boiling  humus  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  air  several 
times  in  water  ;  when  this  decoction  is  evaporated,  there  remains  a  residue  of  a 
blackish,  brown  hue.  When,  after  repeated  boilings,  the  humtis  appears  to  be 
entirely  deprived  of  this  soluble  substance,  it  will,  if  exposed  for  a  time  to  tlie 
influence  of  the  atmosphere,  again  yield  extractive  matter;  but  if,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  is  carefully  preserved  in  closely  stopped  vessels,  none  of  it  can  be  ob- 
tained. According  to  Saussure,  humus  which  has  thus  been  deprived  of  its 
soluble  extractive  matter,  is  less  fertile,  and  contains  proportionably  less  carbon 
than  that  which  has  not  been  boiled.  This  author  states  that  he  witnessed  the 
passage  of  extractive  matter  diluted  with  water  immediately  into  the  roots  of 
plants  ;  whence  he  infers  that  next  to  carbonic  acid,  this  matter  is  best  calcula- 
ted to  afford  nutrition,  and  particularly  carbon,  to  the  suckers  of  plants.  The 
matter  of  which  we  are  speaking  alters  when  exposed  to  the  air  ;  its  solution 
becomes  covered  by  a  thick  film  or  scum,  which,  when  the  vessel  is  shaken,  pre- 
cipitates itself  in  flakes,  and  is  speedily  replaced  by  a  second.  This  precipitate 
is  insoluble  in  water,  but  when  united  to  an  alkali  it  is  easily  dissolved.  A  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  humus  which  is  met  with  in  nature  appears  to  consist 
of  the  substance  which  has  thus  been  separated  and  become  insoluble. 

Fixed  alkalies  almost  entirely  dissolve  not  only  humus,  but  also  that  part  of 
the  extractive  matter  which  has  thus  become  insoluble ;  during  their  action  am- 
monia is  disengaged.  This  solution  is  decomposed  by  acids  which  precipitate  an 
inflammable  powder — the  quantity  of  which  is,  however,  very  small  in  propor- 
tion to  that  of  the  humus.  Alcohol  does  not  dissolve  humus — it  only  effects  the 
separation  of  a  small  portion  of  extractive  matter  and  resin. 

Humus  is  not  susceptible  of  putrefaction,  properly  so  called — it  seems  rather 
to  be  in  opposition  to  it ;  for  the  extractive  matter  readily  enters  into  a  putrid  fer-. 
mentation  when  separate  from  it,  while,  so  long  as  it  remains  in  combination 
with  the  other  portions  of  the  humus,  this  effect  never  takes  place.  The  vege- 
tation of  plants,  however,  and  the  formation  both  of  extractive  matter  and  of  car- 
bonic acid,  Avhich  takes  place  when  the  humus  is  exposed  to  the  air,  at  length 
entirely  consume  that  substance,  if  it  is  not  renewed  and  replaced  by  the  addition 
of  fresh  manure.  Were  not  this  the  case,  much  greater  quantities  of  this  sub- 
stance would  be  found  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil-  than  actually  e:^ist  there. — 
"  The  destruclibility  of  this  vegetable  earth,"  says  De  Saussure,  sen.  "is  an  un- 
deniable fact ;  and  those  agriculturists  who  have  endeavored  to  avoid  the  neces- 
sity of  manuring  their  land,  by  bestowing  repeated  plowings  upon  it,  have  been 
convinced  of  this  fact  by  painful  experience.  They  have  seen  the  soil  become 
gradually  more  and  more  exhausted,  and  their  fields  rendered  sterile  and  barren, 
by  the  absence  of  vegetable  mould."  Probably  he  here  alludes  to  the  experi- 
ments made  by  his  countryman,  Chateauvieux,  near  Geneva,  on  the  practice  of 
sowing  in  rows  or  lines  without  manuring,  which  is  recommended  by  TuU,  and 
described,  at  very  great  length,  by  Duhamel,  in  his  treatise  on  the  cultivation  of 
land.  In  order  to  prevent  the  exhaustion  of  the  humus,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
restore  to  the  soil,  by  manuring,  some  portion  of  the  elements  which  have  been 
taken  from  it  by  the  vegetation  ;  because  this  latter  produces  so  much  more  than 
it  absorbs,  that,  if  all  w'hich  grows  on  the  land  were  decomposed  by  putrefaction, 
the  accumulation  of  humus  v/ould  be  immense,  as  is  the  case  in  ancient  forests 
and  uninhabited  plains,  the  situations  of  which  are  favorable  to  vegetation. 


1 


HUMUS.  169 

Humus  produces  diflferent  effects,  according  to  the  kind  of  soil  with  which  it 
is  incorporated.     Clay,  by  means  of  its  tenacity,  retains  the  particles  of  humus 
which  are  mixed  and  incorporated  with  it,  and  protects  them  against  the  influ- 
ence of  the  atmosphere,  and,  consequently,  prevents  them  from  being  so  speedily 
decomposed.     It  is  on  this  account  that  clay  must  be  impregnated  with  a  great 
deal  of  humus  before  it  will  evince  any  great  degree  of  fertility,  because  the  roots 
f  of  the  plants  cannot  penetrate  so  easily  into  this  kind  of  soil.    •When  such  land 
)  is  cultivated  for  the  first  time,  and  is  not  endowed  by  Nature  with  any  great 
V  depth  of  humus,  it  requires  repeated  and  plentiful  manurings ;  but,  where  it  is 
•  impregnated  plentifully  with  that  substance,  it  will  retain  its  fertility  for  a  con-  -, 
siderable  period  without  requiring  fresh  manure.     Clay  appears  to  enter  into  so   '■ 
close  a  chemical  combination  with  humus,  that  the  latter  in  some  degree  loses    ' 
its  properties,  and  especially  its  black  hue.    We  have  analyzed  some  clays  which 
were  nearly  or  quite  white,  and  in  which  we  could  not  perceive  any  traces  of  the 
presence  of  humus;  when  submitted  to  a  tolerable  degree  of  heat,  they  became 
black,  and  various  appearances  attending  them  served   to  prove  that  they  con- 
tained hydrogenated  carbon  ;  when  exposed  to  a  still  greater  degree  of  heat,  the 
black  hue  disappeared,  and  the  clay  lost  a  considerable  portion  of  its  weight.     It 
I  frequently  happens  that  land  which  is  irrigated  by  the  influx  of  neighboring  riv- 
I  ers  or  seas,  appears  to  be  perfectly  white,  although  its  great  fertility  might  lead 
i'  us  to  infer  the  presence  of  a  considerable  proportion  of  humus,  or,  at  any  rate,  of 
those  substances  of  which  humus  is  composed.    In  land  thus  watered,  the  humus 
is  almost  invariably  found  intimately  combined  with  the  clay  ;   this  mixture  is   ; 
eff'ected  by  the  water,  which  washes  up  the  humus  and  deposits  it  in  the  form    I 
of  mud. 

Sand  exercises  a  purely  mechanical  action  on  humus  ;  the  absence  of  cohesion 
between  its  parts,  by  which  it  is  distinguished,  facilitates  the  free  admission  of 
atmospheric  air  to  every  portion  of  the  humus — favors  the  separation  of  carbon 
under  the  form  of  carbonic  acid,  and  also  the  separation  of  the  extractive  matter, 
and  decomposes  the  humus  much  sooner.  When  humus  is  properly  mixed  with 
sand,  without  any  want  of  humidity,  the  land  thus  composed  is  exceedingly  fer- 
\  tile ;  but  this  fertility  is  exhausted  more  sjieedily  because  the  humus  is  more 
(  promptly  absorbed.  In  the  marshes  of  Odor  there  are  places  Avhere,  ten  or  twelve 
I  years  ago,  a  very  thick  layer  of  humus  covered  the  sand  which  had  been  Avashed 
up  by  the  action  of  the  water  ;  this  has  been  exhausted  and  evaporated  so  com- 
pletely that  now  nothing  is  to  be  seen  but  loose  sand.  In  the  spring,  however, 
even  these  sterile  places  are  covered  with  beautiful  green  turf,  which  is  very  re- 
markable, and  can  only  be  explained  by  considering  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  which  is  evolved  in  these  places.  Land  whicli  contains  an  excess  of  humus 
is  benefited  by  being  submitted  to  a  long  course  of  cultivation.  If  sand  is  mixed 
with  the  spongy  and  pulverulent  humus  which  accumulates,  without  the  addition  , 
of  elementary  earth,  such  an  admixture  tends  greatly  to  ameliorate  it ;  the  sand  S 
imparts  a  degree  of  consolidation  to  the  humus,  and  renders  it  less  spongy :  it 
does  not  then  absorb  so  great  a  quantity  of  moisture,  and  gives  more  consistency 
and  solidity  to  the  roots  of  the  plants  which  vegetate  in  it.  This  has  been  proved 
liy  the  results  of  those  experiments  in  which  sand  has  been  used  to  improve  the  . 
land,  and  where  the  benefit  derived  from  this  practice  has  been  even  greater  than  [ 
that  which  might  have  been  expected  from  manuring.  Sand,  likewise,  is  capa- 
ble of  decomposing  acid  humus  and  peat,  or  rather  it  aids  in  depriving  these  sub- 
stances of  their  superabundant  m.oisture,  and  they  are  then  decomposed  by  the 
'    action  of  the  atmosphere. 

Humus  which  has  been  for  a  considerable  time  withdrawn  from  the  influence 
of  the  air  is  capable  of  producing  very  different  effects  from  those  produced  by 
that  which  is  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  ;  and  this  is  the  case  whether  the  for- 
mer state  results  from  the  hidden  portion  of  humus  having  formed  the  lower  part 
of  a  very  thick  bed  of  that  substance,  or  from,  its  having  been  covered  with  wa- 
ter or  earth.  This  point  has  not,  as  yet,  been  sufficiently  inquired  into  ;  we  are 
only  able  to  conjecture  what  may  be  the  nature  of  the  changes  which  the  humus 
undergoes  when  thus  withdrawn  for  a  considerable  time  from  the  influences  of 
I  the  atmosphere  :  but  that  it  does  possess  peculiar  properties  there  cannot  be  a 
I  doubt,  although  it  contains  no  acid. 

It  is  probable  that  the  carbonic  acid  and  extractive  matter  cannot  be  formed  or 

'  (537) 


170  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

exist  "without  the  concurrence  of  atmospheric  air.  Most  likely  a  portion  of  the 
hj'drogen  and  oxygen  is  transformed  into  water,  while  another  portion  of  the  hy- 
drogen dibsolves  some  carbon  and  evaporates  in  the  form  of  hydrogenated  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  There  is  no  doubt  that,  while  the  humus  is  buried  in  the  earth, 
less  of  the  carbon  than  of  any  of  the  other  elements  is  taken  from  it ;  whereas, 
Avhen  this  substance  is  exposed  to  the  air,  an  exactly  opposite  effect  takes  place. 

The  longer  the  humus  remains  covered,  the  more  does  it  abound  in  carbon. 
It  undergoes  a  species  of  gradual  carbonization.  The  lowest  strata  which  were 
formed  prior  to  those  which  are  nearer  the  surface,  have  a  more  carbonous 
appearance  ;  they  are  blacker,  more  compact,  and  when  burnt  yield  more  coal 
than  those  nearer  to  the  surface.  But  if  the  carbon  is  only  soluble  when  in  com- 
bination Avith  hydrogen,  it  follows,  of  course,  that  this  humus  must  be  more  dif- 
ficult of  decomposition,  and  will  consequently  be  inert,  or,  at  any  rate,  less  effi- 
cacious than  the  other,  until  a  longer  contact  with  the  air  has  again  changed  its 
nature.  In  fact,  experience  teaches  us  that  when  mixed  with  recently  made 
manure  which  emits  a  considerable  quantity  of  ammonia,  this  humus  becomes 
much  more  speedily  efficacious  ;  in  fact,  its  effects  on  the  soil  are  frequently  not 
at  all  perceptible  until  the  land  has  been  ameliorated  with  dung. 

But  its  decomposition  may  also  be  effected  and  accelerated  by  the  action  of 
lime  ;  and  as  a  layer  of  earthy  lime  produced  by  shells  is  frequently  found  under 
this  substance,  the  combination  may  sometimes  be  very  easily  effected.  Almost 
the  same  may  be  observed  with  regard  to  humus  or  mould  which  has  been  under 
water.  If  the  water  only  superficially  covered  it,  so  that  it  occasionally  became 
dry,  and,  consequently,  was  brought  into  contact  with  the  air,  the  effect  is  the 
more  speedily  produced. 

"When  humus  remains  constantly  damp,  without,  hoAvever,  being  covered  with 
Water,  it  forms  a  very  unpleasant-smelling  acid,  which  is  more  particularly  char- 
acterized by  the  property  which  it  possesses  of  coloring  blue  litmus  paper  into 
red.  This  circumstance  has  long  been  known,  and  it  is  the  reason  that  land  and 
meadows  Avhich  are  not  properly  drained,  and  which  exhibit  these  phenomena, 
are  called  "  sour."  We  have  carefully  examined  these  facts,  and  have  endeavor- 
ed to  discover  the  peculiar  construction  of  this  acid.  At  first  Ave  Avere  inclined 
to  regard  it  as  being  of  a  distinct  nature,  and  having  carbon  for  its  base  ;  but  we 
have  since  become  convinced  that  it  is  generally  composed  of  acetic  acid,  and  occa- 
sionally contains  a  portion  of  the  phosphoric.  This  latter  always  adheres  so  firmly 
to  the  "humus  that  it  cannot  be  separated  from  it  either  by  boiling  or  Avashing. 
The  liquid  in  Avhich  the  humus  is  boiled  certainly  acquires  a  slight  acid  fiavor, 
but  the  greater  part  of  the  acid  remains  attached  to  the  humus.  All  that  the 
water  is  able  to  dissolve  is  a  small  quantity  of  broAvn  matter,  which,  Avhen  dry, 
is  very  brittle,  differs  materially  from  the  ordinary  extractive  matter  of  humus, 
and  does  not  possess  the  poAver  of  precipitating  itself  from  its  solution  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air.  This  sour  or  acid  humus  contains  a  great  quantity  of  insoluble 
extractive  matter,  Avhich  frequently  constitutes  the  chief  part  of  its  Aveight. 
When  steeped  in  an  alkaline  lye,  this  latter  becomes  of  a  dark  brown  hue,  and 
is  thickened  by  the  dissolution  of  several  substance?.  If  this  mixture  is  diluted 
Avith  an  alkali',  the  extractive  matter  is  precipitated  in  broAvn  flakes  ;  and  Avhat 
is  very  remarkable,  if  more  acid  is  added  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  neutral- 
ize the  alkali,  it  again  absorbs  the  acetic  and  phosphoric  acids,  and  resumes  its 
former  state.  But  if  only  so  much  acid  is  allowed  as  will  suffice  to  saturate  the 
alkali,  the  former  remains  combined  Avith  the  latter  in  the  solution,  and  the  ex- 
tractive matter  loses  every  particle  of  acid. 

This  acid  or  sour  humus,  is  not  at  all  of  a  fertilizing  nature  ;  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  prejudicial  to  vegetation.  Where  it  is  very  strong  and  pervades  the  whole 
of  the  humus,  the  soil  only  produces  reeds,  rushes,  sedge,  and  other  useless, 
unpalatable  plants  ;  wherever  these  abound,  it  maybe  inferred  that  the  soil  con- 
tains a  great  deal  of  sour  or  acid  humus. 

When  land  has  been  drained  and  deprived  of  that  excess  of  humidity  which  is 
so  favorable  to  the  formation  of  acids,  there  are  various  means  of  getting  rid  of 
this  baneful  property  and  of  rendering  the  humus  fertile.  When  this  has  been 
done,  such  places  Avill  be  found  to  contain  rich  stores  of  nutritious  vegetable  sub- 
stances concealed  there  by  nature,  and  which  may  be  either  used  on  the  spot  or 
carted  and  carried  to  the  fields  as  a  manure.     It  is  well  known  that  with  the  aid 

(538) 


PEAT.  171 

of  alkalies,  ashes,  lime,  and  marl,  humus  may  be  deprived  of  its  acidity  and 
rendered  easily  soluble ;  should  these  substances  not  be  within  reach,  a  very 
efficacious  remedy  will  he  found  in  the  humus  itself;  it  is  only  necessary  to  burn 
it,  and  thus  derive  the  exquisite  lime  and  alkali  from  the  humus  itself.  Besides, 
the  fire  has  the  property  of  destroying  the  greater  part  of  the  acidity.  This  is 
one  reason  why  paring  and  burning  is  generally  so  beneficial  to  soils  of  this  : 
nature.  ' 

This  acid  humus  is  produced  by  those  vegetables  which  contain  a  considerable  '', 
portion  of  tannin,  or,  at  any  rate,  something  similar  to  it,  and  especially  by  heaths  [■. 
or  furzes,  even  when  they  vegetate  on  a  dry  situation.     In  places  where  this  !' 
family  of  plants  abounds,  a  soil  is  frequently  found,  the  deep  black  color  of  which 
is  essentially  owing  to  the  humus  ;  although,  to  all  appearance,  iron  also  has  a 
considerable  share  in  producing  it.     This  kind  of  humus  is  absolutely  insoluble, 
and  only  favors  the  vegetation  of  those  plants  whence  it  proceeds,  and  they  do  not 
thrive  anywhere  else;  healhs,  &c.,  do  not  thrive  in  places  where  this  humus  ' 
does  not  exist,  and  when  they  have  once  established  themselves  in  one  particu- 
lar spot,  they  suffer  few  other  plants  to  appear.     This  humus  may  be  changed 
by  a  dressing  composed  of  marl,  lime,  or  ammonia  ;  and  where  this  has  been 
mixed  with  the  soil,  the  heaths,  &c.,  speedily  perish.     Paring  and  burning  is 
also  productive  of  some  good ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  keep  up  a  sufficient  fire  to 
produce  the  requisite  degree  of  combustion. 

The  leaf  of  some  trees,  and  particularly  that  of  the  oak,  will  likewise  produce 
humus  of  this  nature,  if,  before  its  putrefaction,  it  is  not  decomposed  by  very  hot 
animal  manure,  or  by  lime  and  alkalies.  Nevertheless,  when  this  substance  is 
exposed  to  the  air,  it  gradually  loses  all  its  baneful  properties,  and  is  at  length 
transformed  into  good  humus  ;  but  a  considerable  time  must  elapse  before  this 
effect  is  produced. 

It  also  appears  that  in  recently  formed  humus  there  is  a  considerable  difference 
between  that  which  is  the  residue  of  complete  putrefaction,  and  another  portion, 
the  elements  of  which  have  only  been  partially  decomposed.  This  difference 
has  not  as  yet  been  sufficiently  examined.  The  former,  however,  evidently  ap- 
pears to  contam  a  smaller  portion  of  coal ;  when  fire  is  applied  to  it,  smoke  only 
is  given  out ;  while  the  latter  is  blacker,  possesses  more  coal,  and,  consequenllv, 
burns  more  briskly  and  disengages  a  larger  portion  of  caloric.  In  ancient  marshes 
which  have  been  drained  or  otherwise  become  dry,  a  kind  of  humus  is  often 
found  which  greatly  resembles  rotten  wood,  and  which,  to  the  depth  of  a  foot 
and  a-half  or  two  feet,  forms  the  principal  constituent  part  of  the  soil.  Land  of 
this  nature,  although  rich  in  nutritive  juices,  is  not  favorable  to  Agriculture  or  to 
the  growth  of  cereal  plants.  I  am  not  yet  quite  sure  whether  this  arises  solely 
from  the  soil  not  possessing  sufficient  consistency,  or  whether  it  is  attributable  to 
some  peculiar  quality  possessed  by  this  kind  of  humus. 

Lastly,  all  humus,  and  especially  that  which  has  been  recently  formed,  pos- 
sesses essentially  different  qualities  when  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of 
vegetable  bodies  from  those  which  distinguish  it  when  formed  by  animal  decom- 
position. In  the  latter  case,  it  contains  more  nitrogen,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus  ; 
the  presence  of  which  bodies  is  rendered  quite  evident  by  the  odor  which  it  emits 
when  burnt,  which  is  similar  to  that  which  arises  from  the  burning  of  animal 
bodies. 

PE.iT. 

Peat  is  also  a  species  of  humus.  There  have  been  various  opinions  relative  to 
the  origin  and  nature  of  this  substance.  Formerly,  a  mineral,  or,  at  any  rate,  a 
semi-mineral  origin  was  attributed  to  it ;  and  it  was  believed  to  be  a  mass  united 
and  mingled  together  by  bituminous  particles :  but  this  opinion  is  now  altogether 
exploded.  It  is  true  that  some  kinds  of  peat  are  met  with  which  are  strongly 
impregnated  with  bitumen,  but  there  are  others  which  do  not  contain  any  portion 
of  this  substance ;  and  even  if  it  were  present,  it  is  now  well  known  that  bitu- 
men derives  its  origin  from  the  mineral  kingdom.  Peat  is  neither  more  nor  less 
than  the  remains  of  plants  in  a  state  of  greater  or  less  decomposition.  It  is  found 
in  low,  moist  situations,  where  mosses,  lichens,  and  other  plants  grow,  which 
,  are  with  difficulty  deconxposed ;  these  become  interwoven  and  unite  with  the 
I  mud  and  various  substances  deposited  by  the  water  ;  the  whole  amalgamates- 


172  THAERS  PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

the  vegetables  putrefy  and  gradually  lose  their  organic  texture,  and  are  at  length 
united  with  the  other  substances  in  a  compact  spongy  mass.  When  the  putre- 
faction is  so  far  advanced  that  the  organic  tissue  is  totally  destroyed,  the  peat  is 
neither  more  nor  less  than  a  kind  of  humus — that  is  to  say,  a  sour  humus  ;  tut 
vsrhile  it  contains  some  degree  of  consistency,  and  is  not  too  much  mixed  Avith 
earth,  it  may  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  burning.  The  plants  of  which  turf  is 
formed,  and  by  means  of  which  it  increases  in  thickness,  are  those  only  which 
groAv  in  moist  or  wet  places,  viz.  seds^e  (ca-rex),  cotton-grass  {e}-iophorum),u\avsh 
ledum  {ledum  palestre),  &c.  Van  Marum,  a  Dutch  naturalist,  regards  the  con- 
serva,  or  hair-weed,  as  one  of  the  principal  elements  of  peat  ;  and  is  so  much 
convinced  of  this  fact  as  to  assert  that  any  soil  may  be  rendered  peaty  by  merely 
naturalizing  this  plant  on  it  in  some  moist  situation.* 

The  circumstances  under  which  peat  is  formed  are  subject  to  considerable  va- 
riation :  the  position  of  the  soil  with  respect  to  the  surrounding  country,  and  es- 
pecially with  relation  to  the  neighboring  lakes  and  rivers  ;  the  degree  of  humid- 
ity which  these  latter  engender  ;  the  nature  of  the  plants  which  constitute  the 
elements  of  the  peat ;  and,  lastly,  the  substratum  of  the  soil — all  these  things 
may  diifer  in  different  places  ;  and  hence,  without  doubt,  arise  all  those  varieties 
wliich  we  find  existing  in  peat. 

In  a  situation  where  everything  tends  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  decomposi- 
tion, the  peat  is  found  existing  in  a  homogeneous,  heavy,  black  mass  ;  while  iu 
others,  where  decomposition  takes  place  more  slowly,  it  is  met  with  in  light  fun- 
gous pieces,  in  which  are  portions  of  semi-decomposed  filaments  of  plants  and 
vegetables ;  and,  again,  in  other  places  it  is  found  entirely  composed  of  bitumen. 
Peat  also  presents  several  other  irregularities  and  variations,  which  are  more  or 
less  evident,  and  some  of  \yhich  can  only  be  discovered  by  the  most  minute  ex- 
amination. It  will  often  be  found  to  be  quite  different  in  the  same  place,  being 
soft  and  filamentous  at  the  top,  and  becoming  compact,  solid,  and  black,  as  we 
penetrate  farther  into  it.  This  may  easily  be  explained  :  the  peat  has  not  been 
formed  all  at  once,  but  gradually,  and  in  successive  layers  ;  when  one  generation 
of  plants  perished,  another  sprang  up  from  its  ashes,  and  thus  the  mass  has  been 
gradually  increased.  The  substrata  are,  therefore,  more  ancient  than  the  supe- 
rior ones  ;  the  decomposition  is  farther  advanced  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter  ; 
and  in  proportion  as  this  is  the  case,  or  the  higher  the  state  of  carbonization  in 

S  which  the  plants  are  found,  the  inferior  layers  will  necessarily  be  more  putrefied, 

^  black,  and  carbonous. 

The  greater  the  degree  of  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  fibres,  the  more  near- 
ly does  peat  assimilate  to  humus.  The  only  difference  which  exists  between  it 
and  the  humus  which  is  found  in  fields,  forests,  and  uncultivated  places,  is  in  the 
cause  to  which  it  owes  its  existence.  Besides,  humus,  which  is  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of,  or  putrefaction  of,  vegetable  bodies,  is  not  exposed  to  so  contin- 
uous a  state  of  humidity  as  peat ;  the  earth  of  the  soil  with  which  it  is  mixed 
acts  upon  it,  while  that  substance  does  not  exist  at  all  in  peat,  properly  so  called. 
In  the  greater  number  of  cases,  peat  is  very  much  like  acid  or  sour  humus  ;  in- 

*  The  formation  of  bog-moss  is  first  commenced,  in  very  many  instances,  by  the  rapid-growing,  broad- 
leaved  bog-moss  (spkaffmim  latifolimn),  a  plant  of  very  curious  habits,  whose  gi-owth,  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, (and  it  is  strictly  an  aquatic,)  extends  from  an  inch  in  length  to  two  or  three  feet.  In  dry  situa- 
tions, or  in  those  only  periodically  flooded,  its  progress  is  not  rapid  ;  but  when  it  vegetates,  always  immersed 
in  the  water  of  low  stagnant  situations,  there  it  increases  with  gi-eat  vigor.  It  is  trite  that  this  plant  is  an  an- 
nual ;  but  it  sheds  an  abundance  of  hardy  seeds,  producing  seedlings,  which  vegetate  and  easily  support 
themselves  in  the  water,  with  a  slight  assistance  from  the  mere  remains  of  their  preceding  generation. — 
Their  thread-like  stems  remain  on  the  surface  of  the  water  till  the  seed  is  ripened  ;  they  then  fall  to  the  bot- 
tom and  form  distinct  layers,  which,  iu  some  specimens  of  peat,  may  be  distinctly  traced.  The  bog-moss, 
thus  commenced,  gradually  gets  mixed  with  a  varietj'  of  lichens,  mosses,  and  scirpi.  which  annually  add  to 
the  depth  of  the  accuinulating  peat;  and,  as  the  moss  becomes  firmer,  other  plants  gradually  establish  them- 
selves, such  as  several  varieties  of  the  rushes  and  sedges.  It  is  only  when  the  peat-moss  is  raised,  by  the 
fradually-accumulated  remains  of  these  peats,  from  beneath  the  surface  of  the  stagnant  waters,  that  the 
eaths,  the  cranberry,  the  bilberry,  and  the  grass-weeds,  make  their  appearance.  The  few  plants  which 
commonly  tenant  peat  moors  and  bogs  are  of  the  most  worthless  kind,  such  as  all  live-stock  commonly  re- 
fuse. Besides  the  common  heath  plants,  there  are  various  rushes  (juncus),  sedges  (carex),  rush-grasses 
(sclmnus),  club-nishes  (cyperus),  cat's-tail-rushes  (typha),  bur-weeds  (sparganiii.m),  &c. 

Among  the  few  specimens  of  the  common  grasses  which  are  found  in  such  places,  struggling,  as  it  were, 
for  existence,  are  the  marsh-bent  (agrostis  palustris),  the  awule.ss  brown-bent  (agrostis  caiiina) — this  is  a 
very  common  grass  in  bogs  whose  winter  waters  are  deep — the  awned  creeping-bent  (agrostis  stolaris),  the 
small-leaved  creeping-bent  (agrostis  stolaris  ang.),  the  creeping-rooted  bent  (agrostis  rqyens),  the  white 
bent  (agrostis  alba  »,"the  fiote  fescue  (glycerin  fiuitavs),  tall  fescue  (fcstuca  elatior).  turfy  hair-grass  (aira 
C(£S2nt.ofa).  knee-jointed  fox-tail  gi-ass.  water  hair-grass  {aira  aquatir.a),  watsr  meadow-grass  (poa  nquatico), 
long-leaved  cotton-grass  {eriopkorum  polystachioit),  and  the  sheathed  cotton-grass  {eriophorum  vaginalum). 
(540) 


deed,  it  sometimes  resembles  it  so  strikingly  that  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  ^ 
these  substances  apart.  Peat,  like  sour  humus,  contains  acetic  and  phosphoric  , 
acid  and  ammonia  ;  and,  even  when  it  does  not  contain  acid,  it  possesses  a  great 
quantity  of  insoluble  extractive  matter,  which  can  only  be  rendered  soluble  by  an 
admixture  of  potassa  and  acids.  Pyrites  have  occasionally  been  found  in  peat; 
these  substances  have,  doubtless,  been  introduced  externally,  but  by  what  means 
is  as  yet  unknown.  During  combustion  it  emits  a  sulphurous  odor,  and  likewise 
sometimes  produces  upon  its  surface  a  salt  which  smells  like  ink,  and  is  no  other 
than  sulphate  of  iron  or  vitriol. 

The  constituent  parts  of  turf,  like  those  of  humus,  are  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitro- 
gen, and  oxygen.  All  peats  do  not  contain  an  equal  quantity  of  carbon.  The 
older  the  peat  is,  the  more  of  this  substance  does  it  possess  ;  and  as,  when  used 
for  burning,  its  quality  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  carbon  contained  in  it,  it 
follows  that  the  older  it  is  the  better  is  it  adapted  for  that  purpose.  When  ex- 
X  posed  in  a  dry  place,  and  mixed  with  potassa  or  lime,  it  becomes  decomposed,  is 
I  freed  from  its  acidity,  and  transformed  into  a  mild  fertilizing  humus. 

Another  combustible  substance  which  is  sometimes  found  at  a  small  depth  be-  / 
loAV  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  occasionally  beneath  peaty  marshes,  is  coal,  or 
'  bituminous  ivood.  Coal  not  only  serves  as  a  combustible,  and  is  useful  to  the 
',  agriculturist  in  enabling  him  to  calcine  lime,  but  it  also  appears  to  yield  a  spe- 
cies of  manure  which  is  most  active  when  mixed  with  sulphurous  p^'rites  and 
iron,  because  the  decomposition  of  the  former  creates  vitriol,  which,  when  a 
small  portion  of  it  in  this  combination  is  spread  over  the  land,  appears  to  have  a  ! 
favorable  effect  upon  vegetation.  \ 


THE  DIFFERENT  SPECIES   OF  EARTHS— THEIR  VALUE,  EMPLOYMENT,  AND    PROPERTIES, 
IN  THEIR  RELATIONS  TO  THE  CONSTITUENT  PARTS  OF  THE  SOIL. 


Each  of  those  substances  of  which  we  have  been  speaking  would,  if  alone  and 
isolated,  constitute  a  sterile  soil,  or,  at  any  rate,  one  totally  unfit  for  the  purposes 
1  of  Agriculture.  The  quality  of  a  soil  results  almost  entirely  from  the  proportions  ' 
in  which  these  earths  are  united  in  it,  and  the  inhnite  variety  of  these  proportions  ! 
gives  rise  to  the  innumerable  kinds  of  soils  which  are  met  with  in  nature,  and 
which  are  not  separated  from  one  another  by  any  limits  or  line  of  demarkation, 
but  merely  by  almost  imperceptible  shades  of  difference.* 

Hitherto,  the  various  kinds  of  land  have  been  classed  in  a  practical  manner, 
according  to  the  degree  of  fertility  observed  in  them,  and  the  species  and  value 
of  the  products  which  could  be  obtained  from  them.  But  this  mode  of  classifi- 
*  cation  has  been  considered  defective  ;  and  such  it  necessarily  must  be,  so  long  as 
it  continues  to  be  founded  on  any  other  basis  than  a  sound  knowledge  of  the  con- 
stituent parts  of  the  soil.  Where  attempts  have  been  made  to  class  different 
kinds  of  land  according  to  their  constituent  parts,  sufficient  attention  has  not  been 
paid  to  their  fertility  and  to  the  effects  produced  when  they  are  cultivated  ;  but 
no  decisive  experiments  appear  to  have  been  made  on  this  subject.  We  have 
chemically  analyzed  several  kinds  of  soils,  and  at  the  same  time  have  endeavored 
to  obtain  some  more  accurate  knowledge  of  the  effects  produced  by  each  of  them 
upon  Agriculture  and  vegetation  generally.  The  results  of  our  attempts  have 
certainly  enabled  us  to  throw  more  light  upon  the  subject  than  other  authors 

*  To  a  certain  extent,  it  may  be  taken  to  be  the  fact,  that  the  richer  soils  have  the  least  specific  gravity.— 
In  the  experiments  of  Rev.  W.  Rham,  a  good  garden  mould,  consisting  of— 

Clay 52-4  I  Carbonate  of  lime 2-0 

Silicious  sand 36-5    Organic  matter 7-3 

Calcareous  sand 1-8  | 

had  a  specific  gravity  of  2-332. 
A  good  loam,  consisting  of— 

Clay 51-2  I  Carbonate  of  lime 2-3 

Silicious  sand 427    Organic  matter 3-4 

Calcareous  sand 0'4  | 

had  a  specific  gravity  of  2-401. 
A  poorer  soil,  of  which  the  component  parts  were — 

Silicious  sand 64-0  I  Carbonate  of  lime 1-2' 

Clay 32-3     Organic  matter 1-8 

Calcareous  sand 1 2  | 

had  a  specific  gravity  of  2-526. 

To  those  who  may  be  inclined  to  try  the  analysis  of  soils,  it  may  be  interesting  to  compare  the  results  of 
their  own  experiments  -with  some  which  have  been  obtained  with  great  care.     Thaer  has,  in  another  place. 


C 


given  a  table  in  which  different  soils  analyzed  by  him  are  classed  according  to  their  comparative  fertilitjv- 
"41) 


have  done,  but  there  still  remains  a  wide  field  for  inquiry  and  research.  Thus, 
then,  although  the  following  remarks  must  be  merely  regarded  as  a  primary  and, 
consequently,  imperfect  attempt  to  distinguish  and  class  the  different  kinds  of 
soils,  yet  I  cannot  but  regard  them  as  useful,  if  they  merely  serve  as  lights  to 
warn  us  of  errors,  and  point  out  the  path  which  will  lead  to  a  clearer  and  more 
thorough  knoAvledge  of  the  subject. 

In  the  ensuing  estimation  of  soils,  valued  according  to  their  constituent  parts, 
I  shall  suppose  them  all  to  be  equal  in  every  other  respect,  viz.,  with  regard  to 
position,  depth,  humidity,  &c.  &c. ;  and  shall  afterwards  consider  the  influence 
of  all  these  circumstances  separately.  \ 

The  humus  is,  as  we  have  already  observed,  that  portion  of  the  soil  from  which 
plants  derive  their  nutriment.  The  richness  of  a  soil,  or  that  quality  which  it 
possesses  when  it  is  said  to  be  fat,  depends  essentially  upon  the  proportions  of 
humus  which  it  contains,  although  many  persons  understand  the  term  "  fat,"  to 
apply  to  land  of  a  more  or  less  argillaceous  nature.  Humus  also  exercises  a 
physical  action  upon  the  soil ;  it  renders  argillaceous  land  or  stiff  clay  more  po- 
rous, facilitates  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  upon  it,  and  tends  to  loosen  and 
pulverize  it;  it  gives  consistence  to,  or  consolidates,  sandy  soils,  and  when  mixed 
with  them  enables  them  to  retain  moisture.  This  substance  has  likewise  a  very 
beneficial  effect  upon  land  which  contains  too  great  a  proportion  of  lime,  render- 
ing it  milder,  less  irritating,  more  consistent,  and  preventing  moisture  from 
evaporating  from  it  too  easily. 

This  fertilizing  matter  may,  however,  exist  in  too  large  a  quantity.  Where 
this  is  the  case,  the  soil  is  too  friable  and  spongy,  and  is  not  sufficiently  consoli- 
dated to  enable  it  to  yield  a  firm  support  to  the  roots  of  the  plants  which  vege- 
tate in  it ;  it  absorbs  water  like'  a  sponge,  and,  when  the  weather  is  damp,  be- 
comes so  saturated  with  moisture  that  it  almost  resembles  a  marsh  ;  consequently, 
those  plants  which  are  sown  in  it  are  subject  to  all  the  evils  entailed  on  them 
by  superabundance  of  humidity,  and  either  become  diseased  or  perish.  In  dry 
weather,  on  the  contrary,  such  a  soil  allows  the  moisture  to  be  too  easily  evapo- 
rated, and  then  its  surface  becomes  so  dry  and  pulverulent  that  the  seeds  sown 
in  it  cannot  germinate,  or,  what  is  worse,  they  dry  up  and  perish  after  having 
germinated  ;  while  at  the  depth  of  some  inches,  where  the  atmosphere  cannot 
penetrate,  it  remains  so  wet,  that  if  a  portion  be  squeezed  in  the  hand,  water 
will  drop  from  it.  Besides  this  property,  a  soil  which  is  surcharged  with  humus, 
will,  at  each  sensible  change  of  the  temperature,  contract  or  dilate;  thus  detach- 
ing the  roots  of  the  plants  from  their  hold,  and  frequently  throwing  them  up  so 
much  that  nothing  but  the  mere  extremity  remains  attached  to  the  soil.  Land 
of  this  nature  is  less  adapted  for  autumnal  than  it  is  for  spring  corn,  and  oats  an- 
swer better  on  it  than  barley,  because  they  are  stronger  and  more  tenacious. 
Lastly,  it  favors  the  growth  of  all  kinds  of  weeds  which  vegetate  in  it  so  rapidly 
that  they  totally  choke  the  cereal  plants. 

A  soil  which  contains  too  great  a  proportion  of  humus,  however  good  and  mild 
that  substance  may  be,  can  only  be  rendered  profitable  by  being  used  to  improve 
and  ameliorate  poorer  lands. 

whicii  is  expressed  in  numbers — 100  being  the  most  fertile.  This  table  is  the  result  of  very  patient  investi- 
gation— the  natural  fertility  of  each  soU  being  ascertained  by  its  average  produce  with  common  tillage  and 
manuring.    It  is  as  follows : 


Clay. 

Sand. 

Carbonate 
of  Lime. 

Finehj  divided 

Organic  Matter 

or  Humus. 

Comparative 
Value. 

74 

10 

4 

Hi 

1001 

81 
79 

6 
10 

4 
4 

1 

98  I 
96 

Rich  alluvial  soils. 

40 

22 

36 

4 

90  J 

20 

67 

3 

10 

781 

58 

36 

2 

4 

77 

56 

30 

12 

2 

75  [ 

Good  wheat  and  barley  lands. 

60 

38 

r  •  ■ 

2 

70 

48 

50 

SB 

2 

65  J 

68 

30 

2 

601 

38 

60 

j|o 

2 

60  i 

Barley  land,  not  fit  for  wheat. 

as 

65 

2 

60  J 

28 

70 

>.  3 

2 

401 

23* 

75 

a  g 

IJ 

30 

Poor  sand,  fit  only  for  oats  or  buckwheat 

m 

80 

[>^j 

n 

20j  1 

rzJ 


THEORY  OF   THE   SOIL.  175 

If  it  is  tolerably  humid,  it  will  often  be  profitable  to  transform  it  into  meadow 

land,  and  then,  if  not  inclined  to  be  marshy,  it  will  soon  yield  very  rich  pasturage, 

I  especially  if  sown  with  proper  gramineous  plants,  as  the  alofecurus  fratensis 

,   (meadoAv  fox-tail  grass)  and  the  larger  varieties  of  the  j9oa  and /es<wca.     If  dry,  it  ) 

>  may  be  ameliorated  by  means  of  additions  of  poorer  soils,  or,  what  is  still  more 

ieasy,  by  incineration,  or  paring  and  burning,  which  consumes  and  transforms  a 
portion  of  the  excess  of  humus  contained  in  it  into  ashes  ;  but  after  this  operation 
,    has  been  performed,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  corn  does  not  fall  or  become 
\   lodged  so  early  as  to  be  spoiled. 

S       Clayey  or  argillaceous  land  can  bear  a  greater  proportion  of  humus  without  ia- 

}  jury  than  any  other  kind,  because  the  properties  of  the  clay  correct  those  of  the 

(   humus.     I  shall  not  venture  to  decide  Avhat  is  the  precise  degree  to  which  the 

(addition  of  humus  increases  the  value  of  clay  soils.     The  richest  land  I  ever  an-  ) 

/  alyzed,  and  which  was  taken  from  the  marshes  of  the  Oder,  contained  19?  parts  \ 

^  in  a  hundred  of  humus,  70  of  clay,  a  little  fine  sand,  and  an  almost  imperceptible  ' 

\  quantity  of  lime  ;  but  the  situation  of  this  land  was  too  low,  and  it  was  too  damp  \ 

I   to  admit  of  a  correct  estimate  being  formed  of  its  fertility.     Autumnal  corn  could  ( 

not  be  raised  there  at  all,  on  account  of  these  circumstances  ;  and  the  success  of  > 

the  sprmg  crops  was  always  uncertain.     Upon  the  whole  it  was  tolerably  con-  ( 

sistent,  and  possessed  a  sufficient  degree  of  cohesive  attraction  for  water.     I  have  \ 

never  found  more  than  Hi  parts  in  a  hundred  of  humus  in  any  other  clayey  soil ;  S 

not  even  in  what  is  called  "  fat  land."     But  I  have  never  yet  had  an  opportunity  ) 

of  examining  or  analyzing  any  of  those  inexhaustible  soils  which  are  capable  of  ( 

bringing  the  crops  to  full  maturity  every  year  without  being  manured,  and  in  > 

which  no  diminution  of  fertility  is  observable-  so  long  as  the  requisite  degree  of  ) 

cultivation  is  bestowed  on  them  ;  nor  of  analyzing  those  soils  which  are  said  to  I 

be  deteriorated  rather  than  improved  by  manure.  > 

It  is  asserted  that  such  land  is  to  be  found  in  the  Ukraine,  in  Hungary,  and  in  ( 

several  other  places,  and  that  some  few  circumscribed  portions  of  it  are  to  be  ( 

found  even  in  Germany.     Several  soils  which  we  have  analyzed,  were  once  con-  > 

sidered  to  be  inexhaustible  ;    but  when  they  came  to  be  broken  up  for  the  first  \ 

time  and  brought  into  cu'.nvation,  it  was  generally  found  that,  after  bearing  a  ^. 

series  of  crops,  most  of  which  were  suffered  to  arrive  at  maturity,  they  required  I 

manuring,  if  not  laid  down  for  grass  or  meadow  land,  in  order  to  give  them  time  \ 

to  recruit  their  exhausted  energies  and  regain  their  succulency,  or  plowed  or  ^ 

dug  up  with  the  spade  sufficiently  deep  to  bring  to  the  surface  the  under  layers  \ 

which  had  not  been  touched.      There  are  now  very  few  countries  in  which  it  is  ( 

thought  possible  to  go  on  entirely  without  manure,  and  in  these  the  land  is  usu-  ( 

ally  devoted  more  to  grass  and  to  the  feeding  of  cattle  than  to  the  cultivation  of  ^ 

corn.      The  richest  argillaceous  soil  that  I  ever  analyzed,  the  fertility  of  which  f 

was  regarded  as  of  the  very  richest  quality,  was  taken  from  the  right  bank  of  ) 

the  Elbe,  some  few  miles  from  its  mouth  ;    it  contained  eleven  and  a  half  parts  ) 

in  a  hundred  of  humus,  four  and  a  half  of  lime,  a  great  quantity  of  clay,  a  little  ( 

coarse  silica,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  very  fine  silica,  which  could  only  be  > 

separated  from  it  by  ebullition.     It  certainly  possessed  a  great  degree  of  cohe-  ) 

sion,  but  when  moderately  moistened  it  was  not  very  tenacious.     It  was  made  to  ( 

bear  the  richest  crops,  as  cabbages,  wheat,  autumnal  corn,  beans,  &c.  but  every  > 

sixth  year  it  was  necessary  to  manure  it  thoroughly  and  to  give  it  a  fallow.  ) 

We  have  found  humus  mixed  in  various  proportions  with  clay  in  those  low  C 

lands,  which,  when  submitted  to  a  judicious  rotation,  are  so  very  fertile.     A  por-  > 

tion  of  land  in  Budjading,  the  whole  of  which  country  is  regarded  as  particularly  ? 

fertile,  contained  8  2-5  parts  in  a  hundred  of  humus,  three  or  four  of  lime,  and  I 

the  rest  was  almost  pure  clay.     The  land  of  the  bailiwick  of  Wallup,  which  con-  ^ 

tains  6i  parts  in  a  hundred  of  humus,  is  also  excellent  land  for  wheat,  since  it  .^ 

will  produce  three  crops  of  that  kind  of  grain  after  having  been  manured,  and  all  > 

equally  fine,  strong,  and  plentiful.  > 

We  must  not  always  suppose  that  because  the  soil  is  of  a  dark  color  it  contains  f 

a  large  proportion  of  humus  ;  sometimes  land  of  a  whitish  hue  contains  consid-  \ 

erably  more  humus  than  that  which  is  brown,  or  nearly  black  ;  but,  if  a  light-  > 

colored  soil  be  submitted  to  incandescence  in  a  closely  stopped  crucible,  the  dark  \ 

hue  will  speedily  develop  itself  if  the  soil  contains  humus.  > 

These  rich  argillaceous  lands  are  only  met  with  in  low  situations,  valleys,  "* 

(543)  ^^ 


176  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

near  the  beds  of  rivers,  or  other  places,  Avhere  the  inundations  of  water  have 
deposited  a  layer  of  mud  of  greater  or  less  thickness;  as,  for  example,  in  valleys 
•which  once  constituted    lakes  before  the  waters  dried  up  or  were  turned  off  in  j 
some  other  direction,  or  on  the  margins  of  rivers  whence  the  water  has  gradually 
retired  as  the  course  of  the  stream  became  altered.     Land  of  this  nature  is  gene- 
rally entered  in  the  first  class,  under  the  denomination  of  rich  umeat  land,  be-  ! 
cause,  in  the  triennial  rotation  with  a  fallow,  it  can  bear  three  crops  of  wheat  < 
S  without  requiring  fresh  manure.  i 

?  Soils  comprised  in  this  class  have  different  degrees  of  fertility  and  value.  I  \ 
\  shall  not  permit  myself  to  determine  whether  or  not  they  ought  to  be  estimated 
>  solely  with  relation  to  the  proportion  of  humus  which  they  contain  :  comparisons 
)  with  respect  to  fertility  where  the  lands  lie  at  considerable  distances  from  one 
N  another  are  difficult ;  and,  besides,  the  fertility  depends  so  much  upon  climate 
)  and  temperature.  Neither  can  I  positively  state  whether  or  not  the  greater  or 
)  less  proportion  of  lime  and  animal  tnatter  which  are  so  often  mixed  with  the  soil, 
j  may  not  have  some  influence  upon  its  fertility. 

From  the  results  of  my  inquiries  and  experiments,  I  think  that  I  may  venture 
to  assert  that  a  vegetable'  soil  ought  to  contain  at  least  from  five  to  six  parts  in  a 
hundred  of  humus,  to  entitle  it  to  be  comprised  in  this  class.  In  order  to  desig- 
nate the  proportions  of  the  value  of  different  soils,  we  shall  fix  that  of  the  most 
fertile  at  a  hundred  ;  but  this  A^alue  will  necessarily  be  increased  or  diminished 
by  the  influence  which  situation,  climate  and  other  concomitant  circumstances 
exercise  on  the  utility  of  land. 

Land  in  which  humus  is  combined  with  a  small  portion  of  clay  and  a  large 
quantity  of  sand,  must  not  be  comprised  in  this  class  ;  the  compost  which  results 
from  this  mixture  possesses  little  cohesion,  more  readily  allows  the  admission  of 
heat  and  moisture,  and  at  the  same  time  permits  them  to  be  carried  off  with 
greater  facility.  Here  the  proportion  of  humus  may  easily  become  too  great. 
I  We  have  analyzed  a  soil  which  contains  twenty-six  parts  in  a  hundred  of  humus, 
!  and  the  rest  equal  parts  of  sand  and  clay  ;  it  was  very  friable  and  little  adapted 
for  the  cultivation  of  corn.  AVhen  drained  and  broken  up,  the  first  crops 
which  it  bore  were  very  rich,  but  its  fertility  rapidly  diminished ;  and,  al- 
though every  attempt  was  made,  by  means  of  abundant  manurings  and  ame- 
liorations, to  restore  to  it  that  which  it  had  lost,  it  never  regained  its  original 
fertility. 

On  the  other  hand,  another  soil  which  was  still  more  sandy  and  contained 
about  ten  parts  in  a  hundred  of  humus,  appeared  to  us  exceedingly  fertile  and 
well  adapted  for  every  kind  of  cereals  excepting  wheat,  especially  after  it  had 
been  laid  down  as  pasturage  for  several  years.  This  land,  however,  required  a 
great  deal  of  manure,  and  was  never  so  profitable  as  when  manured  before  the 
last  crop  raised  upon  it  previous  to  its  being  laid  down  for  grass.  Experience 
proves  that  land  of  this  nature  may  easily  be  exhausted,  if  not  manured  and 
allowed  some  period  of  repose.  We  do  not  as  yet  know  what  proportions  of 
clay  it  ought  to  contain  in  order  to  ensure  the  success  of  repeated  crops  of  wheat. 
If  it  contains  twenty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  pure  clay,  ten  parts  in  a  hundred  of 
humus,  and  the  rest  sand,  it  produces  excellent  barley;  when  it  contains  less 
clay,  the  crops  of  oats  are  not  so  casual,  if  the  climate  and  temperature  be  hu- 
mid ;  the  rye  crops  too  are  abundant,  provided  that  the  seed  is  sown  sufficiently 
early  to  gain  strength  enough  to'  withstand  the  Avinter. 

Land  should  chiefly  be  valued  according  to  its  consistence:    the  greater  the 

degree  of  this  quality  which  it  possesses,  the  nearer  does  it  approach  in  value  to 

that  assigned  to  first  class  land,  viz.  100  ;    but  the  smaller  the  proportion  of  clay 

and  the  larger  the  quantity  of  sand  which  enters  into  its  composition,  the  more 

\    rapidly  does  it  fall  in  value  to  SO,  even  when  it  contains  from  ten  -to  fifteen  parts 

in  a  hundred  of  humus.     This  kind  of  land  is  only  found  in  plains  or  valleys,  or 

\    near  the  beds  of  rivers,  and  is  seldom  deficient  in  humidity.     There  the  humus 

has  been  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  those  aquatic  plants  which  were  con- 

'    stantly  re-produced  for  centuries  in  the  Avater  which  formerly  covered  these  loAv 

lands  :  when  the  water  subsided  or  disappeared,  the  plants  entered  into  a  state 

\  of  putrefaction  of  greater  or  less  duration:    it  is  the  duration  and  inequality  of 

<   this  putrefaction  which  causes  the  humus  to  appear  to  contain  a  greater  or  less 

/   quantitv  of  carbonic  acid. 

^  (544) 


THEORY  OF  THE  SOIL 


In  both  the  kinds  of  land  which  we  have  been  considering,  we  have  supposed  . 
the  humus  to  be  mild,  that  is  to  say,  exempt  from  acidity.      Sour  or  acid  humus 
totally  destroys  the  fertility  of  a  soil  ;  sometimes,  however,  the  soil  contains  so   / 
very  small  a  portion  of  acidity  that  its  fertility  is  very  slightly  diminished,  and 
only  with  regard  to  some  few  plants.     Barley  crops  become  more  and  more  scanty 
in  proportion  as  the  acidity  is  increased  ;    but  oats  do  not  appear  to  be  at  all    ' 
affected  by  it.     Rye  grown  on  such  land  is  peculiarly  liable  to  rust,  and  is  easily    [ 
.  laid  or  lodged  :  the  grains  of  all  the  cereals  become  larger,  but  contain  less  farina. 
S   Grass  which  grows  on  these  spots  is,  both  in  species  and  taste,  less  agreeable, 
J  and  less  suitable  for  cattle,  than  any  other,  although  it  yields  a  very  considerable 
{  produce  in  hay.     In  fact,  in  exact  proportion  with  the  increase  of  acidity,  is  the 
S   decrease  in  the  value  of  the  soil,  and  this  goes  on  from  bad  to  worse  until  the  soil 
?  is  no  better  than  what  we  call  marshy  land. 

s  A  blackish  hue  on  the  soil  usually  induces  the  supposition  that  it  contains 
/  an  abundance  of  humus  ;  and,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  this  opinion  Avill 
}  prove  correct,  unless  the  color  arises  from  the  presence  of  oxide  of  iron,  or  man- 
t  ganese  ;  the  remarkable  fertility  of  land  colored  by  humus  does  not  admit  of  its 
j  being  long  mistaken. 

I  All  doubts  upon  the  subject  may,  however,  soon  be  removed  by  submitting  a 
(  ball  of  the  earth  in  question  to  incandescence  in  an  open  crucible,  which  will  al- 
)  low  the  atmospheric  air  to  come  in  contact  with  it ;  in  this  case,  if  the  dark  col- 
or arises  from  the  presence  of  humus,  it  will  speedily  disappear,  and  the  earth 
will  become  quite  Avhite,  an  effect  which  is  not  produced  when  the  dark  hue 
arises  from  oxide  of  iron.  The  simplest  means  of  ascertaining  and  estimating 
the  quantity  of  humus  contained  in  a  soil  is  to  burn  it.  A  certain  portion  of  the 
soil  which  we  wish  to  analyze,  taken  not  too  near  the  surface,  should  be  dried 
in  the  sun  until  it  pulverizes  in  the  hand  and  feels  quite  dry  ;  the  small  stones 
should  then  be  picked  out,  and  the  remaining  portion  accurately  weighed,  placed 
in  a  crucible,  heated  to  a  perfect  state  of  incandescence,  and  kept  in  that  state 
for  about  ten  minutes,  or  at  least  until  the  black  hue  has  entirely  disappeared, 
and  gently  moved  or  stirred  Avith  a  glass  tube  all  the  time.  In  order  to  accele- 
rate the  total  combustion  of  the  humus  and  shorten  the  operation,  a  small  portion 
of  nitrate  of  ammonia  may  be  united  with  the  earth,  which  completely  volatil- 
izes that  substance.  The  diminution  of  weight  will  indicate  the  quantity  of  hu- 
mus which  the  soil  contained.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  earth,  especially  if  it 
be  of  an  argillaceous  nature,  loses  some  of  that  water  which  Avas  so  closely  uni- 
ted with  it,  to  be  evaporated  only  by  the  process  of  incandescence  ;  but  this  will 
make  a  very  trifling  difference  in  the  weight,  and  if  the  earth  was  previously 
well  dried,  it  will  not  amount  to  a  fraction.  But  Avhere  the  soil  contains  a  good 
deal  of  lime,  the  volatilization  of  its  carbonic  acid  as  Avell  as  of  its  Avater  of  crys- 
talization,  will  cause  a  sensible  difference  in  the  result  of  the  experiment ;  it  is, 
^  therefore,  highly  necessary  to  begin  by  getting  rid  of  the  lime.  The  acidity  of 
f,  humus  may  be  detected  by  immersing  a  strip  of  blue  turnsole  paper  in  a  liquid 
^  paste,  formed  of  the  earth  we  wish  to  analyze,  and  water.  If  the  paper  turns 
^  red,  that  may  be  considered  as  a  certain  sign  of  the  presence  of  an  acid.  Sour  or 
acid  humus  also  betrays  itself  by  the  peculiar  odor  which  it  emits  when  burned, 
an  odor  similar  to  that  given  out  by  burnt  turf.  If  humus,  when  burning,  smells 
like  burnt  feathers,  that  is  a  sign  that  it  originates  in  animal  matter,  and  is,  con- 
sequently, richer,  and  may  be  more  easily  decomposed. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  a  more  definite  analysis  of  humus  might  be  effected  by 
means  of  the  pneumatic  apparatus,  and  by  dry  distillation;  but  an  agriculturist 
has  it  not  always  in  his  power  to  perform  this  operation.  Arthur  Young  fre- 
quently performed  these  experiments,  and  found  that  the  quantity  of  hydrogen 
gas  which  he  obtained  was  always  m  exact  proportion  Avith  the  fertility  of  the 
soil.  The  experiments  conducted  by  Priestly  were  attended  with  similar  results, 
and  serve  to  confirm  this  fact. 

Clay  increases  the  fertility  of  the  land :     1.  By  the  ^hesion  which  it  contracts 
with  water.     This  adhesion  is  so  great,  that,  even  during  a  long  drouth,  the  clay  i 
always  preserves  that   humidity  which  is  indispensable  to  the  nourishment  of 
plants  ;  and,  although  it  may  appear  to  be  entirely  parched  up,  it  is  still  capable    i 
of  communicating  to  them  that  moisture  without  which  they  could  not  exist.    | 
(  2,  By  the  solid  support  which  it  affords  to  the  roots  of  plants,  as  well  as  by  the 

I (545) 13 


THAER  S   PRINCIPLES   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


resistance  which  it  opposes  to  their  too  great  extension,  obliging  them  to  put 
forth  several  tufts  of  short  fibrous  roots,  by  means  of  which  each  plant  seeks  its 
nourishment  in  the  circumscribed  spot ;  and,  consequently,  does  not  deprive  its 
neighbors  of  their  fair  share.  3.  By  preventing  the  atmospheric  air  from  coming 
in  contact  with  the  roots  of  the  plants,  to  which  it  is  almost  invariably  injurious, 
and  by  communicating  to  them  a  moderate  and  equable  degree  of  warmth  ;  thus 
preserving  an  equality  of  temperature,  notwithstanding  the  constant  change 
going  on  in  the  atmosphere.  When  argillaceous  land  is  not  too  damp,  the  effects 
of  sudden  changes  from  hot  to  cold,  or  vice  versa,  are,  consequently,  less  injuri- 
ous to  the  crops  growing  on  it,  than  they  are  to  those  which  grow  on  sandy  soils. 
4.  It  attracts  oxygen,  the  substance  which  is  so  necessary  to  the  formation  of  car- 
bonic acid.  It  probably  attracts  nitrogen  also;  and  thus  favors  the  reciprocal 
tion  of  these  substances  upon  each  other. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  excess  of  clay  is  injurious :  1.  Because  in  damp  weather 
it  retains  the  water  with  which  it  is  impregnated  too  long,  neither  suffering  it  to 
drain  out  or  evaporate,  but  forming  with  it  a  tenacious  paste.  2.  Because  in  dry 
weather  it  becomes  too  hard,  opposes  too  great  a  resistance  to  the  roots  of  the 
plants,  and,  not  unfrequently  contracts  and  becomes  not  unlike  a  mass  of  brick. 

3.  Because,  both  during  the  summer  heat  and  the  winter  frost,  it  cracks  into  gaps 
or  clefts,  by  which  means  the  roots  of  the  plants  are  torn  or  brought  into  imme- 
diate contact  with  the  atmospheric  air,  which  is  generally  injurious  to  them. 

4.  Because  it  forcibly  attracts  and  incorporates  with  itself  all  the  nutritive  juices 
contained  in  the  manure  bestowed  upon  it,  and  cannot  be  made  to  part  with  them 
agam  so  easily  as  in  looser  and  lighter  soils.  In  fact,  when  it  has  once  been 
thoroughly  ameliorated,  and  in  a  manner  saturated  with  manure  and  brought  into 
good  condition,  it  retains  its  fertility  for  a  considerable  period :  but,  if  once  im- 
poverished or.  exhausted,  the  first  manurings  bestowed  upon  it  have  little  or  no 
effect  upon  the  vegetation.  Land  of  this  nature,  therefore,  must  be  manured  very 
plentifully,  or  the  first  crops  derive  little  or  no  benefit  from  the  amelioration.  5. 
Because  it  renders  the  task  of  cultivating  the  soil  exceedingly  difficult.  In  damp, 
wet  weather  it  is  almost  impossible  to  pass  either  a  plow,  harrow,  or  wagon  over 
it ;  it  sticks  to  tbe  two  former  instruments,  clogs  them,  and  impedes  their  action, 
and  can  with  difficulty  be  divided  ;  while  in  dry  weather  it  contracts  and  be- 
comes so  hard  that  it  is  with  the  greatest  difficulty  a  plow  can  divide  it  even  into 
large  clods,  and  these,  until  they  have  been  moistened  by  rain,  can  neither  be  J 
broken  by  the  harrow  or  the  roller,  and,  not  unfrequently,  a  mallet  is  obliged  to  I 
be  used  for  this  purpose,  and  even  then  the  end  in  view  is  but  very  imperfectly  i 
attained.  / 

The  injurious  effects  of  an  excess  of  clay  may,  in  part,  be  counteracted  by  the  ^ 
addition  of  humus  ;  but,  as  we  have  already  stated,  this  will  not  entirely  obviate 
them.  Lime  is  also  rather  beneficial  in  this  case,  as  we  shall  presently  see. 
But  nothing  is  so  really  beneficial  as  sand,  and  that  is  the  substance  which  is 
generally  used.  The  superior  layer  of  the  soil  always  contains  some  portion  of 
sand  ;  and,  were  not  this  the  case,  it  would  be  scarcely  possible  for  any  agricul- 
tural implement  to  act  upon  it.  Consequently,  the  estimation  of  most  lands 
ought  principally  to  be  based  upon  the  proportions  in  which  clay  and  sand  are  ^ 
united  in  them.  \ 

Previously  to  pointing  out  what  these  proportions  are,  I  must,  in  the  first  place,  <^ 
explain  precisely  what  I  mean  by  sand.  My  intention  is  to  designate,  under  this  ^ 
term,  that  coarse-grained  silica  which,  when  any  portion  of  earth  is  carefully  I 
washed,  is  precipitated  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  can  there  be  collected,  i 
Recent  experiments  have  shown  us  that,  when  clay  is  boiled  in  water,  a  consid-  S 
erable  quantity  of  fine-grained  silica  is  separated  from  it  ;  and  that,  if  this  ope-  ) 
ration  is  prolonged  and  carefully  performed,  the  alumina  will  at  last  be  deprived  i 
01  nearly  the  whole  of  its  silica.  It  appears  that  the  quantity  of  this  fine  silica  > 
constitutes  the  principal  difference  which  exists  between  rich  and  poor  clay  :  that  ) 
clay,  properly  so  called,  is  always  composed  of  the  same  proportions,  and  is  not  I 
chemically  combined,  at  least  in  an  intimate  manner,  with  a  fixed  and  definite  S 
quantity  of  silica,  although  it  may  be  mechanically  united  with  a  much  larger  / 
portion.     I  cannot,  as  yet,  affirm  that  such  is  the  case,  but  I  think  it  very  probable.   ( 

As  the  end  we  now  have  in  view  is  to  regulate  and  determine  the  value  and  > 
utility  of  land,  according  to  the  proportions  of  its  constituent  parts,  and  to  effect  ) 

(546)  I 


THEORY  OF  THE  SOIL.  '  179 

this  purpose  in  the  simplest  possible  manner,  we  shall  not  pay  any  attention  to 
this  fine  silica  which  cannot  be  separated  except  by  boiling ;  bt  ■  regard  clay  as 
pure  when  it  has  been  carefully  washed.  In  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases, 
at  least  fifteen  parts  more  of  fine  silica  might  be  extracted,  by  boiling,  from  a 
hundred  parts  of  clay  which  has  been  purified  by  washing.  The  proportion  of 
this  substance  obtained  from  some  particular  kinds  of  land  is  still  greater.  The 
experiments  and  researches  hitherto  made  do  not  enable  us  to  determine  how  far 
clay  which  contains  a  still  greater  portion  of  this  substance  is  benefited  by  the 
addition  of  sand,  and  what  quantity  of  that  matter  is  necessary  to  give  it  the  re- 
quisite degree  of  porousness. 

When  the  soil  is  composed  of  almost  equal  parts  of  pure  clay  and  of  that  kind 
of  sand  which  can  be  separated  from  it  by  washing,  we  designate  it  clay  land,  or 
potter's  earth  ;  and  we  preserve  this  denomination  so  long  as  the  soil  does  not 
contain  more  than  from  forty  to  sixty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand ;  and,  according 
as  this  proportion  is  increased  or  diminished  in  it,  we  term  it  leose  or  stiff  and 
tenacious  clay  land. 

A  soil  which  contains  less  than  forty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand  is  called  argil- 
laceous land  ;  the  smaller  the  proportion  of  sand  which  it  contains,  the  more  stifl" 
and  tenacious  does  it  become,  and  the  more  evident  are  the  defects  of  the  clay. 
Land  containing,  at  most,  only  twenty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand,  is  very  stiff  and 
crude,  and  cannot  be  tilled  without  great  difficulty,  unless  its  defects  are  correct- 
ed by  a  considerable  admixture  of  humus  or  lime.  Its  quality,  however,  depends 
!  in  a  great  measure  upon  the  nature  of  the  clay,  and  the  quantity  of  silica  which  I 
enters  into  its  composition:  such  a  soil  is  less  defective  if,  while  it  contains  only  \ 
'.  a  small  portion  of  sand,  it  possesses  a  large  quantity  of  silica.  / 

AVhen  this  argillaceous  land  does  not  contain  sufficient  humus  to  enable  it  to  \ 
bear  wheat  without  being  manured  afresh,  and,  consequently,  cannot  be  entered  S 
in  the  first  class,  it  will  be  termed  wheat  land  of  the  second  quality,  or  second-  (^ 
rate  wheat  land  ;  but  then  it  must  not  be  totally  destitute  of  humus.  On  rising  r 
grounds,  or  eminences,  we  seldom  find  land  submitted  to  ordinary  cultivation  ) 
wnich  contains  more  than  three  parts  in  a  hundred  of  this  compound  matter ;  ( 
nevertheless,  such  land  is  well  adapted  for  wheat,  and  that  species  of  cereals  i^ 
succeeds  much  better  and  with  less  trouble  than  rye.  Next  to  wheat,  barley  ) 
thrives  best  there,  if  the  soil  contains  from  thirty  to  forty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  \ 
sand  ;  but  when  it  only  contains  a  smaller  proportion,  and  this  defect  is  not  rem-  S 
edied  by  a  strong  admixture  of  lime,  it  is  better  adapted  for  oats.  Such  land  is  ) 
also  exceedingly  proper  for  the  growth  of  vegetables,  provided  that  it  is  suffi-  < 
ciently  ameliorated  ;  that  which  contaius  most  sand  is  favorable  to  peas,  while  a  S 
stiffer  and  more  tenacious  soil  grows  beans  with  greater  advantage.  \ 

The  value  of  land  diminishes  in  exact  proportion  with  the  decrease  in  the  quah-  < 
tity  of  the  sand  contained  in  it,  unless  it  belongs  to  the  class  of  marly  or  calcare-  ^ 
ous  soils,  or  to  those  which  are  strongly  impregnated  with  humus ;  thus  a  soil  > 
containing  forty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand  is  of  the  greatest  value,  while  that  f, 
which  contains  but  five  parts  in  a  hundred  is  much  less  esteemed.  A  tenacious  ^ 
and  argillaceous  soil  which  is  plentifully  manured,  and  situated  where  an  alter-  \ 
nately  hot  and  moist  temperature  not  only  favors  the  operations  of  plowing  and  '. 
fallowing,  but  also  the  processes  of  vegetation,  is  sometimes  very  superior,  espe-  ^ 
cially  for  the  growth  of  wheat ;  but  if  we  come  to  consider  the  difficulty  there  is  } 
in  cultivating  it,  and  how  much  more  uncertain  and  casual  the  crops  are  there  ^ 
than  they  would  be  on  a  lighter  soil,  there  can  no  longer  be  any  doubt  as  to  its  } 
inferiority  in  value.  I  estimate  land  which  contains  two  parts  in  a  hundred  of  ^. 
natural  humus,  forty  of  sand,  and  about  sixty  of  pure  clay,  at  70  ;  that  which  S 
only  contains  thirty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand,  at  60  ;  that  which  contains  but  ) 
twenty  parts,  at  50  ;  and  that  which  contains  only  ten  parts,  at  40.  Should  it  not  « 
possess  more  than  one  part  in  a  hundred  of  humus,  its  value  is  decreased  at  least  ) 
twenty  per  cent.  Thus,  tenacious  soils  which  contain  little  or  no  mild,  solulie  hu-  \ 
mus,  and  which  is  usually  termed  cold,  damp  land,  is  actually  one  of  the  most  sterile  •' 
that  possibly  can  be,  and  may,  in  point  of  value,  be  assimilated  to  sandy  land.  ) 
On  the  other  hand,  its  value  is  increased  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  humus  k 
and  clay  which  it  contains  ;  and  such  land  may  even  be  good  enough  to  be  en-  \ 
tered  in  the  first  class,  when  it  can  be  abundantly  manured  and  properly  tilled.  ) 

Land  which  contains  more  than  fortv,  or  from  that  to  sixty  parts  in  a  hundred  \ 

(547)  -  \ 


180  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

of  sand,  is  usually  designated  clay,  or  potter's  earth,  but  the  less  the  proportion  \ 
of  sand  falls  below  forty  parts  in  a  hundred,  the  greater  is  the  value  of  the  land, 
i  supposing  it  to  possess  an  equal  quantity  of  humus.     Where  the  proportion  of 
sand  does  not  exceed  fifty  parts  in  a  hundred,  the  soil  is  equally  adapted  for  the 
production  of  wheat  and  barley.     But  when  that  proportion  increases  from  fifty 
to  sixty  parts  in  a  hundred,  wheat  certainly  may  be  grown  there,  provided  the 
soil  is  "properly  cultivated  ;  but  the  crops  are  never  very  fine  or  very  abundant, 
and  the  land  is  much  more  impoverished  than  it  would  have  been  if  cropped  with  ^ 
rye  :  such  a  soil  is,  however,  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  barley,  and  may  be  ' 
classed  among  the  very  best  of  those  lands  which  are  destined  to  bear  this  kind  [ 
of  grain.  < 

The  inherent  advantages  of  a  soil  of  this  nature,  viz.,  of  causing  the  crops  to 
be  less  casual  and  uncertain,  being  more  easily  worked  and  tilled,  preserving  a  ' 
moderate  degree  of  temperature  and  humidity,  &c.,  render  it  so  very  superior  to 
argillaceous  land,  that,  notwithstanding  its  being  less  adapted  for  wheat,  it  may 
be  assimilated  to  wheat  land  in  all  its  various  gradations.  In  this  case,  the  gra- 
dations are  in  an  exactly  inverse  direction  ;  forty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand  ap- 
pearing to  us  to  be  the  best  proportion.  In  the  former  case,  the  value  of  the  soil 
decreases  when  the  proportion  of  sand  diminishes  ;  in  the  latter,  on  the  contrary, 
the  value  decreases  when  the  proportion  is  increased,  but  not  in  the  same  ratio. 
From  the  observations  which  we  have  hitherto  been  able  to  make  the  value  of 
the  s£iil  appears  to  be  almost  equal  in  the  following  opposite  proportions : — 

Sand.  Pure  Clay.  I  Sand.  Pure  Clay. 

50  parts  in  100  50  parts  in  100  35  parts  in  100  65  parts  in  100 

60         "  40         "  I  30         "  70"       " 

That  is  to  say,  the  former  are  defective  on  account  of  their  want  of  consistence,  <\ 
and  the  latter  on  account  of  their  too  great  tenacity. 

This  kind  of  land  may  be  vigorously  tilled  without  becoming  pulverized, 
<[  neither  does  it  harden  into  clods  and  furrows  ;  it  is  seldom  injured  by  an  excess 
of  moisture,  and  yet  preserves  sufficient  humidity  to  enable  it  to  resist  the  effects 
of  drouth  for  a  considerable  period ;  and  young  plants  suffer  much  less  in  it  than 
in  tenacious  soils,  because  their  roots  are  better  able  to  extend  in  all  directions 
and  penetrate  it ;  and  this  is  the  reason  that  barley  succeeds  and  flourishes  so 
much  better  here.  Such  land  will,  doubtless,  only  bear  fine  crops  of  wheat  when 
it  has  been  thoroughly  ameliorated  ;  but,  even  when  in  a  less  fertile  condition,  it 
produces  finer  crops  of  rye  than  are  grown  on  more  argillaceous  lands.  It  is  also 
peculiarly  adapted  for  vegetables,  as  potatoes  and  radishes,  for  clover  and  other 
kinds  of  fodder,  and  for  plants  of  commerce,  as  cabbage,  linseed,  tobacco,  &c., 
the  cultivation  of  which  is  easy.  It  seldom  offers  any  opposition  to  the  action  of  / 
the  plow  and  harrow  ;  and  on  this  account,  although  it  does  not  yield  fine  or  large  ' 
crops  of  wheat  even  in  favorable  years,  it  ought,  in  the  gradations  pomted  out, 
to  be  assimilated  to  wheat  land,  properly  so  called. 

Sand  is  injurious  when  it  enters  too  largely  into  the  composition  of  the  soil : 

1.  Because  it  is  not  sufficiently  retentive  of  moisture,  but  allows  the  water  to 
evaporate  or  drain  away,  and  carry  with  it  the  fertilizing  particles  and  juices. 

2.  Because  it  does  not  combine  with  the  humus,  and  hardly  enters  into  a  physi- 
cal union  with  it  sufficiently  strong  to  absorb  those  fertilizing  particles  which  the 
atmosphere  contains.  3.  Because  sandy  soils  will  not  bear  frequent  cultivation, 
although  constant  tillage  is  necessary  in  order  to  destroy  the  weeds  which  mul- 
tiply so  rapidly  in  land  of  this  nature,  especially  when  it  contains  a  fair  quantity 
of  humus  ;  and  because  these  repeated  workings  deprive  it  of  every  particle  of 
coherence,  and,  instead  of  ameliorating,  tends  rather  to  impoverish  it  by  bringing 
to  the  surface  all  that  humus  which  was  amassed  in  the  interstices  without  be- 

(  ing  combined  with  the  soil,  and  thus  exposing  it  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere 
and  the  winds,  which  rapidly  decomposes  it  and  carries  it  away.     4.  Because, 

!'  sandy  soils  being  good  conductors  of  caloric,  they  transmit  the  influences  of  se- 

<\   vere  cold  or  intense  heat  immediately  to  plants  at  each  sudden  change  which  the 

I    temperature  of  the  atmosphere  undergoes. 

!  A  soil  which  contains  more  than  from  sixty  to  eighty  parts  in  a  hundred  of 
sand  is  termed  sandy  day.  The  value  of  this  land  diminishes  in  proportion  as 
the  sand  increases  ;  if  that  which  contains  sixty  parts  in  a  hundred  is  valued  at 
60,  land  containing  sixty-five  parts  ought  not  to  be  estimated  at  more  than  50, 

^  (548) 


THEORY  OF   THE   SOIL.  181 

seventy  parts  decrease  the  value  to  40,  seventy-five  to  30,  and,  lastly,  that  which 
contahis  eighty  parts  to  20.  Wheat  crops  cannot  be  reckoned  upon  here  with 
any  degree  of  certainty  ;  and  if  the  land  contains  seventy  parts  in  a  hundred  of 
sand,  it  is  not  at  all  adapted  for  the  production  of  this  kind  of  grain,  unless  it  be 
submitted  to  a  peculiarly  enriching  course  of  tillage  ;  but  it  is  well  calculated  for 
barley,  particularly  when  the  situation  is  favorable  and  the  summers  are  not  too 
dry.  It  is  easily  worked  or  tilled,  but  is  more  liable  to  be  overrun  and  infested 
with  weeds  than  argillaceous  soils.  It  has  no  great  degree  of  cohesive  attraction 
for  manure,  but,  on  the  contrary,  rapidly  decomposes  that  substance,  and  allows 
it  to  pass  into  the  plants  which  vegetate  there.  This  accounts  for  its  requiring 
frequent  manurings,  although  these  need  not  be  very  plentiful.  When  rich  and 
abundant  ameliorations  are  bestowed  upon  such  land,  it  will  become  very  rich  in 
humus,  and  eventually  be  rendered  exceedingly  fertile  ;  but  this  fertility  rapidly 
declines  if  the  soil  is  submitted  to  an  exhausting,  rotation. 

If  it  contains  seventy-five  parts  in  a  hundred  or  more  of  sand,  it  is  usually  desig- 
nated oat  land  ;  nevertheless,  if  we  take  the  average  of  several  years,  we  shall 
see  that  it  is  more  proper  for  barley  than  for  oats,  provided  it  be  sufficiently 
manured. 

A  soil  which  contains  more  than  eighty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand,  is  called 
sandy  land  ;  and  if  the  proportion  of  this  substance  does  not  exceed  ninety,  it  is 
distinguished  by  the  term  clayey  sand.     Usually,  so  long  as  land  does  not  contain 
more  than  eighty-five  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand,  it  is  comprised  in  the  class  of 
oat  lands  ;  nevertheless,  the  success  of  this  grain  is  by  no  means  certain,  and  it 
often  yields  little  or  no  produce.     Rye  and  buckwheat  are  the  only  kinds  of  grain 
which  it  bears  with  any  degree  of  success  ;  and  if  it  has  been  sufficiently  ameli-    ' 
orated,  it  is  always  better  to  sow  successive  crops  of  rye  than  to  sow  oats  after    \ 
rye,  because  the  dryness  to  which  this  soil  is  exposed  during  the  summer  is  less   'i 
prejudicial  to  rye  than  to  oats.     Of  all  the  plants  or  vegetables  which  are  grown  ; 
for  the  purposes  of  feeding  cattle,  potatoes  have  been  cultivated  with  the  great-  i 
est  success  on  this  sort  of  land.      But  the  frequent  plowings  which,  when  this   ' 
land  is  m  good  condition,  must  be  bestowed  upon  it,  in  order  to  cleanse  it  from 
weeds,  are  apt  to  render  it  so  loose  and  friable  that  not  any  of  the  cereals  can  be 
made  to  succeed  on  it.     This  is  the  reason  that  it  is  advisable  to  alloAv  it  a  cer- 
tain period  of  repose,  or  to  lay  it  down  to  perennial  pasture  ;    and  this  latter  is 
the  means  by  which  the  greatest  amount  of  advantage  can  be  derived  from  it,  for  \ 
when  sown  with  sheep's  fescue-grass  (festuca  ovina),  rye  grass  (lolium  perenjie),    • 
Dutch  clover  (trefolium  repens),  common  burnet  (poteriu/n  sanguisorha),  &c.  it   / 
produces  a  pasturage  which  is  exceedingly  well  calculated  for  sheep,  although  ' 
not  usually  sufficiently  rich  for  cattle.     After  this  period  of  pasturage  or  repose,   ' 
the  land  may  be  cultivated  afresh,  and  will,  if  sown  with  rye,  yield  very  fine  crops. 

The  value  of  it  decreases  from  twenty  to  ten  in  the  ratio  of  one  for  every  hun- 
dred in  which  the  proportion  of  sand  increases ;  and  this  diminution  takes  place 
even  when  the  land  contains  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  parts  in  a  hundred  of 
humus  ;  and  if,  as  sometimes  happens,  it  contains  a  yet  smaller  proportion,  its 
value  is  still  less. 

But  if  the  land  contains  ninety  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand,  it  then  belongs  to  a 
still  lower  class,  unless  it  is  abundantly  manured  ;  nor  until  after  a  long  period 
of  repose  can  it  be  made  to  bear  a  crop  of  cereals  with  any  degree  of  advantage, 
and  then  this  crop  impoverishes  it  very  much.  Land  which  does  not  contain 
more  than  ninety-four  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand  may,  if  properly  managed  and 
sown  with  the  small  varieties  of  the  festucas  and  vernal-grass,  be  made  to  yield  ' 
herbage  enough  to  feed  one  sheep  per  acre  during  the  period  of  repose.  But  '' 
when  the  soil  contains  a  yet  larger  portion  of  sand,  it  will  only  bear  grey-hair- 
grass  [aira  canescens),  yellow  goats'-beard  {tragopogon  pratensis),  and  some 
other  plants  which  contain  scarcely  any  nutritive  juices  ;  it  then  falls  into  the 
class  of  loose  blowing  sands,  the  surface  of  which  it  is  very  dangerous  to  break, 
because  then  the  wind  moves  it  and  carries  it  away  in  whirlwinds. 

It  may  be  regarded  as  an  invariable  rule  that  sandy  soil  loses  at  least  one  part 

in  a  hundred  of  its  value  by  the  augmentation  of  a  hundredth  part  in  the  pro- 

'  portion  of  sand  ;  and  when  it  degenerates  into  loose  blowing  sand,  it  possesses  a 

mere  negative  value  in  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  sand  which  are  not  composed  solely  of  silica,  but-also  / 

(•^.49) 


182  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture, 

contain  some  grains  of  carbonate  of  lime.  This  calcareous  sand  is  not  so  insolu- 
ble as  the  silicioos,  and  is  much  more  favorable  to  vegetation.  We  do  not,  how- 
ever, yet  know  any  decisive  experiments  which  bear  upon  this  point. 

The  presence  of  lime,  especially  when  it  is  intimately  combined  with  clay,  in- 
creases the  fertility  of  the  soil  to  a  certain  degree.  1.  Because,  when  intimately 
and  uniformily  mixed  with  clay,  it  renders  that  substance  more  friable  and  less 
tenacious.  Such  a  mixture  is  easily  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  by  exposure  to  the 
air.  2.  Because  it  facilitates  the  drying  and  aerefaction  of  the  clay,  and  prevents  i 
too  great  an  accumulation  of  water  from  taking  place  in  it.  It  appears,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  consolidate  sand,  increasing  its  cohesive  attraction  for  water,  and 
intimately  uniting  with  it  by  means  of  the  humus.  3.  Because  it  favors  the  de- 
composition and  reciprocal  action  of  the  nutritive  juices  contained  in  the  soil,  and 
separates  those  animal  or  vegetable  substances  which  adhere  too  closely  to  the 
clay.  It  is  as  yet  doubtful  whether  it  transmits  its  carbonic  acid  to  the  humus 
[  or  even  to  the  plants  themselves  ;  whether,  on  the  other  hand,  it  absorbs  it  from 
the  air,  and  consequently  acts  as  a  nutritive  body.  There  are,  however,  various 
reasons  to  induce  us  to  believe  that  such  is  the  case.  4.  Because  it  prevents  the 
formation  of  those  acids  which  are  so  easily  produced  in  the  soil ;  or  where  they 
already  exist,  it  tends  to  neutralize  them  and  prevent  them  from  being  injurious. 
5.  Because  the  husk  of  grain  grown  on  land  which  contains  a  suitable  portion  of  ' 
lime  is  much  thinner,  and  the  grain  itself  yields  a  considerably  larger  quantity  of  \ 
farina  ;  and  farther,  because  it  is  singularly  favorable  to  all  plants  belonging  to 
the  class  "  diadelphia,"  and,  consequently,  to  those  which  bear  pods  ;  all  kinds  ' 
of  clover  succeed  wonderfully  on  it.  / 

When  a  soil  contains  too  great  a  proportion  of  lime,  that  substance  is  apt  to 
become  prejudicial.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  districts  where  a  chalky 
formation  exists.  1.  Because  it  does  not  retain  moisture,  and  has  even  a  greater  ' 
disposition  than  sand  to  suffer  it  to  evaporate  ;  consequently,  during  warm,  dry 
weather,  it  is  totally  parched  and  reduced  to  dust.  2.  Because  it  consumes  ma- 
nure and  humus  very  rapidly,  accelerates  the  passage  of  these  substances  to  the 
plants,  and  thus  hastens  their  vegetation  at  first ;  and  does  not  reserve  any  nu- 
trition for  their  support  during  the  latter  stages  of  their  development ;  on  which  i 
account  they  fall  off  and  perish  before  they  arrive  at  maturity. 

As  I  know  not  any  kind  of  soil  which  contains  a  superabundance  of  lime,  I 
shall  quote  a  passage  from  one  of  Chaptal's  works  : — "  Land,  in  which  there  is 
a*preponderance  of  lime  (M.  Chaptal  means  carbonate  of  lime)  is  porous,  light, 
easily  permeable  by  water,  can  be  tilled  without  difficulty,  forms  a  paste  which 
possesses  little  or  no  consistence,  and  is  not  sensibly  altered  by  the  action  of  fire. 
The  air  easily  penetrates  calcareous  earth,  and  is  there  capable  of  vivifying  the 
germs  which  it  contains  to  a  certain  depth  ;  but  water,  which  penetrates  it  with- 
out resistance,  escapes  again  with  equal  facility.  Land  of  this  nature  is  alter- 
nately swamped  and  parched  ;  and  those  plants  which  are  not  strong  enough  to 
withstand  such  variations,  languish  or  perish  in  a  soil  of  this  nature." 

According  to  Reissert  and  Seitz  ("  Annals  of  Agriculture,"  vol.  ix.  p.  236),  cal- 
careous land,  which  is  composed  of  forty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  lime,  thirty-six 
parts  of  sand,  and  a  large  portion  of  clay,  is  more  difficult  to  till  when  it  has  be- 
come very  damp  after  a  heavy  fall  of  rain,  than  argillaceous  land  would  be  ;  but 
when  it  is  dry,  this  difficulty  is  considerably  diminished. 

That  proportion  of  lime  in  land  which  is  most  advantageous  to  it,  is  a  quantity 
equal  to  that  of  pure  clay.     Of  all  the  fifty-three  varieties  of  soils  produced  by    | 
artificial  combinations  experimented  on  by'Tillet,  that  which  appeared  to  be  most 
favorable  to  the  vegetation  of  grain  was  composed  of  3-8  of  potter's  clay,  4-8  of 
'    shell  or  fossil  marl,  and  1-8  of  sand. 

^  The  more  lime  a  soil  contains,  the  less  sand  is  required  to  correct  the  defects 
of  the  clay.  But  it  is  highly  necessary  that  some  portion  of  sand  should  enter 
into  the  combination  ;  for  without  that  substance,  marl,  when  dry,  would  be  too 
tenacious,  and  when  moistened,  too  soft.  General  experience  confirms  the  fact, 
that  the  proportions  indicated  by  Tillet  certainly  are  the  best. 

But  even  when  lime  is  mingled  with  the  superior  layer  of  the  soil  in  so  small 
a  quantity  that  it  scarcely  appears  to  have  any  influence  on  its  consistence,  it  in- 
creases its  fertility  probably  by  means  of  the  chemical  action  which  it  enters  into 
with  the  humus  and  manure.     From   general    experiments   and   observations, 

I  (5£0) 


THEORY  OF  THE  SOIL.  183 


which,  nevertheless,  cannot  be  very  correct,  it  appears,  that  ten  parts  in  a  hun- 
dred of  lime  raises  the  value  of  argillaceous  or  clayey  soils  from  five  to  ten  per 
cent.,  and  even  higher,  when  the  land  contains  a  large  portion  of  humus. 

On  the  other  hand  lime  is  injurious,  when  the  proportion  of  it  contained  in  the 
soil  exceeds  that  of  the  clay.  When  the  lime  is  mingled  with  much  sand,  it 
forms  a  soil  too  dry  and  warm,  and  which,  even  when  plentifully  manured,  can- 
not be  made  to  yield  good  crops  of  anything  but  those  vegetables  which  cannot 
be  materially  injuredby  drouth,  as  maize,  &c.  Chalky  soils,  which  are  princi-  ' 
pally  composed  of  lime,  are  of  this  nature,  and  suffer  both  from  drouth  and  hu- 
midity, becoming,  in  the  latter  case,  sloughy. 

When  speaking  of  the  soils  in  which  humus  forms  the  chief  component  part>  ' 
and  in  which  this  substance  cannot  easily  be  exhausted,  we  allude  to  those  which  [ 
contain  more  than  five  parts  of  it  in  a  hundred;  such  is  only  the  case,  however,  ' 
in  alluvial  soils,  or  those  which  are  formed  by  the  deposit  of  rivers  or  of  the  sea. 
'  High  grounds  and  mountainous  districts,  both  those  which  contain  a  large  portion 
of  clay,  and  those  in  which  sand  is  the  preponderating  ingredient,  rarely  possess 
five  parts  in  a  hundred  of  humus,  mdeed,  they  seldom  contain  more  than  three 
parts  of  mild  humus,  especially  at  the  close  of  a  rotation,  when  they  almost  al- 
ways require  fresh  manuring  in  order  to  enable  them  to  yield  profitable  crops. 
The  quantity  of  humus  contained  in  a  soil  diminishes  in  exact  proportion  with 
the  number  and  condition  of  the  crops  derived  from  it ;  allowance,  however,  be- 
ing made  for  the  manure  which  it  receives.  This  diminution  is  not,  however,  so 
/  considerable  as  it  appears  or  might  be  expected  to  be  ;  an  amelioration  of  two 
hundred  quintals  of  humus  leaves,  when  decomposed,  scarcely  thirty  quintals  of 
dry  humus,  and  this  quantity  has  to  be  spread  over  an  acre  of  land,  the  superior 
layer  of  which  is  generally  composed  of  about  12,000  quintals  of  earth.  Thus, 
four  hundred  quintals  of  soil  receive  one  quintal  of  manure,  that  is  to  say,  each 
hundred  receives  a  quarter  of  a  quintal. 

The  proportion  in  which  the  soil  naturally  contains  this  aliment  of  plants  and 
vegetables  is,  therefore,  a  very  important  point ;  and  it  is  most  important  that 
this  proportion  should  be  tolerably  large,  because  the  less  humus  a  soil  contains, 
the  more  difficult  it  is  to  create  that  substance  in  it. 

The  value  of  a  soil  increases  in  proportion  with  the  humus  which  it  contains. 
In  good  clay  land  I  have  generally  found  two  parts  ui  a  hundred  of  humus  even  * 
at  the  close  of  the  rotation,;  or,  to  explain  myself  more  clearly,  a  portion  of  the 
soil  which  has  been  submitted  to  incandescent  heat,  after  having  been  deprived 
of  its  fibrous  parts  and  of  its  lime,  and  dried  at  a  temperature  a  few  degrees 
higher  than  that  of  boiling  water,  has  lost  that  portion  of  weight.  The  evapora- 
tion of  water,  most  likely,  had  nothing  to  do  with  this  diminution  of  weight,  since 
it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  moisture  which  the  clay  had  previously  lost  is 
immediately  reabsorbed  during  the  process  of  weighing. 

We  shall  therefore  consider  two  parts  in  a  hundred  to  be  the  average  quantity 
of  humus  contained  in  clayey  vegetable  soils,  one  and  a  half  parts  as  the  average 
in  sandy  vegetable  soils,  and  one  part  as  the  average  contained  in  sandy  soils  ; 
and  we  shall  take  these  quantities  as  a  preliminary  condition  in  those  estimates 
already  given  of  sandy  and  argillaceous  lands.  The  increase  of  a  half-hundredth 
part  of  mild  humus  will  augment  the  value  of  the  soil  which  contains  it  five  per 
cent.  ;  thus,  land  containing  two  parts  in  a  hundred  of  humus  and  valued  at  50, 
vvrill,  if  it  contains  two  and  a  half  parts,  be  worth  52|,  if  it  contains  three  parts 
in  a  hundred,  its  value  Avill  be  increased"  to  55  ;  and  the  same  decrease  of  humus 
will  be  attended  by  a  similar  decrease  in  the  value  of  the  soil. 

The  quantity  of  humus  which  a  soil  contains  is  ahvays  taken  into  considera- 
tion even  in  the  ordinary  classification  of  land.  It  is  well  known  that  the  same 
soil  is  sometimes  made  to  bear  barley  and  at  others  oats,  according  as  it  has  been 
I  more  or  less  frequently  and  abundantly  manured,  and  its  resources  husbanded  ; 
thus,  whether  the  quantity  of  humus  has  been  increased  or  diminished  by  the 
system  of  cultivation  pursued,  a  clay  soil,  which  is  placed  by  persons  Avell  skuled 
in  the  classification  of  land  among  oat-lands,  does  not  usually  contain  more  than 
one  part  in  a  hundred  of  humus.  Should  it  contain  three  parts  in  a  hundred  of 
this  substance,  or  more,  and  be  otherwise  exempt  from  defects,  it  then  becomes 
second  class  wheat-land ;  this  addition  of  humus  may  be  bestowed  upon  it  by 
cultivation,  but  that  is  not  so  easily  done  as  is  generally  imagined. 

(5«, 


184  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

In  the  first  place,  I  here  suppose  the  humus  to  be  mild,  free  from  all  acidity 
and  from  all  admixture  of  astringent  substances,  and  consequently  soluble.     A 
soil  may  be  very  rich  in  sour  or  acid  humus,  and  yet  barely  possess  a  particle  of 
fertility.     We  have  found  five  parts  in  a  hundred  of  humus  in  a  sandy  soil  of 
Pomerania,  on  which  four  to  one  of  rye  was  regarded  as  a  fine  crop.     When  sub- 
mitted to  h  candescence,  it  betrayed  its  nature  by  emitting  an  odor  like  that  of  !' 
burnt  turf;  and  when  we  came  to  analyze  it  more  carefully,  we  found  that  it  \ 
contained  a  considerable  portion   of  acidity.     This  humus  was  created  by  th 
prevale.nt  method  of  manuring  in  that  country  with  a  substance  partly  composed    ' 
of  heath  and  furze.     Such  land  might,  however,  be  rendered  fertile  and  made  tc 
produce  beneficial  effects  by  being  dressed  Avith  an  addition  of  marl. 

Land  impregnated  with  a  thoroughly  acid  humus  which  turns  blue  litmus  pa^ 
per  into  a  bright  red,  as  marshy  land,  or  soils  which  approach  nearly  to  peat  in 
their  nature,  is  not  adapted  for  the  production  of  any  useful  vegetable  or  plant,  ' 
and  has  little  or  no  value  ;  it  may,  however,  be  ameliorated  without  difficulty  if 
there  are  not  any  adventitious  circumstances  to  prevent  it.  Such  land  is  seldom 
found  except  in  bogs  and  marshes,  or  low  damp  situations,  and  is  generally  cov- 
ered by  a  tenacious  layer  of  clay.  The  principal  point  to  be  ascertained  is, 
whether  there  be  any  possibility  of  its  being  drained.  When  this  is  practicable, 
the  best  method  of  effecting  an  amelioration  is  to  pare  and  burn  it.  In  this  ope- 
ration, one  portion  of  the  acid  is  consumed  by  the  fire  and  the  remainder  neutral- 
ized by  the  potassa  which  the  ashes  contain,  and  by  this  means  the  land  is  not 
unfrequently  converted  into  rich  wheat  land. 

Land  which  is  impregnated  with  humus  resulting  from  heath  or  furze,  and 
which  is  commonly  called  heath  land,  produces  nothing  but  furze  and  plants  of  a 
similar  nature  so  long  as  it  remains  in  its  natural  state  ;  but  it  may  be  rendered 
fertile  by  means  of  paring  and  burning,  by  manure,  by  lime  and  marl,  and  by  con- 
tinuous irrigations  ;  the  value  of  it  then  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  earths  of 
which  it  is  composed.  Sometimes  such  lands  are  naturally  very  good,  and  their 
want  of  fertility  is  occasioned  solely  by  the  plants  with  which  they  are  overrun, 
and  which  themselves  prepare  the  juices  which  are  required  for  their  nutrition. 
In  this  case,  if  the  plants  are  destroyed  and  those  defects  are  corrected  in  the 
humus  Avhich  render  it  unfit  for  the  production  of  useful  plants,  the  land  may 
eventually  be  rendered  exceedingly  fertile.  The  lime  and  marl  which  is  gene- 
rally found  under  the  layer  of  heathy  mould,  are  very  ^efficient  auxiliaries.  Land 
of  this  nature  must  be  valued  according  to  the  greater  or  less  difficulties  which  | 
oppose  themselves  to  the  extirpation  of  the  furze  and  the  amelioration  of  the  , 
soil  ;  but  where  this  cannot  be  effected  at  all,  or  at  any  rate  not  without  great  < 
trouble  and  inconvenience,  it  cannot  be  estimated  at  more  than  1.  | 

In  this  case,  however,  as  well  as  in  others  in  which  it  is  requisite  to  make  a 
valuation  in  order  to  value  the  interests  of  different  persons,  it  must,  in  my 
opinion,  be  considered  as  a  rule,  that  the  soil  should  only  be  valued  according  to 
its  actual  state,  because  those  ameliorations  which  it  may  be  possible  to  effect  in 
it  can  only  be  compassed  by  industry,  intelligence,  skill,  and  the  expenditure  of 
some  capital  ;  and  those  who  attempt  to  calculate  the  expense  or  trouble  of  such 
ameliorations  and  improvements  beforehand,  and  the  probability  which  exists  of 
their  being  attended  with  success,  must  invariably  fall  into  errors. 

So  far  as  my  own  experience  goes,  or  the  experiments  and  researches  of  others 
lead  me  to  believe,  the  fertility  and  quality  of  those  soils  which  we  have  ana- 
lyzed, and  their  value,  may  be  calculated  with  precision  upon  the  principles  we 
have  laid  down,  supposing,  in  the  first  place,  that  they  are  situated  in  places 
adapted  to  their  nature,  as,  for  example,  light  land,  rich  in  humus,  on  a  plain  or 
flat  surface,  as  indeed  is  generally  the  case.  ] 

If  we  frequently  compare  the  composition  of  soils  that  have  been  carefully 
analyzed  with  such  of  their  external  properties  as  are  evident  to  our  senses,  we 
shall,  by  degrees,  acquire  the  faculty  of  discovering  the  nature  of  this  composi- 
tion siixiply  by  attending  to  their  exterior  characteristics.  Next  to  color,  the 
most  positive  indications  of  the  presencv^  of  humus  are,  a  certain  lightness  of  the 
soil,  a  characteristic  mouldy  smeL,  and  the  white  shoots  of  the  Iiche7i  humosns. 
Clay  betrays  itself  by  its  tenacity  and  unctuousness.  Sand  is  distinguished  by 
its  harshness  when  rubbed  between  the  fingers,  and  with  still  greater  certainty 
I'V  examining  the  broken  and  crumbled  pieces  with  a  microscope  of  moderate 

(5521 


THEORY  OF  THE   SOIL.  185 

power  ;  this  method  is  found  very  useful  in  determining  the  quantity  of  sand 
I  which  one  soil  contains  more  than  another,  and  in  distinguishing  "  black  humus." 
The  usual  mode  of  ascertaining  the  presence  of  lime  in  a  soil  is  by  pouring  acids  up- 
on it  and  observing  whether  any  effervescence  takes  place  ;  and  the  degree  of  the 
eflervescence  is  taken  as  an  indication  of  the  quantity  of  lime  which  the  soil  con- 
tains, at  least  until  there  is  time  and  opportunity  to  submit  it  to  a  more  definite 
analysis. 

The  soil  is  indebted  for  its  consistence  or  cohesion  as  v/ell  to  the  properties  as 
to  the  proportion  of  that  earth  which  forms  the  predominating  ingredient.  The 
explanations  which  we  have  to  offer  on  this  head  will  be  limited  to  describing 
the  technical  terras  by  which  the  degrees  of  consistence  are  designated. 

Land  which,  when  rather  too  damp,  clings  to  the  plow  or  harrow  in  the  form 
of  a  glutinous  paste,  which  cannot  be  removed  without  difficulty,  and  the  de- 
tached portions  of  which  form  coherent  masses,  is  termed  "hard  tenacious"  or 
"  intractable  ;  "  such  land  cannot  be  easily  divided  or  penetrated  excepting  by  a 
sharp  or  pointed  instrument,  and  the  incisions  made  in  it  present  a  smooth  and  i 
shining  surface.  When  dry,  it  hardens  to  the  density  and  brittleness  of  a  tile  ; 
and  the  clods,  when  broken  by  actual  blows,  divide  into  shapeless  and  lamel- 
lated  fragments  ;  and  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  it  is  impossible  to  pulver- 
ize it  at  all.  When  the  sun  strikes  powerfully  on  such  a  soil  after  it  has  been 
soaked  by  heavy  rains,  the  surface  becomes  indurated  and  baked  hard,  while  be- 
neath this  crust  it  still  retains  its  humidity  ;  it  is  then  said  to  be  close  and  com- 
pact, and  that  a  crust  is  formed  over  its  surface  ;  it  then  contains  more  than 
eighty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  clay. 

Land  is  said  to  be  "  stiff,"  "  strong,"  and  "  heavy,"  when,  being  dry,  it  may  be 
divided  with  less  difficulty,  and  breaks  into  pieces  which  have  a  ?nalt-\ike  and 
granulous  appearance.  Such  land  can  seldom  be  pulverized  either  by  the  plow 
or  spade  ;  those  instruments  only  reduce  it  to  clods  which  cannot  be  broken  and 
thoroughly  divided  except  by  repeated  harrowings  ;  it  usually  contains  more 
than  fifty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  clay. 

A  soil  is  said  to  be  "light  "  and  "  free"  when  it  forms  itself  into  clods  on  be- 
coming moistened  ;  but  when  the  clods  can  be  readily  divided  and  pulverized  by 
a  slight  degree  of  attrition  or  pressure,  in  this  case  it  generally  contains  from 
twenty  to  forty  parts  in  a  hundred  of  clay. 

A  soil  is  termed  "  movable  "  or  "  blowing,"  when  its  dry  particles  have  little 
or  no  consistence  or  cohesion,  but  fall  to  powder  without  forming  clods.  To  this 
species  belong  all  those  soils  which  contain  more  than  ninety  parts  in  a  hundred 
of  sand,  chalky  soils,  and  those  which  contain  a  large  portion  of  humus  and  but 
little  clay.  When  the  soil  is  so  foose  that  the  wind  can  easily  raise  and  scatter 
it  about,  it  is  then  termed  "  pulverulent." 

The  tenacity  and  degree  of  cohesion  existing  between  the  parts  of  a  soil  can 
be  best  ascertained  by  examining  it  eight  and  forty  hours  after  a  gentle  rain. 
Those  who  are  accustomed  to  observation  can  ascertain  all  they  wish  to  know 
upon  this  point  by  merely  driving  a  stick  into  the  soil,  and  sometimes  even  by 
simplv  pr'essing  the  foot  upon  it. 

In  forming  an  estimate  of  the  value  of  a  soil,  an  examination  of  its  depth  should 
follow  immediately  after  the  examination  of  its  constituent  parts.  By  the  depth  of 
soil,  I  mean  the  thickness  of  the  layer  of  earth  which  forms  its  surface,  the  lay- 
er which  is  usually  termed  vegetable  earth,  and  which  is  homogeneous  and  \ 
equally  impregnated  with  humus  throughout  its  whole  extent.  In  most  land  it 
descends  very  little  below  the  depth  of  that  layer  which  has  been  recently  moved 
by  the  plow  :  when  a  section  is  cut  vertically,  the  line  of  demarkation  between 
the  vegetable  earth  and  the  stibsoil  is  very  apparent.  Sometimes  this  layer  is 
not  more  than  three  inches  deep  ;  but  the  usual  depth  is  about  six  inches  ;  and  it 
sometimes  extends  ten  or  twelve  inches  below  the  surface.  It  is  only  in  those 
places  where  the  soil  has  been  amassed  and  deposited  by  the  action  of  water, 
or  where  an  extraordinary  system  of  cultivation  has  been  carried  on,  that  we  find 
the  soil  equally  impregnated  with  humus  to  the  depth  of  one,  two,  or  three  feet : 
six  inches  may,  we  think,  be  regarded  as  the  average  depth  of  the  soil ;  we  shall, 
therefore,  consider  that  in  order  to  be  exempt  from  defects,  and  to  be  equal  to  the 
value  which  an  investigation  of  its  constituent  parts  leads  us  to  give  it,  a  soil 
must  possess  this  depth  of  thickness. 

(553) 


186  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

A  deep  soil  contains  a  larger  portion  ol'  vegetable  earth  and  of  tliat  succulency  so 
necessary  to  the  nutrition  of  vegetables  ;  and  even  if  this  excess  of  vegetable  mould 
should  not  be  useful  to  all  plants,  it  agrees  with  some  of  them,  even  when  the 
whole  depth  of  the  soil  is  not  turned  up.  And,  besides,  this  thickness  of  the 
superior  layer  of  his  land  enables  a  skillful  husbandman  to  draw  at  will  upon  the 
riches  which  it  contains,  and  occasionally,  or  about  once  in  six  or  seven  years,  to 
turn  it  all  up  and  profit  by  the  stores  of  succulency  and  nutrition  which  the  under 
part  of  it  will  yield.  The  roots  of  all  plants  sown  in  a  soil  of  this  nature,  even 
!  those  of  the  tribe  of  cereals  penetrate  in  a  right  line,  and  seek  that  nutriment  at 
a  greater  depth,  which  they  would  otherwise  have  had  to  extend  them- 
selves laterally  in  order  to  obtain,  and  they  may,  therefore,  be  sown  much  thicker 
without  causing  any  detriment  to  the  crop.  A  deep  soil  will,  therefore, *yi<;ld 
much  larger  crops  than  a  shallow  one,  provided  its  nature  is  similar,  and  that  it 
is  equal  in  all  other  respects.  The  roots  of  corn  are  not,  as  some  persons  assert, 
never  more  than  six  inches  in  length  :  I  have  seen  them  exceed  twelve  inches 
Avhere  the  soil  was  deep  enough  to  admit  of  such  an  extension.  The  roots  of 
vegetables  and  clover  penetrate  much  deeper  in  a  right  line ;  the  same  may  also 
be  observed  with  respect  to  lucerne,  and  root  crops  ;  land,  therefore,  in  which  the 
I  layer  of  vegetable  mould  is  very  thick,  is  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  cultivation 
,  of  these  crops.  Besides,  such  land  evidently  possesses  one  very  great  advantage, 
namely,  that  of  suffering  less  from  humidity  and  drouth.  The  water  which 
falls  upon  It  has  more  room  to  penetrate  before  it  encounters  the  under-stratum. 
'  Argillaceous  land,  which  is  tolerably  deep,  can  only  be  properly  drained  by  means 
,  of  subterraneous  trenches.  But  as  a  deep  soil  can  absorb  and  contain  more  wa- 
ter in  its  pores,  it  can  also  retain  it  longer,  and  returns  it  to  the  surface  from  its 
subterraneous  reservoirs  when  it  is  required.  These  soils  are  peculiarly  charac- 
terized by  their  resistance  of  humidity  and  drouth;  and  all  attentive  observers 
must  have  remarked  that  cereals  growing  in  a  deep  soil  are  less  liable  to  be  laid 
'  or  lodged  even  when  the  ears  are  very  large  and  that  where  this  misfortune  has 
been  occasioned  by  hail,  tempests,  or  heavy  rains,  the  corn  frequently  has  suffi- 
cient strength  to  raise  itself  again. 

On  shallow  land,  exactly  the  contrary  effect  takes  place.  These  soils  are  of 
two  kinds  :  those  which  are  not  of  a  nature  to  admit  being  dug  more  deeply,  and 
those  in  which,  during  the  process  of  cultivation,  the  layer  may  either  be  aug- 
mented by  digging,  or  by  penetrating  lower,  gradually  and  successively  with  the 
plow.  We  shall  consider  this  circumstance  again  when  we  come  to  treat  of  the 
inferior  layers  of  the  soil. 

Soils  Aviiich  have  no  bottom,  or  in  which  the  layer  of  vegetable  mould  is  so 
thidc  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  reach  the  bottom  of  it  either  by  ploAving  or 
by  digging  it  up  with  the  spade,  present  the  possibility  of  preserving  the  fertility 
of  a  soil  without  the  addition  of^  manure  ;*  the  fertility  may  be  equally  kept  up 
either  by  thoroughly  digging  and  raising  the  soil,  or  by  excavating  successively 
from  place  to  place,'  and  spreading  those  portions  of  earth  over  the  surface  which  | 
have  been  derived  from  the  interior  parts.  Such  soils  are,  therefore,  of  an  al- 
most incredible  value. 

But  in  what  proportion  does  the  greater  or  less  depth  of  a  soil  increase  its 

value  ?     We  have  already  supposed  six  inches  to  be  the  average  depth  Avhich  a 

soil  ought  to  possess  in  order  to  be  exempt  from  defects  on  that  point,  and  we  are 

quite  convinced  that  every  inch  added  to  the  depth  of  land   increases  its  value 

eight  per  cent.  ;  so  that  a  soil,  where  the  vegetable  layer  is  twelve  inches  thick, 

is  worth  hair  as  much  more  as  that  in  which  it  is  only  six  inches.     We  are  not, 

1    however,  prepared  to  say  that  the  value  increases  in  equal  proportion  when  the 

\    depth  is  yet  farther  increased  and  becomes  so  great  as  to  render  it  scarcely  possi- 

S   ble  to  reach  it  by  means  of  simple  plowings  ;  but  as  the  vegetable  earth  which 

5   is  beneath  the  layer  turned  up  with  the  plow  cannot  fail  to  be  beneficial  to 

'   plants,  we  shall  not  hesitate  to  affirm  that  every  additional  inch  of  depth  beyond 

yond  twelve  adds  five  per  cent,  to  the  value  of  the  soil. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  should  advise  that  in  general  the  same  proportion 
should  be  observed  in  decreasing  the  value  according  as  the  upper  stratum  of 
earth  diminishes  below  six  inches,  which  we  consider  to  be  the  average. 

■*  At  least,  until  the  whole  of  this  vegetable  layer  has  been  turned  up,  brought  to  the  surface,  and  ex- 
hausted. 

(554) 


If,  therefore,  a  soil  of. 6  inches  thick  is  worth 50 

That  which  is 7  inches  thick  is  worth 54 

That  which  is 8  inches  thick  is  worth 58 

That  which  is 9  inches  tliick  is  worth 62 

That  which  is 10  inches  thick  is  worth 66 

That  which  is 11  inches  thick  is  worth 70 

That  which  is 12  inches  tliick  is  worth 74 

That  which  is 5  inches  thick  is  worth 46 

That  which  is 4  inches  thick  is  worth 42 

That  which  is 3  inches  thick  is  worth 38 

There  is  no  doubt  that  a  soil  might  acquire  this  increase  of  value  by  means  of 
the  artificial  deepening  or  thickening  of  the  layer  of  vegetable  earth.  With  re- 
gard to  the  expenses  with  which  such  an  operation  would  be  attended,  they  vary 
greatly  ;  at  one  time  exceeding,  and  at  another  falling  below  the  value  of  the  in- 
crease of  depth. 

That  layer  which  is  situated  below  the  vegetable  soil  is  called  the  subsoil,  un- 
der-stratum,  or  virgin  earth.  This  layer  is  either  composed  of  the  same  ele- 
ments as  the  superior  portion,  with  the  exception,  however,  of  the  humus  and 
those  matters  which  are  derived  from  the  atmosphere,  or  it  is  composed  of  sub- 
stances of  a  wholly  difterent  nature.  The  nature  of  the  subsoil  has  a  considera- 
ble influence  upon  the  quality  of  the  upper  or  superior  layer  ;  and  the  more  shal- 
loAv  the  vegetable  soil,  the  greater  is  this  influence.  The  under-stratum  which 
is  fouad  beneath  clayey  or  argillaceous  land,  is  usually  of  the  same  nature  ;  but 
is  distinguished  from  the  vegetable  soil  by  its  crudity,  tenacity,  and  impenetra- 
bility. But  the  same  kind  of  subsoil  is  not  unfrequently  found  beneath  sandy 
soils  in  a  flat  but  slightly  inclined  position ;  an  inferior  layer  of  this  nature  may 
tend  greatly  to  ameliorate  such  land,  by  preventing  the  water  from  settling  and 
saturating  the  soil  with  moisture.  A  portion  of  this  subsoil  may  occasionally  be 
brought  to  the  surface  either  by  plowing  or  digging,  and  mingled  in  suitable  pro- 
portions with  the  sand.  This  mixture  often  appears  at  first  to  decrease  the  value 
of  the  soil ;  but  afterwards,  when  it  has  been  brought  more  fully  into  action,  the 
land  i  ^  found  to  be  sensibly  ameliorated. 

But  when  the  substratum  of  an  argillaceous  soil  is  rough  and  uneven,  so  that 
the  moisture  caimot  drain  off  in  a  uniform  manner,  and  settles  and  becomes  stag- 
nated, it  is  as  likely  to  become  too  damp  in  rainy  weather  as  the  more  sandy 
soils. 

The  subsoil  is  occasionally  found  to  be  of  a  marly  or  calcareous  nature  even 
in  those  places  where  the  superior  layer  of  earth  does  not  appear  to  contain  a 
particle  of  lime.  Here  the  deepening  of  the  soil  by  means  of  plowing,  or  of 
thorough  and  repeated  diggings,  produces  surprising  efi'ects,  and  ameliorates  it 
in  a  sensible  and  double  manner  ;  because  the  marly  clay,  howejer  tenacious  it 
may  appear  to  be  while  it  forms  a  portion  of  the  under-stratum,  is  no  sooner 
brought  to  the  surface  and  thrown  into  contact  with  the  atmosphere  than  it  di- 
vides and  becomes  so  completely  pulverized  as  to  be  easily  mixed  with  the  soil. 
Such  land  is,  therefore,  susceptible  of  very  great  improvement. 

A  layer  of  sandy  earth  is  also  frequently  found  beneath  an  argillaceous  or 
clayey  vegetable  soil,  which,  if  it  is  not  placed  too  near  the  surface,  nor  at  too 
great  a  depth  beneath  it — that  is  to  say,  when  it  is  not  more  or  less  than  a  foot 
or  a  foot  and  a  half  below  the  surface,  and  the  layer  of  it  is  sufficiently  thick — 
produces  a  peculiarly  fertilizing  effect  upon  the  soil,  rendering  it  at  once  warm 
and  solid  ;  absorbing  or  suffering  all  the  superfluous  moisture  to  run  off",  and  pre- 
venting it  from  ever  suffering  from  an  excess  of  humidity. 

Land  in  Avhich  the  vegetable  soil  is  shallow  above  the  sand,  which  consti- 
tutes the  under-stratum,  can  bear  little  or  no  sun,  and  is  \ery  much  exposed  to 
the  effects  of  drouth  ;  although  it  appears  to  be  and  is  very  fertile  during  a  damp 
temperature,  or  in  spring,  while  it  yet  retains  the  moisture  ;vhich  it  has  imbibed 
during  the  whiter  months. 

Sometimes  the  layer  of  sand  or  gravel  is  very  fine,  and  situated  beneath  a  layer  [■ 
of  impermeable  clay.  In  this  case,  if  the  land  is  perfectly  flat,  and  without  any  } 
slope  or  declivity,  the  water  is  amassed  in  this  layer  of  sand  as  in  a  reservoir,  \ 
can  find  no  outlet,  and  therefore  ebbs  back  to  the  surface,  which  it  soaks,  forms  i 
into  bog  and  moist  or  damp  places  ;  such  land  becomes  cold  and  sterile,  because  { 
the  water  in  its  progress  carries  with  it  all  those  particles  of  dissolved  dung  or   \ 


188  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

manure  which  yrere  not  intimately  combined  with  the  soil,  and  deposits  them  in 
the  layer  of  sand  beneath.     This  is  one  of  the  very  worst  of  all  the  varieties  ci 
soils,  and  can  only  be  ameliorated  by  means  of  complete  drainings  ;  by  such  a  pro- 
'   cess  it  may  eventually  be  rendered  perfectly  healthy. 

'  The  looser  and  more  porous  the  subsoil  of  sand  which  lies  beneath  a  sandy 
soil,  the  drier  will  that  soil  be.  If  after  a  certain  depth  the  sand  possess  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  consistence  or  cohesion,  and  the  flow  of  the  moisture  is  thus  par- 
tially arrested,  the  soil  will  be  found  to  be  fresher. 

Sometimes  the  under-stratum  is  composed  of  rocks  or  stones,  and  is  then  cov- 
ered with  a  bed  of  vegetable  earth  of  greater  or  less  thickness.  This  latter  is 
oftea  only  a  few  inches  thick,  as  is  particularly  the  case  in  mountainous  districts.. 

Of  all  subsoils  which  are  composed  of  stone,  those  formed  of  limestone  are 
the  best  and  most  beneficial.  At  the  surface  this  stone  is  often  rough  and  harsh 
to  ihe  touch,  coarse-grained,  and  full  of  clefts  ;  it  absorbs  water,  and  is  not  im- 
penetrable to  the  roots  of  plants  growing  in  the  soil  above  it.  There  are  some 
vegetables  which  appear  to  attack  the  stone  itself,  and  can  derive  a  portion  of 
their  nutriment  from  the  carbonic  acid  which  it  contains;  this  is  particularly  the 
case  with  sainfoin,  and  most  of  those  plants  which  belong  to  the  class  diadelphia, 
and  also  trees  and  shrubs  ;  so  that  calcareous  and  gypseous  rocks  are  less  sterile 
than  others. 

Argillaceous  schists,  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  vegetable  earth,  become  un- 

]<  loosened  when  broken  by  the  plow;  and  the  superior  layer  is  thus  rendered 

'.'  deeper,  and,  at  the  same  time,  ameliorated.     Granite  excludes  all  hope  of  vege- 

I  tation  ;  a  thin  vegetable  soil  reposing  on  an  under-stratum  of  this  "nature  will 

never  improve  of  itself,  and  can  only  be  ameliorated  by  additions  of  manure  and 

of  mould. 

Sometimes  the  subsoil  is  composed  of  gravel  or  round  pebbles  ;  in  this  case  it 
is  only  necessary  to  ascertain  whether  they  are  sufliciently  covered  with  vegeta- 
ble mould,  or  whether  the  superior  layer  of  the  soil  is  too  shallow.  Under  the 
former  circumstances  they  are  not  injurious,  but  rather  have  a  contrary  effect ; 
where  the  soil  is  of  an  argillaceous  nature  they  are  exceedingly  useful  by  the 
facility  Avhich  they  afford  to  the  percolation  of  the  superabundant  moisture. — 
We  shall  hereafter  speak  of  those  pebbles  and  stones  which  are  mixed  with  and 
lie  near  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

Ochre,  or  steel  ore,  which  is  often  found  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  is  ex- 
tremely prejudicial  to  vegetation  ;  and  when  not  covered  by  a  layer  of  earth  suf- 
ficiently thick  to  prevent  the  roots  of  the  plants  from  reaching  it,  may  be  said  to  | 
poison  it.  It  is  usually  covered  by  a  blackish  bed  of  earth,  of  a  brownish  hue, 
and  of  the  same  nature  as  itself:  this  layer  becomes  harder  the  farther  we  pen- 
etrate mto  it ;  and  at  last  is  found  to  be  compact  as  a  stone.  Trees  perish  as  soon 
as  tlieir  roots  tou'ch  this  earth. 

With  regard  to  humidity,  we  shall  divide  the  subsoils  into  the  free  or  porous, 
and  the  close  or  retentive.  The  former  species  is  sandy,  and  frequently  stony, 
and  rarely  without  clefts  or  openings  through  which  the  water  can  percolate. — 
The  less  sand  this  layer  contains,  the  more  impermeable  does  it  become  ;  how- 
ever, it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  we  find  clay  which  contains  a  great  deal  , 
of  sand  to  be  wholly  impermeable  as  soon  as  it  becomes  hard.  Thus,  when  it  is 
always  plowed  to  an  equal  depth,  the  pressure  of  the  sole  of  the  plow  and  the 
tread  of  the  horses  gradually  forms  a  hard  crust,  Avhich  is  brittle  and  impermea-  ' 
ble  to  water  ;*  while  the  soil  above  and  below  is  loose  and  permeable.  [ 

In  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases,  we  find  that  the  too  great  humidity  of  a 
soil  is  entirely  caused  by  the  impermeability  of  the  under  stratum  ;  for,  although 
the  superior  layer  may  be  more  or  less  retentive  of  moislure,  or  naturally  more  \ 
or  less  liable  to  suffer  from  damp  or  drouth,  this  does  noi  appear  to  be  injurious 
to  vegetation;  at  any  rate,  so  long  as  no  more  moisture  is  contained  in  the  soil 
than  the  earths  of  which  it  is  composed  can  take  up  rud  absorb  by  means  of 
their  cohesive  attraction  for  water.     But  where  the  moisture  cannot  evaporate  or 
drain  away,  but  soaks  and  saturates  the  land,  rendering  it  like  a  thick  paste,    • 
there  is  scarcely  any  plant  we  cultivate  which  would  not  be  injured  by  such  an   ! 
excess  of  humidiiy.     When  the  sub-stratum  is  impermeable,  and,  instead  of 
forming  a  kind  of  inclined  plane,   and  thus  affording  a  channel  for  the  water  to 

*  The  moorband  pan  of  the  English  farmers. 


L 


THEORY  OF  THE  SOIL.  189 

drain  away,  is  uneven  and  full  of  furrows,  the  water  settles  as  in  basins  or  reser- 
voirs ;  and  the  land  can  only  be  dried  and  rendered  healthy  bj^  means  of  evapo- 
ration, or  of  artificial  draining.    Those  springs  which  rise  in  some  soils  are  -usually 
created  bv  the  nature  of  the  sub-strata, 
i        This  excess  of  humidity  may  also  be  produced  by  water  which  runs  from  the  !' 
stu-face  of  higher  grounds,  and,  finding  no  ulterior  outlet,  settles  and  injures  the  \ 
land.     And,  lastlv,  it  is  occasionally  caused  by  the  overflowing  of  neighboring 
rivers  and  lakes. 

We  shall  enter  more  fully  into  this  subject  when  we  come  to  speak  of  drain- 
ing and  the  drying  of  land  ;  and  shall  only  allude  to  it  here  on  account  of  the  in- 
fluence which  the  greater  or  less  difficulty  there  is  in  overcoming  and  obviating 
this  defect  has  on  the  land.  Sometimes  humidity  renders  land  unfit  for 
almost  every  purpose ;  at  others  it  is  highly  favorable  to  the  vegetation  of  her- 
bage, and  renders  the  soil  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  meadow  and  pasture  land ; 
but  it  never  gives  it  those  qualities  which  fit  it  for  the  cultivation  of  corn.  Occa- 
sionally, it  admits  of  spring  corn,  and  especially  oats,  bemg  sown ;  but  never 
autumnal  corn. 

The  spring  is  the  best  time  to  form  a  correct  estimate  of  the  injurious  effects 
of  the  moisture  with  which  the  soil  is  impregnated.  Traces  of  it  are  evident 
enough  in  the  plants  which  vegetate  there  at  all  seasons ;  but  they  are  more 
equivocal.  The  best  time  to  form  a  judgment  of  the  disposition  of  a  soil  to  re- 
tain moisture  is  some  few  days  after  a  gentle  rain  ;  it  is  then  termed — 

[a).  Very  dry,  Avhen  on  being  squeezed  in  the  hand  it  does  not  afibrd  the 
slightest  trace  of  moisture. 

[b).  Dry,  when  it  only  betrays  moisture  on  being  forcibly  squeezed. 

(c).  Fresh,  when  its  moisture  is  easily  apparent. 

(</).  Humid,  when  it  moistens  the  hand  on  being  slightly  compressed. 

(e).  Wet,  when  on  being  squeezed  the  water  oozes  out  by  drops ;  and  when 
a  clod  of  earth  turned  up  with  the  spade,  or  a  furrow  made  by  the  plow,  glis- 
tens with  moisture. 

(/).  Aqueous  or  marshy,  when  the  water  stands  on  the  surface,  or  rises  into 
those  hollows  which  are  indented  by  the  pressure  of  the  foot. 

By  the  temperature  of  a  soil,  or  what  is  termed  its  warmth  or  frigidity,  we  do 
not  mean  that  degree  of  heat  which  is  communicated  to  it  from  the  atmosphere, 
or  by  the  solar  rays,  and  which  is  dependent  on  climate  and  situation,  but  merely 
that  which  is  inherent  in  the  soil  itself. 

Our  globe  appears  to  contain  within  itself  a  certain  degree  of  caloric.  In  fact, 
at  the  depth  often  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  the  temperature  always  re- 
mains equal  to  seven  degrees  of  Reaumer's  thermometer.  This  heat  was,  for  a 
considerable  period,  thought  to  be  produced  by  some  central  fire  contained  in  the 
^  bowels  of  the  earth  ;  or,  at  any  rate,  by  some  great  amount  of  caloric  which  has 
existed  there  from  the  time  of  the  creation,  and  which,  as  it  approaches  the  cen- 
tre of  the  globe,  becomes  gradually  more  and  more  intense.  Eut  this  opinion 
has  been  proved  to  be  totally  without  foundation  by  the  fact  that,  however  deep- 
ly we  penetrate  during  the  process  of  mining,  no  increase  of  temperature  has  yet 
been  discovered.* 

*  This  remark  appears  hardly  to  accord  with  more  recent  geological  observations  : 

"The  first  investigation  of  importance  that  presents  itself."  says  a  writer  in  the  Polytechnic  Review,  "  is  the 
thickness  of  the  crust  on  which  we  dwell.     We  have  seen  by  the  theory  that  this  ought  to  be  continually 
increasing,  though  with  increasing  slovsoiess,  and  that  there  was  a  time  when  it  was  so  thin  as  to  be  almost 
in  a  state  of  fusion.     We  have  stated  that  the  increase  of  temperature  observed  is  about  one  degi-ee  Fahr. 
for  every  fifteen  yards  of  descent.    In  all  probability-,  however,  the  increase  will  yet  be  found  to  be  in  geo- 
metrical progression,  as  investigation  is  extended  ;  in  which  case  the  present  crust  will  be  much  thinner 
than  we  have  calculated  it  to  be ;  and  should  this  be  found  to  be  correct,  the  ingenious  theory  will  become 
a  subject  of  more  importance,  in  a  geological  point  of  view,  than  we  are  at  present  disposed  to  consider  it. 
Taking,  then,  as  correct  the  present  observed  rate  of  increase,  the  temperature  would  be  as  follows : 
Water  will  boil  at  the  depth  of  2,430  yards. 
Lead  melts  at  the  depth  of  8.400  yards. 
There  is  red  heat  at  the  depth  of  7  miles. 
f fold  melts  at  91  miles. 
Cast  iron  at  74  miles. 
'  Soft  iron  at  97  miles. 

And,  at  the  depth  of  100  miles,  there  is  a  temperature  equal  to  the  greatest  artificial  heat  yet  observed — a 
'  temperature  capable  of  fusing  platina,  porcelain,  and  indeed  every  refractory  substance  we  are  acquainted 
, '  with.  These  temperatures  are  calculated  from  Gyton  Movem's  corrected  scale  of  Wedgewood's  pyrome- 
/  ter ;  and,  if  we  adopt  them,  we  find  that  the  earth  is  fluid  at  the  depth  of  100  miles,  and  little  more  than  tho 
'  soil  on  which  we  tread  is  fit  for  the  habitation  of  organized  beings." 
1l  (557) 


190  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

At  the  depth  of  1,200  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  the  heat  is  always  the 
same  ;  it  is  only  in  some  mines  in  Hungary  where  any  elevation  of  temperature 
has  been  perceived :  but  this  circumstance  may  be  attributable  to  local  causes,  such 
as  the  elevated  temperature  of  some  springs,  or  thepeculiar  nature  of  the  surface 
I  of  the  ground  wliich  they  flow  over.  The  caloric  resulting  from  these  subterra- 
neous furnaces  is  a  phenomenon  that  seldom  occurs. 

The  differences  or  variations  in  the  temperature  of  the  soil  are  often  distin- 
guished from  one  another  by  the  greater  or  less  period  which  snow  laying  on 
them  takes  to  melt,  and  by  the  greater  disposition  which  some  places  have  to 
freeze  than  others,  independent  of  their  position:  this  cannot  fail  to  have  consid- 
erable influence  upon  the  autumnal  and  spring  plowings.  Some  observations 
have  lately  been  made  on  this  subject  with  the  help  of  a  thermometer,  but  they 
have  neither  been  sufficientb/  definite  nor  repeated  often  enough  for  me  to  be  able 
to  assert  anything  more  positive  on  the  subject  than  the  following  remarks  upon 
the  causes  of  these  variations  of  temperature. 

The  temperature  of  a  soil,  in  the  first  place,  evidently  depends  upon  its  humid- 
ity.    Damp,  wet  land  is  generally  cold  ;  it  dries  very  slowly,  freezes  rapidly,  and 
takes  a  long  time  in  acquiring  the  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  support  vegeta- 
tion: it  is,  on  this  account,  designated  by  the  terms  moist,  and   cold  ;  dry  soils 
are  termed  u-ar?n,  and  those  which  are  very  dry  are  called  burning.     There  is 
no  doubt  that  this  arises  from  the  water  absorbing  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
I  caloric  contained  in  the  soil  during  the  process  of  evaporation.     Occasionally, 
'i  however,  it  happens  that  we  find  sensible  diiTerences  existing  between  the  rela- 
tive temperatures  of  soils  which  possess  an  equal  degree  of  humidity.     Land 
which  contains  a  considerable  portion  of  mould,  or  manure  which  has  not  been 
'    exhausted,  or  other  substances  in  a  state  of  putrefaction,  is  much  warmer,  and 
,'  melts  snow  which  falls  upon  it  much  sooner  than  would  be  the  case  under  other 
^  circumstances,  so  that  country  people  are  accustomed  to  say  that  such  land  de- 
voicrs  the  snow.     There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  heat  arises  from  the  chemical 
decompositions  which  are  going  on  in  the  soil,  and  in  the  process  of  which  a 
considerable  degree  of  caloric  is  almost  always  evolved  ;  and  it  is  evidently  by  no 
means  a  figure  of  speech  to  say  that  manure  warms  the  land.     It  acts  upon  it 
mechanically  by  rendering  the  soil  lighter,  looser,  and  therefore  drier  ;  and  che- 
mically by  decomposing  it. 

Calcareous  soils  are  always  warmer  than  others,  because  they  accelerate  those 
:[  chemical  decompositions,  and  because  they  not  only  act  more  powerfully  and 
promptly  upon  the  manure  and  humus,  but  these  latter,  in  their  turn,  act  upon 
the  soil.  All  soils  are  not  equally  good  conductors  of  the  heat  which  they  re- 
ceive externally  ;  sand,  when  net  too  much  saturated  with  moisture,  is  a  better 
conductor  than  clay.  Thus,  a  sudden  change  of  temperature  affects  plants  vege- 
tating on  a  sandy  soil  much  more  than  those  which  are  growing  on  argillaceous 
land^  and  this  is  the  reason  that  night  frosts,  and  especially  white  frosts,  are 
more  injurious  to  the  former  than  they  are  to  the  latter  ;  probably  some  of  the 
subsoils  communicate  that  caloric  which  is  engendered  in  or  exists  in  the  land, 
to  the  bodies  with  which  they  come  in  contact,  much  sooner  than  others  do,  and 
thus  counteract  the  frosts,  and  prevent  them  from  penetrating  very  deeply. 

The  degrees  of  temperature  possessed  by  the  soil  are  designated  by  the  follow- 
ing terms : — 

{a).  Burning.  1  (c).  "Warm. 

[b).   Hot.  I  (d).  Cold. 

The  value  and  qualities  of  a  soil  do  not  depend  solely  upon  its  composition  and 
tlie  nature  of  its  constituent  parts,  but  are  also  influenced  by  its  position,  form, 
and  situatioji,  and  by  the  nature  of  the  surrounding  localities  ;  all  of  which  cir- 
cumstances tend  to  modify  its  worth  and  utility. 

The  form  oj  the  surface — the  fact  of  its  being  hilly  or  fiat,  horizontal  or  in- 
clined, tends  t''  increase,  or  detract  from  the  value  of  land,  according  to  the  pro- 
portions of  elementary  earths  of  Avhich  it  is  composed. 

Loose,  dry,  sandy  soils,  are  most  fertile  when  they  are  flat,  and  when  they  are 
situated  lower  than  the  surrounding  country.  In  this  position  they  retain  mois- 
ture for  a  considerable  period,  and  yet  rarely  possess  a  superabundance  of  it.  On 
the  other  hand,  such  a  soil  decreases  in  value  when  situated  on  declivities,  hills, 
or  on  the  sides  of  mountains  :  in  these  situations  its  moisture  rapidly  drains  away, 

(55*) 


THEORY  OF  THE   SOIL.  19] 


and  is  not  only  thus  lost,  but  is  also  caught  along  with  the  fertilizing  priTticles  of 
mould  or  humus,  and  blown  away  by  the  wind.  In  such  a  position,  a  sandy  soil, 
which,  if  situated  on  a  plain,  might  have  been  cultivated  with  success,  is  scarcely 
worth  the  labor  attendant  on  sowing  it  ;  and  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  it 
is  dangerous  to  break  up  the  superior  layer  of  such  land,  if  we  would  not  have 
the  neighboring  country  inundated  with  whirlwinds  of  sand. 

An  argillaceous  soil,  the  substratum  of  which  is  impermeable,  will  be  improved 
i|   oy  being  situated  in  an  inclined  or  mountainous  situation,  because  the  superabun- 
dant water  is  enabled  to  run  off.     In  such  a  situation,  all  the  inconveniences  at- 
tendant on  an  excess  of  humidity  may  be  obviated  by  means  of  judiciously  dis- 
posed furrows  and  trenches  :  nevertheless,  stiff  clayey  declivities  are  never  desira- 
.  ble  on  account  of  the  difliculty  attendant  on  their  cultivation. 

The  proportion  in  which  the  soil  is  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea  has  con- 
siderable mfluence  on  the  climate  and  atmospheric  temperature.  Even  under  the 
same  degree  of  latitude,  the  heat  is  always  greater  on  plains  and  flat  surfaces 
than  on  mountains :  there  is  no  place,  until  we  reach  the  torrid  zone,  where  the 
tops  of  the  highest  mountains  are  not  covered  with  perpetual  ice  and  snow.  The 
nearer  we  approach  the  equator,  however,  the  more  do  we  find  this  ice  and  snow 
confined  to  the  summits,  but  it  extends  lower  and  lower  as  we  come  nearer  the 
polar  circle.  Vegetation  likewise  diminishes  in  exact  proportion  with  the  heat  : 
those  trees  and  vegetables  which  grow  on  high  mountains  are  ahvays  stunted  ; 
if  we  ascend  higher  still,  we  find  only  firs  and  alpine  plants  ;  and  as  we  approach 
the  top,  only  a  I'eAV  mountainous  plants  are  here  and  there  visible ;  and  finally, 
all  traces  of  vegetation  disappear. 

A  sensible  diminution  in  the  vegetation  of  cereals  is  perceptible  at  very  incon- 
siderable elevations,  even  when  the  position  is  otherwise  advantageous  ;  provided, 
however,  that  the  soil  is  calculated  for  it,  wheat  always  thrives  better  than  rye 
on  hilly  or  mountainous  situations,  and  oats  better  than  barley.  There  is  seldom 
any  want  of  humidity  on  mountainous  lands,  for  they  are  usually  depots  for  the 
reception  of  the  moisture  which  is  contained  in  the  atmosphere  ;  and  this  is  one 
great  reason  that  cereals  do  not  thrive  so  well  here  as  on  flat  soils,  warm,  dry 
land  being  always  more  favorable  to  them  than  that  which  is  cold  and  damp. 
But  as  there  is  generally  a  sufficient  degree  of  declivity  to  allow  of  water  running 
off,  it  is  always  practicable  to  drain  the  land  by  digging  furrows  to  carry  away 
the  superabundant  fluid. 

One  circumstance  which  militates  considerably  against  the  value  of  land  situa- 
ted on  mountains,  hills,  and  declivities,  is  the  difliculty  of  carrying  manure  to  it. 
Some  persons  have  considered  that  this  objection  might  be  obviated  by  grazing 
with  cattle,  but  the  difficulties  attendant  on  the  operation  of  plowing  Avould  thus 
be  considerably  increased.  Lastly,  heavy  rains  and  torrents  often  carry  away 
with  them  the  whole,  or,  at  any  rate,  the  greater  part,  of  the  vegetable  soil  from 
hills  and  declivities.  It  is,  therefore,  generally  advisable  to  allow  all  land  thus 
situated,  however  capable  it  may  be  of  producing  rich  harvests,  to  be  planted,  or 
to  remain  as  forest  or  woodland. 

On  the  declivities  of  mountains  and  hills,  as  well  as  on  slightly  inclined  plains, 
the  direction  of  the  inclination  is  a  very  important  point. 

It  is  a  very  diflBcult  matter  to  dry  and  warm  land  which  looks  to  the  North. 
Those  vegetables  and  animal  substances  which  afford  nutrition  to  plants  are  not 
decomposed  without  great  diflBculty,  and  are  much  longer  in  attaining  the  re- 
quisite degree  of  fermentation.  Neither  does  the  period  of  vegetation  last  so 
long:  it  commences  much  later,  and  finishes  much  earlier.  The  plants  feel  the 
want  of  light  and  heat ;  they  are  less  savory,  yield  less  fruit,  and  frequently  suffer 
materially  from  cold  winds  and  frosts. 

Land  which  has  a  southern  exposure  is  more  easily  warmed  ;  it  enjoys  a 
greater  degrep  of  light :  vegetation  commences  much  earlier  there,  and  attains  a 
far  greater  perfection.  On  the  other  hand,  such  land  is  much  more  liable  to  suf- 
fer from  drouth,  and  is  much  more  exposed  to  the  pernicious  effects  of  those 
storms  of  hail  and  rain  which  come  from  this  quarter. 

Land  which  inclines  toward  the  east  is  very  easily  drained  ;  the  atmosphere 
deposits  less  humidity  on  il.  The  morning  sun  calls  forth  all  the  powers  of 
vegetation  much  earlier,  and  brings  into  action  all  those  matters  which  have 
been  absorbed  and  have  lain  dormant  through  the  night.     The  crops  sown  in 

(559) 


192  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

these  situations  rapidly  progress  and  arrive  at  perfect  maturity  ;  but  it  cannot  be 
denied  ttiat  they  are  very  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  cold  nights  and  white  frosts. 
These  last-mentioned  evils  are,  however,  less  injurious  in  these  situations  than 
they  would  be  elsewhere ;  because  the  morning  sun  touches  them  sooner,  al- 
though, from  possessing  less  power  at  that  time,  it  c'oes  not  cause  so  rapid  an 
evaporation  of  the  dew.* 

In  land  that  inclines  towards  the  west,  the  vegetation  does  not  receive  its  light 
and  heat  immediately  from  the  sun  until  all  the  night-dews  and  moisture  have 
been  evaporated,  and  those  vital  powers  which  were  reanimated  by  rest  have  . 
again  become  weakened  ;  the  products,  therefore,  which  grow  in  this  situation, 
are  not  usually  very  forward,  and  never  attain  so  high  a  degree  of  perfection  \s 
those  which  receive  the  rays  of  the  morning  sun.  Westerly  winds  generally 
convey  a  considerable  portion  of  wet  and  moisture:  therefore,  land  which  in- 
clines in  this  direction  is  less  liable  to  suffer  from  drouth.  A  slight  inclination 
towards  the  south  of  the  west  is  a  much  more  advantageous  position.  The  evils 
occasioned  by  sudden  thaws  are  most  sensibly  felt  in  these  situations,  because 
the  sun  does  "not  reach  the  plants  until  it  has  attained  its  utmost  altitude  and  its 
rays  possess  the  greatest  power. 

The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  these  various  positions  are  considerably  ,' 
influenced  by  the  composition  of  the  soil  and  its  other  properties.  Cold,  damp, 
argillaceous  land  is  improved  by  exposure  to  the  east  and  to  the  south  ;  and 
very  much  deteriorated  in  value  when  it  faces  the  north  or  west.  Sandy  or 
calcareous  soils,  on  the  contrary,  are  improved  by  being  inclined  towards  the  west, 
as  are  all  dry,  warm  soils  ;  and  are  proportionally  deteriorated  by  facing  the 
south  or  the  south-east.  An  inclination  toward  the  north  can  never  be  advan- 
tageous, especially  when  the  declivity  is  so  abrupt  that  the  sim's  rays  only  reach 
it  in  an  oblique  direction.  ! 

It  occasionally  happens  that  land  is  deprived  of  light,  and  the  rays  of  the  sun  - 
are  prevented  from  reaching  it,  by  the  mtervenlion  of  surroanding  objects,  as  for- 
ests, mountains,  large  trees,  or  buildings.  Now,  leaving  the  heat  imparted  by 
the  rays  of  the  sun  wholly  out  of  the  question,  the  light  is  in  itself  indispensable 
to  the  welfare  of  plants,  and  is,  in  all  probability,  an  active  agent  in  accelerating 
certain  decompositions  which  are  constantly  going  on  in  the  soil. 

We  know  that  all  plants  seek  the  light,  and  invariably  turn  in  that  direction 
irom  which  they  can  derive  the  greatest  portion  of  it.  This  is  quite  evident  in 
those  growmg  in  the  open  air,  but  still  more  so  in  rooms  and  confined  spaces  ; 
and  it  may  be  still  farther  tested  by  enclosing  vegetables  in  wooden  boxes,  into 
which  light  is  only  admitted  through  a  clefi  in  the  wood ;  the  strength  and  ea-  \ 
gerness  with  which  these  plants  force  themselves  into  the  clefts  in  search  of  that 
invaluable  aliment  to  them,  light,  is  almost  incredible.  In  thick  plantations, 
whether  of  trees  or  vegetables,  the  whole  force  of  the  vegetation  is  pushed  up- 
wards, and  each  one  seems  to  vie  with  the  other  which  shall  obtain  most  light. 

There  is  not  the  least  doubt  that  vegetation  is  always  higher  in  thick  planta- 
tions, but  at  the  same  time  the  lower  parts  are  weakened  by  this  rapid  growth. 
All  plants  that  grow  in  obscurity  or  in  shady  places,  have  a  dull,  sickly  look  ; 
their  tissue  is  weak  and  colorless ;  their  shoots  long,  thin,  flabby,  and  easily 
broken  ;  they  have  not  their  proper  flavor,  and  their  juices  are  insipid  and  wa- 
tery. On  the  other  hand,  the  more  intensely  and  vertically  the  rays  of  light  fall 
upon  plants,  the  stronger  do  these  latter  become,  and  the  more  perfect  and  vig- 
orous are  all  their  parts.  The  green  hue  of  the  leaves  is  produced  solely  by  the 
action  of  light;  and  this  accounts  for  those  which  are  not  fully  developed,  or 
only  just  bursting,  being  pale  and  colorless.  Various  experiments  tend  to  prove 
that  this  particular  effect  of  light  is  totally  independent  of  the  heat  which  is 
transmitted  at  the  same  time  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  ;  a  strong  artificial  light  has 
been  found  advantageously  to  replace  sun-light,  provided  that  the  temperature  is 
otherwise  the  same. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  plants  germinate  in  land  which  is  overshadowed; 
ndeed,  a  sheltered  position  is  rather  favorable  than  otherwise  to  their  germina- 
tion ;  but  in  such  cases  they  only  attain  a  partial  degree  of  development,  do  not 

■  In  the  country  in  which  I  reside,  it  has  been  remarked  that  those  portions  of  land  which  receive  the  first 
rays  of  the  morning  sun  are  more  apt  to  siitfer  fi-om  the  effects  of  white  frosts  than  others,  because  the  sud- 
den tran:4tion  from  cold  to  heat  sensibly  affects  delicate  plants.  [French  Trans. 


THEORY  OF   THE    SOIL.  193 

yield  much  nutritive  matter,  and  their  fruit  seldom  reaches  maturity.  Grass 
which  grows  under  trees  the  branches  of  which  meet  together  affords  little 
nourishment  to  cattle. 

The  nature  and  composition  of  a  soil  can  alone  enable  us  to  decide  whether  it 
is  most  advantageous  for  it  to  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  all  the  winds  of  heaven, 
or  sheltered  by  hills,  mountains,  forests,  buildings,  or  hedges.  Damp,  argilla- 
ceous soils  are  much  more  benefited  by  exposure  to  the  open  air  than  by  being 
i^hflterea  from  the  action  of  the  wind.  Where  they  are  in  a  sheltered  position, 
tlie  snow  does  not  melt  so  soon,  and  the  land  takes  much  longer  time  in  drying, 
especially  in  the  spring.  On  the  other  hand,  dry,  sandy,  warm  soils  are  often 
materially  benefited  by  being  sheltered  from  the  wind,  and  may  often  be  consid- 
erably improved  by  being  surrounded  with  hedges,  or  protected  by  a  plantation 
of  trees  on  that  side  whence  the  wind  the  eff'ect  of  which  would  be  most  prejudi- 
cial may  be  expected  to  blow.  Wind  is,  in  general,  very  injurious  to  land  of  this 
nature,  drying  up  all  the  moisture  which  it  contains,  and  scattering  abroad  the 
upi)er  layer  of  earth  and  the  humus  which  is  mingled  with  it,  and  laying  the 
roots  of  all  the  plants  in  one  place  quite  bare,  while  in  another  it  buries  the 
whole  of  the  vegetation  under  a  cloud  of  rough  sand. 

With  regard  to  the  plants  themselves,  wind  acts  differently  on  different  kinds. 
In  some  it  facilitates  the  fructification,  while  in  others  it  tends  to  oppose  it ;  the 
latter,  therefore,  seldom  yield  much  seed  unless  they  are  planted  in  sheltered 
spots. 

Lastly,  it  is  also  necessary  to  take  into  consideration  the  nature  of  the  atmo- 
sphere and  temperature  Avhich  constitute  what  we  term  a  climate.  If  this  cli- 
mate is  such  as  the  latitude  would  lead  us  to  expect,  and  the  average  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmosphere  is  suitable  to  it,  there  is  no  need  of  our  inquiring  farther 
into  this  circumstance,  all  things  then  being  in  their  natural  state. 

But  the  numerous  modifications  in  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  and  of  the  tem- 
perature which  are  observable  in  some  districts  and  in  isolated  portions  of  land, 
render  it  absolutely  necessary  that  we  should  enter  more  fully  into  this  subject 
than  we  have  hitherto  done. 

The  different  degrees  of  warmth  or  heat  of  which  we  are  sensible  are  not  solely 
attributable  to  the  solar  rays,  or  to  their  direction  being  more  or  less  vertical ; 
there  are  many  other  circumstances  M^hich  appear  to  tend,  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  to  produce  these  effects.  The  decomposition  which  is  constantly  going 
on  in  the  atmosphere  ;  the  influence  of  exhalations  which  emanate  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  ;  that  interchange  of  temperature  between  neighboring  lands 
which  is  effected  by  means  of  the  currents  of  air  ;  the  number,  size,  and  extent 
of  the  mountains  or  forests  which  environ  or  intersect  a  country,  and  protect  it 
against  the  cold,  or  refresh  it  by  means  of  their  frozen  summits ;  the  relative 
hight  of  a  country  ;  the  proximity  of  the  sea  or  of  large  rivers  or  lakes  ;  a  sandy 
or  a  marshy  soil — all  these  are  circumstances  which  deserve  consideration,  as 
tending  to  exercise  considerable  influence  on  the  local  temperature. 

That  fluid  which  is  suspended  in  a  state  of  aeriform  solution  in  the  atmosphere, 
is  precipitated  much  more  abundantly  in  some  places  than  in  others.  As  yet, 
we  have  not  any  accurate  meteorological  observations  or  exact  data  with  respect 
to  the  quantity  of  rain  which  has  fallen  in  different  districts  or  countries  ;  never- 
theless, such  observations  always  must  be  peculiarly  interesting  to  an  agricul- 
turist. 

We  have  already  stated  that  the  summits  of  mountains  have  a  far  greater  ten- 
dency than  plains  or  flat  surfaces  to  attract  the  fluid  contained  in  the  atmosphere. 
Independent  of  this  consideration,  the  attraction  of  the  aqueous  vapors  is  far 
greater  in  some  places  than  it  is  in  others  ;  they  precipitate  themselves  in  the 
form  of  heavy  dew,  fogs  or  rain.  Those  districts  which  are  situated  near  the  sea 
or  to  lakes,  or  even  to  large  rivers,  receive  a  larger  quantity  of  vaporized  water, 
and  are  in  general  much  damper  than  others  :  especially  if  these  lakes  or  rivers 
are  situated  to  the  west  of  the  land.  This  circumstance  frequently  tends  to 
ameliorate  dry  soils,  rendering  them  adapted  for  the  growth  of  herbage  ;  but  it 
detracts  in  no  trifling  degree  from  the  value  of  such  land  as  was  previously  in- 
I  clined  to  humidity. 

Those  vapors  which  are  exhaled  from  standing  pools  of  stagnant  water,  and 
(^specially  those  given  out  by  marshes,  often  possess  very  deleterious  properties  ; 

(625) 13 


194  THAEr's  rRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE.  [ 

. , 

the  fogs  which  they  engender  frequently  empoison  whole  plains  so  completely, 
that  every  year  the  cereals  grown  on  them  are  attacked  by  various  diseases,  and 
yield  but  a  scanty  produce  in  grain,  although  the  crop  may  have  looked  well  and 
healthy  in  the  spring.  It  is  quite  evideni  thai  the  evil  arises  from  this  cause,  ' 
because  after  the  land  has  been  thoroughly  drained,  the  crops  will  always  be 
found  to  thrive. 

Extensive  forests  of  lofty  trees  also  appear  to  attract  moisture,  or,  in  other  / 
words,  to  condense  the  water  which  is  held  in  a  state  of  aeriform  solution  by  the 
atmosphere  ;    in  fact,  it  has  been  generally  remarked  that  a  larger  quantity  of 
rain  falls  in  well-Avooded  districts  than  in  otiierg. 

Lastly,  there  are  countries  in  which  the  clouds  gather  much  more  than  in 
others.  This  has  been  attributed  to  their  sometimes  following  the  course  of 
rivers,  at  others  gathering  over  neighboring  bights,  or  receiving  their  direction 
from  chains  of  mountains.  Some  countries  almost  always  receive  the  brunt  of 
those  storms  which  have  risen  in  certain  quarters  :  while  others  seldom. or  never 
suffer  from  them,  or  at  any  rate  sustain  very  slight  attacks.  As  storms  of  rain' 
are  in  general  rather  beneficial  than  otherwise,  the  former  places  are  distin- 
guished by  their  fertility,  although  at  the  same  time  they  are  more  exposed  to 
the  devastations  occasionally  produced  by  hail. 

The  atmosphere  generally,  and  the  inferior  strata  in  particular,  do  not  contain 
water  alone,  but  various  other  substances  which  have  considerable  influence  on 
vegetation,  and  these  substances  enter  into  its  composition  in  various  proportions. 
It  is  well  known  that  carbonic  acid  gas,  as  well  as  carbonated  hydrogen,  sul- 
phuric and  phosphoric  gases,  are  exceedingly  favorable  to  vegetation,  and  con- 
tribute materially  toAvards  the  improvement  of  the  soil.  But  it  is  probable  that 
the  atmosphere  also  contains  other  and  more  compound  substances,  especially 
emanations  from  partially  decomposed  animal  bodies.  Extremely  populous 
countries,  in  which  a  great  number  of  cattle  are  kept  and  an  immense  quantity 
of  provisions  consumed,  and  in  which  numerous  decompositions  are  constantly 
in  operation,  and  the  emanations  from  which  combine  with  the  atmosphere,  are 
peculiarly  remarkable  for  their  fertility  :  and  numerous  observations  seem  to 
prove  that  this  extraordinary  fertility  is  totally  independent  of  tlie  extra  amount 
of  manure  which  can  be  applied  to  the  land  in  these  countries. 

In  large  towns  and  their  environs,  this  influence  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  fer- 
tility of  even  the  worst  kinds  of  land,  cannot  be  mistaken.  Those  observations 
Avhich  were  made  in  the  preceding  section  on  the  vapors  which  emanate  from 
stagnant  water,  prove  that  the  atmosphere  is  capable  of  containing  deleterious 
as  well  as  beneficial  matters.  Incontrovertible  experiments  have  demonstrated 
the  pernicious  influence  of  the  barberry  on  all  kinds  of  cereals  groAving  near  it. 

The  value  of  a  soil  may  be  considerably  modified  by  the  greater  or  less  quan- 
tity of  weeds  that  it  contains  ;  I  say  the  greater  or  less  quantity,  because  we 
seldom  or  never  find  a  soil  entirely  exempt  from  this  defect. 

All  those  plants  which  vegetate'  in  any  spot  where  it  is  not  desirable  that  they 
should  exist,  are  termed  weeds,  because  they  injure  the  crops  which  are  culti- 
vated there,  by  usurping  their  place,  and  depriving  them  of  a  portion  of  that  ali- 
ment which  was  destined  for  them,  and  by  accelerating  the  exhaustion  of  the 
soil.  We  shall,  however,  here  confine  ourselves  to  those  kinds  of  weeds  Avhich 
so  completely  choke  the  soil  with  their  roots  and  seeds  as  to  render  it  impossi- 
ble to  get  rid  of  them  without  great  labor,  dilliculty,  and  considerable  sacrifice  ;  ' 
and  which  exercise  an  evidently  prejudicial  influence  on  the  success  of  the  crops. 

1.  Those  which  propagate  themselves  solely  by  ineans  of  their  seeds. 

2.  Those  which  are  multiplied  by  means  of  the  suckers  from  their  roots. 

3.  Those  which  are  re-produced  by  one  or  both  of  these  means. 

Those  weeds  lohich  are  re-produced  by  means  of  their  seeds  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes :  the  annuals,  or  those  which  spring  up,  produce,  and  shed  their 
seed  in  the  same  summer,  and  then  perish  ;  and  the  biennials,  which  spring  up 
the  first  year,  live  through  the  winter,  and  produce  their  seed  in  the  second  year 
of  their  vegetation.  Neither  of  these  two  classes  possess  long-lived  roots  ;  the 
whole  plant  perishes  as  soon  as  the  seed  has  reached  maturity. 

The  seeds  of  weeds  appertaining  to  the  classes  of  which  we  are  now  speakuig 
are  of  such  a  nature  as  only  to  germinate  when  very  near  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
where  the  atmosphere  can  act  upon  them.      When  situated  at  a  greater  depth, 


THEORY  OF  THE  SOIL.  195 

or  enclosed  in  clods  of  earth,  they  do  not  germinate,  but  remain  healthy,  and 
preserve  all  their  vitality  until  brought  into  a  position  which  is  favorable  to  their 
development.     There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  limit  to  the  period  during  which 
this  seed  can  preserve  its  vitality  ;  for  when  we  come  to  plow  up  land  that  has 
remained  uncultivated  for  an  unknown  period  of  time,  and  in  which  no  traces  of 
weeds  had  ever  been  observable,  it  suddenly  becomes  covered  with  them.    Thus, 
in  the  marshes  of  Oder,  an  amazing  quantity  of  wild  mustard  {sinapis  arvensis) 
will  shoot  up,  when  some  portion  of  land  which  the  oldest  person  cannot  recol- 
lect having  been  any  thing  but  a  marsh  is  plowed  up,  and  the  turf  thoroughly 
destroyed  and  divided.     The  seed  whence  this  plant  is  produced  must  have  been  I 
brought  there  at  some  remote  period,  and  deposited  in  the  mud  by  the  action  of 
water.      It  has  often  been  observed  that  weeds  of  this  nature  spring  up  in  earth 
that  has  been  dug  from  several  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  even  from   / 
the  ground  which  formerly  constituted  ancient  forests.      A  blackish  earth  was 
found  beneath  an  old  building,  which  certainly  had  existed  for  upwards  of  two   / 
hundred  years,  and  was  transported  to  a  garden  to  mend  the  soil ;  a  quantity  of  / 
;    chrysanthemum  segetum   (corn   marigold)   sprang  up,   although   this  weed  had   ' 
I    never  before  be^n  seen  in  that  place.    The  frequent  recurrence  of  these  and  sirai-  [ 
lar  phenomena  has  led  many  persons  to  believe  that  these  plants  were  spontane 
ously  produced  by  Nature  without  the  introduction  of  either  seed  or  germ,  as  if  it  | 
were   possible  that  there  could  be  a  single   exception  to  the  universal  rule, 
"  omne  vivum  ex  ovo." 

The  immense  number  of  minute  seeds  that  can  exist  in  a  soil  is  beyond  all 
comprehension.  When  a  portion  of  land  is  carefully  divided  and  reduced  to 
powder,  it  speedily  becomes  covered  with  a  thick  bed  of  weeds,  which  is  easily 
destroyed  by  the  action  of  the  plow  ;  but  the  second  portion  of  earth  which  is 
brought  to  the  surface  soon  bears  as  plentiful  a  crop  as  the  former  one.  I  have  | 
seen  this  occurrence  at  least  six  times  following  in  the  course  of  one  summer, 
without  being  able  to  remark  any  diminution  in  the  crop  of  weeds  which  suc- 
ceeded each  plowing,  and  without  the  species  being  destroyed  in  the  following 
year.  These  operations  have  been  constantly  repeated  for  three  years  without 
the  seeds  of  the  weeds  being  entirely  extirpated. 

Those  weeds  which  belong  to  the  class  of  annuals  in  general  only  show  them- 
selves among  the  spring  corn  ;  the  autumnal  cereals  are  often  entirely  free  from 
them,  especially  when  the  sowings  have  been  performed  sufficiently  early  to  ad- 
mit the  development  of  the  seed  which  was  situated  at  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
This  class  of  weeds  cannot  resist  the  winter;  they  invariably  perish  in  the  spring 
if  not  before.  They  are  only  found  among  the  autumnal  corn  when  the  surface 
of  the  soil  has  been  turned  over  afresh,  or  when  it  has  been  carefully  reduced  to 
powder,  or  the  clods  not  broken  until  winter  or  spring,  or,  lastly,  unless  the 
seeds  are  deposited  there  by  the  action  of  wind  or  water  ;  and  even  in  these  cases 
the  weeds  are  never  very  plentiful,  unless  an  unusual  mildness  of  temperature 
has  preserved  them  throughout  the  winter.  The  biennial  weeds,  on  the  con- 
trary, do  not  attain  their  perfect  development  but  with  the  autumnal  crops,  al- 
though they  also  spring  up  among  the  spring  corn.    . 

The  most  numerous  of  all  the  species  of  annual  weeds  are  those  which  belong  } 
to  the  tribe  of  wild  mustard  and  wild  radish  plants  ;  various  kinds  of  plants  are  | 
included  in  this  number,  although  the  appearance  of  all  is  very  similar.  The 
wild  mustard  {sinapis  arvensis)  only  thrives  on  strong,  rich,  moist  soils  ;  this 
plant,  so  far  from  attarining  maturity  on  poor  land,  soon  perishes  there  ;  indeed 
the  seeds  of  it  may  be  sown  in  such  places  with  perfect  impunity.  It  certainly 
sprmgs  up  on  poor  land,  but  then  it  is  speedily  choked  by  other  plants  ;  whereas 
it  completely  overruns  rich  soils,  and  those  which  are  strongly  impregnated  with 
humus,  and  injures  if  not  entirely  destroys  the  crop.  This  plant  may  easily  be 
extirpated,  because  its  seed  not  being  enclosed  in  a  thick,  hard  covering  or  husk 
germmates  with  great  facility  ;  neither  is  it  altogether  useless,  because,  perish- 
ing at  the  same  time  with  the  spring  corn,  its  seed  may  be  reduced  to  oil  after 
having  been  separated  by  means  of  a  sieve.  Careful  agriculturists  always  pull 
this  plant  by  hand  in  its  full  vigor,  before  the  cereals  reach  to  any  considerable 
hight ;  they  then  give  it  to  their  cattle  for  fodder,  and  it  is  found  to  be  very  profit- 
able for  that  purpose. 

The  wild  radish  or  jointed  charlock   (raphanus  raphanistrum)  vegetates  on 


196 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


sandy  cla\^s  or  clayey  sands  ;  and  on  all  weak  soils,  however  unfavorable  the 
temperature  may  be,  it  is  found  to  flourish  ;  the  weaker  the  soil,  and  the  more 
unfavorable  the  weather,  the  sooner  does  it  check  the  cereals.  It  is  particularly 
distinguished  from  the  wild  mustard  by  the  tough  and  membraneous  cuticle 
which  envelops  its  seeds,  totally  preventing  the  extraction  of  oil,  or  at  any  rate 
rendering  it  difficult ;  besides,  the  seed  is  smaller  and  not  so  oleaginous  in  its 
'  nature  as  that  of  the  wild  mustard  ;  the  stalk  is  rougher  to  the  touch  and  more 
devoid  of  nutritive  juices  than  that  of  the  last  named  plant.  It  is,  nevertheless, 
nourishing  and  agreeable  to  cattle  ;  therefore  fields  infested  with  this  plant  are 
not  altogether  valueless,  as  they  may  be  made  to  yield  a  good  supply  of  fodder 
without  the  necessity  of  sowing  any  more  seed,  but  simply  by  means  of  plowing 
and  harrowing  them  several  times  in  the  course  of  the  summer. 

Land  is  also  occasionally  infested  by  various  species  of  cabbage,  cole,  and 
some  varieties  of  rape-seed. 

For  some  years  past  these  kinds  of  weeds  have  appeared  to  increase  rapidly 
on  the  arable'  land  in  the  north  of  Germany  ;  in  fact,  it  is  now  almost  impossible 
to  find  a  single  field  that  is  exempt  from  them.  This  evil  may  be  chiefly  attrib- 
uted to  sufficient  care  not  having  been  taken  to  procure  the  seed  with  which 
the  fields  are  to  be  sown  quite  pure  ;  even  these  precautions  will  not,  however, 
be  always  efi'ective,  as  in  many  cases  the  land  already  contains  a  great  quantity 
of  these  pernicious  seeds.  These  weeds  can  only  be  diminished  and  extirpated 
by  turning  up  the  soil  frequently  during  the  summer  months,  deferring  the  spring 
crops,  and,  lastly,  by  pulling  up  all  those  plants  with  the  hand  which  have  oth- 
erwise escaped  destruction,  and  which  spring  up  in  various  places. 

The  corn  marigold  {chrysanthemum  segetum)  is  a  much  more  pernicious  weed, 
but  it  is  not  so  plentiful  as  the  others.  It  grows  so  vigorously,  is  destroyed  with, 
such  difficulty,  and  multiplies  so  rapidly  and  numerously,  that  it  not  unfrequently 
renders  a  soil  totally  unfit  for  the  production  of  spring  corn,  and  deprives  it  of  all 
its  value.  This  plant  does  not  germinate  until  very  late,  and  until  the  soil  is 
tolerably  warmed  ;  but  then  it  shoots  up  so  vigorously  that  it  soon  chokes  all 
those  plants  which  had  attained  a  tolerable  degree  of  vegetation  before  it  began 
to  sprout ;  its  strong  vigorous  shoots  and  leaves  rapidly  extend  themselves  over 
the  Avhole  surface  of  the  ground,  and  appear  to  absorb  all  the  nutritive  matter 
contained  in  the  atmosphere  as  well  as  in  the  soil.  It  possesses  so  great  a  de- 
gree of  vitality,  that  if  one  of  the  plants  be  plucked  while  yet  in  the  bud,  the 
lowers  will  not  only  open  and  blossom,  but  even  the  grain  will  arrive  at  matu- 
rity. When  a  field  is  weeded,  and  these  plants  are  pulled  up  and  thrown  to- 
gether in  a  heap,  they  do  not  enter  into  decomposition  or  fermentation  ;  on  the 
contrary,  those  at  the  top  of  the  heap  shoot  again,  vegetate,  and  bear  seed  :  so 
that  the  only  way  to  destroy  them  is  to  bury  them  very  deeply,  or  to  burn  them. 
The  seeds  of  this  plant  will  pass  through  the  bodies  of  animals  without  losing 
their  vitality,  and  thus  the  '•  chrysanthemum  "  is  frequently  propagated  by  m.eans 
of  the  dung.  ^.\  districts  where  this  evil  is  known  to  exist  in  the  neighborhood, 
but  to  which  it  has  not  yet  extended  itself,  the  most  unremitting  pains  and  pre- 
cautions are  taken  to  ward  it  off.  If  any  horses  or  cattle  come  from  places  in- 
fested with  this  weed,  all  the  excrements  which  they  void  are  immediately 
burned,  and  the  farmers  refuse  to  purchase  hay  or  straw  which  is  likely  to  be 
thus  contaminated.  In  order  to  prevent  the  multiplication  of  this  plant,  rewards 
are  frequently  ofi'ered  for  every  corn  marigold  that  is  plucked  up  and  destroyed. 

When  land  is  once  overrun  with  this  plant,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  destroy 
it,  especially  in  crop-lands,  where  different  properties  are  intermingled,  it  cannot 
be  done  without  very  great  sacrifices;  nevertheless,  it  is  not  so  thoroughly  im- 
possible as  many  persons  seem  to  think.  Frequent  summer  plowings  and  har- 
rowings  which  always  turn  up  a  fresh  bed  of  earth  to  the  surface,  destroy  a  great 
portion  of  the  seed  after  its  germination  ;  this  end  cannot,  however,  be  attained 
in  one  summer,  even  if  the  land  is  plowed  every  third  week.  Spring  corn  must 
not  be  sown  between  the  two  fallows  ;  nor  must  any  other  produce  be  raised 
among  which  the  "  chrysanthemum  "  can  possibly  spring  up  and  attain  maturity, 
unless  repeated  and  most  careful  weedings  are  bestowed  on  the  crop. 

Two  examples  cited  in  the  "  Annals  of  Agriculture  of  Lower  Saxony,"  Vol.  iii. 
p.  320,  prove  that  if  the  proper  degree  of  attention  is  paid,  and  the  requisite  care 
and  precautions  used,  this  evil  mav  eventually  be  removed;  but  of  course  the 

(.628) 


THEORY  OF  THE  SOIL. 


value  of  a  soil  iafested  with  this  weed  is  depreciated  in  proportion  to  the  diffi- 
culty in  extirpating  it. 

Auc'ther  plant  which  is  equally  injurious,  but  which  is  more  easily  destroyed, 
is  the  wild-bearded  oat  [avena  fatua).  It  usually  grows  among  the  spring  corn  ; 
but  is  also  often  found  among  the  autumnal  crops.  As  its  seed  does  not  remain 
long  in  the  earth,  but  easily  germinates,  and  shoots  when  just  below  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  it  may  be  entirely  extirpated  from  a  field  in  the  course  of  a  year,  pro- 
vided that  as  soon  as  it  flowers,  it  is  immediately  cut  down  and  given  to  the  cat- 
tle, or  stacked  as  dry  fodder,  a  purpose  for  wliich  it  is  well  adapted:  but  if  the 
seed  is  allowed  to  ripen  and  come  to  maturity,  it  readily  drops  out  and  sows 
itself  before  the  cereals  have  attained  their  full  growth.  The  seed  of  this  plant 
is  easily  carried  away  by  the  winds,  and  freed  from  its  husk  or  cuticle  ;  the  grains 
are  so  much  disposed  to  become  dilated  by  moisture  and  contracted  by  heat,  that 
they  have  been  used  as  a  species  of  hygrometer.  The  seed  of  this  plant  is  very 
frequently  conveyed  with  the  seed-corn  from  a  field  which  is  infested  with  it,  to 
another  which  had  previously  been  wholly  exempt ;  in  districts  where  this  plant 
has  once  established  itself,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  extirpate  it,  unless  all  the 
farmers  join  together  in  endeavoring  to  effect  that  purpose. 

Among  those  weeds  which  resist  the  severity  of  winter,  and  which,  conse- 
quently, are  chiefly  found  among  the  autumnal  corn  crops,  the  corn  blue  bottle 
{ceiitaurea  cyanus),  the  various  kinds  of  camomiles  [anthemis^  anthemis  cotula, 
antkemis  arveusis),  the  ox-eye  daisy  [chrysanthemum  leucanthemum),  the  cock's- 
comb  [crista  galli),  the  yellow-rattle  [rhinantlius  cristagali),  the  corn  or  red 
field-poppy  [papaver  rhoeas),  the  corn-cockle  [agrostemma  githago),  are  those 
which  recent  experience  has  taught  us  can  exist  for  the  greatest  length  of  time 
in  a  soil  without  germinating,  although  their  seed  is  of  a  tolerable  size.  The 
seed  of  all  these  plants  preserves  its  vitality  so  perfect  while  embedded  in  the 
earth,  that  the  utmost  endeavors  are  frequently  insufficient  to  free  the  soil  from 
them.  They  are  not,  however,  so  injurious  to  the  autumnal  as  some  others  are 
to  the  spring  corn,  because  in  the  first  named  crops  the  cereals  being  vigorous 
and  thick,  and  vegetating  upon  a  healthy,  rich  land,  soon  get  the  upper  hand: 
these  weeds  only  thrive  and  spring  up  abundantly  where  the  vegetation  is  weak 
and  feeble. 

The  same  may  be  observed  with  respect  to  rye-brome  grass  {bromus  secalinus); 
its  seed  is  frequently  mixed  and  sown  with  the  corn  accidentally  ;  but  it  often  lies 
embedded  in  the  soil,  where  it  remains  for  an  immense  period  of  time,  without 
shooting  or  germinating,  unless  it  is  brought  to  the  surface  of  the  soil.  It  often 
happens  that  when  wheat  which  was  considered  as  perfectly  pure  has  been 
sown,  more  brome-grass  than  wheat  has  sprung  up  ;  whence  has  arisen  the  ab- 
surd opinion,  that  rye  can  be  transformed  into  brome-grass.  This  plant  thrives 
in  those  places  where  the  land  is  so  damp  as  to  be  prejudicial  to  rye,  and  be- 
comes so  strong  and  flourishing  as  speedily  to  choke  the  grain.  In  dry  seasons 
an  exactly  contrary  effect  takes  place ;  therefore,  in  dry  situations  and  seasons 
there  is  scarcely  any  appearance  of  this  weed,  although  the  seeds  which  have 
been  scattered  over  the  land  retain  all  their  vitality.  I  shall  pass  over  a  number 
of  other  weeds  which  are  propagated  by  their  seeds,  but  which  are  neither  so 
common  nor  so  injurious  in  our  climate  as  those  I  have  already  mentioned  ;  nei- 
ther shall  I  mention  those  which  proceed  from  seeds  sown  accidentally  among 
the  cereals,  or  from  seed  preserved  in  the  soil,  all  of  which  can  be  entirely  extir- 
pated by  proper  care  and  attention  ;  as  wild  vetches  [vicia  cracea),  the  tufted 
vetch,  the  yellow  vetchling  {lathyrus  aphaca),  the  rest-harrow  [ononis  arvensis). 

Among  the  weeds  which  are  seldom  propagated  by  their  seeds,  because  these 
latter  rarely  attain  maturity,  and  which,  nevertheless,  overrun  whole  fields,  and 
materially  injure  the  land,  we  particularly  notice  couch-grass  [triticum  repens), 
and  marsh-bent  grass  [agrostis).  Every  agriculturist  must  be  aware  hoAV  very 
difficult  it  is  to  extirpate  the  former  of  these  weeds  in  a  field  that  has  once  be- 
I  come  mfested  with  it,  especially  if  the  substratum  or  the  situation  of  a  soil  ren- 
ders It  liable  to  suffer  from  humidity  ;  in  such  a  case  the  utmost  care  and  pains 
bestowed  on  the  fallow  is  often  ineffectual.^  We  shall  point  out  the  best  means 
of  destroying  these  weeds  when  we  come  to  treat  of  plowing,  or  breaking  up 
and  loosening  the  soil ;  at  present,  all  that  we  have  to  consider  is  their  influence 
on  the  value  of  land.     So  long  as  a  soil  continues  to  be  overrun  with  couch-grass, 

(629) 


198  THAEP/S  PRINCIPLES  OP  AGRICULTURE. 


it  will  not  bear  those  crops  which  might  otherwise  be  derived  from  it.  Land 
thus  infested  is  generally  not  poor,  and  it  is  still  farther  improved  by  the  putre- 
faction of  the  roots  of  this  weed.  If,  therefore,  it  can  be  fallowed  at  once,  or 
only  made  to  bear  those  crops  which  require  careful  weeding,  a  judicious  agri- 
culturist will  find  that  he  will  not  have  to  make  greater  sacrifices  on  it  than  on 
other  land,  he  will  only  have  to  plow  and  harrow  it  rather  oftener  ;  but  in  form- 
ing a  valuation  of  such  land  all  these  circumstances  ought  to  be  taken  mto  con- 
sideration. 

This  evil  is  not  so  important  to  those  who  are  about  to  purchase  a  farm  or  es- 
tate, as  it  is  to  those  who  are  merely  about  to  rent  one,  especially  if  they  are 
only  taking  it  on  a  short  lease.  Where  the  fields  are  damp,  infested  with  couch- 
grass,  and  consequently  cannot  be  cleared  without  difficulty,  their  intrinsic  value 
is  of  course  considerably  diminished. 

Lastly,  among  the  most  injurious  of  all  the  weeds  that  infest  our  fields  is  the 
corn-bind  weed  [convolvolus  minor,  or  arvensis),  the  roots  of  Avhich  penetrate  so 
i  deeply  into  the  soil  that  it  is  almost  impossible  entirely  to  destroy  it.     It  injures 
the  cereals  as  well  by  its  large  leaves  as  by  its  long  shoots,  which  entwine  them- 
selves round  the  blades  of  corn  and  drag  them  downwards. 

The  varieties  of  horse-tail  [equisetum)  mostly  vegetate  oti  soils  in  which  the  sub- 
stratum is  ahvays  damp  ;  they  do  not  appear  to  be  very  injurious  to  corn,  unless  by 
depriving  it  of  that  amount  of  space  which  is  occupied  by  the  blades  of  this  weed  ; 
it  absorbs  little  or  no  portion  of  the  nutriment  which  the  cereals  ought  to  receive, 
because  this  plant  derives  its  nutrition  from  the  subsoil.  Horse-tail  is,  however, 
very  prejudicial  to  pasture  land,  both  because  cattle  do  not  like  it  and  because  it 
is  not  wholesome  for  them. 

Colt's-foot  [tussilago,  farfara,  or  petasites,)  with  its  broad  leaves,  extends  over   , 
a  large  surface,  and  can  only  be  got  rid  of,  with  great  difficulty,  by  means  of  in-  | 
cessantly  digging  up,  tilling,  and  draining  those  soils  in  which  it  has  once  taken 
root ;  it  generally  grows  on  argillpceous  and  marly  soils. 

The  dew-berry  [rubus  cesius,  frucio  nigra,  ruius  fructicosus),  or  the  shrubby 
bramble,  often  extends  itself  very  rapidly  ;  it  flourishes  most  on  soils  which  con- 
tain marl  or  clay.     It  is  very  difficult  to  destroy  this  plant,, because  its  roots  pene- 
trate so  deeply  into  the  soil,  and   each  of  them  puts  forth  new  shoots,  which  / 
spring  up  in  various  places,  and  choke  and  destroy  the  cereals.  <\ 

Among  that  class  of  weeds  which  are  propagated  both  by  means  of  their  roots 
and  their  seeds,  we  find  the  corn-thistle  [seratula  arvensis),  particularly  eminent. 
This  plant  will  seldom  grow  in  any  but  rich  clayey  soils,  and  its  presence  may 
therefore  be  considered  as  an  indication  of  fertility.  Kature  appears  to  have  made 
a  special  provision  for  the  preservation  of  this  plant,  by  providing  it  with  prick- 
les, which  prevent  the  cattle  from  touching  it  after  it  has  attained  a  certain  size. 
Numerous  stalks  and  shoots  spring  from  each  of  its  roots,  and  the  more  these 
are  cut  while  young,  the  more  rapidly  do  they  multiply.  Besides,  it  produces 
an  immense  number  of  light  downy  seeds,  which  are  carried  about  and  dissem- 
inated far  and  wide  by  the  winds,  and  thus  sow  themselves.  A  soil  may  become 
so  infested  with  this  weed  as  to  cause  all  the  crops  sown  on  it  to  fail  or  to  be 
greatly  injured. 

The  various  kinds  of  docks  [rumex)  also  extend  themselves  over  the  fields,  and 
their  great  and  rapid  multiplication  is  owing  quite  as  much  to  the  shoots  thrown 
out  by  their  roots  as  to  the  seeds. 

There  is  an  immense  number  of  weeds,  but  we  shall  here  content  ourselves 
with  pointing  out  those  which  are  most  liable  to  injure  the  crops  which  are  raised 
on  arable  land  ;  at  some  other  time,  we  iihall  speak  of  those  which  infest  and  in- 
jure meadow  land. 

We  occasionally  find  certain  fields  or  portions  of  land  to  be  full  of  stones. 
These,  considered  in  an  agricultural  point  of  view,  may  be  divided  into  two  ' 
classes:  first,  those  which  cannot  be  removed  by  the  operation  of  plowing  ;  and,  ; 
secondly,  those  which  are  loose  and  detached. 

Those  large  stones  which  show  themselves  on  the  surface  of  land,  and,  what 

is  still  worse,  those  which  are  so  covered  with  the  vegetable  soil  as  not  to  be 

perceptible,  are  exceedingly  prejudicial  to  all  the  operations  of  tillage.     They 

are  sometimes  at  so  great  a  depth  below  the  Fuiface  of  the  land  as  not  to  inter- 

l  fere  with  superficial  plowings ;  but  when  the  plow  is  made  to  penetrate  more 

^^^^^^^jeso)^^^^^^ .  _  .  . 


i  THEORY  OF   THE   SOIL.  199    j 

}  deeply,  they  impede  its  action  ;  these  stones  must,  therefore,  be  removed  before  ; 

!    the  land  can  be  properly  tilled.     Occasionally,  immense  masses  of  stone  will  be   / 

'    found  to  exist  in  the  soil,  which  only  appear,  at  the  surface,  to  be  mere  pebbles, 
and  are  thus  supposed  by  casual  observers  to  be  of  trifling  import.     These  can-   . 
not  be  dug  out  without  considerable  labor  and  expense,  which  can  only  be  repaid   / 
®r  in  any  measure  remunerated,  in  those  places  where  the  stone  thus  extracted  \ 

!    from  the  ground  can  be  advantageously  used  or  sold  :  consequently,  this  circum- 

(  stance  ought  to  receive  due  consideration,  when  it  is  proposed  to  plow  such  land 

\  to  a  greater  depth,  and  to  make  use  of  improved  implements. 

{  Those  loose  stones  which  give  way  before  the  plow  and  harrow,  are  exceed- 
ingly prejudicial  to  Agriculture,  when  they  exist  in  too  great  numbers  in  a  soil. 
They  do  not  yield  any  nourishment  to  plants,  and,  therefore,  may  be  reckoned  as 
worse  than  nothing  in  the  layer  of  vegetable  mould  of  which  they  form  a  part. 
They  are  also  prejudicial  in  consequence  of  the  injury  which  they  cause  to  the 
agricultural  implements,  in  their  impeding  the  action  of  the  scythe,  and  compel- 
ling the  reapers  to  leave  the  stubble  very  long.  Therefore,  whenever  the  agri- 
culturist wishes  to  introduce  a  system  of  improved  cultivation,  he  must  endeavor 
to  get  rid  of  all  these  stones  by  having  them  picked  up,  or  otherAvise  separated 
from  the  soil :  this  can,  however,  seldom  be  effected  without  considerable  ex- 
pense. Some  persons  have  considered  that  it  injured  a  soil  to  deprive  it  of  these 
stones,  and  allege,  in  support  of  their  opinion,  that  the  office  of  the  stones  is  to 
refresh  the  soil,  and  communicate  heat  to  it  as  may  be  required  ;  that  they  pro- 
tect the  seed,  and  have  a  tendency  to  retain  moisture  ;  but  these  assertions  will 
not  bear  the  test  of  inquiry.  With  respect  to  those  experiments  which  are 
brought  forward  with  a  view  of  supporting  this  theory,  there  are  so  many  facts 
and  observations  of  a  diametrically  opposite  nature,  and  which  are  well  attested, 
that  we  cannot  give  to  the  former  the  slightest  credence.  We  do  not,  however, 
mean  to  deny  the  utility  of  limestones  in  argillaceous  soils,  because  the  manure 
with  which  they  come  in  contact,  as  well  as  the  touch  of  the  roots  of  the  plants, 
gradually  decompose  them,  thus  ameliorating  the  soil,  and  affording  additional 
nutriment  to  vegetables  ;  but  where  the  stones  arc  of  a  silicious  nature,  as  is  too 
often  the  case,  we  must  beg  leave  to  deny  their  utility,  at  least  until  some  posl 
tive  experiments  shall  convince  us  of  the  contrary. 

In  describing  the  general  surface  of  an  estate,  or  drawing  out  an  exact  plan 
description  of  a  certain  extent  of  land,  founded  both  on  the  composition  and  on 
the  constituent  parts  of  which  the  soil  is  composed,  and  which  may  serve  to 
guide  us,  not  only  in  estimating  the  land,  but  also  in  choosing  the  proper  sj^stem 
of  cultivation  for  it,  and  the  rotation  for  which  it  is  best  adapted,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  pursue  some  regular  and  systematic  course  of  proceeding.  If  the 
land  is  not  already  divided  into  beds  or  portions  which  form  a  species  of  distri- 
bution of  it,  parallel  lines  must  be  traced  upon  it,  about  five,  ten,  or  fifteen  perch- 
es  apart,  according  as  the  nature  of  the  soil  undergoes  a  greater  or  less  change 
At  the  same  time,  a  plan  of  the  piece  of  land  which  is  to  be  estimated  should 
be  drawn  out  on  a  tolerably  large  scale  ;  that  is  to  say,  nearly  four  times  the 
size  of  ordinary  territorial  plans.  The  parallel  lines  above  mentioned  must  be 
traced  on  this  plan,  and  intersected  or  divided  into  portions  of  from  five  to  ten 
perches  each  :  these  portions  should  be  numbered  in  rotation.  Besides  the  men 
who  measure  the  land,  there  must  be  two  others,  one  with  a  spade  to  dig  up, 
and  the  other  with  a  basket  into  which  to  receive  the  samples  of  soils  that  are 
raised.  The  surveyor  sketches  the  plan  or  chart,  and  draws  up  the  reference 
book,  unless  some  other  person  is  employed  expressly  for  the  latter  purpose.  The 
agriculturist  observes  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  directs  the  whole  operation.  As 
soon  as  he  perceives  any  change,  he  stops,  and  desires  that  this  spot  may  be 
marked  on  the  plan,  and  then  enters  into  a  more  accurate  examination  of  the  al- 
teration :  shotild  it  appear  to  him  to  be  necessary  so  to  do,  he  causes  some  of  the 
earth  to  be  turned  up  with  the  spade  ;  and  if  he  considers  that  a  yet  closer  anal» 
ysis  will  be  beneficial,  he  places  about  a  pound  of  the  earth  in  a  horn  or  little  bag, 
.  on  which  he  marks  the  number  or  letter  of  the  station.  The  places  where  these 
variations  in  the  nature  of  the  soil  occur,  must  be  marked  out  on  the  plan,  by  the 
surveyor,  with  all  possible  precision  ;  neither  must  he  omit  to  signify  whether 
i  tnis  change  takes  place  at  once,  or  comes  on  gradually.  Whatever  other  re- 
'  marks  are  considered  necessary,  as  those  which  relate  to  the  properties  of  the 


200  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

soil,  or  the  changes  produced  in  them  by  the  alteration,  &c.,  should  be  inscribed 
in  the  reference  book,  under  the  number  appertaining  to  the  portion  of  land  in 
which  they  occur. 

In  this  manner  the  whole  of  the  land  is  passed  over  in  the  direction  of  those 
parallel  lines  which  were  traced  upon  it,  and  thus,  in  the  course  of  this  opera- 
tion, a  draught  of  a  geometrical  plan  is  formed. 

With  regard  to  the  plan  itself,  it  may  be  drawn  out  in  various  ways  ;  but  the 
oest  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  designate  the  various  component  parts  of  which  the 
soil  is  composed  by  water  colors,  and  indicate  the  almost  insensible  changes  of 
composition  by  shades  of  color.  The  bights  and  hollows  may  be  signified  by 
what  is  called  "  ground-lines,"  properly  shaded  ;  the  greater  or  less  quantity  of 
humus  with  which  the  soil  is  impregnated  by  black  dots,  which  must  be  placed 
nearer  to  one  another  the  more  humus  there  is  in  the  soil;  thus  all  points  worthy 
of  notice  will  have  their  distinctive  signs.  With  such  a  plan,  the  agriculturist 
will  always  hare  an  exact  picture  of  his  land  before  his  eyes,  and  can  therefore 
make  those  arrangements  which  he  thinks  will  be  most  suitable  to  the  nature  of 
its  different  parts. 

It  is  not  impracticable  likewise  to  trace  out  on  this  plan  the  direction  of  the 
'  declivities  and  water  courses,  &c.  ;  but  if  it  is  deemed  necessary  to  have  all  these 
I  things  indicated  in  a  more  detailed  manner,  the  levels  and  hights  must  all  be 
'  measured  with  instruments  proper  for  the  purpose.     These  levels  may  be  taken 
in  different  directions,  and  then  the  mere   vertical  profile   is  given.     If  the  sub- 
stratum of  the  soil  undergoes  any  change,  and  it  is  thought  necessary  to  analyze 
and  make  special  mention  of  it,  that  may  very  easily  be  done  by  shadowing  the 
profile  of  the  plan  or  chart  with  colors  which  shall  indicate  the  thickness  of  the 
various  layers.     In  this  case  the  auger  or  land-sound  may  be  used  in  taking  the 
level,  and  introduced  into  the  soil  as  deeply  and  as  often  as  is  necessary.     This 
can  be  done  without  any  great  difficulty. 

Where  the  constituent  parts  of  a  soil  cannot  be  distinguished  with  sufficient 
accuracy  by  means  of  its  external  characteristics,  or  where  it  is  otherwise  deem- 
ed expedient  to  submit  it  to  a  more  minute  examination,  it  must  undergo  a  chem- 
ical analysis.  But  if  the  samples  which  have  been  taken  from  different  spots 
are  compared  together,  both  in  a  state  of  moisture  and  of  desiccation,  it  will 
generally  soon  become  evident  which  are  those  that  are  of  an  homogeneous  and 
also  those  that  are  of  a  diflerent  nature,  without  the  necessity  of  having  recourse 
to  chemical  analysis. 

No  operation  will  fully  compensate  an  enlightened  agriculturist  for  the  trouble 
which  it  costs  him  as  this  mode  of  proceeding  ;  he  will  here  find  a  solution  of  all 
those  phenomena  which  previously  appeared  inexplicable,  and  will  thus  be  ena- 
bled to  apply  an  efficacious  remedy  to  the  various  impediments  and  inconven- 
iences which  he  may  meet  with  in  the  cultivation  of  his  property. 


Section  IV. 
AGRICULTURE. 

The  term  "  Agriculture,"  considered  in  its  strictest  sense,  signifies  the  tilling 
and  preparing  the  soil,  and  rendering  it  capable  of  producing  those  crops  which 
are  required  from  it  in  their  highest  state  of  perfection. 

This  effect  is  produced  in  two  Avays  :  the  first,  which  is  designated  "  chemical 
Agriculture,"  or  in  other  words,  and  in  common  language,  the  "  amelioration  of 
the  soil,"  consists  in  adding  to  it  all  those  substances  which  tend  to  increase  its 
fertility,  by  incorporating  nutritive  matter  and  juices  with  it,  or  developing  and 
calling  into  action  those  which  it  already  contains  ;  the  second,  which  is  called 

(fi32) 


MANURING  THE   SOIL.  201 

"mechanical  Agriculture,"  or  the  cultivation  and  tillage  of  the  soil,"  consists  in 
loosening  the  earth  by  means  of  plowing  or  digging,  or  otherwise  working  it,  so 
as  to  enable  the  roots  of  plants  to  penetrate  it  without  difficulty,  and  seek  and 
appropriate  to  themselves  those  substances  Avhich  are  most  analogous  to  their 
nature. 

We  shall  enter  fully  into  these  two  subjects  or  divisions  in  the  course  of  the 
present  chapter. 

PART   I. — ON   MANUKING   AND   AMELIORATING   THE    SOIL. 

JIanure  acts  upon  the  soil  in  two  ways  : — 

First,  by  communicating  to  it  those  juices  which  are  calculated  for  the  nutri- 
tion of  plants  and  vegetables  : 

Secondly,  by  the  chemical  action  which  it  exercises  on  those  substances  con- 
tained in  the  soil,  decomposing  them,  and  re^combining  them  under  new  forms, 
and  thus  facilitating  their  introduction  into  the  suckers  of  plants  ;  and,  perhaps, 
also  by  communicating  that  degree  of  energy  and  activity  to  vegetation  which 
enables  it  to  take  up  and  appropriate  the  suitable  nutritive  juices. 

Some  kinds  of  manure  appear  to  produce  only  one  of  these  effects,  or  at  least 
to  produce  one  in  a  far  greater  degree  than  the  other  ;  while  others,  on  the  con- 
trary, seem  to  produce  both. 

We  generally  express  the  effect  of  manures  on  a  soil  by  saying  that  they  fer- 
tilize it,  and  many  persons  would  be  satisfied  with  this  expression  ;  nevertheless 
I  it  is  exceedingly  necessary,  both  for  the  sake  of  theory  and  practice,  that  we 
I  should  endeavor  to  define  the  way  in  Avhich  each  variety  of  manure  produces  its 
I  peculiar  effect,  and  under  what  circumstances  it  acts  in  one  way  rather  than  in 
'  another.  It  is  only  by  means  of  such  knowledge  that  we  are  enabled  to  account 
I  for  various  facts  which  are  to  all  appearance  contradictory ;  and  can  learn  to 
I  make  a  prudent  selection  among  all  the  various  proceedings  which  are  to  be 

followed  in  the  use  of  any  one  particular  kind  of  manure. 
\       The  English  have  instituted  a  very  good  comparison  when  they  compare  ma- 
'  nures  belonging  to  the  first  class  to  food,  and  those  appertaining  to  the  second 
'  class  to  salt,  spices,  or  stimulating  drinks. 

'[       All  organic  substances  which  have  entered  into  a  state  of  putrefaction  or  de- 
;  composition,  contain  the  elements  necessary  for  the  re-production  and  perfecting    ' 
?  of  the  vegetables  which  we  cultivate.     If,  by  means  of  seeds  or  roots,  we  bring    ! 
(  the  germs  of  some  particular  plant  in  contact  with  these  substances,  and  all  the 

>  other  details  appertaining  to  the  operation  are  properly  conducted,  plants  of  sim- 
)  ilar  species  to  that  which  we  set  will  be  produced.  All  soils  contain  the  ali- 
(  ments  proper  for  every  kind  of  plant,  but  not  in  equal  proportions  ;  that  is  to  say, 
S  every  soil  does  not  contain  similar  proportions  of  alimentary  substances.     In  fact, 

;  it  is  well  known  that  some  kinds  of  land  favor  the  vegetation  of  one  plant,  while    i 
(  others  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  a  totally  difl'erent  kind. 

>  Vegetable  decomposition  or  manure,  appears  to  act  on  plants  solely  as  an  ali- 

?  ment ;  it  does  not  seem  to  contribute  much  towards  the  development  of  those  / 

s  parts  which  the  soil  already   contains,  and   which   are  formed  of  the  residue  of  i 

)  previous  manurings,  now  become  insoluble  from  the  action  of  various  causes. —    I 

?  Animal  decomposition  or  manure,  on  the  contrary,  acts  on  the  soil  as  well  as  on 

(  the  plants  Avhich  vegetate  there.     It  not  only  contains  all  those  substances  which 

S  are  indispensable  to  the  vegetation  of  plants,  some  of  which,  certainly,  are  con- 

)  tained  in  vegetable  manure,  although   in   smaller  proportions  ;  but  it  also  favors    ' 

J  the  decomposition  of  the  insoluble  humus,  and  communicates  a  greater  degree 

>  of  energy  to  the  vegetation  of  plants. 

)  Mineral  manures  which  do  not  contain  any  organic  bodies  act  solely,  or  at  least 
S  essentially,  by  improving  the  texture  of  the  soil,  rendering  those  parts  of  it  sol- 

>  uble  which  were  previously  insoluble,  and  favoring  and  accelerating  decompo- 
{  sition. 

\  Every  organic  body  is  formed  by  the  combination  of  three,  four,  or  more  ele- 
/  mentary  substances  united  by  vital  power  in  certain  determinate  proportions  ;  but 
(  when  the  vital  principle  ceases  to  exist  and  to  act  upon  them,  those  combina- 
S  tions  are  resolved  into  their  original  elements,  and  again  submitted,  either  whol- 
)  ly  or  in  part,  to  the  organic  laws  which  govern  those  elementary  bodies.  These 
(  latter  subsequentlv  unite,  either  in  the  form  of  simple  combinations,  that  is  to 

\  (633) 


202 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


say,  two  and  two,  according  to  the  laws  of  affinity,  or  in  more  compound  combi- 
nations of  an  entirely  new  character.  These  latter,  without  appertaining  to  life, 
owe  their  existence  to  it,  and  in  their  turn  assist  in  supporting  the  vital  principle. 
Vegetables  derive  their  chief  nutriment  from  the  combinations  resulting  from  the 
decomposition  of  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and  in  the  natural  course  of  things 
become,  m  their  turn,  the  food  of  men  and  beasts. 

These  newly-formed  matters,  viz.,  the  more  or  less  decomposed  manure  and 
the  humus  which  arises  from  it,  vary  in  their  nature  according  to  the  different 
substances  from  which  they  were  derived,  and  the  circumstances  which  influ- 
enced their  formation. 

The  progress  of  their  transformation  is  designated  by  the  terms  "decomposi- 
tion," "  fermentation,"  and  "  putrefaction."  We  shall  not  enter  into  a  dehnition 
of  these  terms,  but  content  ourselves  with  making  the  following  remarks: — 

The  conditions  of  the  state  which  we  designate  by  these  words  are,  total  ab- 
sence of  vitality,  heat,  moisture,  and  a  species  of  comhination  with  the  atmo- 
sphere. According  as  these  concomitant  circumstances  increase  or  diminish  in 
mtensity,  this  process  will  undergo  various  modifications,  be  accelerated  or  re- 
tarded, and  be  attended  with  different  results. 

Vegetable  bodies  pass  through  various  degrees  of  fermentation  before  arriving 
at  the  last  of  them,  viz.,  putrefaction,  and  becoming  entirely  decomposed  or  re- 
duced to  a  state  of  mould  or  manure  ;  a  state  which  ought  not  to  be  regarded  as 
permanent  and  unalterable,  but  merely  as  having  some  duration. 

Animal  bodies,  on  the  contrary,  pass  over  the  first  degrees  of  fermentation  al- 
together ;  or,  at  any  rate,  are  but  so  very  slightly  affected  by  them  that  they 
are  scarcely  perceptible.  These  substances  enter  at  once  into  a  state  of  putre- 
faction, and  cause  all  vegetable  bodies  with  which  they  are  in  contact  to  do  the 
same. 

This  putrefaction  and  the  matters  which  result  from  it,  also  experience  vari- 
ous modifications,  which  are  dependent  on  the  strength  of  the  combinations  ta- 
king place  in  them,  and  the  intensity  with  which  heat,  moisture,  and  atmo- 
spheric air  act  upon  them. 

In  the  open  air,  and  without  the  intervention  of  moisture  or  of  any  additional 
heat,  the  process  of  fermentation  and  putrefaction  is  not  perceptible  ;  a  species 
of  decomposition  does,  however,  take  place,  which  is  similar  to  slow  combustion. 
This  decomposition  produces  a  very  different  matter  to  that  which  is  the  result 
of  putrefaction,  and  one  which  is  smaller  in  quantity,  because  the  greater  part 
of  the  carbon  combines  with  oxygen,  and  evaporates  under  the  form  of  carbonic 
acid. 

The  greater  degree  of  rapidity  with  which  animal  bodies  are  decomposed  by 
putrefaction,  doubtless  arises  from  these  bodies  being  but  slightly  complicated  in 
their  nature,  from  their  being  composed  of  an  infinite  variety  of  substances,  and, 
amcng  others,  of  those  numerous  vegetable  preparations  which  enter  into  the  food 
of  animated  beings.  The  product  of  this  putrefaction  is  different:  it  has  a  mere 
energetic  effect  on  plants,  because  it  acts  not  only  as  an  aliment,  but  also  as  a 
stimulant ;  and  this  Avill  account  for  the  fact  of  its  being  very  rapidly  and  easily 
exhausted.  The  dung  of  animals  is  a  very  active,  but  far  from  being  a  durable 
manure. 

All  animal  bodies,  as  dead  carcasses,  flesh,  intestines,  the  refuse  of  the  sham- 
bles, &:c.,  when  in  a  state  of  putrefaction  may  be  converted  into  manure  ;  and 
those  manures  which  are  thus  formed  are  far  more  active  than  any  others.  These 
substances  may  be  employed  for  this  purpose  ;  but  in  general  the  excrements  and 
urine  of  animals  obtained  from  them  during  life  are  set  aside  for  manure,  be- 
cause a  large  quantity  can  thus  be  obtained  and  at  a  much  less  expensive  rate. 

It  is  fuUiid  10  be  very  advantageous  to  mix  these  excrementitious  substances 
with  the  remains  of  vegetable  matters :  by  which  means  the  latter  are  led  to 
enter  into  a  more  rapid  state  of  putrefaction,  and  do  not  lose  so  much  of  their  ac- 
tual substance  ;  while  the  fermentation  of  the  animal  bodies,  which  would  oth- 
erwise be  carried  on  with  loo  great  rapidity,  is  somewhat  retarded.  Manures 
thus  formed  are  called  "natural  manures,"  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from 
others  which  are  termed  "  artificial."  This  appellation  is  not,  however,  bestow- 
ed because  they  are  more  simple  than  others,  or  because  they  require  less  care 
and  skill  to  be  bestowed  on  the  preparation  of  them,  but  merely  because  they  are 

(634) 


MANURING  THE   SOIL.  203    f 


the  best  known,  and  indeed,  among  many  persons  are  the  only  kind  of  manure 
which  is  known  and  used. 

Those  excrements  which  are  voided  by  animals  through  the  intestinal  canal, 
are  composed  not  only  of  the  residue  of  the  food  which  they  have  taken  and  of 
that  portion  of  its  filaments  which  could  not  be  decomposed,  but  also  of  mole- 
cules of  the  body  of  the  animal  itself,  which  are  deposited  in  the  intestinal  canal 
after  having  performed  their  office  ;  consequently,  these  excrements  may  be  said 
to  be  entirely  composed  of  animalized  substances,  and  even  in  animals  fed  al- 
most entirely  on  vegetables  will  be  found  to  possess  more  of  the  animal  than  the 
vegetable  nature.  The  properties  of  the  dung,  however,  depend  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent on  the  manner  in  which  the  beasts  are  fed,  and  their  condition  and  breed. 
If  the  animals  are  so  fed  that  their  stomachs  contam  a  very  small  portion  of  nu- 
tritive juices,  but  an  immense  quantity  of  fibrous  matter  which  is  not  easily  di- 
gested or  decomposed,  as,  for  example,  straw,  and  the  dried  stems  of  plants  with- 
out any  admixture  of  grass  or  corn  ;  these  substances  will  pass  away  from  the 
intestinal  canal  almost  in  the  same  state  in  which  they  entered  it,  and  become 
less  animalized  in  proportion  as  the  lean  and  ill-conditioned  body  of  the  animal 
parts  with  less  of  the  fleshy  particles.  But  even  the  sinall  admixture  of  animal 
matter  thus  obtained  suffices  to  give  these  excrements  a  greater  and  more  rapid 
tendency  for  entering  into  a  state  of  decomposition  or  putrefaction.  But  the  ex- 
crementitial  matter  voided  by  animals  which  have  been  brought  into  good  con- 
dition by  nourishing  food  full  of  gluten,  farina,  albumen,  mucilage,  and  the  sac- 
charine principle,  and  in  which  a  large  number  of  molecules  are  daily  reprodu- 
ced and  detached  ;  the  excrements  of  such  animals,  I  say,  furnish  an  infinitely 
more  active  manure,  and  one  which  contains  a  much  smaller  proportion  of  vege-  ' 
table  and  fibrous  parts.  Hence  arises  the  striking  difference  which  exists  be-  \ 
tween  the  dung  yielded  by  cattle  put  up  to  fatten,  or  which  are  in  good  condition,  '' 
and  that  which  is  voided  by  lean,  badly-fed  animals.  A  proportionately  greater  ! 
quantity  of  litter  may  be  added  to  the  former  without  impeding  or  retarding  that 
uniform  fermentation  which  leads  to  putrefaction. 

It  is  generally  customary  to  mix  urine  with  the  solid  excrements.     This  liquid, 
i  which  is  in  fact  composed  chiefly  of  water,  likewise  contains  a  substance  which 
'  is  peculiar  to  itself,  and  various  other  very  active  matters,  and  several  phosphates, 
!  but  particularly  the  phosphate  of  ammonia.     By  evaporating  urine  it  has  been 
found  that  not  only  the  liquid  itself,  but  those  salts  also  which  are  obtained  from 
it  in  small  quantities  are  very  favorable  to  vegetation.     But  Dr.  Belcher,  in  his 
"  Communications  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,"  says  that  plants  may  easily  be 
too  highly  stimulated  and  even  destroyed  by  the  action  of  this  fluid.     He  attri- 
butes this  effect  partly  to  a  small  yellow  insect  frequently  met  with  in  urine. 
Numerous  experiments  seem  to  prove  that  the  various  matters  contained  in  this 
fluid  are  most  efficacious  when  mixed  up  with  the  solid  excrements  and  collected 
by  means  of  the  litter,  or  of  certain  substances  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  pur- 
•[  pose  ;  these  substances  having  a  strong  tendency  to  decompose  one  another,  give 
rise  to  the  formation  of  new  compounds. 

Common  manure  is  composed  of  these  two  kinds  of  excrements  and  of  those 
\  vegetable  substances  which  are  used  as  litter,  as  straw,  fern,  or  dry  leaves,  but 
/  chiefly  the  first  of  these  three  ;  this  mixture  is  commonly  termed  stable-manure, 
a  name  by  which  we  shall  henceforth  designate  it. 

Stable-manure  varies  in  quality  according  to  the  kind  of  animals  by  which  it 
is  produced,  even  where  these  animals  have  received  the  same  kind  of  food  and 
of  pasturage. 

Only  a  few  of  these  varieties  of  dung  have  been  decomposed  and  accurately 
analyzed.     The  dung  of  horned  cattle  has  been  analyzed  by  Einhoff  and  myself; 
it  will,  however,  be  necessary  to  conduct  the  analysis  with  greater  accuracy  and 
with  the  aid  of  a  pneumatic  apparatus  before  Ave  shall  be  able  to  institute  an  ex- 
act comparison   between  the  different  kinds  of  dung  and  their  component  parts. 
Among  the  numerous  phenomena  exhibited  by  stable-manure,   we  shall  only  } 
.  notice  those  which  are  easily  observable,  and  which  serve  to  distinguish  the  va-  \ 
/  rious  species  from  one  another.  [ 

(  When  horse-dung,  in  a  proper  state  of  humidity,  is  exposed  to  air  of  a  mode- 
I  rate  temperature,  it  soon  enters  into  fermentation.  So  great  a  degree  of  heat  is 
)  engendered  by  this  process,  that  the  moisture  and  all  the  volatile  matters  are  ex- 


I  204 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


pelled,  and,  if  the  dung  is  not  watered,  instead  of  assuming  the  form  of  a  thick 
paste  or  black-butter,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  it  becomes  friable,  pulverulent, 
and  wastes  away,  so  as  to  leave  scarcely  anything  but  ashes  behind  ;  when  it 
has  not  been  pressed  together,  but  is  so  loose  that  the  atmospheric  air  can  pene- 
trate into  its  substance,  it  decomposes  unequally,  becomes  partially  carbonized 
like  turf,  and  covered  with  a  considerable  quantity  of  mould,  which,  experience 
has  repeatedly  shown,  greatly  impairs  its  manuring  qualities.  It  is  of  a  much 
more  fertilizing  nature  when  produced  by  vigorous  animals  which  consume  a 
considerable  portion  of  corn,  than  it  is  when  produced  by  such  as  are  fed  with 
nothing  but  grass,  hay,  or  straAv  ;  but  even  in  the  latter  case  it  is  still  valuable 
as  a  manure.  When  manure  of  this  kind  is  laid  on  the  ground  before  its  decom- 
position is  completely  effected,  it  produces  a  very  rapid  effect,  and  greatly  ac- 
celerates the  growth  of  plants  through  the  heat  which  is  developed  in  the  ground 
after  the  dung  has  been  buried  there.  This  circumstance  renders  manure  com- 
posed of  horse-dung  peculiarly  beneficial  to  moist,  cold,  sterile,  clayey  soils,  the 
faults  of  which  it  corrects,  while  at  the  same  time  the  soil  check's  the  too  vio- 
lent action  of  the  manure.  On  the  other  hand,  this  kind  of  manure  is  often  ex- 
ceedingly injurious  to  soils  of  a  dry,  chalky,  sandy,  or  calcareous  nature  ;  it  there 
accelerates  and  stimulates  the  growth  of  the  plants  in  the  early  stages  of  their 
development  so  much,  that  when  the  action  ceases  the  process  of  vegetation  be- 
comes feeble  and  languid.  The  effects  of  such  manure  are  also  very  transient, 
because  it  becomes  consumed  by  the  very  energy  of  its  own  fermentation,  and 
leaves  but  a  very  trifling  residue.  The  only  soils  in  which  this  does  not  take 
I  place,  or  iuAvhich  the  effects  of  manure  composed  chiefly  of  horse-dung  are  at  all 
/  durable,  are  in  those  of  a  moist  and  tenacious  nature.  Manure  of  this  descrip- 
I  tion  is  exceedingly  beneficial  to  soils  which  contain  a  large  quantity  of  insoluble 
^  humus  or  vegetable  mould,  because  the  ammonia  which  it  contains  greatly  fa- 
,|  cilitates  the  decomposition  of  this  substance. 

Tf   thp   fllincr  Vin«  rpnfhpr\    tVint    ctno-P     in    ur 


If  the  dung  has  reached  that  stage  in  which  fermentation,  accompanied  by 
rise  of  temperature,  or  the  disengagement  of  heat,  is  at  an  end,  it  still  leaves  a 
residue  highly  favorable  to  vegetation  in  all  the  soils  with  which  it  is  incorpo- 
rated ;  but  this  residue  is  very  small  in  quantity. 

When  the  dung  is  to  be  used  by  itself,  it  must  be  carried  to  moist  and  clayey 
soils  as  soon  as  its  first  stage  of  fermentation  has  commenced,  and  an  effect  which 
soon  takes  place,  and  there  buried.  It  ameliorates  the  land  by  its  mechanical 
action,  rendering  the  soil  looser  and  lighter  by  its  continual  fermentation  and  the 
heat  which  it  engenders ;  besides,  the  repeated  plowings  which  are  requisite,  in 
order  that  it  may  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  combined  with  the  soil,  contribute 
materially  towards  the  goodness  of  the  crops  sown  on  that  land. 

But  when  i:  is  to  be  used  upon  warm,  light  soils,  the  most  advantageous  mode  \ 
of  employing  it  is  to  mix  it  with  vegetable  substances  Avhich  still  retain  their 
succulency,  or  with  earth,  and  especially  with  turf.  For  this  purpose  the  dung 
should  be  mixed  with  the  substances  just  mentioned,  and  heaped  up  in  success- 
ive layers,  care  being  taken  to  protect  it  from  too  free  an  access  of  air,  and  to 
moisten  it  whenever  the  weather  is  too  dry.  By  this  course  of  proceeding  a  very 
active  ccropound  will  be  obtained,  which  is  permanent  in  its  effects  and  exceed- 
ingly well  adapted  for  light  soils. 

Stable-manure  produced  by  horned  cattle  also  begins  to  ferment  very  soon, 
provided  that  it  is  close  and  uniform  in  consistence,  and  contains  only  its  proper 
moisture  ;  but  its  fermentation  is  less  rapid,  and  develops  less  heat  than  that  of 
horse-dung,  consequently  the  moisture  of  this  kind  of  manure  does  not  evaporate 
any  thing  like  so  rapidly,  and  it  does  not  require  watering,  neither  does  it  fall  to 
powder,  but  rather  assumes  the  form  of  a  tolerably  consistent  paste,  which  is 
commonly  ca?lei3  black-butter.  So  long  as  it  is  kept  in  a  compact  heap  there  is 
no  danger  of  its  beiug  rendered  pulverulent  by  desiccation ;  and  when  its  mois- 
ture is  entirely  evaporated  it  presents  the  appearance  of  turf,  and  almost  that  of 
coal.  Its  specific  gravity  is  greater  than  that  of  water,  both  when  it  is  fresh, 
provided  that  it  has  not  been  mixed  with  straw,  and  also  when  it  has  undergone 
decomposition,  and  the  tubular  stems  of  the  straw  have  been  converted  into 
filaments. 

Its  effect  on  land  is  less  rapid  than  that  of  horse-dung,  but  proportionately  more 
lasting.     The  difterent  kiuds  of  crops,  too,  for  which  it  may  be  used,  are  more 

(636) 


MANURING  THE   SOIL.  205    ■ 


numerous  and  more  various  in  their  nature.      When  this  manure  has  not    been 
very  carefully  and  minutely  divided,  it  is  found  in  the  soil  in  a  turfy  form,  and 
in  lumps  of  greater  or  less  magnitude  two  or  three  years  after  it  has  been  placed 
in  the  ground.      When  placed  in  the  soil,  it  does  not  appear  to  produce  any  verv 
sensible  increase  of  temperature,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  peculiarly  and,  we  may 
say,  exclusively  adapted  for  the  manuring  of  Avarm  soils.     It  has  been  and  is 
commonly  said  that  cow-dung  cools  soils  of  the  latter  description  :  a  more  correct 
mode  of  expression  would  be  to  say,  that  it  does  not  heat  them.     When  buried 
under  the  layer  of  vegetable  mould  ia  tenacious  and  clayey  soils,  it  will  probably 
not  appear  to  produce  any  effect,  at  least  until  it  is  brought  into  contact  with  the   ., 
air  by  repeated  plowings.     When  buried  in  an  early  stage  of  its  decomposition,   / 
the  tubes  of  the  straw  with  which  it  is  combined  serve  to  keep  up  a  communica-   / 
tion  between  the  dung  and  the  air,  and  thus  its  decomposition  appears  to  be  ac-    ' 
celerated.     Straw  which  has  not  been  bruised,  and  the  tubes  of  which  are  entire, 
also  produces  a  beneficial  effect  on  these  soils. 

Sheep-dung  when  kept  in  a  compact  heap,  and  retaining  its  own  moisture,  de- 
composes rapidly  ;  but  where  it  is  loosely  heaped  and  its  moisture  has  the  means 
of  escapmg,  the  process  of  decomposition  is  effected  slowly  and  with  difficulty. 
When  placed  in  the  soil  or  voided  over  it,  it  seems  to  exhaust  itself  very  rapidly, 
and  produces  a  speedy  and  energetic  effect.  When  used  abundantly  it  often 
gives  too  much  vigor  to  the  first  crop,  and  accelerates  vegetation  in  too  great  a  I 
degree  ;  it  should,  therefore,  be  used  upon  the  land  in  smaller  quantities,  both  as 
regards  weight  and  volume,  than  any  of  the  other  kinds  of  manure.  In  most 
cases  its  action  does  not  extend  beyond  the  second  crop. 

The  excrements,  and  especially  the  urine  of  sheep,  disengage  an  immense 
quantity  of  ammonia.  This  circumstance  makes  the  use  of  sheep-dung  very  ad- 
vantageous, especially  on  soils  which  contain  insoluble  humus  or  vegetable 
mould. 

The  dung  obtained  from  sheep-folds  is  generally  of  two  kinds.  That  which 
forms  the  upper  stratum  is  brittle,  dry,  and  undecomposed  ;  that  which  forms 
the  lower  stratum,  on  the  contrary,  is  solid,  moist,  and  adhesive.  Unless  great 
care  has  been  taken  to  stir  it  up,  so  as  to  form  into  an  homogeneous  mass,  it 
must  not,  on  any  account,  be  spread  indiscriminately  over  the  same  field.  The 
dry  portions  of  it  produce  very  injurious  effects  on  elevated  lands  of  a  warm,  dry 
nature  ;  but  are  more  beneficial  on  moist  soils,  particularly  if  they  are  slightly 
sour  or  acid.  A  large  quantity  of  this  dry  sheep-dung  may  be  spread  over  soils 
of  the  latter  description,  without  occasioning  any  inconveniences  ;  but  the  decom- 
posed portion,  or  under  stratum,  must,  on  the  contrary,  be  spread  but  very  thinly 
over  any  kind  of  land,  otherwise  it  tends  to  lay  the  corn. 

Opinions  are  much  divided  with  respect  to  the  qualities  of  pigs'-dung  mixed 
with  straw.  Some  authors  speak  of  it  as  being  very  energetic  in  its  action, 
while  others  attribute  but  very  triffing  effects  to  it.  The  qualities  of  the  dung  yield- 
ed by  all  animals,  are  greatly  influenced  by  ttie  kind  of  food  which  they  consume  ; 
but  this  fact  is  more  perceptible  in  the  dung  of  pigs  than  in  that  of  any  other 
kind  of  animal.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference,  either  as  regards  the  quantity 
or  quality  of  the  dung,  whether  it  is  produced  from  swine  that  are  poorly  fed,  or 
from  such  as  live  upon  rich  food.  The  quality  of  the  dung  also  depends  in  a 
great  measure,  upon  the  methods  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  it.  If 
care  be  taken  to  keep  the  straw  of  the  litter  dry,  by  providing  some  means  of  car- 
rying off  the  urine  rapidly,  either  by  letting  it  run  through  holes  made  in  the 
floor^  or  else  carrying  it  off  by  means  of  gutters,  &c.  the  straw  retains  but  a  small 
portion  of  animal  matter,  and  is  capable  of  producing  but  little  more  effect  than  ^ 
that  of  ordinary  rotten  straw.  But  if,  on  the  contrary,  the  liquid  portion  of  the  '■ 
excrements  are  mixed  with  the  straw  in  such  manner  as  that  there  shall  be  no 
possibility  of  their  running  off",  and  the  dung  is  placed  in  a  situation  which  is  fa- 
vorable to  its  decomposition,  a  very  active  compound  is  produced,  which,  after 
having  undergone  its  first  fermentation,  is  entirely  freed  from  that  acrid  quality 
which  the  dung  of  swine  is  said  to  possess. 

In  most  farming  establishments  the  quantity  of  dung  produced  by  poultry  is  /■ 
but  small ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  this  dung  is  very  active  and  of  great  value. —  ^' 
It  is  very  different  from  that  of  quadrupeds,  and  contains  a  peculiar  substance 
which  seems  to  be  mainly  composed  of  albumen.     We  possess  an  exact  analysis  , 

(637)  I 


106  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


t 


of  this  kind  of  manure  made  by  Vauquelin.  This  chemist  discovered  a  marked 
difference  between  the  dung  of  cocks  and  that  of  breeding  hens ;  a  difference 
which  does  not  extend  to  hens  which  do  not  lay  eggs.  Poultry  dung,  although 
used  in  small  quantities,  exerts  a  surprising  effect,  provided  that  special  care  is 
taken  to  divide  it  minutely  ;  but  this  effect  is  much  less  sensible  where  the  dung 
laced  in  the  ground  in  large  lumps, 
order  to  make  manure  derived  from  this  dung  useful,  it  is  necessary  to  di- 
vide it  as  minutely  as  possible,  and  spread  it  over  the  ground  without  burying  or  ,' 
covering  it  up.  '  \- 

Human  excrements,  or  nightsoil,  are  known  to  make  a  very  active  manure  ; 
they  differ  essentially  in  composition  from  those  of  all  domesticated  animals. — 
Their  own  quality  probably  varies  according  to  the  food  from  which  they  are  pro-  ' 
duced.  It  is  an  undeniable  fact  that  the  excrements  voided  by  human  beings 
who  live  chiefly  on  animal  food,  are  much  more  active  and  efficient  as  manure, 
than  those  which  proceed  from  persons  whose  diet  is  principally  composed  of 
vegetables. 

Those  who  know  how  to  turn  these  fecal  matters  to  the  greatest  possible  ac- 
count, and  can  surmount  the  disgust  which  the  use  of  them  occasions,  prefer 
them  to  all  other  kinds  of  manure.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  excrements  of 
a  man  are  capable  of  producing  a  quantity  of  vegetable  matter  sufficient  for  his 
own  support,  but  it  is  easy  to  see  that  this  assertion  is  greatly  exaggerated. — 
There  is,  however,  no  doubt  that  if  these  excrements  were  carefully  collected,  ' 
and  turned  to  the  greatest  possible  account,  the  quantity  of  aliment  obtained  | 
from  their  use  would  be  so  great,  that  Europe  would  be  capable  of  supporting 
another  population  of  human  beings.  At  present,  they  are  generally  left  to  de- 
compose, without  being  turned  to  any  account ;  or  are  carried  off,  by  drains,  to 
large  rivers,  and  thus  to  the  sea. 

The  disgust  occasioned  by  the  use  of  nightsoil  arises,  in  part,  from  the  off  en-  i 
sive  smell  which  it,  at  first,  gives  out,  and  from  a  prejudice  to  which  this  disgust 
has  given  rise  ;  viz.,  that  manure  thus  formed  communicates  an  unpleasant  fia- 
vor  to  the  plants  which  are  nourished  by  them.  Another  cause  of  objection 
arises  from  most  persons  being  unacquainted  with  the  proper  manner  of  using 
this  kind  of  manure,  to  which  cause  most  of  the  bad  effects  which  it  produces 
may  be  attributed  ;  at  all  events,  it  does  not  yield  benefits  proportionate  to  the 
trouble  which  it  occasions.  ^ 

Nightsoil  produces  surprising  effects  when  carried  to  the  land  before  its  fer-  ! 
mentation  is  completed  and  spread  over  it  with  care.     The  best  way  of  using  it  i 
is  to  form  it  into  a  kind  of  compost,  by  mixing  it  with  other  substances,  and 
especially  by  making  it  into  heaps  with  turf,  and  adding  a  small  quantity  of 
burnt  lime.     By  this  means  the  superfluous  energies  are  reduced  to  the  requisite 
standard,  and  the  effect  extended  over  a  greater  space,  without,  however,  there 
being  any  danger  of  the  energy  of  the  active  matters  which  it  contains  being  lost 
or  impaired  by  this  diffusion.     This  manure  then  loses  its  fetid  odor,  and  be- 
comes divided  and  mixed  up  with  the  other  substances  and  forms  a  fertile  soil. — 
The  best  way  of  using  it  is  to  spread  it  over  the  ground  Avithout  covering  or    | 
burying  it.     It  should  be  mixed  up  several  times,  and  all  the  substances  thorough-    , 
ly  mingled  together  before  it  is  used.  ^ 

When  nightsoil  is  spread  over  the  heaps  in  which  the  dung  of  various  kinds 
of  cattle  is  collected,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  places  where  these  matters  are 
not  altogether  thrown  away,  it  does  not  produce  anything  like  that  effect  which 
might  be  expected  from  it  if  it  were  more  divided. 

Large  quantities  of  nightsoil  may  be  obtained  in  towns;  sometimes  it  may  ' 
even  be  obtained  gratis,  but  even  then  the  carriage  of  it  renders  it  expensive. — 
In  the  country,  in  farms  and  villages,  it  is  always  advantageous  to  prevent  the 
loss  and  evaporation  of  this  matter  ;  for  this  purpose  it  should  be  collected  in 
privies,  whence  it  may  be  taken  when  required,  and  mixed  up  with  earth  dug 
from  ditches  and  a  small  quantity  of  quick-lime.  This  mode  of  proceeding  pre- 
vents the  disgust  which  would  be  occasioned  by  seeing  human  excrements  lying 
about  the  buildings  and  hedges. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Paris  there  is  a  large  establishment  in  which  a  very 

active  manure  is  manufactured  from  nightsoil.     It  is  made  in  the  form  of  pow- 

',  der,  and  for  that    reason    is    called  poudrette.     The    excrementitial   matter  is 

(638) 


MANURING    THE    SOIL.  207 

placed  on  an  inclined  plane  covered  with  stone  slabs,  and  there  made  into  heaps 
in  order  that  it  may  ferment,  and  when  dry  is  spread  out  over  a  greater  extent  of 
surface :  a  harrow  is  then  passed  over  it  to  break  it  up  ;  it  is  subsequently  placed 
under  cover,  where  it  is  frequently  heated  afresh  and  thoroughly  dried.  It  ' 
then  reduced  to  powder,  which  resembles  brown  tobacco  in  appearance,  and  sold 
to  farmers,  and  particularly  to  gardeners,  who,  to  judge  from  the  price  which 
they  pay  for  it,  certainly  must  derive  immense  benefit  from  the  use  of  it. 

The  inhabitants  of  Belgium  also  make  great  use  of  this  kind  of  manure 
They  import  and  procure  it  from  considerable  distances  even  in  the  form  of  a 
)  paste,  and  go  to  fetch  it  in  carts  and  boats  without  caring  for  the  oflTensive  odor 
>  which  it  exhales.  They  either  use  it  in  the  form  of  compost,  or  mix  it  with  a 
I  large  quantity  of  water.  It  is  highly  valued  in  China  and  Japan,  and  hence  has 
')   been  called  "Japan  manure." 

)       We  now  return  to  the  process  connected  with  stable  manure,  the  largest  and 
\   most  important  part  of  which  is  furnished  by  the  horned  cattle. 
)       The  dung  of  horned  cattle  is  usually  collected  by  mixing  it  with  straw.     Even 
f   though  it  might  be  advisable  to  depart  from  this  method  for  the  sake  of  having 
{   the  cattle  more  warmly  lodged,  and  providing  them  with  more  comfortable  beds, 
I    even  if  this  method  should  not  be  attended  with  the  greatest  possible  conven- 
(  ience,  it  is  nevertheless  to  be  preferred,  because  the  mixture  accelerates  the  de- 
composition of  the  straw,  prevents  the  evaporation  of  the  dung  and  its  volatile 
ingredients,  and  therefore  contributes  to  increase  its  goodness.     The  tubes  of  the 
straw  in  particular  absorb  the  liquid  portions  of  the  urine,  which  there  deposit 
their  most  active  and  efficient  parts.  ; 

There  are  a  great  many  diflTerent  methods  of  storing  up  arid  preserving  this 
kind  of  dung.  Some  persons  keep  it  for  a  considerable  period  in  the  cow-house,  v 
covering  it  every  now  and  then  with  a  fresh  layer  of  straw  ;  it  thus  accumulates 
to  a  considerable  hight,  so  that  the  cattle  are  soon  raised  above  the  rack.  To 
obviate  this  inconvenience,  movable  cribs  are  made  which  can  be  raised  at  . 
pleasure.  This  method  is  resorted  to  merely  for  convenience  sake  ;  it  avoids  the  ' 
necessity  of  clearing  out  the  dung  as  often  as  would  otherwise  be  necessary,  en- 
abling t^e  farmer  to  cart  it  all  at  once,  and  tlius  saves  trouble.  It  is  thought,  too, 
that  the  quality  of  the  manure  is  improved  by  this  method.  The  process  of  de- 
composition is  commenced  by  the  action  of  the  moisture  naturally  contained  in 
the  dung,  and  as  it  is  then  less  exposed  to  the  atmospheric  air,  it  loses  little  or 
nothing  by  evaporation  ;  it  even  absorbs  the  dense  vapors  which  exhale  from 
the  cattle  and  collect  near  the  ground.  These  facts  are  indisputable,  and  the 
fear  entertained  by  some  persons  that  the  vaporous  exhalations  arising  from  the 
dung  may  be  injurious  to  the  animals,  is  quite  as  groundless.  There  is  no  ofl'en- 
sive  smell  observable  in  the  stables  ;  the  air  contained  in  them  is  always  perfect- 
ly pure  and  respirable,  provided  that  they  are  properly  ventilated  ;  which,  by  the 
way,  is  generally  the  case.  The  manure  thus  obtamed,  especially  that  which 
constitutes  the  lower  stratum,  is  of  an  excellent  quality  ;  and  by  the  time  that  it 
is  removed  from  the  cow-house  it  has  passed  that  stage  of  fermentation  in  which 
it  evaporates  most  quickly,  its  volatile  parts  having  already  entered  into  combi- 
nation with  the  solid  matter. 

But  this  method  cannot  well  be  employed  when  the  cattle  are  supplied  with  a 
considerable  quantity  of  food  composed  chiefly  of  succulent  and  juicy  vegetables, 
unless  they  are  allowed  an  enormous  quantity  of  straw  for  litter  ;  for  the  amount 
of  dung  produced  by  cattle  receiving  this  kind  of  food  is  so  great,  that  its  mois- 
ture cannot  be  properly  absorbed  by  the  litter,  and  consequently  the  cattle  sink 
into  it,  and  are  always  standing  in  a  slough. 

In  order  to  realize  all  the  advantages  attendant  on  keeping  the  dung  in  the 
J  stable,  and  at  the  same  time  to  avoid  the  inconveniences  just  mentioned,  the  i 
I  mode  of  constructing  stables  or  cow-houses  mentioned  by  Schwertz  in  the  second  ' 
'  volume  of  his  "  Agriculture  of  Belgium,"  is  certainly  very  convenient.     By  the 
side  of  the  space  assigned  to  the  cattle,  and  behind  them,  is  a  space  at  least  as 
broad  as  that  which  they  occupy,  but  a  little  lower  ;  it  is  in  this  space  that  the 
dung  is  deposited  as  it  is  removed  from  under  the  cattle.     It  is  here,  too,  that  the 
urine  and  the  moisture  of  the  stables  collect.     In  the  same  place  the  dung  usu- 
ally undergoes  decomposition,  and  thence  it  is  carried  directly  to  the  fields  which 
it  is  destined  to  manure.     Were  it  not  that  in  the  greater  number  of  agricultural 


208  THAEKS  PRIiNCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

establishments  the  adoption  of  this  method  is  prevented  by  the  expense  which 
the  erection  of  such  buildings  would  entail,  an  expense  which  would  be  double 
that  of  those  which  are  in  common  use,  this  method  would  decidedly  merit  the 
preference  over  all  others,  and  would  be  worthy  of  universal  adoption.  If  the 
stables  are  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  the  dung  being  left  in  heaps  behind  the 
cattle  for  a  week  or  a  fortnight,  this  must  be  looked  upon  as  a  great  advantage, 
because  by  that  time  the  dung  will  have  passed  that  stage  of  fermentation  in 
which  its  evaporation  goes  on  with  the  greatest  rapidity. 

The  dung  should,  therefore,  be  left  in  the  stable  as  long  as  possible,  because, 
the  longer  it  remains  there,  the  more  it  is  improved  in  quality.  But  this  consid- 
eration ought  always  to  be  regarded  as  subordinate  to  the  imperious  necessity 
of  keeping  the  cattle  in  a  proper  state  of  cleanliness,  and  the  stable  dry.  If  the 
animals  are  allowed  to  stand  in  a  state  of  filth,  much  more  will  be  lost  by  the 
diseases  entailed  upon  them  than  can  possibly  be  gained  by  the  increased  value 
of  the  manure.  Damp  stables  or  cow-houses  engender  serious  swellings  and  in-  ■ 
flaramation  in  the  thighs,  which  we  know,  from  experience,  often  turn  out  fatally. 
It  is  also  a  well  attested  fact,  that  when  cows  are  badly  housed  and  not  properly 
littered,  their  milk  becomes  bad. 

If  the  dung  is  suffered  to  remain  under  the  cattle,  great  care  must  be  taken 
that  it  does  not  collect  in  larger  quantities  under  their  hind,  than  under  their 
fore-feet,  because,  in  such  a  case,  the  animals  will  be  placed  in  an  attitude 
which  is  altogether  contrary  to  their  nature.  This  inconvenience  is  the  more 
likely  to  happen  because  the  excrements  fall  behind  the  cattle,  and,  consequent- 
ly, the  cow-herd  strews  a  greater  quantity  of  straw  there  in  order  to  cover  them. 
Hence,  then,  it  is  very  evident  that  it  is  only  when  the  cattle  are  fed  on  dry  food 
that  it  is  possible  to  leave  the  whole  of  the  dung  under  them  ;  unless,  indeed, 
the  stable  is  floored  with  planks,  and  has  beneath  it  a  hollow  space  into  which 
the  water  can  run  through  the  interstices  of  the  boards.  This  last  named  method 
is  pursued  in  countries  in  whicli  the  dung  is  of  but  trifling  value,  and  where, 
consequently,  but  little  importance  is  attached  to  it. 

But  the  practice  usually  adopted,  is  to  carry  the  manure  at  once  from  the  sta- 
bles to  places  destined  for  its  reception,  where  it  is  allowed  to  remain  for  a  cer- 
tain period  in  heaps  of  various  sizes,  previously  to  its  being  carried  to  the  land 
which  is  to  be  manured. 

These  receptacles  for  manure  are  arranged  in  various  ways.  Sometimes  they 
are  large  excavations,  and  then  they  form  actual  dung-pits.  This  form  is  posi- 
tively injurious,  not  only  because  the  moisture  which  collects  in  these  pits 
checks  the  fermentation  and  decomposition  of  the  manure,  but  also  because  the 
manure  is  too  much  shut  out  from  contact  with  the  atmosphere.*  Besides,  this 
arrangement  renders  the  carting  off"  of  the  dung  an  operation  of  much  greater 
difficulty,  the  manure  frequently  being  so  saturated  with  moisture  that  its  most 
fertilizing  parts  ooze  away  drop  by  drop  as  it  goes  along  the  road.  Indeed,  the 
inconveniences  attending  these  dung-pits  are  so  great  and  manifest  that  they  are  - 
rarely  used  as  receptacles  for  the  dung  of  horned  cattle,  excepting  in  places 
where  there  is  not  sufficient  space  to  allow  of  the  manure  being  spread  out  and 
made  into  heaps. 

Some  persons,  aware  of  the  disadvantages  attendant  on  a  very  damp  situation, 
have  recourse  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  lay  their  dung  on  a  flat  or  even  on  an 
elevated  surface :  but  in  such  situations  it  loses  too  much  of  its  moisture,  and 
becomes  deprived  of  its  most  active  ingredients  by  evaporation. 

The  most  advantageous  arrangement  seems  to  be  to  have  the  place  in  which 
the  dung  is  to  be  kept,  slightly  hollowed  out.  There  should  be  a  trifling  incli- 
nation on  one  side  towards  the  centre,  and  at  the  bottom  of  this  an  opening 
through  which  the  superfluous  fluid  may  escape  into  a  basin  or  reservoir  prepared 
for  its  reception.!  The  whole  should  be  surrounded  with  a  raised  border  to  pre- 
vent the  admixture  of  moisture  from  other  sources.  Where  the  influx  of  extra- 
neous water  or  fluid  can  be  entirely  prevented,  the  humidity  of  the  dung  will 

*  So  far  from  considering  it  any  disadvantage  to  keep  the  dung  shut  up,  at  least  to  a  certain  degi-ee,  from 
all  contact  with  the  atmospheric  air,  I  am  rather  inclined  to  recommend  such  a  course  of  proceeding;  pro- 
vided that  at  the  same  time  a  quantity  of  urine  and  water  be  left  in  it  sufficient  to  favor  its  fennentation  and 
decomposition,  but  not  so  great  as  to  retard  either  of  these  processes. 

1  The  -pits  intended  to  receive  the  urine  and  other  liquids  proceeding  from  manure,  are  commonly  teiTned 
fosses  a  lizec,  and  the  liuids  thus  contained  are  distinguished  by  the  name  of  lizee.  [French  Trans. 

(640) 


MANURING  THE  SOIL. 


209 


rarely  become  too  great,  even  if  the  whole  quantity  of  urine  running  from  the 
stable  or  cow-house  is  mixed  with  it,  provided  that  the  cattle  do  not  live  upon 
very  watery  food,  such,  for  example,  as  the  residue  of  the  distillation  of  brandy 
from  grain.  Dung  absorbs  the  natural  moisture  of  the  excrements  as  well  as 
that  which  falls  immediately  from  the  atmosphere,  and,  by  the  heat  which  it 
disengages,  causes  the  superlluous  portions  to  evaporate.  I  am  convinced  tliat 
the  best  way  of  turning  the  urine  to  account,  is  to  incorporate  it  with  the  mixed 
dung  and  litter.  The  amount  of  liquid  which  on  this  plan  will  run  from  the 
heap,  is  inconsiderable,  excepting  in  very  wet  weather,  when  it  will  be  collected 
in  the  reservoir  provided  for  that  purpose  ;  and  if  the  dung  heap  is  laid  on  a 
slope,  no  farther  arrangement  is  necessary,  as  the  moisture  will  drain  through  it 
quite  sufficiently. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  construct  roofs  over  the  dung-heaps,  which  in  some  in- 
stances have  been  carried  into  effect.  These  roofs  are  intended  not  only  to  de- 
fend them  from  the  rain,  but  also  from  the  rays  of  the  sun  ;  but  they  present  con- 
siderable difficulties  where  the  dung-heap  is  large  ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  protect 
the  loads  of  manure,  as  they  are  brought  from  the  stables,  particularly  as  the 
same  load  should  consist  of  a  portion  from  several  stables.* 

The  dung-heap  should  be  placed  at  one  extremity  of  the  stable,  and  with  room 
only  for  a  loaded  wagon  to  pass  between.  The  road  to  it  should  be  paved,  and 
slightly  elevated,  to  prevent  the  water  that  falls  from  the  roof  of  the  stable  from 
running  into  the  dung-pit ;  this  water  should,  therefore,  be  carried  off  in  a  dif- 
ferent direction.  Covered  drains  should  pass  under  the  road,  to  convey  from  the 
stable  into  the  manure,  the  waste  urine  that  has  not  been  absorbed  by  the  litter. 

If  the  dung  is  not  carted  till  it  attains  an  advanced  degree  of  decomposition,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  receptacle  for  it  should  be  divided  into  several  compart- 
ments ;  that  each  should  be  filled  and  emptied  in  its  turn  ;  or,  otherwise,  fresh 
dung  would  have  to  be  carted  with  that  which  was  rotten,  or  much  time  would 
be  lost  in  separating  them. 

Sometimes  separate  places  are  appropriated  for  the  reception  of  diflerent  spe- 
cies of  manure,  particularly  that  from  horses  and  pigs,  and  sometimes  the  differ- 
ent sorts  of  manure  are  all  united  in  one  place.  When  the  soil  varies  much  in 
quality,  and  there  is  sufficient  space,  it  would  be  well  to  separate  the  manure- 
heaps,  and  to  devote  each  separate  heap  to  that  part  of  the  land  to  which,  as  we 
have  before  shown,  the  manure  would  be  most  appropriate.  Horse-dung  should 
be  deposited  in  a  pit,  or  narrow  deep  ditch,  not  only  to  preserve  the  moisture, 
and  to  keep  it  cool,  but  also  that  it  should  be  more  condensed,  and  less  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere.  By  this  means,  its  fermentation  and  putrefaction  will  be 
rendered  slower,  and  the  mass  will  be  more  compact,  particularly  if  from  time 
to  time  care  is  taken  to  water  it ;  and  if  it  is  wished  still  farther  to  retard  the 
fermentation,  it  will  be  well  to  mingle  with  it  the  dung  and  urine  from  hogs. 
In  this  manner  the  manure  from  these  latter  animals,  which  is  cold,  and  not 
readily  fermented,  becomes  quickly  decomposed ;  and  the  mixture  of  the  two  will 
form  a  very  valuable  compost. 

In  ordinary  circumstances  it  is  more  convenient  to  mingle  the  different  species 
of  dung  uniformly  in  the  heap,  so  that  the  defects  of  one  sort  of  manure  may  cor- 
rect those  of  another  ;  and  the  result  will  be  a  regular  and  well-digested  com- 
pound. It  is  a  general  custom  to  keep  the  manure  from  sheep  separate  ;  and  in 
many  rural  districts  the  sheep-fold  is  separated  from  the  other  buildings,  and  the 
dung  is  left  under  the  animals  all  the  winter,  taking  care  to  cover  it  with  fresh 
straw,  that  they  may  lay  dry.  The  removal  of  the  dung  of  sheep  during  winter 
causes  great  inconvenience,  even  when  the  sheep  leave  the  fold  during  the  day, 
for  Avhen  the  dung  is  accumulated  and  removed,  it  exhales  strong  ammoniacal 
vapors,  which  much  disturb  the  sheep  when  they  return  to  the  fold. 

However,  if  it  can  be  so  arranged  as  to  avoid  these  inconveniences,  riiuch 
benefit  will  be  derived  from  mingling  the  dung  of  sheep  with  that  of  other  ani- 
mals ;  and  all  who  do  so,  are  sensible  of  the  advantage. 

*  Most  persons  who  recommend  new  methods  to  be  employed  in  Agriculture  or  rural  affairs,  generally- 
content  themselves  by  considering  the  effects,  without  comparing  them  with  the  expense  at  which  they  are 
to  be  produced.  In  this  case,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  expense  of  such  a  construction,  and  the  annual 
charge  to  keep  it  in  repair,  considering  the  constant  exposure  tn  the  hot  vapors  arising  from  the  dun", 
would  not  more  than  counterbalance  any  advantages  to  be  derived  from  it.  [Freyich  Trans  ° 

(64t) 14 


210  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

The  experiments  which  I  have  tried,  and  published  in  the  first  volume  of 
^^  L'' Archive  d'Hurnbstadt,"  and  the  observations  that  I  have  since  made  on  the  . 
subject,  have  fully  convinced  me  that  manure  acquires  more  strength,  and  dimin- 
ishes less  in  bulk,  when  it  is  protected  as  much  as  possible  from  the  atmosphere  ' 
during  fermentation,  and  till  it  has  developed  the  greater  portion  of  the  volatile 
I  parts.  I  tliink,  therefore,  that  covering  it  with  earth,  where  it  does  not  cause 
too  much  labor,  is  useful;  but,  as  it  is  always  attended  with  inconvenience,  it 
will  be  found  sufficient  to  spread  the  manure  evenly,  on  a  surface  proportioned 
to  the  quantity  to  be  deposited.  As  long  as  the  fresh  manure  remains  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  heap  it  does  not  sensibly  ferment,  and  it  prevents  the  portion  beneath 
from  coming  too  much  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere  ;  the  gases  which  disen- 
gage themselves,  with  the  exception  of  the  ammonia,  which  in  such  a  situation 
is  but  slightly  developed,  are  heavier  than  atmospheric  air ;  they,  therefore,  re- 
main above  in  the  upper  layer  of  the  heap,  which  prevents  their  being  lost ;  and 
it  is  very  prDbable  that  they  are  again  absorbed  and  form  new  combinations. 
There  is  no  sensible  smell  from  a  dung-heap  thus  constructed.  4-ir  collected 
immediately  above  the  heap  has  hardly  any  effect  on  lime-water,  nor  does  the  ap- 
plication of  nitric  acid  discover  any  ammoniacal  vapors  ;  it  is  only  on  the  turning 
over  the  manure  that  these  effects  are  produced.  This  proves,  that  whilst  re- 
moving, much  carbonic  acid,  azote,  and  hydrogen  gas  are  disengaged  ;  but  that 
whilst  it  remains  stationary,  and  partly  protected  from  the  atmosphere,  these 
gases,  instead  of  being  evaporated,  merely  enter  into  new  combinations. 

It  is  of  great  consequence  that  the  dung  should  be  equally  spread  over  the 
whole  surface,  and  not  thrown  on  in  separate  heaps  ;  for  between  these  heaps 
there  will  always  be  vacant  places,  which  will  soon  engender  mould,  which 
much  deteriorates  the  quality  of  the  manure.  Manure  thus  deposited  is  much 
improved  by  being  condensed  ;  it  is,  therefore,  a  good  plan  to  surround  the  heap 
with  a  balustrade,  so  that  the  cattle  can  be  driven  over  it.  I  am  aware  that 
some  authors  consider  this  practice  as  detrimental ;  but  I  cannot  agree  in  their 
opinion,  having,  from  a  place  where  several  carts  passed  every  day  over  the  heap, 
obtained  manure  of  the  very  best  quality,  and  perfectly  decomposed.  When  the 
dung-hill  has  arrived  at  a  bight  of  five  or  six  feet,  it  is  well  to  cover  it  with  a 
i  coating  of  earth  or  turf,  which  will  absorb  the  vapors  as  they  rise  ;  and  when  the 
manure  is  carted,  the  turf,  which  is  not  entirely  decomposed,  should  be  placed 
at  the  bottom  of  the  pit,  when  it  will  become  a  very  rich  soil. 

To  prevent  the  loss  of  any  of  the  liquid  parts  of  the  manure,  it  has  been  .^^com- 
mended to  have  the  floor  of  the  dung-heap  paved,  or  even  cemented,  that  they 
may  not  filter  into  the  earth.  If  the  soil  is  clayey,  this  is  perfectly  unnecessary. 
In  constructing  a  new  receptacle  for  manure  on  a  sandy  soil,  it  may  be  of  ser- 
vice ;  but  in  an  old  place  where  the  earth  has  once  become  saturated,  it  will  nc/t 
imbibe  more  ;  even  on  a  sandy  soil  I  have  found,  on  removing  a  dung-heap  situ- 
ated on  white  sand  that  for  the  depth  of  about  one  foot  the  sand  had  become 
perfectly  black,  but  below  it  the  separation  v»'as  complete,  and  the  sand  remained 
pure  and  v/hite. 

After    having  removed  one  heap,   and  when  commencing  a  new   one,  such 
vegetable  substances  as  are  most  difficult  of  decomposition  should  be  placed  be- 
low, such  as  the  leaves  of  trees,  weeds,  the  stalks  of  plants,  in  short  any  thing 
that  will  best  absorb  the  juices  from  the  dung,  and  which  after  putrefaction  will  ( 
form  good  manure.     In  Switzerland,  where  great  care  is  given  to  all  the  maiiip-  ) 
ulations,  dung  made  from  straw  litter  is   put  in  regular  heaps,  whilst  the  urine,   I 
after  being  collected  as  it  issues  from  the  stable  in  a  trench  provided  for  th  j    ( 
purpose,  is  used   separately.      They  form  the  outside  of  the  heap  of  the  raoil   ) 
strawy  part  of  the  dung,  and  for  this  purpose   they  fold  it  with  a  fork  in  such  a  ( 
way  that  the  dung  is  shut  off  from  contact  with  the  atmosphere.     These  dung-  J 
hills  are  elevated  five  or  six  feet,  and  arranged  with  the  greatest  care,  so  as  to  \ 
have  the  appearance  of  straw  hives  ;  because,  on  the  outside  nothing  is  seen  but  / 
the  folded  straw,  which  is  arranged  with  the  most  perfect  uniformity.     In  dry  ( 
weather  they  water  these  heaps,  or  pour  over  them  the  liquid  from  manure,  in 
order  that  they  may  keep  sufficiently  moist  for  fermentation.      The  manure  en- 
closed in  these  heaps,  although  deprived  of  a  portion  of  the  urine,  becomes  very 
excellent,  and  resembles  a  species  of  confection  such  as  we  have  before  staled  is 
known  under  the  name  of  black -butter.     This  subject  is  certainly  well  worth  th( 
(64y) 


MANURING  THE   SOIL.  211 


trouble  of  the  experiment  to  determine  the  advantages  of  one  method  over  the 
other. 

There  exists  great  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  time  when  manure  should 
be  carted  into  the  fields,  and  the  state  in  which  the  manure  should  be.  Most 
agricultural  writers  are  of  opinion  that  it  should  not  be  carted  till  it  is  entirely 
decomposed,  when  the  tissue  of  the  straw  has  lost  its  aggregation  without  being 
entirely  destroyed,  when  it  has  much  the  consistence  of  butter  or  fat.  Dung  at- 
tains this  state  in  a  shorter  or  longer  time,  according  to  the  degree  of  moisture 
and  heat  ;  in  summer  eight  or  ten  weeks  will  be  sufficient,  whereas  in  winter  it 
will  require  twenty  or  more.  Dung  which  in  this  state  has  entirely  lost  its  heat 
of  fermentation,  gives  out  no  vapors  except  when  being  removed,  at  which  time 
it  has  a  fetid,  rotten  smell,  and  afterwards  a  smell  of  musk  ;  its  color  is  yellow-  '■ 
ish,  which  soon  becomes  brown  by  exposure  to  the  air.  When  if  is  spread  upon 
the  land  it  assumes  the  appearance  of  burnt  peat ;  it  speedily  absorbs  moisture 

'  and  falls  to  pieces,  when  it  can  be  easily  mingled  in  a  uniform  manner  with  the 
soil.  Others  give  the  preference  to  long  dung  not  decomposed,  and  Avould  have 
it  carted  immediately  from  the  stable  to  the  land. 

If  this  dung  has  been  subject  to  fermentation  in  the  stable,  where  in  winter, 

'    from  the  greater  warmth,  fermentation  Avill  be  more  rapid  than  in  the  dung-heap, 
it  will  resemble,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  decomposed  manure.     Sometimes, 
also,  fresh-made  litter  is  carried  into  the  field,  and,  as  much  as  possible,  buried  ; 
m  the  soil ;  and  it  has  been  thought  to  produce  more  sensible  effects  than  fer 
mented  dung.     For  heavy,  tenacious  soils,  particularly  where  much  manure  is  \ 

':  employed,  this  last  process  is  doubtless  the  best ;  but  great  care  must  be  taken  to  ; 
bury  it  well  m  the  furrow,  where  the  dung  will  of  itself  ferment  and  communi' 
cate  its  heat  to  the  soil,  whilst  the  straw  will  render  it  light  and  penetrable  to  \ 
the  gases  engendered.  By  means  of  the  ammonia  which  it  produces,  it  acts 
strongly  upon  the  insoluble  mould  which  these  soils  often  contain,  and  produces 
several  effects,  of  which  one  of  the  principal  is  to  bring  into  action  the  nutritive 
portions  of  the  soil  which  it  before  contained,  and  which  effect  decomposed  ma- 
nure produces  in  but  a  very  imperfect  degree.  On  the  other  hand,  little  benefit, 
and  sometimes  even  inconvenience,  is  derived  from  undecomposed  manure  on 
light,  poor  lands  v/hich  contain  but  little  moisture,  and  consequently  require  all 
that  could  be  communicated  to  them  by  the  manure.  Its  bad  effects  are  more 
particularly  visible  when  it  has  been  buried  so  shortly  before  seed-time  as  not  to 
have  t.me  to  become  decomposed  ;  if  dry  weather  follows,  the  plant  will  suffer 
still  more  from  the  heat ;  and  if  wet  weather  ensues,  the  plants,  it  is  true,  will 
grow  more  rapidly,  but  they  will  be  yellow  and  weak,  and  yield  but  an  imper- 
fect crop  :  they  appear  to  have  had  too  much  hydrogen  and  not  enough  carbon. 
When  the  dung  becomes  dried  up  on  the  land,  after  having  been  covered  up,  it 
takes  many  years  to  reduce  it  into  fertilizing  earth,  because  it  cannot  enter  into 
fermentation,  but  merely  falls  to  pieces.  This  fact  has  given  rise  to  the  follow- 
ing maxim — that  dung  which  produces  no  effect  on  the  first  crop  will  produce 
none  on  the  second.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  greatest  consequence  to  cart  and 
plow  in  the  manure  in  a  state  suited  to  the  wants  of  the  soil. 

My  own  experience,  as  well  as  theory,  leads  me  to  the  conclusion,  that  it  is 
very  detrimental  to  remove  manure  whilst  in  a  high  state  of  fermentation ;  be- 
cause at  that  period,  an  essential  part  of  some  of  its  most  active  properties  would 
evaporate  ;  but  before  strong  fermentation  has  commenced,  or  after  it  has  sub- 
sided, it  appears  to  lose  little  by  exposure  to  air,  beyond  what  it  regains  in  an- 
other manner. 

There  are  visible  advantages  attending  the  spreading  upon  the  land  fresh 
strav/y  manure,  and  to  leave  it  till  the  plowmgs  of  spring  commence,  taking 
care,  however,  that  the  water  does  not  wash  away  the  juices,  and  carry  them 
beyond  the  field,  but  that  it  merely  allows  them  to  penetrate  the  earth. 

This  method  of  covering  the  soil  during  winter,  renders  it  much  more  friable, 
and  remarkably  fertile.  I  have  often  seen  the  washed,  but  not  rotten  straw,  thus 
left  oa  the  ground,  removed  to  form  fresh  litter,  and,  nevertheless,  the  soil  from 
which  this  straw  has  been  collected  appeared  as  perfectly  manured  as  if  all  the 
straw  hadbeen  decomposed.  Meadows  are  often  manured  in  this  manner.  I 
have  so  often  seen  the  good  effect  of  short  or  long  durg  thus  spread  over  beans 
and  peas,  and  left  there  during  their  growth,  upon  hot,  light  land,  that  I  have 


212 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


«r«^-s*>rf"»«. 


no  doubt  of  its  advantage  on  these  two  crops,  particularly  if  they  have  been  late 
sowed.     But  what  is  still  more  remarkable  and  difficult  to  explain,  is  that  the 
following  crops  on  land  treated  in  this  manner  are  also  superior  to  those  on  which    ' 
a  larger  quantity  of  decomposed  manure  has  been  plowed  in.     After  harvest  the 
stubble  should  immediately  be  broken  up  and  covered  Avith  earth. 

In  ISOS,  I  sowed  trefoil  with  spring  turnips  upon  some  land  which  T  after- 
wards strewed  with  fresh  litter.  In  the  autumn  of  1809,  the  trefoil  was  broken 
up  and  sowed  with  rye,  which,  in  the  spring  of  1810,  was  far  superior  to  a  neigh- 
boring field  which  had  been  manured  in  the  summer  upon  the  fallow.  From 
many  experiments  tried  by  myself,  as  Avell  as  other  agriculturists,  it  appears 
nearly  beyond  doubt  that  dung  which  has  passed  the  highest  state  of  fermenta- 
tion loses  nothing  of  its  quality,  but  improves  even  during  hot,  dry  weather.  This 
assertion  may  appear  incredible  to  those  who  have  had  no  experience  on  the 
subject,  and  1  was  myself  of  the  same  opinion,  till  my  attention  was  draAvn  to  it 
by  some  practical  farmers  of  Mecklenberg,  who  appeared  to  have  proved  the' 
contrary.  The  strong  smell  occasioned  by  spreading  manure^  leads  to  the  opin- 
ion that  the  evaporation  from  it  must  be  very  considerable ;  but  when  we  con- 
sider that  a  few  grains  of  musk  will  for  years  continue  to  perfume  the  atmo- 
sphere surrounding  it,  without  sensibly  diminishing  its  weight,  it  is  permitted  us 
to  doubt  whether  the  juices  evaporated  from  the  manure  are  very  considerable ; 
and  if  I  may  believe  my  own  experience,  it  does  not  diminish  its  weight.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  whilst  in  a  moist  state  it  undergoes  several  decompositions,  be- 
cause it  absorbs  oxvgen,  and  gives  out  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  again  absorbed 
by  the  soil,  and  tends  to  amend  it. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  there  is  no  solid  ground  for  objection  to  leaving  the 
manure  uncovered  on  the  land  for  some  time  ;  but  if  the  field  lies  on  a  declivity, 
there  will  be  no  risk  of  the  juices  being  washed  off  the  land  by  heavy  rains. 

The  practice  of  leaving  the  manure  on  the  land  in  small  heaps,  as  it  is  unload- 
ed from  the  carts,  is  very  pernicious  ;  and  if  it  has  not  yet  undergone  fermenta- 
tion, it  will  be  attended  with  great  loss,  the  wind  carrying  away  the  volatile 
parts,  besides  which  the  decomposition  will  be  very  irregular,  the  centre  of  the 
heap  being  entirely  decomposed,  whilst  the  exterior  will  be  hardly  affected.  The 
most  valuable  portion  of  the  juices  will  be  absorbed  by  the  soil  immediately  be- 
neath the  heap,  rendering  that  part  too  rich,  which  the  greatest  care  in  spread- 
ing the  manure  cannot  avoid  ;  and  the  places  where  these  heaps  have  been,  will 
be  marked  by  the  rank  growth  of  the  crop,  often  for  several  years,  whilst  the 
surrounding  parts  present  an  impoverished  appearance.  It  should,  therefore,  be 
made  an  invariable  rule,  that  the  manure  should  be  spread  as  soon  as  deposited 
from  the  cart. 

The  proper  time  for  carting  manure  varies  much  with  the  circumstances  and 
economy  of  the  farm.  Where  the  triennial  course  with  a  fallow  is  followed,  the 
time  for  carting  is  between  the  spring  sowing  and  harvest ;  the  dung,  therefore, 
consists  of  that  which  has  been  collected  during  winter,  which  in  those  farms 
where  the  cattle  are  driven  into  the  stable  during  the  night,  has,  in  addition,  the 
nightsoil  of  the  summer  preceding,  and  of  the  same  spring  ;  the  greatest  part  of 
this  manure  is,  therefore,  entirely  decomposed;  that  which  was  last  placed  upon 
the  manure  heap  being  the  only  unfermented  part.  The  careful  agriculturist 
will,  therefore,  use  those  different  sorts  of  manure  separately :  that  which  is 
fresh,  he  will  apply  to  the  damper  and  colder  land,  whilst  the  "other  portion  will 
be  used  on  those  parts  which  are  warmer  and  drier. 

Winter  manure  is  be;  t  suited  for  seed  crops,  whilst  fresh  litter  is  particularly 
adapted  to  potatoes,  especially  in  clay  soils,  because  it  diminishes  their  tenacity 
and  allows  the  plant  to  come  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere  ;  and  in  this  case 
all  the  manure  should  be  put  in  the  row  Avhere  the  potato  is  planted,  as  we  shall 
describe  in  its  place.  Other  crops,  and  especially  cabbages,  do  better  with  de- 
composed manure  ;  indeed,  on  light  land,  this  is  essential  to  their  success.  Af- 
terwards, the  manure  for  beans  and  peas  may  be  carted,  and  this  can  either  be 
buried  or  spread  over  the  soil.  Part  of  the  manure  collected  since  the  middle  of 
summer  may  be  used  for  the  corn  crops  of  autumn  ;  though  in  this  mode  of  cul- 
tivation these  crops  are  never  thoroughly  manured,  still  an  additional  dressing 
is  sometimes  of  benefit:  at  other  times  this  part  of  the  manure  is  carried  on  to 
the  stubbles  destined  for  fallow  crops  and  the  vegetables  of  the  followhg  sprin, 

(644) 


MANURING  THE  SOIL. 


213 


There  are  various  opinions  as  to  the  time  when  manure  should  be  plowed  into 
the  fallows.  Some  think  tke  plowing  before  the  last,  whilst  others  think  this 
practice  hurtful,  inasmuch  as  the  next  plowing  is  very  apt  to  bring  the  manure 
to  the  surface.  For  my  own  part,  I  am  of  opinion  that  it  is  decidedly  better  that 
it  should  be  carted,  so  as  to  be  buried  by  the  first  plowing,  if  this  plowing  does 
not  take  place  till  near  the  middle  of  summer.  The  method  of  leaving  it  to  the 
last  plowing  is  decidedly  bad,  and  one  of  the  principal  causes  for  the  failure  of  a 
crop ;  the  manure  can  never  be  sufficiently  mixed,  but  remains  in  lumps,  which 
in  some  places  heats  too  much,  whilst  in  others  it  never  gets  decomposed,  but 
remains  nearly  in  the  same  state  for  years.  This  causes  great  inequality  in  the 
growth  of  the  plants,  some  being  drawn  up  in  strong  gross  patches,  which  har- 
bor insects  and  other  vermin,  and  are  very  likely  to  be  cut  off  in  the  winter ; 
whilst  others  are  weak  and  sickly.  Some  persons  are  prejudiced  against  the 
method  of  manuring  before  the  last  plowing,  from  the  idea  that  the  manure 
loses  its  juices,  and  favors  the  production  of  weeds.  On  the  contrary,  the  seeds 
and  roots  of  weeds  are  much  better  destroyed  by  this  means  ;  and  the  young 
plants  buried  by  the  plow  increase  the  fecundity  of  the  soil.  An  attentive  ex- 
amination of  these  facts  will  remove  this  prejudice,  which  has  obtained  amongst 
agriculturists  from  a  want  of  having  paid  sufficient  attention  to  the  subject. 

The  proper  distribution  of  manure  is  of  such  importance,  that  it  demands  the 
utmost  care;  a  too  abundant  use  of  it  is  sometimes  as  detrimental  as  not  suffi- 
cient, from  its  causing  the  crops  to  be  laid  ;  there  is  a  maximum  of  quantity 
which  should  be  employed,  and  to  exceed  which,  is  attended  with  great  risk  of 
spoiling  the  crop  ;  it  is  impossible  to  fix  this  quantity,  as  it  must  vary  with  the 
nature  of  the  soil.  Wet  clay  land  will  require  more  manure  than  that  which 
is  hot,  sandy,  and  calcareous  ;  but  heat  has  so  considerable  an  effect  on  the  crop, 
that  when  the  temperature  is  very  favorable  to  vegetation,  the  quantity  of  ma- 
nure which,  in  ordinary  seasons,  would  have  been  only  sufficient,  will  cause  the 
blade  to  be  thick  ;  it  follows,  therefore,  that  the  difference  between  the  harvest 
on  rich  and  on  poor  lands,  in  these  seasons,  is  less  than  it  would  have  been  in 
common  or  bad  seasons  ;  therefore,  when  manuring  for  an  immediate  crop,  it  is 
better  to  be  rather  below  than  above  the  maximum. 

Where  there  is  an  abundance  of  manure,  it  is  better  not  to  manure  immediately 
before  wheat,  but  rather  to  manure  for  those  crops  Avhich  are  never  injured  by  a 
too  profuse  vegetation,  such  as  most  of  the  root  crops,  with  the  exception  of  po- 
tatoes, which  may  be  over  manured  ;  also  maize,  cabbages,  and  such  vetches  as 
are  cut  for  green  fodder.  These  products  absorb  a  sufficient  portion  of  the  juices 
from  the  manure,  so  that  the  following  crop  is  never  injured.  The  manure  loses, 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  not  only  its  heat  and  activity,  but  also  its  excess  of 
hydrogen  and  azote,  whilst  it  retains  nearly  all  its  carbon. 

It  is,  however,  more  frequently  necessary  to  pay  attention  to  the  opposite  er- 
ror, to  see  that  those  fields  which  require  manure  should  at  least  have  the  full 
minimum  quantity  necessary  for  them  ;  and  it  is  a  common  rule  in  this  case,  to 
manure  fully  those  principal  fields  on  which  we  may  the  best  rely  for  the  har- 
vest of  grain  and  straw,  even  should  the  less  important  fields  be  passed  over 
without  manure.  It  is  but  too  often  that  this  rule  has  to  be  brought  into  prac- 
tice, nevertheless  we  must  guard  against  too  great  extension  of  it,  by  giving  to  the 
principal  fields  more  than  is  necessary,  and  by  this  means  retrenching  from  those 
which  have  the  greatest  want  of  it.  It  is  true  that  the  larger  quantity  lavished 
on  the  good  land,  may  produce  more  immediate  advantage,  than  if  the  overplus 
had  been  spread  on  poorer  land  ;  but  the  deprivation  of  manure  on  this  land,  will 
injure  it  to  a  much  greater  degree  than  will  be  compensated  for  by  the  more 
abundant  crop  on  the  good  soil.  Even  if  there  should  be  a  sufficiency  of  manure 
for  each  field,  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  soil  of  each,  if  we  wish  to  keep  them 
all  at  the  same  point  of  cultivation. 

To  heavy  clay  lands  a  larger  portion  of  manure  must  be  given  at  a  time,  be- 
cause they  can  bear  it  without  risk  of  the  crops  being  laid  ;  whilst  a  smaller 
quantity,  instead  of  producing  an  effect  upon  them,  will  probably  be  retarded 
in  its  fermentation,  and  will  consequently  remain  in  the  state  in'which  it  was 
carried  on.  Upon  a  light,  hot  soil,  the  manure  is  quickly  decomposed,  and  a 
very  abundant  supply  may  have  a  bad  effect,  in  causing  the  crops  either  to  fall 
or  to  scorch  up.     The  lighter  land  is,  the  more  it  gains  by  being  manured  fre- 

(64o) 


214 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


quently,  but  with  small  quantities  at  a  time.  It  appears,  however,  an  established 
fact,  that  in  a  number  of  years  the  two  qualities  of  soil  will  require  an  equal 
proportion  of  manure. 

Manure  is  generally  reckoned  by  two  or  four-horse  wagon-loads,  or  by  one- 
horse  cart-loads.  With  a  good  team  a  four-horse  wagon-load  is  reckoned  at  20 
cwt ;  a  two-horse  load  at  14  cwt. ;  but  nothing  is  more  indetermmate  than  the 
quantity  of  manure  loaded  into  a  wagon,  as  it  depends,  not  only  on  the  strength 
of  the  cattle,  but  on  custom,  the  state  of  the  roads,  the  distance,  &c.  The 
weight  of  the  same  manure  will  also  vary  according  to  whether  it  be  damp  or 
dry  ;  when  we  wish  to  regulate  the  quantity  of  manure  according  to  its  weight, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  weigh  a  load  from  time  to  time,  so  as  to  arrive  at  a  pretty 
accurate  judgment  of  the  quantity  carted  :  this  operation  can  very  easily  be  man- 
aged by  a  steel-yard,  which  will  be  found  a  very  useful  instrument  in  rural  econ- 
omy, 20  cwt,  2,000  lbs.  (about  one  ton  English)  is  a  medium  load  for  a  four- 
horse  wagon  :  but  with  a  strong  team  is  often  carried  in  the  summer  time,  and 
on  good  roads,  30  cwt.  3,000  lbs.* 

There  is  still  greater  uncertainty  in  estimating  manure  according  to  bulk,  be- 
cause it  depends  so  much  on  the  degree  of  fermentation  it  has  undergone.  A  cu- 
bic foot  of  long  dung  (very  strawy  dung)  will  weigh,  perhaps,  not  more  than  44 
lbs.  ;  whilst  a  cubic  foot  of  rotten  dung  will  weigh  56  or  58  lbs.  ;  therefore,  the 
quantity  of  juices  contained  in  the  manure  has  more  reference  to  weight  than  to 
bulk. 

To  an  acre  of  land,  five,  eight,  or  ten  loads  of  one  ton  English,  is  often  em- 
ployed— the  first  would  be  called  a  light  dressing,  the  second  a  good  dressing, 
and  the  third  a  strong  dressing  ;  and  would  amount  to  about  8|  ounces  upon  a 
square  foot. 

Carrying  the  manure  on  to  the  land  is  an  operation  requiring  much  attention  to 
the   number  of  hands,  of  horses,   and  wagons,  to  be  employed  ;  so  that  there 
shall  be  no  waiting  for  wagons  on  the  part  of  those  occupied  in  filling  them  ; 
and  also  that  the  horses  may  be  kept  constantly  employed,  and  ready  to  be  yoked    i 
to  the  loaded  wagon,  as  soon  as  they  return  with  the  empty  one  ;  it  is  impossi 
ble  to  say  how  many  persons  it  is  necessary  to  employ;  laut  generally  one  man  '| 
and  a  half,  or  a  man  and  woman,  to  each  team :  but  if  the  manure  is  in  a  con- 
densed state,  and  the  work  goes  on  freely,  this  number  will  hardly  be  sufiicient. 
The  proportion  of  manure  to  be  deposited  m  the  field,  can  be  better  arrived  at    I 
by  separating  the  small  heaps  farther,  or  placing  them  nearer  to  one  another, 
than  by  altering  their  bulk  :  a  load  of  one  ton  will  make  about  nine  small  heaps  ^ 
of  249  lbs.  each.     It  will  then  be  easy  to  determine  the  distance  these  heaps 
should  be  separated  from  each  other,  so  as  to  give  tbe  required  proportion   per 
acre.     Sometimes  it  is  thought  advisable  to  manure  one  part  of  a  field  more  than 
another  ;  the  high  parts  will   require  more  than  the  lower  ground,  particularly 
near  the  bottom  of  small  hills,  for  the  juices  of  the  manure  from  these  hills  aviU 
of  themselves  pass  to  the  lower  ground  surrounding  them.     It  is  not  at  all  an 
uncommon  thing  to  find  the  opposite  carried  into  effect,  from  an  idea  that  manure 
does  little  good  upon  hills  ;  and  the  laborers  are  not  unwilling  to  follow  a  plan  / 
which  is  attended  with  less  trouble  ;  it  is,  therefore,  very  requisite  that  a  proper 
person  should  be  appointed  to  see  that  the  manure  is  deposited  in  the  proper 
places,  and  to  keep  the  teams  to  regularity  in  the  distribution  of  their  time. 

When,  independently  of  the  laborers  employed  in  carting,  there  are  still  other 
hands,  it  is  best  to  employ  them  in  spreading  the  manure,  which  will  be  done 
with  more  facility  from  its  being  less  consolidated  in  the  little  heaps,  which  is  a 
still  farther  motive  for  not  leaving  it  on  the  land  without  spreading. 

It  is  very  essential  to  divide  and  scatter  the  dung  well,   there  must   therefore 
be  no  want  of  laborers  for  this  purpose,  and  an  intelligent  man  should  be  employ- 
ed to  follow  the  spreaders,  and  to  separate  any  lumps  of  manure  Avhich  they  may  i 
have  neglected.  ^ 

It  is  also  necessary  to  see  that  the  manure  is  well  buried  by  the  plow,  for 
which  persons  should  be  employed  with  forks  and  rakes  to  follow  the  plow,  and 
to  separate  it  hi  an  equal  manner  in  the  furrows,  when  several  plowhigs  are  to 
follow  ;  it  is  not  of  so  much  consequence  if  a  little  litter  is  left  uncovered,  but 

*And  even  4,500.  [French  Tram, 

(646)  


MANURING   THE   SOIL.  215 


greal  care  should  be  taken  thai  it  does  not  collect  m  front  of  the  plow,  so  as  to 
form  iitilc  masses  in  some  parts,  wliilsl  oilier  parts  are  deprived  of  it. 

In  some  countries,  it  is  the  custom  to  mix  the  litter  with  all  kinds  of  vegetable 
substances,  or  even  with  earth,  and  to  leave   it  entirely  to  decompose  ;  by  this 
means,  the  liquid  and  volatile  parts  are  better  preserved;  and  if  the  addition 
which  has  been  made  consists  of  turf,  these  parts  will  be  more  intimately  com- 
bined with  the  earth,  and  exercise  their  action  upon  it.     This  method  causes  <\ 
several  decompositions  and  combinations,  which  would  not  otherwise  have  been  '• 
attained  till  a  much  later  period.     It  is  not  even  beyond  probability  that  the    ' 
water  itself  becomes,  in  part,  decomposed,  and  enters  into  these  combinations  in 
a  solid  form. 

Sometimes  all  the  materials  of  which  the  compost  is  to  be  made  are  brought 
to  the  receptacle  for  manure,  and  there  formed  into  a  heap,   or  what  is  still  bet- 
ter, the  heap  is  made  in  the  field  where  it  is  to  be  employed,  which  spares  a 
double  carting  of  the  substances  collected  on  the  dung-liill. 
j       There  are  Two  methods  of  forming  these  composts. 

>  (a).  The  several  matters  of  which  they  are  composed  are  divided  into  different 
)  layers,  and  placed  one  above  the  other  ;  at  the  bottom  of  the  heap  a  bed  of  turf 
{  or  of  earth  is  placed,  five  or  six  feet  larger  on  each  side  than  the  extended  heap  ; 
)  then  a  layer,  about  a  foot  thick,  of  the  freshest  dung  that  is  to  be  had  ;  above 
this,  another  layer  of  turfts  or  earth  ;  if  there  are  any  other  matters  capable  of 
putrefaction,  thejr  are  placed  upon  this  bed,  which  is  covered  with  another  layer 
of  dung,  and  so  on,  till  it  has  arrived  at  a  hight  of  five  or  six  feet ;  it  is  then 
covered  with  another  layer  of  earth.  Quick-lime  is  often  mixed  with  these  com- 
posts, but  the  lime  must  not  be  in  immediate  contact  with  the  dung,  because  it 
causps  it  to  decompose  too  speedily,  and  to  too  great  an  extent.  The  lime  is 
therefore  placed  between  two  layers  of  earth,  or  between  the  earth  and  any  other 
substances  which  are  difficult  to  decompose,  such  as  the  leaves  of  trees,  and 
things  of  that  description.  When  the  sides  of  the  bed  of  the  dung-hill  have  be- 
come saturated  with  the  liquor  from  the  heaps,  they  are  turned  over,  and  spread 
upon  the  surface.  The  compost  then  heats,  and  fermentation  commences,  and  it 
is  left  till  this  fermentation  has  subsided.  When  no  more  heat  is  felt  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  heap,  it  is  turned  over,  so  that  the  part  which  was  above  becomes 
the  bottom,  and  that  which  formed  the  sides  is  turned  into  the  middle.  Some- 
times a  fresh  bed  of  earth  is  placed  below  the  heap. 

The  heap  when  turned  over  is  made  long  and  narrow,  resembling  a  roof,  in  or- 
der that  it  may  be  more  exposed  to  the  air  ;  because  it  is  thought  that  by  this 
means  it  is  increased  in  weight  and  quality,  and  it  certainly  caijses  a  great  in- 
crease of  nitre.     Those,  therefore,  who  pay  much  attention  to  composts,   turn 
\   them  over  very  frequently,  in  order  that  a  fresh  surface  may  be  constantly  expo- 
)  sed  to  the  air. 

)  (b).  Other  agriculturists,  particularly  when  they  have  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
^  stances  to  be  formed  into  manure,  bring  them  all  to  the  place  where  the  dung- 
/  hill  is  to  be  made,  and  deposit  them  separately  round  it.  The  bed  of  earth  for 
I  the  bottom  of  the  heap  is  then  formed  in  the  middle;  the  laborers  then  surround 
)  the  heap,  and  each,  with  a  shovel,  throws  the  substances  as  they  lie  round  it 
/  into  the  bed,  by  which  means  the  whole  mass  is  equally  mixed  throughout. 
(  Thus  loam,  earth,  turfts  of  grass,  moss,  the  leaves  of  trees,  particularly  of  pine 
)  trees,  saw-dust,  and  the  remains  of  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  and  very  often, 
/  ia  addition  to  this,  lime,  ashes,  soot,  and  fresh  litter,  are  all  incorporated,  and 
)  the  mixture  wetted  with  the  liquid  which  drains  from  the  manure,  or  with  urine. 
)  A  larger  or  smaller  quantity  of  lime  is  employed,  according  to  the  difficulty  or  fa- 
.  cility  with  which  the  substances  forming  the  mass  can  be  decomposed  ;  thos-»» 
)  substances  containing  acid  are  slow  of  putrefaction,  and  therefore,  will  require 
)  more  lime  ;  wliilst,  on  the  contrary,  if  there  is  much  animal  matter  in  the  com- 
}  post,  lime  may  be  spared.  This  dung-hill  should,  like  the  former,  be  allowed  to 
^  remain  quiet  till  the  fermentation  is  past,  when  it  should  be  turned  over  several  '\ 
)  times.  ' 

(       Those  who  disapprove  of  decomposing  stable  manures  on  a  dung-hill,  look  upon 
S  this  mixture  as  a  useless  increase  of  labor  ;  this  manure,  they  say,  would  be  suf- 
)  ficiently  mixed  and  incorporated  with  the  earth  by  plowing,  and  it  would  have   / 
<  been  accomplished  in  a  far  simpler  and  easier  manner  ;  besides,  they  allege  that    ' 

I        («47j  °         .; 


216  THAEr's  principles  of  AGiafCULTURE. 

the  putrid  fermentation  of  manure  in  the  soil  is  very  advantageous  ;  and,  as  far  » 
as  concerns  cold  argillaceous  soils,  they  are  quite  correct.  But  Avhal  is  a  stronger  ' 
objection  to  the  general  use  of  those  composts  is,  that  in  them  stable  litter  can- 
not be  brought  mto  use  till  the  year  following,  which  is  of  great  importance 
where  manure  is  not  over  abundant;  for,  independently  of  the  products  immedi- 
ately drawn  from  the  application  of  fresh  dung,  these  products  will  again  yield 
more  manure  before  the  compost  will  be  ready  for  use. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  these  composts  should  only  be  made  where  there  is 
an  abundance  of  manure,  or  where  there  is  a  considerable  quantity  of  substances 
not  easy  of  decomposition  ;  and  in  these  cases  it  will  be  found  of  great  advantage 
as  a  sort  of  reserve,  and  will  ensure  the  farmer  a  rich  return  for  his  labor. 

Numerous  experiments  have  tended  to  prove  that  the  best  way  of  using  com- 
post consists  in  spreading  it  over  the  soil  without  burying  it.     It  is  carried  after 
the  seed  plowing,  and  spread  abroad  by  being  thrown  from  the  wagon  in  shovel- 
fuls by  men  stationed  there  ;  the  seed  is  then  sown  in  the  ground,  which  is  after- 
wards harrowed,  or  receives  a  very  light  plowing.     The  compost  may  even  be 
spread  over  the  ground  after  the  sowings  have  taken  place,  if  such  a  proceeding 
be  deemed  expedient.     It  is  sometimes  spread  over  autumnal  corn,  but  is  more 
frequently  reserved  for  the  spring  cereals  when  their  vegetation  has  commenced. 
This  method  of  manuring  is  productive  of  the  most  astonishing  effects,  while  a 
very  small  portion  of  the  compost  is  actually  used.     The  testimony  of  persons 
who  have  themselves  practiced  it,  as  well  as  the  high  estimation  in  wJiich  it  is 
held  throughout  whole  kingdoms,  serve  to  attest  its  utility  and  the  benefits  deri- 
ved from  it.     In  Hertford,  a  large  county  of  England,   this  practice  has  been 
adopted  from  time  immemorial;  indeed,  they  scarcely  use  any  other  species  of  i 
manure.     The  English  term  this  mode  of  manuring  "  top-dressing."     The  system 
of  cultivation  in  the  above-mentioned  county  is  not  otherwise  distinguished  by  | 
any  peculiarity,  yet  the  crops  are  remarkably  fine,  and  the  agriculturists  there  i 
declare  that  they  are  never  known  to  fail.     These  men  attribute  an  almost  mag-  ' 
ical  influence  to  the  practice  of  spreading  compost  over  the  cereals  during  their  ! 
vegetation.     According  to  them,  when  wheat  has  been  partially  destroyed  by  the    ' 
severity  of  winter,  or  barely  injured  by  frost,  drouth,  or  humidity,  becomes  dis- 
eased, "and  can  scarcely  be  said  to  vegetate,  the  compost  produces  the  most  mar- 
velous effects  as  soon  as  it  is  applied.     They  assert  that  the  plants  may  almost   ' 
be  seen  to  renovate  and  regain  their  verdure.     This  beneficial  effect  of  compost 
is  confirmed  by  the  unequivocal  testimony  of  almost  every  writer  on  English  Ag- 
riculture. 

It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  not  only  actual  advantages  but  alsjj  security  against 
evil  is  to  be  derived  from  the  possession  of  an  active  manure  of  this  nature,  and 
without  any  sensible  diminution  of  that  dimg  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
meet  the  wants  of  the  current  year. 

In  many  writings  an  innumerable  variety  of  directions  for  compounding  this 
mixture  are  to  be  found,  in  which  the  exact  weight  and  measure  of  each  separate 
substance  is  given  with  all  the  formality  of  a  medical  prescriptiori.  But  this  is 
downright  pedantry  ;  all  that  can  be  said  on  the  subject  resolves  itself  into  the 
following  precept:  "Collect  every  vegetable,  animal  and  mineral  substance 
which  you  have  at  your  disposal,  taking  care,  however,  that  the  latter  consist  of 
such  matters  as  are  proper  for  the  purpose  :  mix  them  well  together,  add  a  little 
quick-lime  and  as  much  earth  as  will  absorb  the  gases  evolved  by  these  various 
substances  ;  allow  them  all  to  remain  in  a  heap  until  they  are  thoroughly  fer- 
mented, and  then  mix  or  stir  them  repeatedly  until  they  are  transformed  into  an  ^ 
homogeneous  mass."  ['■ 

Where  there  is  a  scarcity  of  straw,  various  vegetable  substances  are  used  for  (| 
the  purpose  of  absorbing  and  retaining  the  excrementitious  matters,  and  forming 
a  dry  bed  for   the  cattle,  as  well  as  for  increasing  the  quantity  of  the  manure  ; 
because  the  vegetable  substances  devoted  to  this  purpose  are  much  sooner  in- 
duced to  enter  into  putrefaction  when  mingled  and  saturated  with  animal  excre-  \ 
ments  than  if  left  to  themselves.     The  propriety  of  using,  and  the  selection  to  be 
made  of  these  varieties  of  litter,  therefore,  depend  as  well  on  the  qualities  which 
render  them  fit  to  furnish  the  cattle  with  a  dry,  healthy  bed,  as  upon  the  great- 
er or  less  disposition  which  they  have  to  enter  into  decomposition.  i 
The  litter  in  most  general  use,  after  straw,  is  the  leaves  of  trees,  and  espe-  ' 

(648) 


cially  of  those  belonging  to  the  fanaily  of  pines.  The  forests  of  those  countries 
in  which  there  is  almost  always  a  scarcity  of  straw  are  chiefly  composed  of  pines 
or  of  trees  of  that  kind,  consequently  an  abundance  of  leaves  can  be  collected 
;  from  the  ground  and  intermingled  with  mosses.  When  these  leaves  are  inter- 
mixed with  the  excrements  of  animals,  they  become  decomposed  much  sooner 
I  than  they  otherwise  would  be  ;  nevertheless  they  retard  the  fermentation  of  the 
manure,  which  must  then  be  allowed  to  remain' in  the  heap  much  longer  than 
■would  be  necessary  if  the  excrements  of  the  cattle  were  mixed  with  straw  only. 
When  once  the  decomposition  has  taken  place,  the  dung,  so  far  from  being  inferior 
to  that  which  is  simply  composed  of  straw  and  excrements,  appears  to  be  in  no 
small  degree  superior  to  it,  because  the  pine-tree  leaves  contain  a  far  greater 
proportion  of  nutritive  juices  than  the  straw. 

Oak  leaves  are  not  easily  decomposed,  and  contain  an  astringent  matter  which 
is  highly  injurious  to  vegetation  so  long  as  the  leaf  remains  undecomposed.  Ma- 
nure, therefore,  which  is  partly  composed  of  oak  leaves  must  not  be  removed 
from  the  heap  for  a  considerable  period,  if  we  Avouid  derive  actual  benefit  from 
the  use  of  it.  If  it  is  placed  in  the  ground  before  it  is  thoroughly  fermented,  its 
leaves  remain  there  for  a  long  time  before  they  rot,  and  may  prove  rather  preju- 
dicial than  otherwise,  especially  to  light  soils. 

The  leaves  of  beech,  walnut,  and  chestnut  trees,  while  yet  green,  certainly 
appear  to  be  even  more  injurious  to  vegetation  than  those  of  the  oak,  since  little 
or  no  grass  ever  grows  under  these  trees ;  but  when  mixed  with  dung,  they  soon 
lose  their  baneful  properties  and  rapidly  decompose.  Myself  and  several  brother 
agriculturists  have  seen  much  more  beneficial  effects  resulting  from  the  use  of 
manure  made  with  the  leaves  of  beech,  walnut  and  chestnut  trees  than  from 
that  which  contained  oak  leaves.  \ 

The  leaves  of  the  alder,  loillow,  and  poplar  also  seem  to  have  the  property  of 
being  rapidly  decomposed;  but  they  possess  little  consistence,  and  tend  very  ( 
slightly  to  increase  the  volume  of  the  excrements  which  they  receive.  There  are 
many  districts  and  agricultural  undertakings  in  which  these  leaves  are  reckoned 
upon  as  an  essential  part  of  the  litter,  because  nearly  or  quite  the  whole  of  the 
straw  is  reserved  for  winter  fodder  for  the  cattle  ;  and  on  account  of  the  general 
arrangement  of  things,  it  would  be  absolutely  impossible  to  do  without  this  ad- 
ditional litter.  But  it  is  well  known  that  woods  and  forests  are  in  no  small  de-  ' 
gree  injured  by  this  practice,  and  the  harm  done  to  the  trees  far  surpasses  the  / 
scanty  profit  derived  from  this  false  economy.  The  obligation  of  furnishing 
leaves  for  this  purpose  has  become  an  exceedingly  burdensome  tax  on  the  pro- 
prietors of  parks,  forests,  or  other  wood  lands,  and  one  which,  it  is  to  be  feared, 
from  the  existing  system  of  cultivation,  there  will  be  considerable  difficulty 
in  abolishing.  When  the  owner  of  the  forest  himself  makes  use  of  the  privi- 
lege, and  uses  it  with  moderation  and  discernment,  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  that 
he  will  occasionally  derive  great  and  real  benefits  from  it ;  but  those  who  hold 
this  right  over  the  property  of  another,  are  seldom  very  particular  as  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  exercise  it. 

In  countries  where  heath  and  broom  are  very  plentiful,  these  plants  are  used 
for  litter,  when  the  substances  which  we  have  been  describmg  are  all  exhausted. 
Sometimes  the  heath  is  mown  or  cut,  while  at  others  it  is  torn  up  from   the  soil 
with  a  species  of  hoe  adapted  for  the  purpose  ;  and  thus,  not  only  the  plant  it- 
self, but  also  that  portion  of  the  mould  which  clings  to  its  roots,  is  taken  away. 
Although  this  plant  can  hardly  be   said   to  become  decomposed  in  a  course  of  a 
year,  nevertheless  the  animal  excrements  with  which  it  is  mixed,  render  it  so 
soft  and  deprive  it  so  completely  of  the  astringent  matter  which  it  contains,  that 
when  transported  to  the  land  it  soon  becomes  perfectly  decomposed  and  divided. 
In  a  part  of  the  principality  of  Luneburg,   of  the  bishopric  of  Breme,  and  in  \ 
Pomerania,  many  persons  regard  this  plant  as  so  indispensable  to  rural  econo-  [' 
my,  that  they  hesitate  to  extirpate  it  or  to  bring  those  spots  which  are  overrun  !' 
with  it  into  cultivation,  because  they  cannot  conceive  the  possibility  of  doing    ! 
without  this  plant  in  the  formation  of  their  manure  ;  in  fact,  it  will  be  impossi- 
ble to  do  without  it  so  long  as  the  present  arrangement  of  their  rural  economy  ^ 
remains  in  force.     Many  agriculturists  who  hold  the  right  of  gathering  heath  on  ' 
the  land  of  others,  and  who  rigidly  exact   that  right  to  the  uttermost,  are  ena-  ! 
bled  to  maintain  land  of  the  most  inferior  quality  in  a  wonderful  state  of  fertility    <' 
m9)  ^' 


218 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


But  as  this  plant  groAvs  slowly,  especially  when  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  torn 
up  with  it,  it  will  probably  require  a  hundred  acres  of  heath  to  maintain  an  acre 
of  arable  land  in  good  condition  ;  this  practice,  therefore,  can  only  be  carried  into  ) 
effect  on  small  estates,  surrounded  by  an  immense  extent  of  uncultivated  land.  ' 
If  the  heath  must  be  gathered  from  any  considerable  distance,  a  great  deal  of 
time  will  be  lost,  and  the  laborers  and  teams  will  be  employed  in  this  operation 
during  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year.  Frequently  it  is  actually  more  diffi- 
cult to  procure  sufficient  heath  to  ameliorate  an  acre  of  land  than  it  would  have 
been  to  cover  the  same  extent  Avith  marl  or  mould.  Nevertheless,  few  appear 
startled  by  the  expenses  attendant  on  the  former  proceeding,  while  they  would 
pause  ere  they  ventured  to  adopt  the  latter  ;  so  much  do  prejudice  and  the  force 
of  habit  govern  our  actions. 

The  agriculturists  are  not  contented  with  spreading  the  heath  under  the  cattle, 
but  they  also  mix  with  the  manure  the  portions  of  earth  and  turf  dragged  up  at 
the  same  time,  and  form  a  heap  of  these  substances  in  the  field,  Avhich  they  suf- 
fer to  remain  untouched  until  the  whole  mass  is  thoroughly  decomposed.  When 
this  manure  is  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  animal  excrements  and  is  thor- 
oughly consumed,  a  small  portion  of  it  is  spread  over  the  fields,  Avhere  it  will 
often  produce  very  fine  crops  of  rye  and  buckwheat.  As  very  feAv  weeds  shoot 
up  from  it,  the  land  does  not  require  a  fallow,  but  is  capable  of  bearing  six  or 
seven  consecutive  crops,  which,  however,  progressively  decline  in  value.  Per- 
sons who  are  not  aware  of  all  the  difficulties  attendant  on  the  acquisition  of  this 
manure,  regard  it  as  in  the  highest  degree  desirable  and  beneficial,  and  heath  i| 
lands  as  of  the  greatest  possible  utility.  The  celebrated  De  Luc,  in  his  travels  ' 
through  these  countries,  considered  this  practice  as  a  weighty  reason  for  deciding 
against  the  division  and  enclosure  of  commons  and  uncultivated  lands.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  there  are  cases  in  which  heath  may  be  used  as  litter  v/ith 
the  greatest  possible  advantage.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  sheep-folds, 
where  this  plant  is  readily  decomposed  by  the  action  of  the  excrements  of  these 
animals. 

Many  other  vegetable  substances — as  reeds,  rushes,  aquatic  plants,  the  genet 
or  Avay-thorn,  moss,  fern,  &c. — may  be  used  as  litter  when  nothing  else  can  be 
obtained.  Some  of  them,  and  especially  those  which  when  burned  yield  a  great 
deal  of  potass,  produce  a  very  fertilizing  mould.  The  more  green  and  succulent 
they  are  when  placed  under  the  cattle  to  receive  the  dung,  the  more  rapidly  do 
they  decompose  ;  but,  when  in  this  state,  they  do  not  afford  so  Avholesome  a  bed 
for  the  cattle.  After  having  become  dry,  these  plants  are  not  decomposed  with- 
out difficulty  ;  and,  therefore,  the  manure  of  Avhich  they  form  a  part  must  be  suf- 
fered to  remain  on  the  heap  for  a  greater  length  of  time.  Reeds  are  not  easily 
decomposed  unless  they  have  been  on  the  roof  of  some  building  for  a  considera- 
ble period,  and  become  softened  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere;  they  then  ap- 
pear to  produce  a  particularly  good  manure. 

The  sweepings  of  barns  should  not  be  mixed  with  manure  without  the  great- 
est circumspection  being  exercised,  if  Ave  would  avoid  the  danger  of  infesting  the 
land  Aviih  Aveeds.  The  vitality  of  the  seeds  contamed  in  these  sAveepings  is  not 
entirely  destroyed  even  by  the  process  of  fermentation  ;  the  best  way  of  making 
use  of  these  matters  is  to  mix  them  with  the  manure  intended  for  the  meadow 
land. 

In  low,  damp  situations,  a  substance  similar  to  moss  is  frequently  found,  filled 
Avith  all  sorts  of  aquatic  plants,  and  which  may  be  advantageously  substituted  for 
peat.  When  this  substance  is  dried,  it  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  formation  of 
litter,  because  it  is  promptly  decomposed  by  the  dung,  has  a  strong  tendency  to 
absorb  moisture,  and  produces  a  valuable  kind  of  manure.  But  it  ought  not  to 
be  used  while  any  other  kind  of  litter  can  be  procured,  because  it  might  better 
be  transported  to  the  fields  in  its  natural  state,  Avhere,  after  having  been  mixed 
with  straw  manure,  it  will  be  found  to  decompose  rapidly  and  thoroughly. 

Sometimes,  and  especially  in  sheep-folds,  turf  or  peat  is  used  for  litter,  Avhen 
it  is  of  a  light  texture.  We  shall  have  to  treat  of  this  subject,  and  of  the  prop- 
erties of  this  substance,  when  speaking  of  manures  in  general. 

Many  agricultural  writers  have  advised  the  use  of  earth  as  litter.  Turfs  taken 
from  places  Avhere  they  are  altogether  useless  may  thus  be  converted  into  mould, 
and  afford  an  excellent  manure  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  substance  is  con- 

i6.->0; 


MANURING   THE   SOIL. 


siderably  ameliorated  by  its  transit  through  the  stable,  where  it  absorbs  the  urine 
and  superabundant  humidity  of  the  excrements  in  general.  But  pure  earth  can 
never  actually  become  manure  ;  it  can  only  absorb  the  dung  and  a  portion  of  the 
urine.  Besides  its  being  a  very  difficult  niatter  to  keep  the  cattle  dry  on  such  a 
bed,  this  practice  is  productive  of  much  heavy  labor  and  cartage  :  as  the  earth 
has,  in  the  first  place,  to  be  dug  up  and  brought  to  the  stable  or  cow-house,  in 
order  to  be  thrown  underneath  the  cattle,  and  subsequently  taken  away  and 
transported  to  the  fields.  I  do  not  think  that  I  ever  saw  this  practice  carried  in- 
to effect,  nor  am  I  aware  that  it  exists  any  where,  excepting  in  those  English 
counties,  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  where  the  sand  thrown  up  by  the  sea,  and  which 
is  for  the  most  part  composed  of  shells  and  lime,  is  carted  while  dry,  and  con- 
veyed to  the  stables  to  be  employed  as  litter  ;  this  is,  however,  oaly  the  case  in 
towns.  The  dung  which  is  mingled  with  this  species  of  sand  ought  to  be  very 
active. 

The  transporting  of  earth,  and  especially  marl,  to  the  dung  pits  or  steads,  and 
placing  it  there  for  the  purpose  of  saturating  it  with  dung-water,  is  quite  another 
matter.  An  excavation  in  the  form  of  a  basin  is  made  in  the  middle  of  the  heap, 
into  which  the  fluid  is  poured  ;  and,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  introduction  of  the 
liquid  or  dung-water,  holes,  extending  to  this  basin,  are  bored  in  the  heap,  with 
a  pole  or  bar  of  iron,  in  different  places.  When  the  earth  is  sufficiently  impreg- 
nated with  this  fluid,  it  is  conveyed  to  the  fields.  Sometimes  the  dung  heap  is 
surrounded  with  a  wall  of  earth,  in  the  form  of  an  enclosure  or  embankment,  on 
which  a  little  canal  or  gutter  is  hollowed,  to  receive  the  superabundant  moisture 
of  the  heap.  When  the  wall  of  earth  has  remained  in  this  state  for  several  years, 
and  has  consequently  absorbed  a  great  quantity  of  the  emanations  arising  from 
the  yards  in  which  the  cattle  are  enclosed,  it  is  conveyed  to  the  fields,  where  it 
produces  wonderful  effects.  But,  previously  to  undertaking  this  operation,  how- 
ever beneficial  and  useful  it  may  be  in  itself,  the  expenses  v/hich  will  be  occa- 
sioned by  the  carrying  of  the  earth  to  the  farm  yards,  and  thence  again  to  the 
fields,  as  well  as  the  labor  attendant  on  the  Avatering  of  it,  should  be  calculated. 

However  general  and  advantageous  the  custom  may  be  of  making  use  of  straw 
and  other  substances  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  excrements  of  the  animals, 
and  forming  a  litter  for  the  cattle,  it  is  not  universal.  Cattle  are  not  unfrequently 
kept  in  stables  and  cow-houses,  both  during  Avinter  and  summer,  without  any  lit- 
ter, especially  in  countries  and  farms  wnere  breeding  and  fattening  of  cattle  form 
the  principal"  aim  and  object  of  the  undertaking.  The  arrangement  of  stables 
devoted  to  this  practice  varies  considerably  ;  in  general,  the  floor  on  which  the 
cattle  are  stalled  is  formed  of  boards,  which  incline  slightly  from  the  head  to  the 
hinder  parts  of  the  animals.  At  the  edge  of  this  flooring,  and  behind  the  ani- 
mals, is  a  gutter  or  conduit  of  masonry  or  plaster,  into  which  all  the  excrementi- 
tious  matters  fall,  or  are  swept  with  a  broom,  as  soon  as  they  are  voided.  There 
are  often  pumps  or  water-courses  in  these  stables,  which  are  immediately  used 
to  wash  away  the  excrements.  In  order  that  the  animals  may  not  soil  them- 
selves, or  become  dirty,  care  is  taken  to  keep  their  tails  suspended  ;  this  is  done 
by  means  of  a  fine  cord,  which,  passing  over  a  pulley  attached  to  the  ceiling,  has 
a  weight  at  its  opposite  extremity  proportionable  to  the  weight  of  the  tail,  which 
is  thus  kept  from  falling  on  the  floor  and  becoming  fouled,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
is  not  drawn  up  too  roughly.  Or,  the  cattle  are  lodged  on  a  plaster  floor,  pierced 
with  holes  communicating  with  a  reservoir  of  masonry  or  cement,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  kept  dry.  The  urine  and  liquid  portion  of  the  manure  collect  in 
these  reservoirs,  and  thence  flow  out  through  gutters  into  the  tanks  or  pits  in- 
tended for  their  reception^  That  portion  of  the  excrements  which  retains  its  con- 
sistence is  thrown  behind  the  animals  against  the  wall ;  and  so  much  care  is 
taken  each  time  to  cleanse  the  place,  that  it  is  as  neat  and  clean  as  the  floor  of  a 
room.  This  practice  not  only  contributes  to  the  health  of  the  animals,  but  also 
to  the  quality  of  their  milk — specially  as,  wherever  it  is  pursued,  they  are  care- . 
fully  curried  down  and  brushed. 

In  other  undertakings,  recourse  has  been  had  to  a  far  more  simple  arrange- 
ment, but  one  that  is  not  so  beneficial  to  the  cattle.  Then  the  buildings  destined 
for  the  animals  are  so  narrow  that  they  are  obliged  to  draw  up  their  hind  legs  in 
a  manner  wholly  contrary  to  nature,  in  order  to  be  able  to  face  the  manger.  Be- 
hind them  is  an  excavation  of  a  foot  and  a  half,  or  two  feet  deep,  and  into  this 

(651) 


220  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

the  excrements  and  the  urine  of  the  animals  fall,  provided  that  they  are  not 
standing  aslant.  They  musl,  therefore,  be  tied  very  close  together,  in  order  to 
compel  them  to  face  the  manger  exactly,  both  while  standing  up  and  lying  down  ; 
which  they  certainly  would  not  do  if  they  had  the  power  of  moving  either  to  one 
side  or  to  the  other.  The  cattle  must  be  well  accustomed  to  this  fashion,  or  their 
legs  will  inevitably  slide  backwards  and  fall  into  the  excavation ;  and  thus  the 
legs  and  thighs  will  be  liable  to  excoriation  and  injury. 

Whatever  may  be  the  difference  which  exists  between  these  two  methods  of 
stalling  cattle,  it  is  not  in  that  alone  that  the  management  of  the  inanure  varies. 
The  large  excrements  are  either  carried  out  of  the  stable,  and,  having  been 
mixed  with  straw,  are  made  into  regular  heaps,  care  being  taken  that  the  pure 
dung  shall  be  in  the  centre,  and  that  which  is  mingled  with  straw  on  the  outside, 
and  these  heaps  are  occasionally  watered  with  dung-water  ;  or  else,  a  slight  lit- 
ter of  straw  is  occasionally  strewed  under  the  cattle  ;  a  little  water  is  pumped 
up  and  added  to  the  excrements  Avhich  the  gutter  or  excavation  already  contains  ;' 
the  straw  is  thrown  into  this  gutter  by  a  fork,  and  there  worked  backwards  and 
forwards  in  order  to  make  it  take  up  as  much  of  the  large  excrements  as  possi- 
ble, and  then  conveyed  to  the  dung-heap  on  the  outside  of  the  stables.  More 
water  is  subsequently  pumped  up  and  carefully  mixed  with  those  excremeati- 
tious  matters  which  remain  in  the  gutter,  until  the  whole  forms  an  equal  and 
flowing  liquid,  which  is  then  propelled  through  the  open  gutters  to  the  tanks  or 
reservoirs  intended  for  the  reception  of  the  liquid  manure. 

By  these  means  the  large  excrements  mingled  with  straw  are  kept  entirely 
separate  from  the  liquid  manure,  and  either  one  or  the  other  is  made  use  of,  as 
circumstances  require. 

It  is  necessary  to  have  several  tanks  or  reservoirs  for  the  reception  of  the  liquid 
manure,  and  also  that  the  canals  should  be  constructed  so  as  to  fill  first  one  and 
then  another.  In  fact,  before  this  fluid  can  be  used  with  any  degree  of  advan- 
tage, it  must  have  undergone  a  species  of  fermentation  or  putrefaction  ;  until  this 
putrefaction  has  been  brought  about,  it  must  be  covered  up  and  kept  from  con- 
tact Avith  the  open  air,  and  only  stirred  now  and  then.  These  tanks  or  reservoirs 
are  successively  emptied  when  the  fluid  which  they  contain  has  reached  the 
proper  degree  of  fermentation,  and  are  then  filled  again. 

Very  great  commendation  is  bestowed  on  this  practice,  and  on  the  value  and 
quality  of  the  manure  which  it  produces  ,  but  I  cannot  help  considering  that  a 
great  deal  of  exaggeration  must  be  mingled  with  it.  It  is  asserted  that  with  the 
assistance  of  the  straw  as  much  dung  is  obtained  as  there  would  have  been  if 
the  animals  had  been  littered  down  in  the  usual  way,  and  that  this  dung  is  ren- 
dered more  active  and  fertilizing  by  the  pains  which  are  taken  to  collect  it ;  and 
it  is  farther  asserted  that  they  have  liquid  manure  in  addition,  which,  from  the 
eff'ect  Avhich  it  produces,  is  equally  as  valuable  as  the  concrete  dung,  if  not  more 
so  ;  and  that,  consequently,  this  practice  produces  twice  if  not  thrice  as  much 
manure  as  would  have  been  obtained  under  the  ordinary  course  of  proceeding. 
This  seems  to  me  to  be  such  an  absolute  contradiction,  that  I  cannot  allow  my- 
self to  be  convinced  of  the  truth  of  these  assertions,*  until  well  authenticated 
comparative  experiments  shall  have  attested  their  correctness.  I  do  not  mean 
to  deny  the  fact  that  a  much  greater  quantity  of  nutritive  juices  maybe  produced 
'by  this  than  by  the  ordinary  mode  of  proceeding,  because  more  complete  decom- 
position and  new  combinations  of  elementary  matters  may  thus  be  brought  about. 
General  experience  has  proved  beyond  a  shadow  of  doubt,  that  liquid  manure 
produces  a  very  beneficial  effect,  especially  on  sandy  soils,  to  which  it  restores 
some  portion  of  that  consistency  of  which  they  have  been  deprived  by  reiterated 
plowings  and  ameliorations  of  strawy  dung.  All  kinds  of  animal  and  vegetable 
refuse  are  thrown  into  the  tanks  destined  for  the  reception  of  the  liquid  manure, 
and  especially  human  urine. 

*  The  actual  advantages  arising  from  the  use  of  anunal  excrements  in  a  liquid  form  as  manure,  consists 
in  that  assimilation  to  the  organs  of  plants  with  these  excrements  have  undergone  during  the  fermentation 
of  the  liquid,  and  in  the  greater  degree  of  facility  which  a  liquid  fonn  gives  them  of  coming  into  immediate 
contact  with  the  plants  and  beiag  immediately  absorbed  and  diffused  throughout  then-  substance,  and  thug 
'    re-producing  vegetable  matter  promptly.    ITiere  is  not  a  doubt  that  a  given  quantity  of  excrements  may, 
'    under  this  form,  yield  double  if  not  quadruple  as  much  produce  as  they  would  have  done  had  the  excre- 
ments been  employed  in  a  concrete  form.     This  practice  may,  therefore,  prove  exceedingly  advantageous 
'    in  ruial  undertakings  which  do  not  possess  a  sufficiency  of  manure,  supposing  that  the  texture  of  the  soil 
is  light  enough  to  admit  of  the  constant  use  of  liquid  manure  without  any  bad  ettects  being  produced. 

(6.i2)  [French  Trans. 


MANURING  THE   SOIL.  221 

Although  it  is  far  from  being  my  intention  to  dispute  the  advantages  attendant 
on  this  practice,  yet  I  think  that  previous  to  the  adoption  of  it,  it  would  be  as 
well  to  be  assured  that  these  advantages  will  repay  all  the  labor  and  care  which 
are  requisite.     In  order  to  effect  this  end,  it  should  be  brought  fairly  into  com- 
parison with  our  ordinary  course  of  proceeding,  in  which  also  everything  should 
be  so  arranged  that  no  particle  shall  be  wasted.      With  us,  as  soon  as  the  dung  <[ 
possesses  more  humidity  than  it  can  retain,  the  liquid  that  oozes  out  is  collected 
and  applied :    but  if,  as  too  often  happens,  the  situation  of  the  dung-steads  or 
heaps  is  not  carefully  arranged,  and  this  fluid  is  allowed  to  drain  away  without  i. 
being  collected,  then  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  an  essential  portion  of  the  ma-  ' 
nure  is  lost,  particularly  if  the  cattle  have  been  fed  on  green  meat,  or  on  very  \\ 
succulent  fodder.     Reservoirs  or  tanks  for  the  reception  of  those  liquid  portions 
of  the  manure  which,  having  passed  through  the  heap,  ooze  out,  and  would  drain 
away  and  be  wasted  if  not  collected,  are  necessary  appendages  to  every  farm  I' 
yard. 
'       The  care  which  must  be  bestowed  on    liquid  manures,  and  the  difficulty  of  ^ 
I    transporting  them,  are  neither  so  great  nor  so  laborious  as  many  persons  suppose. 
I    The  liquid  can  easily  be  drawn  up  from  the  stone  or  cement  tank  which  contains 
'    it  by  means  of  a  pump,  and  transferred  to  large  vats  or  casks  constructed  for  the 
purpose.     These  vessels  are  then  placed  in  wagons  for  the  purpose  of  being  car- 
ried to  the  fields;  at  the  back  part  of  them  a  hole  or  opening  is  made,  to  Avhich 
is  attached  a  box  or  board,*  into  which  or  on  which  the  liquid  falls,  and  is  thus 
'  diffused  in  an  equal  manner  over  the  land  as  the  cart  moves  onward.     The  cart 
is  driven  faster  or  slower,  according  as  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  manure  the  soil 
more  or  less  abundantly. 

The  liquid  manures  are  specially  devoted  to  those  crops  which  will  bear  rich 
ameliorations,  which  are  prompt  and  energetic  in  their  action,  as  the  wild  cab- 
bage. Some  agriculturists  reserve  them  for  clovers  and  other  artificial  meadows, 
or  for  natural  pastures.  With  regard  to  cereals,  they  may  easily  be  rendered  too 
thick  if  the  soil  on  which  they  are  sown  is  ameliorated  with  manure  of  this  kind, 
unless,  indeed,  the  liquid  is  very  weak  or  has  been  diluted  by  an  admixture  of 
water.  Liquid  manures  are  never  so  advantageous  as  when  applied  to  sandy 
soils,  which  they  render  tolerably  consistent  and  more  adapted  for  the  retention 
of  moisture.  In  soils  of  a  mediocre  quality,  liquid  manure  and  dung  are  em- 
ployed alternately  ;  but  the  use  of  liquid  manure  will  never  replace  that  of  dung 
on  tenacious  and  argillaceous  land. 

Liquid  manure  can  never  be  so  advantageously  employed  as  in  restoring  the 
requisite  degree  of  moisture  to  dung  which  has  become  so  dry  as  to  cease  to  fer- 
ment. Wherever  this  is  the  case,  the  heap  should  immediately  be  watered  by 
this  fluid. 

Lastly,  in  enumerating  all  the  various  animal  manures,  we  must  not  omit  to 
mention  that  arising  from  the  folding  or  cotting  of  sheep  or  cattle  on  arable  land. 
The  animals  are  turned  during  the  night  into  a  fold  enclosed  by  lathes,  hurdles, 
or  twigs.  By  these  means  the  excrements,  and  even  the  vapors  which  emanate 
from  their  bodies,  are  concentrated  within  the  space  assigned  to  them ;  and  in 
order  that  these  substances  may  be  more  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil, 
the  land  generally  receives  a  slight  plowing  before  the  cattle  are  enclosed  on  it. 

This  practice  is  usually  followed  only  Avith  sheep.     A  somewhat  similar  pro-  !' 
ceeding  has,  however,  been  occasionally  adopted  with  the  other  kinds  of  cattle.  •'. 
Oxen  which  have  been  put  up  to  fatten  are  enclosed  in  a  certain  space  of  ground 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  most  abundant  pasturage,  or  of  those  divisions  of  fod- 
der which  are  destined  for  their  consumption  ;  straw  is  littered  over  these  enclo-    ! 
sures,  which  mixes  with  the  excrements  voided  by  the  cattle  and  serves  to  col-  ^ 
lect  them.     By  these  means  the  dung  is  turned  to  great  account ;  whereas,  if  it 
were  voided  over  the  pasturage,  it  would  be  rather'injurious  than  otherwise,  and 
in  a  great  measure,  wasted.     Some  persons  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to  establish 
an  enclosure  of  this  nature  for  geese,  and  profess  to  have  derived  considerable 
advantage  from  it.     These  things  are,  however,  of  rare  occurrence,  the  practice 
is  in  general  solely  confined  to  sheep  ;  and  opinions  are  yet  very  much  divided 
with  respect  to  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  that  result  from  folding. 

*  Several  well  constructed  carts  for  the  distribution  of  liquid  manure  have  been  invented  by  our  most  ex. 
perienced  agricultural  implement  makers. 
(653) 


222  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

It  still  remains  a  question  whether  this  close  confinement  of  sheep  be  injurious 
to  their  health  and  fleece.  It  is  only  the  strongest  and  most  vigorous  breeds  that 
can  support  it.  In  England  there  are  many  fine  long-wooled  breeds  to  which  it 
proves  fatal ;  although  the  same  animals  when  allowed  their  liberty,  and  suffered 
to  run  in  the  open  air  are  vigorous  and  healthy  both  in  summer  and  wmter. 

Although  the  sheep  of  our  country,  and  even  those  of  pure  Spanish  breeds,  can 
support  this  system  without  being  killed  by  it,  nevertheless  they  thrive  better 
when  allowed  to  run  at  liberty  during  the  night,  or  sheltered  beneath  a  roof  from 
the  inclemency  of  the  weather :  this  practice  is  very  injurious  to  lambs.* 

Independent  of  the  difference  in  the  health  of  the  animals,  folding  at  night  in 
littered  yards  combines  all  the  advantages  of  folding  on  arable  land  v»?ithout  any 
of  its  disadvantages  ;  the  excrements  there  become  mixed  with  the  straw,  and 
produce  a  manure  which,  if  not  quite  as  active  as  that  yielded  by  the  fold  or  pen, 
is  more  durable  in  its  eff'ects. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  pen  or  fold  has  this  actual  advantage,  it  saves  the  la-  ■ 
bor  and  expense  of  carrying  the  manure  ;  and  the  farther  the  fields  are  removed 
from  the  farm  buildings,  the  greater  is  the  advantage  derived,  especially  when 
the  roads  which  lead  to  them  are  bad.  Hence  arises  one  great  inducement  to  the 
agriculturist  to  have  recourse  to  this  practice,  especially  in  mountainous  coun- 
tries, and  on  hill  farms.  Another,  is  the  want  of  straw  and  other  substances  which 
might  be  used  as  litter. 

Thus,  then,  it  is  evident  that  in  this,  as  in  many  other  cases,  locality  and  con- 
venience lead  persons  to  adopt  one  course  of  proceeding  rather  than  another. 

English  agriculturists  also  allege  another  objection  to  this  system.  They  as- 
sert that  sheep-pasture  lands  rapidly  deteriorate  when  deprived  of  the  excrements 
voided  by  these  animals  during  the  night,  and  improve  as  visibly  where  the  con- 
trary course  is  pursued  ;  and  bring  forward  in  support  of  that  assertion  numerous 
incontestible  experiments,  Avhich  tend  to  prove  that  in  the  former  case  the  num- 
ber of  sheep  Avliich  they  will  keep  is  annually  decreased,  while  under  the  latter 
they  are  capable  of  supporting  a  larger  number  every  year,  and  become  pro- 
gressively ameliorated  ;  that,  lastly,  the  diff'erence  between  the  fertility  of  sheep 
pastures  which  are  allowed  to  receive  all  the  dung  voided  by  the  animals  during 
the  night  and  those  which  are  deprived  of  it,  is  very  striking. 
_  In  reply  to  this  objection,  others  have  urged  that  if  sheep  were  allowed  the 
liberty  of  a  considerable  extent  of  pasturage  during  the  night,  they  would  still 
huddle  as  closely  as  possible  together;  and  consequently,  instead  of  diff'using 
their  excrements  over  the  field,  would  void  them  all  in  one  place,  where  this  ac-  j 
cumulation  would  tend  to  injure  rather  than  ameliorate  the  pasture.  And  they  ^ 
likewise  state  that  the  sheep  invariably  congregate  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the 
same  place  every  night ;  but  I  have  never  found  this  observation  in  the  works  of 
any  English  agricultural  writer,  even  of  those  who  are  most  favorable  to  the 
practice  of  folding  sheep.  In  my  opinion,  sheep  which  are  turned  into  pastures 
surrounded  by  hedges,  and  which  are  not  driven  together  by  the  shepherds  or 
their  dogs,  will  never  acquire  this  habit. 

The  following  regulations  must  be  attended  to  in  folding  sheep: 

1.  The  fold  or  pen  must  never  be  made  larger  than  is  absolutely' necessary  : 
sheep  have  a  natural  propensity  to  crowd  as  closely  together  as  possible.  If, 
therefore,  the  enclosure  into  which  they  are  turned  is  larger  than  ti)ere  is  any 
absolute  necessity  for  it  to  be,  one  portion  of  the  land  will  be  thoroughly  amelior- 
ated, while  another  will  be  imperfectly  manured.  Not  more  than  ten  or  twelve 
square  feet  should  be  allowed  to  each  animal,  if  we  would  have  them  manure 
thoroughly  the  space  assigned  to  them. 

2  The  hurdles  of  which  the  pen  or  fold  is  composed  ought  not  to  exceed  ten 
or  twelve  feet  in  length,  in  order  that  the  shepherd  may  be  a-  le  to  carry  them 
from  place  to  place  and  fix  them  in  the  ground.     The  proporticnate  number  of  ! 

*  The  etfect  of  warnith  upon  the  consumption  of  food  by  animals,  although  by  far  too  littlo  understood,  is 
also  an  examination  fraught  with  instruction  to  the  farmer.  In  an  experiment  of  Lord  Dueie's.  at  \Vhiliield, 
one  hundred  sheep  were  folded  by  tens  in  pens,  each  pen  possessing  a  covered  shed.  From  the  lOlli  of  Oc- 
tober to  the  10th  of  March  each  sheep  consumed,  on  an  average,  20  lbs.  of  Swedes  daily.  Another  one  hun- 
dred were  folded  in  pens  of  a  similar  size,  but  without  sheds  attached;  they  were  kept  during  the  same 
time,  and  their  daily  consumption  of  Swedes  amounted  to  25  lbs.  each.  And  yet  the  sheep  which  enjoyed 
the  protection  of  the  sheds  increased  in  weight  3  lbs.  each  more  than  those  left  unprotected. 

[Jour.  Roy.  Ag.  S.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  222—230,  vol.  i.,  pp.  140  -147. 
(654) 


MANURING  THE    SOIL.  223 


these  hurdles  need  not  be  increased  in  exact  ratio  with  an  increase  in  the  flock  of 
sheep.  If  we  suppose  each  hurdle  to  be  ten  feet  long,  and  that  each  sheep  ought 
to  be  allowed  a  space  often  feet  in  extent,  a  flock  of  two  hundred  animals  will 
/  require  eighteen  hurdles  ;  and  a  flock  of  three  hundred  only  twenty  hurdles,  if 
(|  the  pen  is  constructed  in  the  form  of  a  square.  Besides,  a  small  flock  requires 
equally  as  many  attendants  as  a  large  one,  and  consequently  the  expense  of  each 
separate  animal  is  diminished  in  proportion  as  the  aggregate  number  is  increased. 
On  this  account,  it  is  seldom  deemed  advisable  to  fold  less  than  three  hundred 
sheep. 

The  comparative  richness  of  the  amelioration  bestowed  on  land  by  the  practice 
of  folding,  varies  considerably.  Some  have  endeavored  to  define  it  according  to 
the  greater  or  less  extent  of  the  space  on  which  the  animals  are  enclosed  ;  oth- 
ers, by  the  time  which  they  are  suflered  to  remain  on  one  spot.  But  these  data 
are  very  unsatisfactory,  because  the  quantity  of  excrements  voided  by  the  sheep 
must  depend  entirely  upon  that  of  the  food  which  they  have  consumed  ;  and  their 
value  AviU  be  in  proportion  to  its  fattening  quality.  If  the  pasturage  is  abundant 
a  given  number  of  sheep  will  manure  the  spot  on  which  they  are  enclosed  as  ef- 
fectually in  one  night  as  they  could  do  in  two  or  three  if  kept  upon  scanty  pas-  / 
tures.     Every  one  must  be  struck  with  the  truth  of  this  observation. 

Folding  is  divided  into  three  classes,  which  are  designated  "  complete-fold- 
ing," "  half-folding,"  and  "  extra-folding."  If  the  pasturage  be  of  a  tolerable 
quality,  the  folding  is  said  to  be  complete  when  six  hundred  sheep  are  penned  on 
an  acre  of  land  for  three  nights  ;  or,  what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  when  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  sheep  are  folded  on  an  acre  for  one  night.  A  slight  or 
half-folding  is  said  to  have  taken  place  when  one  thousand  two  hundred  sheep 
have  passed  the  night  on  an  acre  of  land  ;  and  the  ground  is  said  to  have  received 
the  benefit  of  an  extra-folding  when  the  same  extent  of  space  has  been  occupied 
by  two  thousand  four  hundred  sheep. 

Even  supposing  the  pasturage  to  be  always  equally  good,  the  length  of  the 
nights  will  cause  no  slight  diS'erence  in  the  eflTects  of  the  folding.  When  the 
nights  are  shortest,  the  animals  are  not  in  the  fold  more  than  eight  hours  ; 
whereas,  during  the  long  nights,  they  remain  there  for  twelve  hours,  if  not  more. 
To  this  consideration  must  be  added  another,  namely,  that  in  most  agricultural 
undertakings,  sheep,  in  general,  receive  but  a  scanty  pasturage  during  the  term 
of  the  short  nights :  and  that  they  are  much  better  fed  in  the  spring,  when  they 
are  depastured  on  the  meadow  or  fallow  lands  previous  to  their  being  broken  up, 
or  in  the  autumn,  when  they  are  turned  on  the  stubble  fields.  In  order  to  com^ 
pensate  for  this  inequality,  some  persons  have  divided  the  long  nights  into  two  / 
equal  portions,  and-  have  caused  the  sheep  to  spend  half  of  the  time  in  one  place 
and  half  in  another.  Where  the  shepherds  are  not  accustomed  to  this  mode  of 
proceeding,  the  best  plan  will  be  to  contract  the  limits  of  the  fold  during  the 
short  nights,  and  thus  make  up  the  diS'erence  by  diminishing  the  number  of  hur- 
dles, or  arranging  them  so  as  to  enclose  a  smaller  space.  A  similar  number  of 
hurdles  will  embrace  a  much  greater  circumference  Avhen  set  up  in  the  form  of 
an  exact  square,  than  they  would  do  if  made  into  a  long  square.  Twenty  hur-  \ 
dies,  each  twelve  feet  long,  if  set  up  in  a  square  form,  will  enclose  twenty-live  ^ 
perches  ;  but  if  the  same  number  Avere  arranged  so  that  there  should  be  eight  on 
each  side  and  only  two  at  each  end,  they  Avould  not  then  enclose  more  than  six- 
teen perches.  The  Count  de  PoAvdeAvils  has  drawn  up  a  table  for  regulating  the 
proportionate  space  according  to  the  length  of  the  nights.  It  Avill  be  found  in 
vol.  i.  "Annals  of  Agriculture,"  and  clearly  indicates  the  intensity  of  the  manur- 
ing which  Avill  be  derived  from  the  form  given  to  the  fold  and  the  arrangement 
of  t!ie  hurdles. 

Sheep  are  generally  driven  into  the  fold  at  sunset,  and  not  let  out  again  until 
the  dcAV  is  evaiporated,  because  that  vapor  would  be  very  likely  to  prove  injuri- 
ous to  them  on  account  of  the  voracity  with  which  they' then  eat.  Before  they 
are  let  out,  they  are  moved  about  in  the  fold  in  order  that  they  may  empty  them- 


selves completely,  and  that  no  portion  of  their  excrements  may  be  lost  on  the  road.   • 
The  kind  of  manure   produced  by  folding  is   easilv  decomnosed,  and.  conse- 
rhh  great  promptitude  and  enf 
sible   eff'ect  on  the  first  crop;  but  its   eflfect  on   the  second   is  very  slight  ;  and 


is  easily  decomposed,  and,  conse-  , 
quently,  acts  with  great  promptitude  and  energy.     It  produces  a  peculiarly  sen- 

"'  '  ;   eff'ect  on  the  first  crop;  but  its   eff'ect  on   the  second   is  very  slight  ;  and,  v 

where  only  a  slight  folding  has  taken  place,  it  is  not  felt  at  all.     It  is  only  an  ex-  ' 

(655)  ' 


224  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

tra  folding,  when  two  thousand  four  hundred  sheep  have  been  enclosed  on  an 
acre  of  land,  that  is  capable  of  producing  effects  which  endure  until  the  third 
crop  ;  especially  if,  iminediately  after  the  folding,  rape,  or  some  other  produce  of 
the  same  or  a  similar  nature,  is  sown  instead  of  grain  crops.  It  is  thus  that  the 
greatest  amount  of  protit  can  be  derived  from  this  jjractice.  Should  such  a  course 
not  be  adopted,  there  will  be  every  reason  to  fear  that  the  cereals  will  be  laid-  - 
an  mconvenience  which  is  too  often  induced  by  ameliorations  of  this  nature.  , 

In  general,  when  the  farmer  wishes  to  ameliorate  his  land  very  considerably  ■ 
for  the  corn  crops,  he  first  manures  slightly  with  stable  manure ;  and  then,  after  ' 
having  buried  that  by  plowing,  he  folds  a  few  sheep  there.  \ 

Corn  crops  succeeding  the  folding  of  sheep,  especially  of  a  large  flock,  acquire  i 
bad  qualities,  which  cause  the  grain  to  be  rejected  by  bakers,  brewers,  and  dis- 
tillers of  brandy.     We  shall  have  occasion  to  return  to  this  subject  hereafter. 

The  soil  is  usually  plowed  before  sheep  are  folded  on  it ;  and  as  soon  as  the 
folding  has  taken  place,  they  hasten  to  bury  the  manure  thus  deposited  on  the 
ground,  by  a  superficial  plovv^ing.  Although  this  proceeding  is  universally  adopt- 
ed, I  have  had  my  doubts  as  to  the  eligibility  of  it,  since  I  have  learned  several 
experiments  being  made  by  agricultural  friends  of  mine,  who  assert  that  they 
have  seen  the  most  beneficial  effects  resulting  from  folding,  when  the  manure 
was  suffered  to  remain  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  for  a  considerable  period. — 
There  is  no  doubt  that  great  advantages  have  been  derived  from  folding  sheep 
on  land  after  the  seed  was  sown  in  it.  I  have  seen  wonderful  effects  resulting 
from  an  amelioration  of  this  nature  bestowed  on  a  field  in  which  potatoes  had 
been  planted. 

The  practice  of  folding  is  sometimes  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  manuring  hilly 
or  mountainous  pasture  lands,  or  artificial  meadows  ;  and  with  great  success,  es- 
pecially where  these  places  are  difficult  of  access,  and  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
transport  manure  to  them  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Many  persons  who  are  prejudiced  against  immediate  folding,  and  who  have  a 
superabundance  of  straw  for  litter,  and  who  wish  to  improve  distant  or  hilly  parts 
of  their  farm  with  sheep-dung,  make  movable  enclosures  in  the  neighborhood  of 
these  spots,  which  they  strew  with  an  abundance  of  litter,  and  then  drive  the 
sheep  into  them.  Sometimes  the  animals  are  only  confined  in  these  folds  at 
night ;  at  other  times  they  are  kept  there  during  the  day  also,  especially  when 
these  folds  are  sheltered  by  trees.  Thus,  they  have  the  dung  made  in  immediate 
proximity  to  the  fields  on  which  they  wish  to  use  it,  and  an  immensity  of  labor 
is  spared,  for  the  carriage  of  the  straw  is  far  less  expensive  than  that  of  the  dung. 
In  these  movable  folds,  the  sheep  may  be  allowed  more  room,  and  the  straw  af- 
fords them  a  more  healthy  bed  than  would  be  furnished  by  the  damp  ground. 

As  all  animal  substances  form  very  active  manures,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and 
the  amount  of  its  products  will  be  very  sensibly  augmented,  if  not  only  the  ex- 
crements of  animals,  but  also  the  bodies  of  those  animals  which  die,  and  all  the 
offal  from  those  which  are  slaughtered,  are  carefully  preserved  and  used  as  ma- 
nures ;  and  no  portion,  however  small,  of  these  manures  is  suffered  to  be  lost  or 
taken  away  from  the  great  and  universal  circulation  of  Nature. 

Animal  bodies,  Avhen  deprived  of  vitality,  form  a  peculiarly  active  manure. — 
If  these  are  collected  together  in  trenches,  or  enclosures  walled  round,  covered 
with  quick-lime,  mixed  with  earth,  and  subsequently,  when  they  have  lost  their 
putrid  and  offensive  smell,  which  is  soon  carried  off  by  the  lime,  the  whole  mix- 
ture be  well  stirred  and  mingled  together,  an  exceedingly  active  manure  will  be 
obtained.  But  if,  on  the  contrary,  these  substances  are  suffered  to  decompose  in 
the  open  air,  buried  deeply  in  the  ground,  or  thrown  into  the  water,  they  are 
withdrawn  from  the  circulation  of  organic  matter,  and  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  elements  of  life  is  thus  lost. 

Even  bones  are  softened  by  the  admixture  of  quick-lime,  and  may  then  be 
powdered  without  difficulty.  After  this  preparation  they  produce  wonderful  ef- 
fects on  land. 

On  the  sea-coast,  fish  are  not  unfrequently  used  as  manure  ;  and  also  occasion- 
ally at  the  mouth  of  large  rivers,  as  is  the  case  when  an  enormous  quantity  of 
herrings  is  thrown  on  the  shores  of  the  Elbe.  But  these  fishes  must  be  covered 
w-th  quick-lime,  and  subsequently  mixed  with  earth,  if  we  would  derive  that 
amount  of  benefit  from  them  which  they  are  capable  of  producing.     Experience 

(656* 


MANURING  THE   SOIL.  225 

I  testifies  that  this  mixture  is  productive  of  wonderful  effects  when  spread  over  the 
;  sowings;  but  that  when  the  fish  are  scattered  over  the  soil  and  buried  before 
.  they  are  thoroughly  decomposed,  they  are  positively  injurious  in  the  first  year, 
and  productive  of  little  advantage  in  the  second.  The  same  may  be  observed 
with  regard  to  rancid  oil  of  herrings,  which  is  sometimes  used  as  a  manure. — 
"When  undecomposed,  it  is,  in  common  with  all  other  oleaginous  substances, 
prejudicial  to  vegetation  ;  but  when  its  decomposition  has  been  effected  by  means 
of  lime  or  alkalies,  it  becomes  a  very  active  manure,  as  numerous  experiments 
tend  to  prove. 

Horn  must  also  be  included  in  the  list  of  highly  efficacious  animal  manures. — 
It  contains  a  larger  quantity  of  decomposable  animal  matter  than  bone,  and  is 
decomposed  with  less  difficulty,  and  is  almost  entirely  dissolved  in  nitrogen,  hy- 
drogen, carbonic  acid,  phosphorus,  and  sulphate  of  lime,  and  then  apparently  en- 
ters into  divers  combinations  with  them  in  various  proportions,  producing  thereby  , 
exceedingly  fertilizing  matters.  The  shavings  or  clippings  of  horn,  or  the  resi- 
due left  by  turners,  comb-makers,  &c.  are  most  frequently  used  for  manuring 
land.  The  most  minute  portions  are  the  first  to  become  decomposed  ;  but,  al- 
though their  effect  is  most  sensible,  it  does  not  last  more  than  a  year.  But  this 
effect  may  easily  become  so  great  as  to  cause  the  chief  part  of  the  cereals  to  be 
laid  ;  besides,  on  account  of  this  excess  of  fertility,  ihey  are  longer  in  arriving  at 
maturity  :  the  grain  does  not  ripen  so  soon  ;  the  ears  of  corn  are  more  subject  to 
rust ;  the  grain  itself  contains  less  farina  ;  and,  in  short,  the  crop  has  all  the  de- 
fects of  cereals  sown  on  land  which  has  been  ameliorated  by  the  folding  of  sheep 
— possibly  because  both  contain  too  great  a  proportion  of  nitrogen.  It  is,  there- 
fore, better  to  ameliorate  those  soils  with  horn  which  are  intended  for  the  pro- 
duction of  crops  which  are  not  liable  to  suffer  from  an  excess  of  manure.  If  some 
few  larger  pieces  are  found  among  the  shavings,  or  if  hoofs  are  chopped  and 
mixed  with  them,  the  decomposition  goes  on  more  slowly.  These  matters  do 
not  produce  much  effect  in  the  first  year ;  but  when  once  the  effect  is  produced, 
it  is  more  durable.  English  agriculturists  consider  that  from  five  to  six  hundred 
pounds  of  this  substance  is  a  sufficiently  rich  amendment  for  an  acre  of  land.  I 
have  used  twenty-four  bushels  of  these  shavings  on  that  extent  of  land.  A  bush- 
el weighs  from  twenty-four  to  thirtj-'-two  pounds,  according  as  it  is  composed  of 
shavings  or  large  pieces.  The  best  plan  is  to  determme  the  quantity  by  measure  i 
rather  than  by  weight,  because  the  thin  shavings  weigh  less  than  the  clippings,  I 
while  their  effect  is  more  prompt  and  energetic 

The  hoofs  of  animals,  of  which  butchers  frequently  have  an  immense  quantity  , 
by  them,  should  be  chopped  into  small  pieces  previous  to  being  spread  over  the 
land ;  but  this  is  by  no  means  an  easy  task,  unless  the  hoof  has  been  previously 
softened  by  being  steeped  in  water,  to  which  a  little  lime  and  ashes  have  been 
added,  for  a  considerable  time  ;  but  hoofs  may  be  used  whole  with  considerable 
advantage  for  the  purpose  of  ameliorating  meadows.  Where  this  is  done,  holes 
are  made  in  the  ground,  about  a  foot  and  a  half  or  two  feet  apart,  and  into  each 
of  these  is  put  the  hoof  of  an  ox,  full  of  Avater.  An  abundance  of  grass  shoots  up 
round  this  hoof  on  the  first  year ;  on  the  second  the  amelioration  extends  yet  far- 
ther ;  and  on  the  third  year,  the  hoof  being  totally  dissolved,  the  whole  of  the 
meadow  is  ameliorated. 

The  refuse  of  the  shambles,  consistmg  of  blood,  hair,  and  all  kinds  of  filth, 
likewise  forms  an  excellent  manure :  mixed  with  earth,  and  used  in  small  quan- 
tities, these  substances  produce  prompt  and  energetic  effects.  It  would  be  al 
most  extravagant  to  make  use  of  them  or  bury  them  as  we  should  other  manures, 
as  they  can  be  employed  with  so  much  more  advantage  in  the  form  of  compost. 
The  same  may  be  observed  with  respect  to  the  offal  of  tan-yards.  I  here,  of 
course,  allude  to  the  animal  portions,  and  not  to  the  tan.  This  is  also  a  very  , 
active  species  of  manure,  and  one  which  should  be  employed  in  the  formation  of 
compost,  and  spread  over  the  land  sparingly.  \ 

The  hair  and  wool  of  animals  is  composed  of  the  same  constituent  parts  as 
horn,  but  these  substances  do  not  decompose  so  rapidly,  at  least  until  they  have 
been  mixed  with  a  little  lime.  In  England,  woolen  rags,  feathers,  and  old  bats 
are  carefully  collected  and  sold  as  manure.  They  are  thrown  into  trenches, 
;  sprmkled  with  quick-lime,  and  then  left  to  decompose  ;  and,  s-.^bsequently,  the 
matter  thus  formed  is  mixed  with  the  soil.      It  is  an  undeniable  fact,  that  if 

(657) 15 


226  THAER  S   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

nothing  which  could  by  possibility  tend  to  accelerate  or  enrich  vegetation  were 
wasted  or  suffered  to  be  lost,  an  immense  increase  of  products  would  be  the 
result 

Shoes  and  old  leather  are  not  very  easily  decomposed  by  the  simple  action  of  ; 
'\  the  atmospheric  air,  but  if  mixed  with  a  little  quick-lime  they  speedily  enter  into 
a  state  of  decomposition,  and  are  transformed  into  a  mucilaginous  substance. 
The  residue  of  the  grease-tubs  of  tallow-chandlers,  when  not  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  soap,  forms  an  excellent  manure,  but  one  which  ought  only  to  be 
applied  in  the  form  of  compost. 

The  scum  taken  from  the  boilers  of  sugar-bakers,  and  the  residue  of  these 
manufactures,  consisting,  for  the  most  part,  of  blood,  mucilage,  and  lime,  must 
not  be  omitted  in  the  list  of  animal  manures.  In  rural  undertakings,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  large  towns,  an  abundance  of  this  substance  can  always  be  pro- 
cured ;  and  it  is  a  general  opinion  that  there  is  no  variety  of  manure  which  can 
surpass  it  in  the  effects  which  it  produces,  or  which  goes  so  far. 

All  the  last-mentioned  species  of  animal  manures  are  only  within  the  reach  of 
those  agriculturists  whose  farms  or  estates  are  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  large 
towns  or  thickly  populated  districts.* 

*  Since  M.  Thaer  wrote,  another  animal  fertilizer,  ihe  guano,  has  been  added  to  the  list;  of  this,  large 
quantities  arc  now  importing  into  England.  Guano  is,  it  seems,  the  European  mode  of  pronouncing  the 
Peruvian  word  "  huano,''  or,  manure.  This  substance  exists  in  large  quantities  in  some  of  the  rocky  islands 
otf  the  coast  of  Peru,  where,  in  the  course  of  ages,  it  has  been  formed  by  the  deposit  of  the  excrements  of  in- 
numerable multitudes  of  sea-fowl,  who  haunt  those  localities,  especially  during  the  breeding  season. 

"  It  forms  irregular  and  limited  deposits,  which  at  times  attain  a  depth  of  tifty  or  sixty  feet,  and  are  ex- 
cavated like  mines  of  red  ochre.  Its  real  origin  was  well  known  to  the  Government  of  the  Incas,  and  its 
national  imporwnce  fully  understood.  It  was  made  a  capital  otfence  to  kill  the  yoimg  birds  on  the  guano 
islands:'— Professor  Jo/uislon,  Jnur.  Roy.  Ag.  Sur.  vol.  li.  p.  i03. 

It  exists,  according  to  W.  Humboldt  { Davy's  EUm.  Ag.  Cneni.  296).  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  some  of 
tlie  small  rocky  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  a.-;  at  C;;hithe,  Ilo,  Iza,  and  Arica.  Even  when  Humboldt 
wrote,  some  twenty  years  since.  Mfty  vessels  were  ai:m'.;,lly  loaded  with  the  guano  at  (,hinche  alone,  each 
trader  caiTying  from  one  thousand  live  hundred  to  two  thousand  cubic  feet.  The  guano  is  found,  accord- 
ing to  Liebig  (Organic  Chem.  Si),  on  the  surface  of  these  hmds  in  strata  of  several  feet  in  thickness,  and  is, 
in  fact,  the  slowly  putrefjing  excrements  of  innumerai.lu  sea-fowl  that  remain  on  them  during  the  breeding 
season.  It  is  used  by  the  farmers  of  Peru  chiedy  as  a  manure  for  the  maize  or  Indian  corn,  and,  it  is  said, 
sometimes  in  the  small  propoition  of  about  1  cwt.  per  acre.  ■■  The  date  of  the  di?coverj-  of  the  guano,  and 
of  its  introduction  as  a  manure,"  says  Mr.  Winderfeit  ( B,it.  Farm  Mag.  vol.  vi,  p.  4li),  '-is  unknown,  al- 
though no  doubt  exists  of  its  great  antiquity.  In  many  pails  of  America,  where  the  soil  is  volcanic  or  sandy, 
no  produce  woulJ  be  obtained  without  the  guano,  h  has  been  calculated  that  from  12,000  to  14,0l;0  cwt. 
are  annually  sold  in  the  poit  of  MoUendo  for  the  use  of  the  country  round  the  city  of  Arequipa.  in  the 
provincee  of  Taracapa,  and  in  the  valleys  of  Tambo  and  Victor,  the  c'->nsumption  should  be  something 
more,  as  wheat,  all  kinds  of  fruit,  trees,  and  plants,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  sugia--cano,  are  manured 
with  the  guano  ;  which  is  not  the  case  with  the  district  uf  Arequipa,  where  mtiize  and  the  potato  alone  re- 
quire it.  In  the  district  of  Arequipa  3  cwt.  of  guano  are  spread  over  an  extent  of  live  thousand  square  yai  ds 
(about  an  English  acre);  but  in  Taracapa  and  the  valie3-s  uf  Tambo  and  Victor,  5  cwt.  are  reqiiued.  The 
land  thus  mfinured  in  Arequipa  produces  45  for  1  of  potatoes,  and  35  fur  1  of  maize ;  v/here  wheat  iijauured 
with  horse-dung  produces  only  IS." 

There  are.  it  appears,  three  varieties  of  guano,  wiiich  bear  on  the  const  of  Peru  ditferent  prices.  '  The 
white  guano  is  considered  the  most  valuable,  as  being  fresher  and  purer.  It  is  found  on  nearly  all  the 
islands  along  the  coast.  The  red  and  dark  grey  are  worth  2s.  3d.  the  cwt.  ;  a  higher  price  is  given  for  the 
white  on  account  of  its  greater  scarcity.  It  is  sold  at  the  port  of  MoUendo  at  3s.  6d.  per  cwt,,  and  at  times, 
as  during  the  war,  it  has  obtained  as  high  a  price  as  12s." 

In  a  recent  obliging  communication  (Dec  29,  1842)  Irom  a  gentleman  who  has  resided  many  years  on  the 
coast  of  Peru  (Henry  Bland,  Esq.,  of  Liverpool),  be  observes^in  answer  to  s;orae  questions  which  I  had  ad- 
dressed to  him  with  regard  to  the  uses  of  guano,  the  soils,  and  the  chmate  of  Peru — 

•'  The  valleys  on  the  coast  of  Peru  consist  chietly  of  a  light  and  sandy  soil.  A'o  ram  falls  upon  that  pan 
of  the  coast  where  I  have  seen  guano  used.  Neither  are  the  dews  so  copious  as  to  be  considered  by  the 
Peru%'ian  farmer  to  be  of  any  importance  in  promoting  vegetation  m  the  valleys. 

■'On  the  tops  of  the  coast  "hills  a  slight  verdure  is  produced  by  the  dews  in  tlje  v/inter  season,  but  it  does 
not  remain  for  more  than  one  or  two  months.     The  land  of  the  valleys  is  u-rigated  ;  but  without  the  limits 
of  irrigation  all  is  a  desert,  with  the  exception  of  the  slight  vegetation  I  have  alluded  to.    I'bis  is  the  stiite  of 
the  coast  fifom  about  5  degrees  to  22  degrees  south  latitude. 
(         "  I  do  not  believe  that  so  small  a  quantity  as  1  cwt.  of  guano  per  acre  is  found  suiiicient  foi-  tlie  soi.'  upon 
,     any  part  of  the  coast  of  Peru.     In  the  neighborhood  of  Arequipa  the  iirst  crop  is  maize  (Indiau  ccrn;     'I'iie    . 
seed  is  sown  in  drills  or  trenches,  and  the  bunches  (three  or  four  plants  I  call  a  bunch)  come  up  about    > 
two  feet  apart.     When  the  plants  are  six  or  eight  inches  above  ground,  a  pinch  of  guano  (as  much  a.s  can    ) 
be  easily  be  held  between  the  thumb  and  two  fingers)  is  placed  around  each  bunch,  and  the  whole  is  usually    \ 
irrigated  immediately  afterwards.     Guano  is  again  appUed  when  the  plant  is  about  throwing  out  i-  fruits,  n,    \ 
handful  is  then  applied  to  each  bunch,  and  irrigation  immediately  follow.s.     The  next  succeeding  trop.i,    > 
potatoes  and  wheat,  are  produced  without  any  further  application  of  manure.  \ 

"  In  the  valley  ui  i  ;haucay,  distant  from  Liina  about  forty  miles,  a  soil  which  v^ithoM  guano  is  cajjable  \ 
of  producing  only  1-5  for  1  of  Indian  com,  with  guano  is  made  to  produce  300  for  1.  In  speaking  of  guano,  ( 
the  Peruvians  say,  "  Aunque  no  sea  santo  hace  milagros." — Guano,  though  no  saint,  works  miiacles.  ( 

"  Guano  to  be  good,  being  in  some  measure  soluble  in  water,  can  never  bo  found  in  its  mo-'t  jjowerfid  ( 
state  in  any  cUmate  where  i-ain  falls  ;  and,  consequently,  any  that  may  be  brought  from  the  coiist  of  Pent,  ( 
taken  from  without  the  limits  of  dryness,  must  be  of  inferior  value  compared  with  that  which  conie?  fi-om  < 
the  Cbinche  Islands  ;  situated  in  about  lOi^  degrees  south  latitude,  and  about  ten  miles  distant  from  ihe  main  ;  ( 
and  from  Paquica,  on  the  coast  of  Bolivia,  in  la.',itude  21°  south.  Upon  these  islands,  and  at  Paquica,  is  the  I 
principal  deposit  of  guano.  Two  or  three  cargoes  of  guano  from  the  coast  of  Chili  (where  rain  is  frequent)  l 
(6.-i8) 


vegetable  Manures. 
Purely  vegetable  manures  are  not  nearly  so  active  and  energetic  as  those  of 
animal  origin  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  their  effects  are  more  durable.     They  ap- 
pear to  produce  a  more  durable  humus  ;  but  which  is  not  so  easily  or  so  prompt-  < 
ly  absorbed  by  the  suckers  of  plants.     An  addition  of  animal  matter,  of  lime,  or 
of  alkalies,  tends  materially  to  accelerate  their  decomposition.     A  soil  that  is 

have  fouiul  their  way  into  this  countrj'.  and  have.  I  believe,  been  sold  for  Chinche  guano,  thus  injuring  both    . 
the  character  of  the  best  guano  as  a  manure,  and  the  imporr er  of  the  genuine  article. 

"  I  may  mention  a  circumstance   to  show  the  little  estimation  in  which  nitrate  of  soda,  compared  with    , 
guano,  is  held  by  the  Peruvian  farmer.     On  the  coast  of  Peru  nitrate  of  soda  is  produced  at  a  distance  of   , 
about  forty-five  miles  from  Iquique,  the  port  at  which  the  principal  part  of  the  nitrate  is  shipped.     For 
mules,  to  transport  the  nitrate  from  the  place  where  it  is  made  to  the  port  of  shipment,  the  nitra'e  merchant, 
who  sells  for  export,  depends  chiefly  upon  the  farmers  who  reside  in  the  imniediatR  neighborhood  where    , 
the  nitrate  is  produced,  and  he  can  only  secure  their  sei-vices  by  having  always  ready  for  them,  in  the  port    , ' 
of  Iquique,  a  return  load  of  guano,  which  they  carry  back  to  manure  their  fiuni.?,  after  having  earned  a  load    ^ 
of  nitrate  almost  from  their  own  doors  to  the  port  of  Iquique." 
,        Guano  appears,  in  the  state  in  which  it  has  been  lately  introduce.d  into  this  countrj-,  to  be  a  fine  brown  or 
,     fawn-colored  powder,  emitting  a  strong  marine  smell ;  it  blackens  when  heated,  and  gives  off  strong  am- 
,     moniacal  fumes.     When  nitric  acid  is  mixed  with  it,  uric  or  Uthic  acid  is  produced.     It  has  been  analyzed 
by  various  chemists.     In  1806  an  analysis  of  a  very  elaborate  description  was  published  by  MM.  Fourcroy 
and  Vanquelin;  they  found  in  it  a  fourth  of  its  weight  of  uric  acid,  partly  saturated  with  ammonia  and  partly 
with  potash  ;  some  phosphate  of  lime  and  ammonia,  and  small  quantities  of  sulphate  and  muriate  of  potash  ; 
a  little  fatty  matter ;  and  a  portion  of  sand.    It  has  been  more  recently  analyzed  by  Mr.  Hennell,  of  Apothe- 


caries' Hall,  who  found  in  guano : 

Parts. 

Bone  earth  30-5 

Sulphates  and  muriates 3 

Uric  or  lithic  acid 15 

Carbonate  of  ammonia 3 


Parts. 
Matters  volatile  at  212°.  coneisting  chiefly  of 

water  and  carbonate  of  ammonia 12 

Other  organic  matters 36^5 

100 


The  composition  of  guano  varies,  however,  considerably.    According  to  the  analysis  of  MM.  Voelckel  and 
Klaproth,  the  varieties  which  they  examined  contained  : 
Voelckel.  Klapkoth. 


Parts.  Parts. 

Urate  of  ammonia 9  16 

Oxalate  of  ammonia 10*6  0-0 

Ditto  lime 7  12-75 

I    Phosphate  of  ammonia 6  0-0 

Ditto        ammonia  and  magnesia..    2-6  0-0 

Sulphate  of  potass 5-5  0-0 

Ditto  soda 3-3  00 

Chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt)    0-0  0-5 


Voelckel.  Klaproth. 
Parts.  Parts. 

Ditto        ammonia 4-2  0-0 

Phosphate  of  lime 14-3  10 

Clay  and  sand 4.7  32 

Undetermined  organic  substances, 

of  which  about  twelve  per  cent, 

is     soluble    in    water,    a     small 

quantity  of  soluble  salt  of  iron, 

water 32-53  28-75 


In  a  few  words,  it  may  be  regarded  as  an  impure  compound  of  phosphate  of  lime,  of  urate  of  ammonia, 
and  other  salts.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  it  is  a  very  powei-ful  manure  ;  the  very  composition  of  its  salts 
would  indicate  this  fact. 

According  to  the  analysis  of  Professor  Johnston  the  quantity  of  sand  always  presentin  the  imported  guano 
varies  from  two  to  eleven  percent ;  the  sand  consisting  chiefly  of  mica,  quartz,  and  felspar,  the  debris  of  the 
rocks  of  the  coast  of  Peru.  A  specimen,  v/hich  Professor  Johnston  examined,  he  desciibes  as  being  "of  a  brown- 
ish-red color  ;  it  is  evidently  a  very  ancient  deposit,  and  has  undergone  much  decomposition.  It  consists  of  a 
powdery  portion  mixed  with  lumps  of  various  sizes.  The  latter,  when  broken,  exhibit  an  aggi-egation  of 
minute  crystalline  plates,  are  much  richer  in  ammonia  than  that  which  is  in  powder,  and  are  free  from 
sand  and  stones.  When  broken  up,  however,  the  lumps  speedily  lose  their  crystalline  appearance,  give 
off  ammonia,  even  at  the  ordinai-y  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  and  assume  the  condition  of  the  pow- 
dery portion  with  which  they  are  mixed." 

It  would  appear,  from  the  results  of  the  various  trials  which  have  been  recently  carried  on  in  this  country 
I  upon  the  guano,  that  it  is  certainly  a  fertihzer  possessing  powerful  effects  ;  but  it  is  pretty  cleai-  that  it  must 
be  used  in  larger  proportions  than  was  formerly  suggested — from  3  to  4  cwt.  per  acre  appear  to  be  the 
proper  proportion.  It  is  also  evident,  from  the  trials  which  I  have  witnessed,  as  well  as  from  many  whose 
results  have  been  pu.b!ished,  that  it  should  not  be  applied  in  immediate  contact  with  the  seed.  If,  therefore, 
it  is  applied  by  the  drill,  which  I  believe  to  be  the  best  mode,  it  should  be  applied  by  a  separate  coulter,  and 
by  the  mode  adopted  in  the  improved  Suffolk  drills,  by  which  the  manure  is  deposited  in  the  soil  so  much 
deeper  and  so  much  in  advance  of  the  seed  as  to  allow  a  portion  of  the  soil  to  be  interposed  between  the 
seed  and  the  manure  beneath  it.  Like  all  other  concentrated  fertilizers, it  is  pretty  certain  that  for  the  most 
successful  development  of  its  powers  it  requires  a  considerable  supply  of  moisture,  and  will,  therefore,  pro- 
duce  the  best  results  during  wet  seasons.  It  is  used,  it  seems,  in  many  situations  in  Pei-u,  which  are  imme- 
diately afterwards  in-igated. 

From  these  facts,  and  from  the  general  good  effects  which  it  has  been  noticed  to  produce  on  gi-ass-lands 
in  St.  Helena,  and  in  Lancashire,  and  other  of  the  most  rainy  English  counties,  it  is  evidently  well  adapted 
for  a  top-dressing  for  meadows,  and  low  situated  lands  in  general.  This,  too,  seems  to  accord  with  the 
opinion  of  Mr.  J.  Beadel,  a  very  excellent  cultivator  and  lan<l  agent,  of  Witham,  who  remarks,  in  a  commu- 
nication with  which  he  recently  favored  me—"  I  think  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  genuine  guano  being  a 
most  powerful  fertilizer  ;  and  were  I  about  to  use  it,  I  s>.ou!d  prefer  applying  it  as  a  li.gii.id  manure. 

"I  ;uTi  rather  inclined  to  think  that  most  of  the  top-dressings  which  we  use  will  succeed  bettor  as  a  stimu- 
lant for  gi-een  crops,  and  probably  on  grass-land,  than  for  cereal  crops  ;  with  me,  I  have  found  wheat  more 
subject  to  mildew  when  so  dressed.  The  sti-aw  then  is  dark  and  very  vigorous,  but  the  kernel  does  not 
plump  up.  It  may  be  that  I  used  too  much,  and  so  failed  ;  the  appearance"  was  very  like  corn  grown  on  a 
dung-hill,  rank  but  not  corny." 

1  thi.ik  also,  from  my  observations,  that  if  the  guano  i,^  well-mixed  with  three  or  four  times  its  weight  of 
finely  sifted  earth,  and  suffered  to  remain  for  some  weeks  in  this  state  before  it  is  used  by  the  drill  or  ap- 
plied broadcast,  that  its  effects  would  be  more  considerable,  and  the  sometimes  too  powerful  efl'ects  of 
guano  uiion  the  growmg  crop  avoided.  [Johnston  on  Guano. 

Itinfi) 


228  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

from  time  to  time  ameliorated  with  purely  vegetable  manures,  preserves  its  fer- 
tility better  ;  it  retrieves  that  richness  and  succulency  which  it  had  lost,  in  a 
much  more  durable  manner  than  it  would  if  ameliorated  Avith  animal  manures 
only  ;  this  is  the  reason  that  land  whicli  has  become  very  much  impoverished  or 
exhausted  recovers  itself  so  much  more  effectually  when  suffered  to  repose, 
than  it  does  when  manured. 

We  have  already  enumerated  the  vegetable  substances  which  may  be  used  as 
litter  with  the  greatest  advantage  ;  these  substances  when  mixed  with  the  ex- 
crements of  the  animals  easily  become  decomposed,  and  serve  to  moderate  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  animal  manure  putrefies. 

But  there  are  also  other  vegetable  substances  which  in  their  separate 
slates  may  be  applied-  to  the  manuring  of  that  soil  whence  they  have  sprung. 
They  may  be  restored  to  the  land  in  one  of  two  Avays,  viz.,  either  accidentally  or 
intentionally. 

There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  all  those  weeds  Avhich  are  allowed  to  produce 
their  flowers  and  then  buried  by  the  action  of  the  plow,  tend  to  augment  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil.  For,  although  the  development  of  almost  every  plant  is  in 
some  measure  dependent  on  the  mould  or  humus  contained  in  the  soil,  yet  nu- 
merous experiments  serve  to  prove  that  plants  likewise  absorb  aeriform  substan- 
ces, and  in  all  probability  the  constituent  parts  of  decomposed  water  as  well, 
which  they  transform  into  organic  matters  by  means  of  their  own  internal  me- 
chanism. It  may,  therefore,  be  admitted  as  a  fact,  that  every  vegetating  plant 
increases  the  organic  matter  and  humus  of  the  soil,  if  it  perishes  in  the  same  spot 
in  which  it  originally  sprang  up.  This  is  one  reason  that  a  complete  fallow  in 
which  a  great  quantity  of  grass  and  weeds  spring  up  after  each  plowing,  may  be 
regarded  as  equal  to  a  slight  manuring,  and  that  independently  of  all  the  other 
advantages  which  it  produces.  The  more  abundantly  and  vigorously  weeds 
spring  up,  and  the  greener  the  soil  becomes  between  each  plowing,  the  more  is 
it  benefited.  Those  fields  which  produce  the  greatest  quantity  of  hedge-mustard 
{erysimum)  derive  most  benefit  from  fallowing,  independently  of  the  advantage 
resulting  from  the  destruction  of  this  weed. 

There  is  not  a  single  vegetable  substance,  even  down  to  the  stubble  which 
most  crops  leave  behind  them,  Avhich  does  not  restore  some  portion  of  mould  to 
the  soil.  The  longer  this  stubble  is,  the  greater  effect  does  it  produce  ;  there- 
fore, where  a  similar  quantity  of  manure  is  bestowed  on  the  land,  the  soil  be- 
comes less  exhausted  in  those  districts  where  it  is  customary  to  leave  the  stub- 
ble long  when  the  corn  is  reaped.  But  it  is  highly  necessary  that  this  stubble 
should  be  buried  without  loss  of  time,  as  it  appears  that  it  only  becomes  decom- 
posed when  buried  in  the  soil,  but  that  Avhen  exposed  to  the  air  it  dries  up  and 
turns  to  powder.  In  general  the  stubble  of  plants  which  possess  long  thick  root* 
and  stems  deposits  a  larger  portion  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  than  the  stub- 
ble of  corn-fields ;  but  that  which  is  productive  of  the  most  beneficial  effects 
when  buried  with  roots  and  stems  is  the  stubble  of  vegetables  which  have  not 
borne  their  seed,  or  become  dry  and  strawy,  and  which  contain  a  considerable 
quantity  of  mucilaginous  particles.  Hence  arise  those  ameliorating  effects  at- 
tributed to  vetches  and  clover  grown  while  green :  these  plants  shed  a  portion  of 
their  leaves  and  stems  on  the  soil,  and  thus  enrich  it  before  they  are  gathered,  and 
generally  put  forth  fresh  leaves  and  shoots  previously  to  being  plowed  into  the  soil. 

Nothing  tends  to  improve  land  more  than  the  turf  or  accumulation  of  herbage 
which  is  successively  formed  during  a  number  of  years.  The  thick  tissue  of  the 
plants  and  their  clusters  of  roots,  the  animal  matter  of  the  dead  worms  and  in- 
sects, the  excrements  of  the  cattle  which  have  been  pastured — these  all  combine 
to  render  the  soil  peculiarly  fertile  and  capable  of  yielding  several  successive 
crops  without  the  addition  of  fresh  manure.  It  is  quite  an  erroneous  supposition 
to  attribute  this  amendment  solely  to  rest,  since  rest  alone  could  only  have  been 
productive  of  a  negative  good.  The  better  the  condition  of  a  soil  when  laid  down 
to  grass,  the  more  herbage  will  it  be  able  to  produce,  and  the  more  will  it  profit 
by  the  terra  of  repose  allowed  to  it ;  not  only  on  account  of  its  inactivity,  but  be- 
cause its  productive  powers  are  much  greater. 

The  erroneous  opinions  which  are  in  general  entertained  with  regard  to  the 
effect  produced  on  land  by  repose,  have  perhaps  given  rise  to  the  prejudice  in  fa- 
vor of,,  and  in  some  degree  contributed  to  the  maintenance  of  the  custom  of  only 
(660) 


MANURING  THE   SOIL.  229 


J  laying  down  those  portions  of  land  to  grass  which  are  completely  exhausted,  in 
'  the  hope  that  by  so  doing  they  might  be  restored  to  their  pristine' fertility  and  ac- 
tivity.    And  it  cannot  be  denied  that  repose  does  produce  this  effect,  because  no 
soil  is  ever  so  thoroughly  impoverished  as  to  be  incapable  of  putting  forth  some 
few  shoots  and  sprouts  of  herbage  :  but  the  improvement  which  results  is  much 
more  backward,  and  its  effects  much  weaker  than  if  the  land  had  been  in  a  bet- 
ter condition  when  abandoned  to  Nature.     The  more  fertile  a  soil  is  when  laid 
down  to  grass,  the  more  leaves  and  roots  and   patches  of  herbage  does  it  put 
forth,  the  more  worms  and  insects  are  engendered,  the  greater  number  of  cattle 
are  pastured  on  it,  and,  consequently,  the  greater  quantity  of  excrements  are 
voided  over  it :  thus,  therefore,  the  more  it  abounds  in  nutritive  juices  when  first 
laid  to  grass,  in  the  greater  degree  will  it  be  benefited  by  the  period  of  repose. 
We  bestow  a  most  active  and  abundant  vegetable  amendment  on  a  soil  when 
we  sow  it  with  plants  adapted  to  its  nature,  which  will  flourish  and  attain  the 
highest  state  of  development ;  and  then  when  they  have  begun  to  flower,  either 
bury  them  by  the  action  of  the  plow,  or  have  them  eaten  off  the  ground,  or  trod-    ! 
''  den  in  by  cattle.     This  practice  is  of  great  antiquity :  it  was  held  in  high  esti-    i 
mation  among  the  Romans,  and  exists  at  the  present  day  in  Italy.     There  it  is 
that  the  amelioration  produced  by  a  crop  which  has  been  buried  while  green  is    I 
the  very  best  that  can  be  bestowed  on  a  soil,  and  is  capable  of  bestowing  on  it  | 
the  utmost  degree  of  fertility  of  which  it  is  susceptible  :  indeed,  they  even  prefer    > 
it  when  there  is  a  sufficiency  of  animal  manure.     The  climate  of  Italy  certainly    | 
is  more  favorable  to  the  success  of  this  practice  than  ours,   because  those  crops  / 
which   are   intended   to  ameliorate  the  soil  are  not  sown  until  after  the  har- 
vest,  which    is   more   forward   there,    and   because     those   crops    have    then 
more   time  than   they  absolutely  require  to  enable  them  to  attain  their  high- 
est degree  of  vegetation.     Of  all  the  plants  used  for  this  purpose,  none  were 
so  much  prized  as  the  lupinus  albus  (white  lupine.)     This  plant  has  from  time 
immemorial  been  cultivated  solely  for  this  purpose,  and  still  continues  to  be  so  in 
the  present  day  ;  the  extreme  bitterness  both  of  its  seed  and  stem  precludes  all 
possibility  of  using  it  as  food,  either  for  men  or  animals.*     We  have  analyzed 
the  white  lupine  superficially,  and  mean  to  institute  a  more  minute  examination 
of  it,  and  we  found  that  it  contained  a  considerable  portion  of  mucilage,  which 
may  perhaps  explain  its  peculiar  adaptation  for  the  improvement  of  land.     Sis- 
mondi,  in  his  "Agriculture  of  Tuscany,"  tells  us,  "  that  the  seed  of  the  lupine, 
after  having  been  deprived  of  its  vitality,   is  buried  at  the  root  of  olive  trees  in 
order  to  manure  them."     We  have  only  to  institute  a  few  experiments,  and  We 
shall  soon  discover  whether  or  not  this  plant  is  sufficiently  distinguished  by  its 
fertilizing  and  ameliorating  properties  to  make  it  worth  our  pains  to  cultivate  it. 
It  is  well  known  to  all  florists  and  gardeners  that  it  thrives  exceedingly  well  in  this    ' 
climate.     I  cannot,  however,  at  present  determine  whether,  if  sown  after  a  crop  of 
rye,  it  would  become  sufficiently  developed  to  be  buried  with  advantage  ;  but  we 
have  several  other  plants  which  are  equally  proper  for  the  purpose,  if  not  more  so. 
The  following  are  the  properties  which  ought  to  be  united  by  those  plants 
which  are  cultivated  for  the  purpose  of  being  buried  as  vegetable  manure. 
'       {a).  The  plant  chosen  ought  to  be  one  adapted  to  the  texture,  qualities,  humid- 
ity, and  situation  of  the  land  on  which  it  is  to  be  sown,  in  order  that,  so  far  from 
vegetating  slowly,  it  may  shoot  up  and  flourish  with  all  possible  rapidity. 

[b).  The  seed  must  neither  be  expensive  nor  scarce,  or  it  must  be  of  such  a  na- 
ture that  a  small  quantity  of  seed  will  sow  a  considerable  extent  of  land. 

(c).  This  plant  must  attain  its  full  vigor  and  development  in  the  shortest  pos- 
sible space  of  time,  in  order  that  the  requisite  number  of  plowings  may  be  be- 
stowed on  the  fallow,  if  the  crop  be  sown  on  fallow  land,  or  that  it  may  succeed 
I   the  harvest  of  some  other  crop,  and  attain  its  development  that  same  year. 
\       {d).  It  must  be  well  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  soil  loose — must 
)  penetrate  deeply  into  it  by  means  of  its  roots,  and  cover  it  with  its  leaves. 
[       (e).  It  must  contain  a  considerable  portion  of  mucilage,  or  of  some  other  vegeto- 
animal  substance,  which  is  analogous  to  animal  matter. 
).  It  must  be  disposed  to  putrescence, 
here  is  no  plant  that  unites  all  these  qualities  in  so  eminent  a  degree  as  the 

j       *  The  Italians  ha  re  a  method  of  preparing  the' lupine  which,  deprives  it  of  its  bitterness  ;  I  have  frequent- 
ly seen  it  bought  and  eaten  by  the  peasantry,  who  appear  to  Uke  it  very  well.  [French  Trans. 
(661) 


^h) 


230  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

sperguJa  arvensis  (corn  spurry)  ;  various  trials  with  regard  to  its  fitness  for  this 
purpose  have  been  made,  almost  all  of  which  have  turned  out  well.  [Annals  of 
Agriculture  of  Lower  Saxony,  fourth  year,  section  1st,  A.)  Previously  to  plow- 
ing this  plant  into  the  soil,  cattle  may  he  allowed  to  pasture  slightly  upon  it ; 
but  then  they  must  be  suffered  to  remain  there  during  the  night,  if  we  would  not 
take  away  a  considerable  portion  of  the  advantages  which  might  otherwise  be 
derived  from  this  practice.  . 

Various  other  plants  are  used  for  this  purpose  ;  those  which  hear  oleaginous 
seeds — as  rape,  &c. — are  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  it ;  several  vegetables  ap- 
pertaining to  the  class  diadelphia — as  peas,  vetches,  and  heans.  It  is  chiefly  in 
England  that  vegetables  are  used  for  this  purpose;  even  there,  these  crops  are 
often  on  the  ground  previously  to  being  covered  by  the  plow  ;  and  in  order  to  ef- 
fect this  object,  all  kinds  of  cattle,  and  especially  pigs,  are  suffered  to  feed  on 
them.  These  last-named  animals  fatten  rapidly  there,  and  thus  contribute  to- 
wards paying  for  the  seed,  which  would  otherwise  become  too  expensive. 

The  same  use  is  occasionally  made  of  buckwheat ;  when  this  plant  is  green  it 
furnishes  a  very  nutritive  fodder. 

Frederick  the  Great,  himself,  relates  that  radishes  have  been  sown  chiefly  with 
a  view  to  this  purpose  ;  and  my  estimable  friend,  Harmstadt,  who  relates  various  ^ 
experiments  on  this  subject,  assures  us  that  heet-rooX,  mixed  with  different  sub- 
stances, produces   a  very  active  species  of  manure.     [Annals  of  Agricultural 
Chemistry,  by  Hermbstadt,  vol.  i.  A.) 

We  must  not  overlook  a  practice  Avhich  has  been  preserved  in  a  manner  so 
marked  and  consistent  in  all  those  places  where  it  is  known ;  on  the  contrary,  I 
think  that  it  deserves  to  be  analyzed  with  all  possible  attention,  and  to  be  in- 
quired into  in  all  its  bearings.  At  first  sight,  we  cannot  help  fancying  that  there 
is  a  degree  of  extravagance  in  causing  a  crop  which  might  be  mown,  and  con- 
sumed in  the  stable  by  animals,  to  be  crushed  by  the  roll,  or  trodden  down  by  ' 
cattle.  Many  persons  are  of  opinion  that  this  kind  of  manure  will  be  equally  as  \ 
beneficial  to  the  land  if  the  crop  is  made  to  pass  through  the  bodies  of  the  ani- 
mals, as  it  would  be  if  the  plants  were  buried  at  once  ;  and  they  are  quite  right. 
But  the  extent  of  land  which  can  be  sown  with  crops  of  this  nature  will  always 
be  so  great  as  to  produce  far  more  fodder  than  is  necessary  to  supply  the  wants 
of  the  cattle,  of  which  a  certain  limited  number  is  usually  kept ;  and  it  frequent- 
ly happens  that  it  is  not  possible  to  procure  a  sufficient  number  of  laborers  to 
gatiier  the  whole  of  these  crops.  Nor  is  this  all :  the  Italians  have  observed  that 
some  kinds  of  lands  are  materially  benefited  by  occasionally  receiving  an  amend- 
ment composed  solely  of  vegetable  matters  ;  or,  as  they  term  it,  a  refreshing 
amelioration. 

Many  authors  have  recommended  this  practice  for  the  amelioration  of  distant 
or  detached  portions  of  land  only,  or  of  such  as  have  been  exhausted,  or  are  neAv- 
]y  brought  into  cultivation  ;  but  it  would  not  benefit  impoverished  soils  much, 
because  the  plants  sown  on  them  for  the  purpose  of  being  turned  into  the  ground 
as  manure,  would  vegetate  too  feebly.  Land  must  contain  succulent  matter  in 
order  to  be  able  to  produce  them  with  any  degree  of  success  ;  therefore,  this  spe- 
cies of  manure  is  better  calculated  to  preserve  the  fertility  of  a  soil  than  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  it  ;  and,  in  all  probability,  it  is  on  that  account  that  it  has  hith- 
erto been  so  little  used  among  us.  If  Ave  cojne  to  regard  a  field  Avell  covered 
with  a  thick  crop  of  vegetables,  we  may  easily  conceive  Avhat  may  be  expected 
from  such  a  quantity  of  stems  and  leaves  Avhen  buried  in  the  soil  for  the  purpose 
of  manuring  it. 

AH  kinds  of  vegetable  refuse  may  be  used  as  manure,  if  collected  together  and 
decomposed  by  the  admixture  of  a  small  quantity  of  animal  substances  or  lime. 

The  sweepings  of  the  kitchen,  weeds,  wood,  rotten  saw-dust,  soot,  tanner's 
spent  bark,  or  oak  bark,  from  which  the  greater  part  of  the  astringent  principle 
has  been  extracted,  may  all  be  converted  into  manure.  Those  vegetable  sui> 
'  stances  Avhich  yield  a  considerable  portion  of  potassa,  on  being  burned,  are  emi- 
nently adapted  for  the  amendment  of  land  ;  of  this  number  are  the  stems  of  to- 
bacco plants,  maize,  straw,  &c.  ;  but  these  should  only  be  thus  employed  Avhen 
no  other  use  can  be  made  of  them. 

The  haulm  of  potatoes  also  possesses  the  means  of  ameliorating  land  in  a  par- 
ticularly high  degrp.^ ;  but,  in  order  that  it  may  putrefy  rapidly,  it  must  be  gaxh- 

(662) 


ered  together  or  mixed  with  dung  while  in  a  green  state.  An  attempt  has  been 
!  made  to  form  a  kind  of  compost  with  potato  haulm,  turf,  and  a  little  lime,  which  ' 
'  is  said  to  have  produced  excellent  effects.  No  insignificant  quantity  of  this  sub-  ' 
stance  will  be  yielded  by  an  acre  of  potatoes.  If  the  haulm  is  left  on  the  ground 
and  subsequently  plowed  in,  it  becomes  gradually  decomposed  ;  this  circumstance 
may  serve  to  explain  the  reason  of  some  persons  having  believed  that  potatoes 
are  not  a  verv  exhausting  crop.  The  process  of  decomposition,  however,  pro- 
gresses very  slowly,  and  retards  the  sowings  a  little. 

There  are  also  several  other  very  useful  plants,  the  stems  and  stalks  of  which 
shoot  up  to  a  considerable  hight,  and  which,  independent  of  their  actual  produce, 
are  capable  of  yield'ing  a  large  quantity  of  mould — a  circumstance  v/liich,  doubt- 
less, ought  to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  making  choice  of  one  kind  of  product 
rather  than  another  ;  of  this  number  is  the  helianthus  anmius  (annual  sunflower), 
and  the  helianthus  tuherosiis  (Jerusalem  artichoke). 

Sea-weeds  and  pond-weeds  may  likeAvise  be  entered  in  the  class  of  vegetable 
substances  which  yield  an  active  and  energetic  manure  ;  among  the  former  we 
may  particularly  notice  the  variety  of  the  fuci,  and  among  the  latter  the  chdra 
vulgaris  (common  chara),  which  is  always  covered  with  a  calcareous  mucilage ; 
but  if  we  would  derive  all  the  advantages  from  these  plants  which  they  are  ca- 
pable of  yielding,  we  must,  in  the  first  place,  cause  them  to  undergo  decomposi- 
tion, either  by  themselves  or  mixed  with  a  little  animal  dung. 

The  mud  which  is  found  at  the  bottom  of  rivers,  ponds,  and  other  places  m 
which  stagnant  water  has  remained  for  any  length  of  time,  and  the  scourings  of 
old  ditches,  are  matters  which  ought  to  be  included  in  the  class  of  vegetable  ma- 
nures ;  for  although  this  mud  is  sometimes  mixed  with  animal  matter,  and  like- 
wise contains  a  great  proportion  of  those  earths  of  which  the  neighboring  soils 
are  composed,  still  the  vegetable  substances  predominate  in  quality  if  not  in  quan- 
tity. This  substance  may  in  general  be  assimilated  to  vegetable  manure  ;  that 
is  to  say,  it  is  less  energetic  and  stimulating  than  animal  manure,  but  more  du- 
rable in  its  effects,  and  "richer  in  sa.ccharine  and  extractive  matter.  It  is,  there- 
fore, termed  "  refreshing  manure,*^'  and  the  most  durable  effects  are  attributed 
to  it. 

In  the  section  on  Agronomy,  we  have  already  spoken  of  the  different  kinds  of 
earth,  and  of  their  nature  :  and  have  carefully  distinguished  those  which  are 
sour  or  acid  from  those  which  are  devoid  of  acidity. 

It  is  very  advantageous  to  an  agriculturist  to  discover  such  a  store  of  fertilizing 
substances  in  his  own  estate.  HoAvever  great  may  be  the  difficulties  and  expenses 
attendant  on  the  extraction  and  transport  of  such  a  treasure  to  the  fields,  they 
will  always  be  fully  remunerated,  and  those  who  have  it  in  their  power  to  ad- 
vance the  requisite  outlay  will  fuid  themselves  amply  repaid.  I  must  confess, 
however,  that  these  expenses  are  always  very  great,  and  that  they  seldom  yield 
much  profit  during  the  first  years  of  application. 

The  principal  inconvenience  attendant  on  the  extraction  of  mud  or  mould  arises 
from  the  difficulty  in  clearing  it  from  water,  for  it  is  seldom  sufficiently  dry  when 
first  extracted.  This  may  occasionally  be  obviated  by  digging  furrows  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  off  the  moisture  ;  but,  in  general,  the  ditches  or  excavations 
in  which  the  mould  is  found  are  surrounded  by  elevations,  so  that  it  is  impossible 
to  find  any  outlet  through  which  it  may  escape.  In  this  case,  recourse  must  be 
had  to  machines  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up  the  water  by  pumps,  or  to  some 
other  hydraulic  engines.  This  operation  must  either  be  performed  in  the  sum- 
mer, or' during  the  hard  frosts  of  winter  ;  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  effect  it  in  the 
spring  and  autumn,  because  the  laborers,  having  to  stand  in  so  much  wet,  would 
be  unable  to  bear  the  cold.  In  the  midst  of  summer  this  mud  is  apt  to  exhale 
pestilential  vapors,  which  are  calculated  to  engender  fever  and  various  other  dis- 
eases, not  only  in  the  laborers  employed  in  the  operation,  but  also  in  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  vicinity.  This  is  especially  the  case  when  the  mud  has  lain  under 
water  for  a  considerable  period.  It  is,  therefore,  generally  preferable  to  execute 
this  operation  in  the  winter  season,  provided  that  care  has  been  taken  during  the 
autuma  to  divest  the  water  which  might  otherwise  prove  an  obstacle.  This  op- 
eration may  be  rendered  very  expensive,  by  the  difficulty  which  will  be  experien- 
ced in  cleaving  and  detaching  the  mud  when  it  is  frozen  hard,  as  well  as  by  the 
1  necessity  of  carting  and  transporting  the  ice  with  which  the  mud  is  firmly  united. 


232  THAERS  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


This  kind  <J"  manure  should  never  be  conveyed  to  the  soil  for  which  it  is  in- 
tended until  it  is  perfecily  dry.  When  in  a  moist  state,  it  must  first  he  laid  in  I 
some  place  where  it  may  be  deprived  of  the  moisture,  and  left  there  until  every 
particle  of  Avater  is  evaporated  ;  because  its  weight  and  volume  is  thus  considera- 
bly diminished,  and  the  carriage  of  it  rendered  less  difficult.  This  kind  of  ma- 
nure is  usually  conveyed  from  place  to  place  by  means  of  tumbrels  or  dung-carts, 
or  in  large  Avheel-barrows,  the  former  being  drawn  by  one  horse.  Local  circum- 
stances alone  can  enable  us  to  decide  which  of  these  two  vehicles  are  most  expe- 
dient to  be  used.  If  the  mud  has  only  to  be  carried  a  little  way,  wheel-barrows 
will  certainly  be  most  proper  ;  but  where  it  has  to  be  conveyed  a  considerable 
distance,  tumbrels  will  be  least  expensive.  These  latter  cannot,  however,  be 
used  when  the  ground  over  which  the  mud  has  to  be  conveyed  is  of  a  marshy 
nature  ;  in  that  case  a  pathway,  composed  of  boards,  must  be  made. 

This  operation  is  generally  executed  by  the  task  or  job.  Where  this  is  the 
case,  those  who  undertake  it  reckon  their  work  by  cubic  measure  or  by  the  cart- 
load. JSothing  definite  can  be  said  with  respect  to  the  usual  price  of  such  labor, 
excepting  that  it  ought  lo  be  better  paid  than  almo&t  any  other,  because  il  is  the 
most  unhealthy  and  laborious  of  all  agricultural  operations.  Besides,  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  the  laborers  employed  should  have  some  little  brandy  to 
drink. 

If  the  mud  is  completely  putrefied,  it  should  be  put  in  little  heaps,  in  order  that 
it  may  dry  more  quickly,  and  thot  a  greater  extent  of  surface  may  be  exposed  to 
the  infiuence  of  tlie  atmosphere.  But  if  it  still  contains  a  considerable  quantity 
of  uudecomposed  vegetable  matter,  of  moss,  or  aquatic  plants,  it  should  be  form- 
ed into  large  heaps  when  dry,  in  order  that  it  may  thus  become  heated,  enter 
into  fermentation,  and  the  vegetable  matter  be  thoroughly  putrefied.  This  putre- 
faction, or  decomposition,  will  be  greatly  accelerated  if  a  little  calcined  lime  or 
fresh  horse-dung  be  mixed  with  the  mud. 

These  additions  are  particularly  necessary  to  mud  which  contains  an  acid 
quality,  even  should  it  be  completely  decomposed.  It  is  often  advisable  to  post- 
pone the  addition  of  these  substances  until  the  matter  in  question  shall  have  been 
carried  to  the  land  on  which  it  is  to  be  used  ;  and  this  is  especially  the  case 
Avhen,  instead  of  being  spread  over  it  at  once,  it  is  left  there  in  he&ps,  as  the 
double  carriage  of  the  lime,  ashes,  &c.,  is  thus  saved.  This  remark  is  n£)t,  how- 
ever, applicable  to  mud  which  dries  quickly  ;  for  then,  instead  of  making  it  into 
heaps,  it  is  carried  at  once  from  the  place  whence  it  is  extracted,  to  the  land  over 
which  it  is  to  be  spread. 

If  we  would  have  this  mud  produce  prompt  and  immediate  effects,  we  must 
add  to  it  either  animal  manure,  alkalies,  or  alkaline  substances,  which  will  in- 
crease its  solubility  ;  but  it  is  only  necessary  to  effect  this  mixture  in  the  heap, 
when  the  humus  which  it  contains  is  of  an  acid  nature.  After  the  mud  has  been 
spread  over  the  soil,  and  these  substances  have  also  been  added,  the  mixture  may 
be  effected  by  means  of  shallow  plowmgs,  and  repeated  and  careful  harrowmgs. 
An  admixture  of  marl,  especially  if  it  contains  a  considerable  portion  of  lime,  that 
of  calcined  lime,  or  animal  dung,  with  the  mud  used  for  the  amelioration  of  land, 
has  always  appeared  to  be  productive  of  very  beneficial  effects.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  any  very  considerable  quantity  of  manure  should  be  applied  to  land 
ameliorated  Avith  this  substance  ;  one  half  of  the  usual  proportion  Avill  be  quite 
sufficient :  if  more  is  added,  the  corn  crops  Avhich  succeed  to  an  amelioration  of 
this  nature  will  inevitably  be  laid.  But  if  the  mud  is  turned  in  by  a  ploAving,  and 
no  portion  of  manure  is  added,  its  effects  will  not  then  be  perceptible  during  the  first  ' 
crop,  whatever  they  may  be  in  the  second  ;  and  should  this  substance  be  at  all 
of  an  acid  nature,  it  will  even  prove  injurious.  Nevertheless,  sooner  or  later  the 
advantages  resulting  from  it  will  become  evident.  They  generally  begin  to  ap- 
pear about  the  third  year,  and  then  the  effects  produced  are  much  more  durable. 

The  quantity  of  this  substance  which  is  said  to  have  been,  or  Avhich  ought  to 
be,  applied  to  the  amelioration  of  a  field  varies  very  much  :  in  some  places  a  load 
of  sixteen  cubic  feet  is  alloAved  for  a  square  perch  of  land,  and,  consequently,  one 
hundred  and  eighty  loads  per  acre  ;  Avhile,  in  other  places,  only  tAventy  such  loads 
are  allowed  for  an  acre  of  land.  Some  persons  affirm  that  it  ought  never  to  be 
spread  over  llie  ground  in  less  than  one  inch  in  thickness,  Avhile  others  maintain 
that  the  thickness  on  the  land  ought  never  to   excee-d  a  quarter  of  an  inch.     But 

(664J 


MANURING  THE   SOIL.  233 


this  depends  in  a  great  measure  upon  the  composition  and  nature  of  this  manure, 
since  it  will  cause  a  considerable  difl'erence  in  the  eflects  produced  by  it,  Avhether 
this  substance  contains  a  great  proportion  of  those  earths  of  whicli  the  soil  to 
which  it  is  applied  is  coraposedj  or  whether  it  contains  those  of  an  opposite  na- 
ture, or  consists  chiefly  of  vegetable  mould,  properly  so  called.  It  not  unfrequent- 
ly  happens  that  a  perfectly  black  mud  will  only  contain  eight  or  ten  parts  in  a 
hundred  of  humus,  and  all  the  rest  earth;  and,  nevertheless,  its  addition  to  the 
land  will  be  productive  of  beneficial  eflects,   especially   when  the  kind  of  earth 

1  which  it  contains  is  of  a  totally  opposite  nature  to  that  of  which  the  soil  to  whidh 
it  is  applied  is  composed.  Thus,  for  example,  pure  clay,  refined  by  water,  is 
beneficial  and  efficacious  when  applied  to  a  sandy  soil ;  but  if  the  mud  Avere 

'  chiefly  composed  of  silicious  earth,  it  would  not  be  productive  of  any  more  effect 
than  that  resulting  from  the  humus  contained  in  it.  In  the  latter  case,  therefore, 
a  large  quantity  must  be  applied,  if  we  would  effect  any  sensible  amelioration  in 
the  soil.  After  havmg  chemically  analyzed  the  mud,  the  quantity  of  it  must  be 
calculated  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  apply  to  a  certain  portion  of  land  in  or- 
der that  each  square  foot,  which  being  six  inches  deep,  is  equal  to  half  a  cubic 
foot  and  weighs  about  fifty  pounds,  shall  receive  at  least  a  pound  of  pure  humus  ; 
consequently,  should  this  substance  not  contain  more  than  ten  parts  in  a  hundred 
of  humus,  ten  pounds  of  it  must  be  applied  to  every  square  foot.     This  proportion 

'  v/ill  raise  the  quantity  to  be  applied  to  two  hundred  and  fifty-nine  thousand 
pounds  per  acre ;  which,  supposing  each  load  to  contain  sixteen  quintals,  Avill 
make  one  hundred  and  sixty-two  loads  per  acre.  The  more  humus  this  sub- 
stance contains,  the  smaller  proportion  of  it  will  be  requisite  to  ameliorate  a 
piece  of  land.  I  do  not  mean  to  assert  that  a  small  quantity  of  this  mud  Avillnot 
be  productive  of  any  effect,  but  merely  that  a  sensible  or  durable  effect  must  not 
be  expected  from  any  amelioration  of  this  nature  in  which  less  than  two  parts 
in  a  hundred  are  added  to  the  soil. 

The  weight  of  this  mud  is  also  susceptible  of  great  variation ;  it  is  lighter  in 
proportion  as  it  contains  a  greater  quantity  of  humus,  and  especially  when  it 
comprises  substances  which  have  not  become  thoroughly  decomposed  ;  the 
strength  of  a  load  must  not,  therefore,  be  estimated  by  measure,  but  rather  by 
weight. 

It  is  of  very  great  moment  that  this  substance  should  be  carefully  mixed  with 
the  soil,  and  that  this  mixture  should  be  effected  at  once,  or,  at  any  rate,  before 
the  termination  of  the  year  in  which  the  manure  is  transported  to  the  land.     If 
it  is  sufiered  to  lie  there  long  without  being  incorporated  in  the  soil,  it  agglomer- 
ates, and  forms  itself  into  clods,  which  are  a  considerable  time  before  they  fall  to 
powder  and  become  equally  divided,  especially  in  coherent  and   tenacious  soils  ; 
aiid,  until  it  is  thoroughly  divided  and  incorporated,  it  produces  little  or  no  effect. 
It  will,  therefore,  be  better  never  to  attempt  to  sow  any  crop  after  the  first  or 
even  the  second  ploAving  which  succeeds  to  the  application  of  an  amelioration  of   , 
this  nature,  but  to  suffer  the  land   to  lie  fallow,  during  which  time  a  perfect  in-  / 
corporation  of  the  mud  with  every  portion  of  the  soil  may  be  effected,  by  means  I 
of  shallow  and  repeated  plowings,  and  careful  harrowings.     This  is  particularly  S 
necessary  where  the  mud  contains  a  considerable  portion  of  earth,  properly  so  ) 
called.     The  mud  which  is  obtained  from  marshes  or  bogs,  and  Avhich  is  not  en-  ^ 
tirely  decomposed,  may  be  suffered  to  remain  on  the  soil  without  producing  any 
inconvenience,  because,  during  its  decomposition,  it  divides  and  pulverizes  Avith- 
out  difficulty.     One  of  my  correspondents  informs  me  that  he  has  found  it  pecu- 
liarly  advantageous   to  sow,   on   land   thus  amelioroted,  some  vegetable,    the 
growth  of  which  is  very  rapid,  and  which  is  intended  to  be  plowed  in  as  ma- 
nure :  common  spurry  has  appeared   to  him  to  be   peculiarly  adapted  for   this 
purpose. 

Peat  is  a  substance  which  may  also  be  employed  for  the  amelioration  of  land, 
and  especially  of  light  friable  soils  ;  but  when  this  substance  contains  acid,  or, 
what  is  still  worse,  bitumen,  it  must  be  made  into  heaps,  and  suffered  to  remain 
there  for  a  considerable  period,  mixed  either  with  calcined  lime,  or  strawy  stable 
dung,  or,  lastly,  with  very  fine  sand,  which  many  persons  assert  is  capable  of  de-  J 
stroying  all  baneful  properties.  These  peat  heaps  must  be  kept  moderately  moist ; 
and  the  best  and  most  advantageous  way  of  keeping  up  the  requisite  degree  of 
humidity  is  to  Avater  them  with  urine  or  dung-water.     Great  advantages  have 

(665) 


THAER  S    rJlINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


frequently  been  derived  from  forming  heaps  of  alternate  layers  of  peat  and  calca- 
reous marl ;  they  must  be  very  frequently  stirred,  and  turned  over.* 

If  peat-dust  has  remained  in  heaps  for  a  long  time,  it  may  be  used  as  manure 
without  the  addition  of  any  mixture,  and  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  ameliora- 
tion of  argillaceous  and  tenacious  soils. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  turf  pits  this  proceeding  will  be  most  profitable,  on  ac- 
count of  the  trifling  expense  which  it  will  cost. 

Lastly,  coal  and  bituminous  earth,  impregnated  with  sulphate  of  iron,  must 
not  be  omitted  in  the  enumeration  of  that  class  of  manures  which  are  of  a  vege- 
table origin  :  this  substance  has  been  employed  with  great  success,  and  for  the  i 
first  time  on  a  large  scale,  in  the  amendment  of  land  at  Oppelsdorf,  in  the  neigh-  { 
borhood  of  Zittau.  But,  as  the  principal  part  of  the  success  attendant  on  it  is  ) 
mainly  attributable  to  the  sulphate  of  iron,  Ave  shall  recur  to  this  subject  when  ^ 
speaking  of  those  manures  which  are  derived  from  saline  substances.  .  ^ 

We  shall  reserve  our  remarks  on  ashes  as  a  manure  to  the  same  place,  ul-  ( 
though  this  substance  owes  its  existence  to  vegetable  matters. 

Mineral  Manures. 

As  an  excessive  proportion  of  some  one  of  the  elementary  earths,  and  even  ot 
humus,  is  liable  to  prove  injurious  to  the  soil,  by  deranging  the  equilibrium  of 
its  physical  properties,  destroying  its  consistence,  or  its  disposition  to  retam 
moisture,  &c.  attempts  have  been  made  to  remedy  this  evil  by  the  application  of 
another  earth  of  diametrically  opposite  properties.  This  practice  may  be  termed 
the  physical  amelioration  of  the  soil,  in  order  to  distmguish  it  from  the  chemical 
amelioration,  Avhich  comprises  not  only  the  use  of  manures,  properly  so  called — 
that  is  to  say,  of  the  aliments  destined  for  the  nutrition  of  vegetables— but  also  of 
the  substances  which  develop  those  aliments,  and  prepare  them  for  behig  taken 
up  by  the  roots  of  plants. 

This  amelioration  of  the  physical  qualities  of  the  soil,  by  the  addition  of  an 
earth  which  is  opposite  in  its  nature  to  those  composing  the  land  which  it  is  in- 
tended to  ameliorate,  is  undoubtedly  within  the  list  of  practicable  undertakings, 
but  there  are  very  fcAV  cases  in  which  it  can  be  effected  with  any  degree  of  ad- 
vantage. It  is  hardly  possible  to  correct  the  defects  of  an  argillaceous  and  tena- 
cious soil  with  sand,  or  those  of  a  sandy  soil  with  clay,  excepting  in  those  cases 
in  which  the  kind  of  earth  necessary  to  effect  the  required  amelioration  is  found 
in  the  inferior  stratum  of  the  soil  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied.  There  is  no  doubt 
that,  in  such  cases,  the  necessary  amelioration  may  be  effected  by  means  of  deep 
ploAvings — so  directed,  how~ever,  as  not  to  bring  too  thick  a  layer  of  the  virgin 
earth  to  the  surface.  In  general,  the  new  earth  can  only  be  raised  from  the  bed 
on  wbich  it  rests  by  means  of  deep  trenches  or  excavations,  from  Avhich  it  is  dug 
and  thrown  up  by  the  shovel,  and  then  spread  over  the  surface  ;  while  that  earth 
which  was  formerly  on  the  top  is  cast  into  these  excavations  to  fill  them  up. 

*  Mr.  Dixon,  of  Hatheishaw,  in  Lancashire,  in  his  Prize  Essay,  thus  describes  the  result  of  his  long  ex- 
perience : — "  My  ftiiTO  is  a  strong,  retentive  eoil.  on  a  substratum  of  feiTuginous  clay.  My  object  was  to  im- 
prove its  texture  at  the  least  cost.  For  this  purpose  wo  caned  great  quantities  of  fine  saw-dust  and  peat 
earth,  or  bog  ;  we  had  so  far  to  go  for  the  latter,  that  two  horses  would  fetch  little  more  than  three  tons  in 
one  day  ;  one  horse  would  fetch  three  cart-loads  of  saw-dust  in  the  same  time.  Having  broitght  gi-eat  quan- 
tities of  both  peat  and  saw-dust  into  my  farm-yard,  I  laid  out,  for  the  bottom  of  a  conipost  heap,  a  space  of 
considerable  dimensions,  and  about  three  feet  in  depth ;  three-fourths  of  this  bottom  was  peat,  the  rest  saw- 
dust: on  this  we  conveyei,  daibj,  the  dung  from  the  cattle-sheds;  the  tirine,  also,  is  conducted  throut;h 
channels  to  wells  for  its  reception  (one  on  each  side  of  the  compost  heap)  ;  common  water  is  entirely  pre- 
vented from  mixing  with  it.  Every  second  day  the  urin^  so  collected  is  thrown  over  the  whole  mass  with 
a  scoop,  and  at  the  same  time  we  regulate  the  accumulated  dimg.  This  being  continued  for  a  week,  an- 
other layer,  nine  inches  or  a  foot  thick,  of  peat  and  saw-dust,  (and  frequently  pefit  without  saw-du^t,)  is 
wheeled  on  the  accumulated  heap.  These  matters  are  continuously  added  to  each  other  during  winter : 
and  in  addition,  once  in  every  week,  never  less  than  25  cwt. — more  frequently  50  cwt. — of  night-soil  and 
urine  ;  the  latter  are  always  laid  next  above  the  peat  or  bog  earth,  as  we  think  it  accelerates  their  decom;io- 
sition.  It  is,  perhaps,  proper  here  to  state  that  the  peat  is  dug  and  exposed  to  the  alternations  of  the  wf;ith- 
er  for  several  months  before  it  is  broucht  to  the  heap  for  admixture  :  by  this  it  loses  much  of  its  Dioistnre. 
Some  years'  experience  has  convinced  me  of  the  impropriety  of  using  recently-dug  peat :  used  in  the  man- 
ner 1  recommend,  it  is  superior  and  more  convenient  on  evei-y  account — very  much  lighter  to  cart  to  the 
farm-yard,  or  any  other  situation  where  it  is  wanted  ;  and  so  convinced  am  I  of  its  utility  in  composts  for 
every  description  of  soil,  except  that  of  its  own  character,  that  wherever  it  can  be  laid  down  on  a  fai-m  at 
less  than  4s.  per  ton,  I  should  recommend  every  agriculturist  and  horticulturist  that  can  command  it,  even 
at  the  cost  here  stated,  to  give  it  a  fair  trial.  So  attractive  and  retentive  of  moisture  is  peat,  that,  if  lihernlly 
applied  to  an  arid,  sandy  soil,  that  soil  does  not  bum  in  a  dry  season  ;  and  it  so  much  improves  the  texture 
and  increases  the  produce  of  an  obdurate  clay  soil,  if  in  other  respects  lightly  cultivated,  that  actual  experi- 
ence alone  can  fauly  detftiinine  its  value."  [Jour.  JCng.  Ag.  Soc,  vol.  i.  p.  135. 
(666) 


If  the  ameliorating  earth  has  to  be  procured  from  any  considerable  distance, 
or  to  be  raised  from  a  great  depth  in  the  ground,  these  operations  become  so  ex- 
pensive as  only  to  be  practicable  in  some  few  localities  and  cases  ;  for,  in  order 
to  effect  such  an  amelioration  in  the  soil — or,  in  other  words,  to  alter  the  nature 
of  the  layer  of  vegetable  mould — a  very  large  quanti-ty  of  earth  will  generally  be 
requisite  ;  so  great,  indeed,  that  the  soil  will  often  be  bought  too  dearly.  Ii  is, 
therefore,  necessary  to  calculate  what  is  the  relation  which  exists  between  the 
constituent  parts  of  the  earth  which  is  to  be  procured,  and  those  of  the  land 
which  we  wish  to  ameliorate  ;  and,  consequently,  how  much  of  the  former  Avill 
be  requisite  to  effect  a  proper  and  advantageous  mixture  throughout,  at  least,  a 
depth  of  eight  inches  of  the  vegetable  mould  of  the  latter.  We  shall  thus  be  en- 
abled to  ascertain  what  will  be  the  cubic  measure  requisite  for  a  certain  given 
extent  of  space  ;  and  to  calculate,  with  reference  to  all  the  local  circumstances 
of  the  case,  what  will  be  the  expenses  of  raising,  loading,  carrying,  spreading, 
&c.  A  rough  estimate  of  these  things  may  be  made  at  first,  which  we  can  sub- 
sequently reduce,  at  our  leisure,  to  a  more  definite  calculation.  To  tliis  must  be 
added  the  consideration,  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  effect  a  thorough  com- 
bination of  sand  and  clay,  unless  these  substances  are  of  a  marly  nature,  or  con- 
tain calcareous  particles:  where  such  is  not  the  case,  these  earths  cannot  be  suf- 
ficiently divided  to  incorporate  completely  with  each  other. 

If  we  convey  sand  to  an  argillaceous  soil,  or  clay  to  a  silicious  soil,  the  mixture 
cannot  be  effected  without  repeated  ploAvings,  the  two  or  three  first  of  which 
must  be  as  superficial  as  possible,  and  the  others  gradually  deeper  ;  to  these  must 
succeed  harrowings,  and  the  clods  must  be  broken  by  the  action  of  the  roller,  or 
by  mallets.  The  period  selected  for  the  performance  of  all  these  operations  must 
be  when  the  clods  have  attained  the  degree  of  dryness  inAvhich  they  can  be  most 
easily  divided  and  broken  by  these  proceedings :  this  generally  occurs  about  the 
middle  of  summer ;  but  it  is  rarely  possible  to  complete  the  operation  in  the 
course  of  one  summer.  The  division  of  the  earth  may  be  accelerated  by  niizing 
dung  or  calcined  lime  with  it,  or  by  sowing  it  with  such  plants  as  have  roots  suf- 
ficiently strong  to  penetrate  the  clods,  and  which  may  subsequently  be  pknved 
into  the  soil  as  manure.  When  the  ameliorating  earth  has  not  been  thoroughly 
blended  and  incorporated  with  the  soil,  so  far  from  improving,  it  rather  tends  to 
deteriorate  the  land  for  a  very  considerable  period,  for  there  are  very  few  plants 
that  will  not  be  injured  by  their  roots  coming  in  contact  with  a  soil  of  so  hetero- 
geneous a  nature.  When  we  read  in  the  works  of  ancient  authors,  or  hear  ac- 
counts of  the  success  with  which  ameliorations  of  this  nature  have  been  attended, 
we  may  generally  feel  convinced  that  the  earth  which  was  applied  was  a  marl 
of  a  more  or  less  calcareous  nature.  It  was  not  long  ago  that  the  operation  of 
['  marling  land  was  designated  in  Holstein,  ameliorating  it  with  earth  ;  and  the 
persons  who  performed  it,  persisted  in  asserting  that  it  was  clay  they  applied, 
because  at  that  time  marl  Avas  scarcely  knoAvn  or  recognized  there.  No  really 
ameliorating  effect  can  be  expected  from  clay  until  it  has  been  exposed  for  seve- 
ral years  to  the  influences  of  the  atmosphere,  as  is  the  case  Avith  that  Avhich  has 
formed  the  sides  of  ditches,  dykes,  &c.,  or  of  which  Avails  have  been  constructed. 
Clay  Avhich  has  been  thus  exposed  to  the  air  is  more  easily  divided,  and  blends 
with  the  soil  more  intimately. 

The  physical  condition  of  clayey  or  argillaceous  soils  is  ameliorated  in  a  very 
durable  manner  by  paring  and  burning  them,  because  this  operation  renders  their 
texture  more  open  and  porous,  and  deprives  them  of  their  too  great  adherence  for 
Avater  ;  their  fragments  are  thus  rendered  less  coherent,  and,  in  point  of  physical 
properties,  someAvhat  similar  to  sand.  Besides,  in  all  probaiaility,  this  operation 
likeAvise  produces  a  chemical  effect  which  has  not  as  yet  been  sufficiently  ex- 
plained. 

Silicious  earth  is  that  which  is  most  frequently  and  advantageously  used  in  the 
arnelioration  of  rich  soils  which  are  deficient  in  consistency,  and  disposed  to  re- 
tain moisture.  The  sand  which  is  conveyed  to  soils  of  this  texture,  gradually  ' 
penetrates  into  the  mould  and  fills  up  its  spongy  texture  ;  it  must,  therefore,  be 
spread  over  the  surface  and  there  left.  It  is  never  so  efficacious  as  when  it  is 
spread  over  land  which  is  covered  with  grass  ;  it  then  renders  the  vegetation  of 
plants  growing  there  more  vigorous,  and  produces  effects  equal  to  a  very  aciive 
manure.     Experiments  without  number  which  have  been  made  on  lands  of  this 

(667) 


236  thaer's  principles  of  agriculiure. 

kind,  prove  beyond  a  shadow  of  doubt,  that  sand  produces  a  more  beneficial  ef- 
fect than  even  the  most  energetic  manure  :  in  fact,  manure  would  be  rather  in- 
jurious than  otherwise  to  soils  of  the  kind  of  which  we  are  noAv  speaking. 

The  lime  which  some  soils  naturally  contain  has  also  a  considerable  influence 
on  their  physical  properties.  Nevertheless,  when  we  add  this  substance  to  a 
soil,  we  think  only  of  the  chemical  effect,  because  lime  can  seldom  if  ever  be  em- 
ployed in  sufficiently  large  quantities  to  produce  any  sensible  alteration  in  the 
consistency  of  the  soil. 

Both  the  chemical  action  of  lime  and  the  effect  which  it  produces  as  a  ma- 
nure, appear  to  be  of  two  kinds.     On  one  hand,  it  acts  on  the  humus  by  acceler- 
ating its  decomposition,  and  rendering  it  soluble,  and  thus  fit  to  enter  the  minute 
fibres  of  the  roots  of  plants.     This  is  the  reason  that  an  amelioration  composed 
of  lime  is  the  more  eificacious  the  richer  the  soil  is  in  humus,  and  that  its  action 
is  the  more  sensible  in  proportion  as  this  humus  is  of  an  insoluble  nature.     Lime 
deprives  sour  humus  of  its  acidity,  and  renders  it  fertilizing.     But,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  is  every  probability  that  by  means  of  its  carbonic  acid,  lime  also  pro- 
duces some  other  effect,  and  furnishes  the  plants  with  some  actual  nutritive  mat- 
ter.    The  roots  of  certain  vegetables  in  particular  appear  to  have  the  faculty  of 
depriving  lime  of  its  carbonic  acid,  which  it  immediately  re-absorbs  in  equal  pro- 
portion from  the  atmosphere  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.     It  cannot  be  de- 
J  nied  that  an  amelioration  of  lime  invariably  produces  some  effect,  even  on  land 
,'   which  contains  a  very  small  quantity  of  Immus,  and  that  a  repetition  of  this 
i[  amendment  is  never  without  its  effects  ;  although  they  are,  of  course,  very  far 
\  inferior  to  what  they  might  have  been  if  the  soil  had  contained  more  humus,  or 
/  had  been  manured  with  vegetable  or  animal  matter  capable  of  producing  that 
/  substance.     Besides,  every  one  must  be  aware,  that  lime  communicates  a  pecu- 
'\  liar  degree  of  vigor  to  some  plants,  and  that  the  roots  of  these  can  even  penetrate 
'i  rough  limestone,  and  in  a  manner  decompose  it.     This  remark  is  particularly 
/  applicable  to  sainfoin,  the  tap-root  of  which  penetrates  from  ten  to  twenty  feet 
',   deep  into  calcareous  stones,  and  there  puts  forth  clusters  of  lateral  roots  which  i 
/   render  the  stone  loose  and  friable  all  around  them.     The  deeper  the  roots  of  this 
i|   plant  penetrate,  the  more  vigorously  does  it  shoot,  even  on  calcareous  rocks  or 
I  stony  places  which  are  only  covered  by  a  very  thin  layer  of  poor  soil. 
/       Lime  which  has  been  calcined  and  deprived  of  its  carbonic  acid  is  much  better 
i\  adapted  for  the  amelioration  of  land,  and  far  more  efficacious  than  carbonate  of 
S  lime.     In  its  former  state,  it  contributes  infinitely  more  to  the  decomposition  of 
'i  decomposition  of  the  substances  with  which  it  is  united,  and  acts  far  more  effica- 

I  ciously  on  organic  matter  than  it  does  in  the  latter.  But  we  must  admit  that  its 
'i  increased  efficacy  arises  from  another  cause.  It  very  soon  re-absorbs  equally  as 
;  much  carbonic  acid  from  the  atmosphere  as  it  lost  during  the  process  of  calcina- 
<['  tion,  especially  when,  after  having  been  thus  reduced  to  powder,  it  is  mixed  with 
\  the  superior  layer  of  the  soil.     But  the  carbonic  acid  which  it  has  thus  recently 

I I  regained  is  not  in  general  so  intimately  combined  with  the  lime  as  not  to  be  ea- 
*'  sily  absorbed  by  any  plant  the  roots  of  which  come  in  contact  with  it.  The  lime 
'i  continues  to  attract  fresh  portions  of  this  substance,  and  thus  a  permanent  com- 
:|  munication  of  carbonic  acid  is  established  between  the  lime,  the  roots  of  the 

plants,  and  the  atmosphere.  This  may  serve  to  explain  the  reason  that  even  cal- 
careous soils  may  be  remarkably  fertilized  by  the  addition  of  lime ;  and  that  a 
sensible  effect  is  produced  by  an  addition  of  this  substance,  even  when  the  soil 
already  evidently  contains  a  greater  quantity  of  it  which  has  been  accumulated 
there  by  former  amendments. 

On  no  soils  are  the  effects  of  lime  so  beneficial  as  on  those  which  contain  a 
great  quantity  of  sour  humus  prejudicial  to  vegetation,  or  on  those  which  have 
been  supplied'  more  or  less  abundantly  with  animal  manure  for  a  considerable  ( 
period  without  receiving  an  application  of  lime,  or  of  some  other  substance  of  a  '- 
similar  nature.     In  the  latter  case,  it  is  fi-equently  much  more  efficacious  than  an 
amelioration  of  stable  manure  would  be ;  but  it  soon  impoverishes  the  soil  so 
much  that  in  a  very  few  years  it  becomes  indispensably  necessary  to  manure  it 
abundantly  with  rich  animal  or  vegetable  matters.     As  some  portion  of  humus, 
although  in  all  probability  of  an  insoluble  nature,  always  remains  in  arable  land 
even  when  it  appears  to  be  most  exhausted,  it  of  course  follows  that  an  applica- 
tion of  lime  will  always  be  productive  of  very  marked  effects,  even  on  the  poor-  , 
(658) ^ ...,..,^^1 


MANURING  THE   SOIL. 


est  soils,  because  it  will  call  into  action  all  the  nutritive  particles  which  they 
contain.     A  second  amendment  of  a  similar  nature  bestowed  shortly  after  the 
first  will  be  productive  of  some,  although  in  general  of  much  less  benefit  ;  and 
\  the  effect  of  each  subsequent  amelioration  of  this  nature  will  be  progressively 
\    diminished  unless  the  soil  receives  an  additional  supply  of  humus.     The  eff"ects 
I    of  lime  are  far  more  marked  on  some  crops  than  they  are  on  others  :  varions  ob- 
servations have  given  rise  to  the  opinion  that  it  is  more  efficacious  when  applied 
to  spring  corn  than  to  autumnal  crops  ;  and  that  it  is  peculiarly  favorable  to 
vegetables,  and  also  to  clover  and  grasses. 

Argillaceous  soils  are  better  able  to  bear  repeated  ameliorations  of  lime  than 
those  of  a  sandy  nature  ;  because  in  the  first  place,  the  physical  action  of  this 
substance  tends  to  loosen  the  texture  of  the  land  ;  and  in  the  second  place,  its 
chemical  action  lessens  the  disposition  which  all  clays  have  to  retain  humus. 
When  marshes  or  bogs  have  been  drained  and  are  brought  into  cultivation,  they 
are  capable  of  bearing  repeated  and  abundant  ameliorations  of  lime,  because  they 
always  contain  a  variety  of  substances  susceptible  of  decomposition,  and  on  which 
the  lime  can  exercise  its  solvent  influence.  The  effect  produced  by  lime  on  land 
of  this  nature  is  much  more  beneficial  and  durable  than  that  of  any  other  ma- 
nure. 

On  the  other  hand,  repeated  ameliorations  of  lime  will  soon  totally  exhaust  and 
impoverish  poor  and  sandy  soils,  and  reduce  them  to  absolute  sterility,  even  though 
each  separate  application  seems  to  be  productive  of  some  good  eflFect.     If  the  lime 
is  unable  to  find  any  organic  matter  on  which  to  act,  or  does  not  meet  with  clay — 
an  earth  with  which  it  has  in  all  probability  a  disposition  to  combine,  and  with 
which  it  forms  marl — it  then  unites  Avith  the  sand  and  hardens  into  a  kind  of 
mortar,  which  cannot  be  dissolved  without  difficulty.      When  such  soils  have 
been  too  frequently  and  abundantly  manured  with  lime,  the  action  of  the  plow 
brings  an  immense  number  of  pieces  of  hard  mortar  to  the  surface,  which  are 
\  with  difficulty  divided.  Wherever  this  is  the  case,  the  land  must  receive  repeated 
/  manurings  before  it  will  again  be  capable  of  bearing  good  crops.     The  truth  of 
this  statement  has  lately  been  demonstrated  on  several  estates  in  Silesia,  and  oc- 
currences of  a  similar  nature  have  been  remarked  in  those  countries  of  England 
}  in  which  the  triennial  rotation  with  a  fallow  is  practiced,  and  where  few  cattle 
'i  are  kept,  and  which  possess  an  abundance  of  lime. 

In  general,  lime  is  not  used  until  it  has  been  calcined  ;  that  is  to  say,  until  all 
the  carbonic  acid  is  disengaged  ;  either  because  it  is  then  productive  of  the  most 
sensible  effects,  or  because  it  is  only  when  in  this  state  that  it  falls  to  powder 
and  can  be  intimately  combined  with  the  layer  of  vegetable  earth.  On  this  ac- 
count, the  pulverization  of  calcined  lime  is  expedited  as  much  as  possible,  and 
they  hasten  to  mix  it  with  the  soil  or  with  those  organic  matters  which  are  to  be 
used  as  manure. 

There  are  two  ways  of  eff'ecting  the  mixture  of  lime  with  the  soil.  The  first 
consists  in  placing  the  unslacked  lime  in  the  vicinity  of  some  spot  well  provided 
with  water,  and  then  throwing  a  sufficient  quantity  of  that  fluid  on  it  to  reduce 
it  to  powder,  but  not  enough  to  form  it  into  a  paste.  After  the  lime  has  been 
thus  watered,  it  must  be  stirred  up,  and  those  lumps  which  still  remain,  taken 
out  to  be  moistened  again,  and  thus  reduced  to  powder.  During  this  operation 
the  lime  regains  its  water  of  crystalization  which  it  had  lost  during  the  process  of 
calcination ;  but  it  absorbs  very  little  carbonic  acid,  and,  consequently,  preserves 
its  causticity.  In  this  state  its  acts  most  energetically,  and  is  best  adapted  for 
the  purpose  of  breaking  down  and  destroying  the  texture  and  organization  of  all 
undecomposed  vegetable  and  animal  matter  contained  in  the  soil,  as  insects,  the 
fibres  of  plants,  and  even  the  seeds  of  some  weeds,  all  of  which  it  dissolves  and 
transforms  into  avery  fertilizing  mould.  When  lime  is  thus  powdered,  it  must  be 
conveyed  to  the  fields  without  loss  of  time  and  spread  over  the  soils  with  shovels. 
The  land  should  have  been  previously  plowed.  As  the  dust  of  lime  is  both  dis- 
agreeable and  injurious,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  laborers  employed  in  spread-  / 
fng  it,  and  the  teams  that  have  brought  it  to  the  fields,  shall  stand"  to  the  wind.  \ 
In  those  places  where  lime  is  much  used  for  the  purpose  of  ameliorating  land,  ' 
cylinders  turning  on  wheels,  somewhat  similar  to  those  attached  to  drill  plows, 
are  adjusted  to  the  carts  used  in  this  operation ;  and  the  pulverized  lime  is  thus 
equally  spread  over  the  soil. 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


"1 


The  second  mode  of  proceeding,  and  that  which  is  in  most  common  use,  con- 
sists in  conveying  the  lime  to  the  land  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied,  and  there 
dividing  it  into  little  heaps,  each  containing  about  a  bushel,  and  situated  at 
suitable  distances  from  one  another.  After  these  heaps  are  formed,  they  are 
covered  with  shovelfuls  of  earth  taken  from  the  ground  around  them,  and  little 
furrows  or  gutters  are  made  down  the  surface  to  admit  the  water  running  ofl'. 
When  it  is  supposed  that  the  lime  is  almost  or  quite  divided,  a  shovel  is  intro- 
duced ;  if  it  meets  with  any  lumps,  the  heap  is  made  up  afresh,  and  again  cover- 
ed with  earth.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  practice  of  covering  the  lime  origi- 
nated in  an  erroneous  idea  that  that  substance  lost  some  volatile  portions  by  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere :  but  this  layer  of  earth  is  really  useful ;  for  without 
such  a  protection  in  rainy  weather,  a  crust  would  be  formed  over  the  heaps, 
which  would  not  only  prevent  the  water  from  penetrating  into  them,  but  would 
be  with  difficulty  powdered,  and  almost  always  remain  lumpy. 

A  third  way  of  preparing  lime  for  being  spread  over  the  ground,  consists  in 
forming  it  into  large  heaps  with  turf  or  peaty  earth,  when  these  substances  can' 
be  procured  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  These  heaps  should  be  made  near  ditches 
or  trenches  dug  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  water,  or  of  declivities  or  flat  sur- 
faces covered  with  reeds,  and  which  are  about  to  be  brought  into  cultivation. 
The  lime  is  suffered  to  remain  there  until  it  is  quite  pulverized,  and  has  decom- 
posed the  turf  with  which  it  is  united  :  the  heap  is  then  repeatedly  turned  over 
and  stirred.  The  lime  thus  combines  very  advantageously  with  the  earth  and 
humus.  This  compost,  Avliich  is  often  so  easily  prepared,  is  productive  of  the 
most  excellent  effects.  Lime  is  also  occasionally  made  into  heaps  with  marshy 
peat,  or  with  mould  which  contains  a  great  quantity  of  undecomposed  vegetable 
substances. 

It  IS  indispensable  that  the  lime  should  be  intimately  and  completely  blended 
and  incorporated  with  the  soil,  so  that  every  particle  of  the  former  substance 
shall  come  in  contact  with  some  particle  of  the  latter  and  act  upon  it.  Unless 
this  circumstance  is  carefully  attended  to,  the  ameliorating  eff'ects  of  the  lime 
will  be  very  trifling  ;  tlie  greatest  possible  care  and  circumspection  should  there- 
fore be  bestowed  on  this  point.  Even  when  lime  has  been  spread  over  a  soil  that 
has  already  been  fallowed  and  harrowed,  the  land  must  be  harrowed  once  more 
during  dry  weather,  and  then  plowed  with  as  shallow  a  furrow  as  possible,  in 
order  to  bury  the  lime.  The  best  way  is  to  make  use  of  the  extirpator,  Avhich 
eff'ectually  combines  the  lime  with  the  soil.  The  land  must  receive  at  least  four 
separate  operations  of  tillage,  including  those  appertaining  to  the  sowings,  Vvitli 
the  plow  and  the  harrow,  or  with  the  extirpator  ;  and  all  must  be  performed 
during  dry  weather.  It  is,  therefore,  indispensably  necessary  that  a  dead  fallow 
should  be  given  to  land  which  is  ameliorated  with  lime.  It  is  chiefly  from  this 
circumstance  that  lime  produces  the  effect  attributed  to  it,  namely,  the  destruc- 
tion of  those  weeds  with  which  the  soil  is  infested.  But  if  we  bestow  an  ame- 
lioration of  this  nature,  without  at  the  same  time  bestowing  all  those  operations 
of  tillage  which  this  amelioration  requires,  we  have  no  right  to  expect  the  ad- 
vantages v/hich  we  might  otherwise  derive.  If  too  small  a  quantity  of  lime  is 
employed,  it  is  not  productive  of  any  effect ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  ap- 
plied too  profusely,  it  is  injurious,  because  it  then  becomes  transformed  into  heaps 
of  mortar  and  gathers  into  lumps.  When  buried  by  one  deep  plowing,  it  forms 
a  calcareous  crust  beneath  the  layer  of  mould  turned  over  by  the  action  of  the 
plow,  which  crust  so  much  impedes  the  progress  of  that  instrument,  the  layer  of 
vegetable  mould  becomes  sensibly  decreased.  This  is  frequently  found  to  be  the 
case  in  countries  where  lime  is  very  cheap,  and  where  it  is  used  too  profusely. 

I'here  are  various  opinions  with  regard  to  the  quantity  of  lime  which  ought  to 
be  applied  to  different  soils  m  order  to  effect  their  amelioration.  The  smallest 
proportion  which  has  ever  been  used  is  sixteen  bushels  per  acre  ;  but  I  have  seen 
and  heard  of  this  quantity  being  increased  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  bushels,  espe- 
cially on  newly-tilled  soils.  English  agriculturists,  I  believe,  apply  even  more 
tlian'  that  quantity.  The  quantity  used  ought  to  depend  upon  the  quality  of  the 
lime — that  is  to  say,  upon  its  purity,  or  upon  the  quantity  of  sand  or  clay  that  is 
mixed  with  it.  If  the  calculation  is  made  according  to  size  or  measuie,  that  will 
be  influenced  by  its  compactness  at  the  time  of  being  measured.  Besides,  the 
nature  of  the  soil  ought  also  to  influence  the  proportion,  since  an  argillaceous  soil 

(670) 


MANURING  THE    SOIL.  239 


which  contains  a  great  quantity  of  undecomposed  vegetable  matter,  or  Avhich  is 
of  a  marshy  nature,  although  actually  dry,  can  bear  a  considerable  application  of 
lime,  and  will  profit  by  it ;  whereas  a  sandy,  loamy  soil  would  be  injured  by  so 
large  a  quantity.  Lime  is  not  productive  of  any  effect  on  damp,  wet  land. — 
Lastly,  we  must  carefully  distinguish  between  the  application  of  lime  which 
takes  place  once  only,  and  that  which  is  alternated  regularly  with  stable  ma- 
nure. The  former  is  only  used  in  order  to  effect  that  permanent  and  durable 
amendment  of  the  soil  which  may  be  expected  from  lime,  if  applied  in  the  man- 
ner and  under  the  conditions  which  we  have  prescribed  ;  the  latter,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  intended  to  maintain  it  in  fertility.  The  quantity  of  lime  used  to  attain 
the  first  of  these  two  objects  ought  to  be  very  considerable,  while  that  which  suf- 
fices for  the  latter  purpose  must  be  small,  and  always  proportionate  to  the  quan- 
tity of  manure  which  is  applied  to  the  land  ;  for,  in  the  latter  case,  it  is  custom- 
ary to  alternate  every  three  or  six  years  between  the  use  of  stable  manure  and 
that  of  lime.  There  are,  however,  some  countries  where  lime  is  applied  regu- 
larly every  third  year — that  is  to  say,  at  every  fallow  it  is  applied  three  or  four 
times  in  succession  before  it  is  again  supplied  with  stable  manure.  But  this 
course  of  proceeding  exhausts  and  impoverishes  the  land  to  the  greatest  possible 
degree. 

The  most  various  and  contradictory  opinions  have  been  put  forth  with  respect 
to  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  attendant  on  the  use  of  lime  as  a  manure,  and 
we  can  only  find  our  way  out  of  this  labyrinth  of  conflicting  statements  by  means 
of  a  theory  based  upon  solid  foundations ;  with  the  assistance  of  such  a  theory, 
all  that  at  first  sight  appears  problematical,  with  regard  to  the  subject,  will  be 
speedily  elucidated.  Lime,  especially  when  it  has  recently  been  calcined,  or  is, 
in  other  words,  what  we  call  quick-lime,  absorbs  the  carbonic  acid  which  is  con- 
tained in  the  atmosphere  which  surrounds  it,  and  subsequently  communicating  it 
to  the  plants,  doubtless  furnishes  them  with  some  nourishment ;  but  this  nutrition 
'  is  very  inconsiderable  :  the  property  to  which  it  owes  the  chief  power  in  promot- 
ing vegetation  is  the  faculty  of  decomposing  the  humus,  and  inert  vegetable  or 
animal  substances  which  it  meets  with  in  the  soil,  and  transforming  them  into 
nutritive  juices  adapted  to  the  nature  of  plants.  Hence  arise  the  wonderful  ef- 
fects which  it  produces  v,rhen  it  encounters  a  great  quantity  of  these  substances. 
Besides,  when  properly  employed,  it  contributes  greatly  towards  the  destruction 
of  weeds.  Hence,  we  see  as  rich  crops  derived  from  a  first,  and  sometimes  from 
a  second,  application  of  lime,  as  would  have  been  produced  had  the  land  been 
abundantly  manured  with  stable  dung.  Many  persons  who  have  not  rightly  com- 
prehended the  cause  of  the  effects  produced  by  lime,  prefer  it  to  manure,  and  have 
believed  in  the  possibility  of  doing  entirely  without  the  latter  ;  but  the  total  ex- 
haustion of  the  soil  which  such  a  course  of  proceeding  must  sooner  or  later  pro- 
duce, caused  them  to  fly  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  to  regard  the  use  of  lime 
as  an  application  in  the  highest  possible  degree  prejudicial  and  dangerous.  An 
enlightened  and  scientific  agriculturist  will  soon  perceive  that  the  use  of  lime 
can  never  supersede  that  of  dung,  but  that  it  renders  this  kind  of  manure  more 
energetic  in  its  action.  Thus,  he  will  profit  by  the  increased  fertility  which  lime 
bestows  on  the  first  crop  which  succeeds  the  application  of  it,  and  will  procure 
as  much  as  possible  of  those  substances  which  are  adapted  for  the  production  of 
dung,  in  order  to  restore  to  the  land,  in  the  shape  of  stable  manure,  that  sub- 
stance of  which  it  has  been  deprived  by  the  lime  forcing  and  mcreasing  the  vege- 
tation of  the  crops  to  which  it  was  applied.  He  will  likewise  know  when  lime 
will  be  beneficial  and  when  injurious  ;  and,  if  he  acts  with  moderation,  will  be 
able  to  employ  lime  with  much  advantage  in  cases  where  manv  persons  would 
be  afraid  to  use  it. 

The  propriety  of  using  lime,  in  a  great  measure,  depends  upon  the  cost  and  up- 
on the  expenses  Avhich  will  be  incurred  by  the  use  of  it — both  of  which  circum-  | 
stances  are  subject  to  great  variation,  and  depend  on  locality.     When  it  does  not   '^ 
cost  more  than  ten  or  twelve  rix-dollars  to  bestow  a  winspel  of  lime  on  land,   \ 
which  is  the  quantity  usually  applied  to  an  acre,  the  beneficial  effects  attending 
this  amelioration  will  balance  the  outlay  attending  it,  especially  if  the  land  has 
previously  been  well  manured,  but  is  so  infested  with  weeds  that  the  crops  which 
are  produced  do  not  correspond  with  its  fertility,  and  if  a  dead  fallow  is  likewise 
bestowed  upon  it.    In  this  case,  the  expenses  attendant  on  such  amelioration  will 

(671) 


I    o/fn 


240  THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

soon  be  repaid  by  the  benefits  resulting  from  it.     Lime  should  not,  however,  be 
used  when  any  other  equally  efficacious  manure  can  be  procured  at  a  cheaper 
rate — as  calcareous  marl,  soap  lyes,  or  the  ashes  of  burned  peat.     Every  person    '< 
can  easily  calculate  for  himself  what  will  be  the  expenses  attendant  on  amelior- 
ating a  certain  portion  of  land  with  lime. 

Lime  can  always  be  procured  at  the  cheapest  rate  in  those  places  which  are  in 
the  vicinity  of  limestone  quarries.  It  is  also  less  expensive  where  that  marly 
variety  of  lime  is  found,  which  is  moulded  into  form,  in  order  to  be  calcined. —  . 
One  condition  essential  to  this  cheapness  is,  that  all  the  combustible  materials  ' 
necessary  for  the  preparation  of  it,  as  wood,  coals,  or  turf,  shall  be  plentiful  in  ',' 
the  neighborhood  of  the  places  where  the  limestone  is  found,  in  order  that  it  may 
be  calcined  on  the  spot,  Avithout  having  to  be  carried  to  any  distance  for  that  op- 
eration to  be  performed.  With  respect  to  the  carriage  of  limestone  to  any  great 
distance,  it  must  be  recollected  that  when  in  this  state  it  weighs  nearly  twice  as 
much  as  it  does  after  having  been  submitted  to  the  action  of  fire,  and  that  thus 
more  labor  may  easily  be  lost  by  the  conveyance  of  this  additional  weight  than 
would  be  gained  by  calcining  it  at  prime  cost.  Although  pure  lime  is  a  much 
more  efficient  manure  than  that  which  is  found  intermingled  with  other  sub- 
stances, yet  the  latter  maybe  used,  provided  that  it  does  not  contain  above  fifteen 
parts  in  a  hundred  of  clay  ;  it  will  still  be  very  proper  for  calcination,  and  the 
proportion  of  sa-nd  which  it  may  contain  without  detriment  to  its  ameliorating 
qualities  is  even  greater.  Limestone  frequently  contains  the  oxides  of  metals, 
which  give  it  a  disagreeable  color,  and  prevent  it  from  being  used  as  mortar  ; 
this  lime  is  also  fit  for  the  improvement  of  land.  The  use  of  lime  Avhich  con- 
tains magnesia  is  objected  to  by  Tennant,  and  several  other  English  agricultural 
writers  who  follow  in  his  steps  ;  they  all  preiend  to  remark  that  magnesia,  de- 
prived of  its  carbonic  acid,  is  productive  of  very  injurious  eff"ects  on  vegetation. 

Opinions  are  not  less  divided  with  regard  to  the  effect  produced  by  lime  on 
meadow  land.  I  do  not  know  of  any  experiments  bearing  upon  this  point  which 
have  been  made  with  sufficient  precision  and  attention  to  all  the  necessary  modi- 
fications ;  but,  so  far  as  I  am  enabled  to  judge  from  the  results  attending  this  op- 
eration in  different  places  Avhich  have  come  to  my  knowledge,  I  should  think  it 
is  one  in  which  we  must  proceed  with  all  possible  circumspection,  and  which  is 
very  likely  to  be  attended  with  danger  if  the  quantity  of  quick-lime  applied  be  in 
any  degree  liberal.  I  have  been  assured  that,  when  spread  over  dry  meadow 
land  in  small  quantities,  this  substance  is  productive  of  very  beneficial  effects  ; 
but  that  it  is  wholly  inefficacious  o-n  damp,  moist  meadows.  It  has  frequently 
been  remarked  that  quick-lime  promotes  the  vegetation  of  clover  and  of  vetches. 

Water  which  holds  a  great  deal  of  lime  in  solution  is  productive  of  excellent 
effects  when  employed  in  watering  meadow  land,  either  by  inundation  or  irriga- 
tion ;  in  the  course  of  this  operation,  carbonate  of  lime,  in  the  form  of  a  fine  pow- 
der, is  precipitated  over  the  land. 

Lime  which  has  not  been  calcined  is  certainly  productive  of  some  effect ;  but, 
on  the  one  hand,  its  action  is  not  so  evident  or  energetic  as  that  of  calcined  lime,   ! 
and  consequently  a  greater  quantity  is  requisite  to  produce  a  similar  effect ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  difficult  to  pulverize  it  sufficiently :  it  is,  therefore,  only 
occasionally  used  in  this  state  when  divided  into  very  small  pieces.  ' 

The  dust  collected  from  roads  constructed  of  limestone  and  calcareous  gravel, 
'  is  productive  of  very  great  advantage  when  conveyed  to  the  neighboring  fields  ; 
indeed,  there  is  little  or  no  doubt  that  this  dust  contains  various  ameliorating   / 
substances.     Very  beneficial  effects  have  likewise  been  known  to  result  from  the 
use  of  the  dust  procured  from  the  workshops  of  marble  and  stone-cutters. 

Even  old  mortar  appears  to  become  decomposed  in  time,  especially  if  brought 
into  contact  with  substances  in  a  state  of  putrefaction.  This  matter  is  product- 
ive of  a  very  striking  effect  on  meadow  land,  but  one  which  does  not  show  itself 
until  after  a  lapse  of  years. 

Marl,  as  we  have  already  observed,  is  composed  of  clay  and  carbonate  uf  lime, 
intimately  blended  together  in  various  proportions.  The  nature  of  these  constit- 
uent parts  give  to  it  a  double  action  when  used  as  manure.  It  acts  physically  by 
means  of  the  clay,  and  augments  the  consistence  of  loose  and  friable  soils  in  a 
durable  manner.  Secondly,  it  acts  chemically,  by  means  of  the  lime,  which  ren- 
ders soluble  the  humus  and  the  undecomposed  matter  contained  in  the  soil,  and 

(672) 


MANURING  THE   SOIL.  241 


capable  of  being  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  plants  ;  but  this  latter  action  gradually 
diminishes,  and  soon  entirely  ceases.     It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  carefully  be- 
tween these  two  kinds  of  action.     Mar]  is  productive  chiefly  of  the  one  or  of  the 
other,  according  as  clay  or  lime  forms  the  predominating  ingredient  in  its  com- 
(  position.     If  we  Avould  have  this  substance  to  be  productive  of  the  first  effect,  and 
(    that  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  it  will  doubtless  be  necessary  to  bestow  a 
)   much  greater  proportion  of  marl  on  the  soil  than  would  be  requisite  to  produce 
}   the  latter  effect ;  and,  in  fact,  its  physical  action  can  only  be  produced  on  light, 
(   loose  soils ;  for  land  which  is  already  too  tenacious  ani  clayey  in  its  nature, 

>  would  only  be  injured  by  an  addition  of  marl,  at  least,  as  soon  as  the  eflects  of 
(    the  lime  which  it  contained  had  subsided. 

\     '  The  intimate  combination  of  the  two  component  parts  of  marl  renders  it  more 

>  efficacious  than  clay  or  carbonate  of  lime,  or  even  than  an  artificial  mixture  of 
(  these  two  substances  ;  because  it  readily  falls  to  pieces  of  its  own  accord,  be- 

v^oraes  completely  pulverized,  and  thus  unites  thoroughly  with  the  layer  of  vege- 

J   table  earth. 

)  The  utility  of  marl  has  been  known  and  acknowledged  from  the  remotest  ages 
of  antiquity  ;  and  this  substance  has  been  used  wherever  the  agriculturists  were 
of  an  enterprising  disposition.  Nothing  but  the  general  ignorance  which  has 
prevailed  with  regard  to  the  actual  nature  and  qualities  of  marl,  has  prevented  it 
from  being  more  valued  and  used  than  it  has  hitherto  been.  The  idea  formed  of 
this  substance  is  usually  associated  with  that  of  a  fossil  of  a  certain  nature  and 
appearance  ;  aud  hence  it  happens  that  as  marl  exists  under  an  infinite  variety  of 
forms  and  colors,  it  is  frequently  not  recognized  by  those  who  have  seen  but  one 
species.  Frederick  the  Great,  whose  ideas  in  reference  to  Agriculture  were  defi- 
nite and  enlightened,  but  Avho  was  discouraged  by  the  want  of  success  which  at- 
tended those  crdonnances  which  he  promulgated  on  this  subject,  and  which  arose 
from  their  not  being  generally  understood,  sent,  in  1750,  and  during  several  sub- 
sequent years,  for  a  number  of  laborers  accustomed  to  the  digging  of  marl,  and 
commissioned  them  to  travel  over  the  marches  and  borders,  and  seek  for  this 

I  substance  ;  but  he  received  accounts  from  all  of  them,  that,  notwithstanding  the 
most  careful  researches,  they  had  been  unable  to  discover  any.  There  is,  how- 
ever, an  abundance  of  marl  in  that  country,  and  of  exactly  the  kind  which  is 
best  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Those  persons  who  were  employed  to 
seek  for  it  came  from  mountainous  countries,  and  in  all  probability,  were  only 
acquainted  with  stony  marl,  a  species  which  is  seldom  found  anywhere  bui  in 
hilly  districts.  Clay  marl,  which  is  the  kind  usually  found  in  layers  beneath  the 
surface  of  plains,  was  scarcely  known;  and  in  those  places  where  it  had  acci- 
dentally been  used,  as  was  the  case  in  the  principality  of  Pretz,  in  Holstein.  The 
beneficial  effects  resulting  from  it  were  ascribed  to  the  clay  ;  and,  therefore,  clay 
which  was  not  of  a  marly  nature  was  frequently  used  for  the  purpose  of  improv- 
ing land  there  ;  but,  as  may  be  expected,  without  any  of  the  anticipated  benefits 
being  derived  from  the  application  of  it.  It  is  to  chemistry  that  we  are  indebted 
for  the  solution  of  these  apparently  contradictory  facts. 

Another  circumstance  which  has  prevented  marl  from  being  more  generally 
used,  is  the  abuses  which  have  crept  into  the  practice  of  marling.  In  places 
where  its  ameliorating  effects  are  known  and  appreciated,  many  agriculturists 
have  calculated  that  marl  would  prove  a  cheaper  manure  than  stable  dung ;  and 
have,  consequently,  determined  to  do  without  the  latter  altogether  ;  and,  there- 
fore, have  diminished  their  stock  of  cattle,  and  sold  their  hay  and  straw.  It  may 
easily  be  imagined  that  as  soon  as  the  chemical  effects  of  the  marl  ceased  to  op- 
erate, as  must  be  the  case  when  the  land  no  longer  contained  undecomposed  or  in- 
soluble substances,  the  soil  became  sterile,  and  a  second  marling  was  incapable 
of  producing  any  beneficial  effects,  there  b'iing  no  humus  for  it  to  act  upon.  This 
circumstance  gave  rise  to  the  old  proverb,  that  marl  enriches  the  parents,  but  im- 
poverishes the  children.  Where  a  judicicus  system  of  cultivation  is  maintained, 
this  proverb  is,  however,  entirely  without  foundation  ;  for  marl  progressively  aug- 
men\s  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  by  increasing  those  products  which  tend  to  add  to 
the  quantity  of  the  dung. 

At  p.  160,  we  have  spoken  of  the  nature  of  marl,  of  its  characteristics,  its  vari- 
eties, and  the  situations  in  which  it  is  found.     We  have  now,  therefore,  only  to 
speak  of  its  use  and  preparation. 
((i/n) 16 


THAERS  PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


As  the  carriage  of  this  substance  is  the  principal  and  most  expensive  part  of 
the  operation  of  marling,  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  endeavor  to  procure 
;  it  from  some  spot  as  near  as  possible  to  the  land  on  which  it  is  to  be  used  ;  even 
(|  supposing  that  at  this  spot  the  marl  should  be  situated  at  a  very  great  depth  be- 
I  low  the  surface,  and,  consequently,  very  difficult  of  extraction,  that  inconvenience 
will  always  be  compensated  by  the  proximity.     This  consideration  becomes  still 
more  important  Avhen  it  has  reference  to  clay  marl,  Avhich  is  to  be  applied  to  a 
light  soil,  in  order  to  increase  its  consistency.     Fortnnately,  in  most  countries 
where  this  A'ariety  exists,  it  is  generally  found  extended  in  a  continuous  layer  a 
little  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  ;  while  calcareous  and  stony  marl  is  amassed 
in  isolated  places,  and  consequently,  has  frequently  to  be  brought  from  a  very 
great  distance  :  but  this  latter  is  seldom  used  in  such  large  quantities,  and  there- 
fore, this  circumstance  is  not  of  so  much  moment. 

When  there,  is  not  any  material  difference  in  the  distance,  those  places  should 
be  chosen  for  the  raising  of  marl,  in  Avhich  this  substance  is  situated,  at  the  least 
depth  below  the  surface,  and  where  the  pit  that  is  to  be  sunk  will  run  least  risk 
of  being  inundated  with  water.  In  fiat  comitries,  marl  will  always  be  found 
nearest  to  the  surface  at  the  summits  of  hills,  and  especially  of  those  the  surface 
of  which  is  covered  with  a  brown  clay.  Previous  to  opening  a  marl  pit,  the  land 
should  be  sounded  in  various  directions,  or  little  holes  dug  in  different  places,  in 
order  to  ascertain  whether  the  marl  is  of  the  proper  kind,  and  whether  or  not  it 
exists  in  sufficiently  thick  layers.  It  is  seldom,  hov/ever,  that  a  continuous  bed 
of  marl,  uninterrupted  by  veins  or  beds  of  sand,  is  to  be  found.  But  we  must  not 
suffer  ourselves  to  be  discouraged  by  this  slight  inconvenience;  for  it  is  very 
easy,  when  extracting  the  marl,  to  throw  aside  all  that  is  useless,  or  to  use  it  in 
filling  up  those  places  where  we  have  dug  most  deeply. 

It  is  as  well  to  analyze  the  marl  previously  to  applying  it  to  the  Ian  '  ,  for  it  is 
seldom  found  to  be  of  a  homogeneous  nature.  Its  constituent  parts  usually  vary 
in  different  places.  The  best  Avay  of  proceeding  is,  therefore,  to  analyze  that 
taken  from  several  difierent  places,  and  then  estimate  the  average  composition 
of  the  whole  from  the  results  of  these  several  examinations  ;  because,  in  caning 
and  conveying  it  to  the  land,  it  will  always  become  pretty  well  mixed  and  amal- 
gamated together.  The  more  sandy  the  soil  which  is  to  receive  an  amelioration 
of  this  nature,  the  more  useful  will  clay  marl  be  which  contains  a  small  portion 
of  lime.  This  clay  may  be  advantageously  applied  to  such  soils,  even  when  it 
does  not  contain  more  than  from  twelve  to  fifteen  parts  in  a  hundred  of  lime  ;  but 
\.  when  this  is  the  case,  a  much  larger  quantity  of  marl  m-ust  be  bestowed  on  the 
land,  if  we  would  have  the  effects  of  the  lime  become  evident.  The  only  kind 
of  marl  which  is  not  beneficial  to  these  soils  is  that  which  contains  a  great  deal 
of  sand.  On  the  other  hand,  clay  marl  does  not  suit  argillaceous  soils  :  we  must 
always  endeavor  to  obtain  marl  for  this  kind  of  land  which  contains,  at  least,  for- 
ty parts  in  a  hundred  of  lime,  if  not  more.  Silicious  marl,  which  often  contains 
a  great  deal  of  lime,  so  far  from  being  injurious  to  argillaceous  land,  is  often  pe- 
culiarly beneficial.  The  stony  marl,  v/hich  is  found  in  mountainous  districis,  is 
particularly  adapted  for  clayey  soils,  because  it  contains  a  small  portion  of  alum- 
ina and  a  great  deal  of  lime  and  fine  silex. 

When  we  are  convinced  that  the  marl  is  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it 
is  intended,  and  that  it  exists  in  a  sufficient  quantity,  the  first  step  to  be  taken  is 
to  remove  the  earth  by  which  it  is  covered.  The  portions  of  earth  thus  taken 
away  may  frequently  be  used  to  fill  up  excavations  which  have  previously  been 
made  in  the  vicinity  ;  but  where  this  cannot  be  done,  they  must  be  so  disposed 
that  they  shall  not  fall  back  into  the  pit,  and  yet  shall  be  sufficiently  near  to  ad- 
mit of  thek  being  thrown  into  those  places  whence  all  the  marl  has  been  ex- 
tracted, and  which  we  wish  to  till  up.  As  all  the  operations  connected  with  the 
raising  of  marl  ought  to  be  executed,  as  far  as  possible,  by  the  task  or  job,  this 
one  should  be  included,  and  calculated  by  fathoms  or  cubic  yards.  If  the  earth 
has  only  to  be  conveyed  a  short  distance,  wheel-barrows  may  be  used  for  the  pur- 
pose. Sometimes  it  is  merely  necessary  to  throw  it  up  on  the  edge  of  ihe  exca- 
vation by  shovels. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  uncover  the  whole  surface  of  the  marl  pit,  while 
in  other  cases  it  is  better  to  open  only  a  portion  of  it.  This  is  especially  the  case 
when  it  is  not  intended  to  dig  deeply,  and  when  the  places  whence  the  marl  has 

(674) 


MANURING   THE   SOIL. 


2U  j 


been  extracted  are  to  be  filled  up  by  the  earth  which  covers  those  portions  yet 
untouched.  The  operation  may  be  carried  on  in  this  way  from  the  foot  of  a  hill, 
containing  marl,  to  its  very  summit.  But  when  it  is  the  intention  of  the  agricul- 
turist to  excavate  to  a  greater  depth — which  he  will  often  be  the  more  disposed 
to  do,  from  the  circumstance  of  his  finding  the  marl  more  homogeneous  and  cal- 
careous the  deeper  he  penetrates — it  will  then  be  necessary  to  uncover  the  whole 
of  the  pit,  in  order  to  be  able  to  work  with  greater  facility,  and  to  avoid  the  dan- 
ger of  the  earth  falling  in.  An  extent  of  eight  perches  in  length  and  six  in  width 
forms  a  very  fair-sized  marl  pit ;  but  there  have  been  cases  in  which  this  extent 
has  been  doubled. 

Eveiy  marl  pit  must  be  provided  with  an  entrance  and  an  exit,  in  order  that 
the  wagons  may  pass  through  it,  and  not  be  obliged  to  turn  ;  and  both  these  roads 
must  be  gently  inclined,  in  order  that  the  descent  and  ascent  at  the  entrance  and 

'    transit  may  be  effected  with  as  little  difficulty  and  labor  as  possible. 

lu  extracting  the  marl  and  conveying  it  to  the  land  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied, 
as  equal  a  proportion  as  possible  should  be  established  between  the  number  o'f 
laborers  employed  in  digging  and  loading  the  wagons,  and  the  teams  for  trans- 

i  porung  it,  so  that  neither  shall  have  to  lose  time  by  waiting  for  the  other.  This 
proj.ortion  will,  of  course,  be  varied  by  the  distance  to  which  the  marl  has  to  be 

[  conveyed,  the  depth  from  which  it  has  to  be  extracted,  its  tenacity,  the  state  of 
the  icmperature,  and  the  quantity  of  water  which  is  collected  in  the  pit.  Mat- 
ters must  be  so  arranged  that  there  shall  always  be  a  cart,  wagon  or  w^heel-bar- 
row  iu  the  manure  pit  ready  to  be  loaded,  but  which  shall  not  have  to  wait.  The 
laborers  employed  in  digging  and  loading  should  not  be  allowed  more  time  than 
is  absolutely  requisite  to  enable  them  to  dig  out  sufficient  marl  to  load  the  wagon. 
If  thL  distance  is  short,  and  the  operation  progresses  rapidly,  one  set  of  laborers 
must  ue  employed  in  digging  while  the  others  are  loading.  i 

Wnen  the  distance  is  considerable,  and  the  teams  cannot  return  so  quickly  as  'i 
they  would  if  they  had  a  shorter  space  to  traverse,  the  number  of  laborers  must 
be  diminished,  or  more  teams  must  be  employed.  This  matter  may  easily  be  <[ 
regulated  by  reference  to  locality,  &c.  Those  persons  who  find  that"  they  have 
fewer  laborers  than  they  have  teams,  should  cause  the  marl  to  be  conveyed  to  the 
most  distant  fields  ;  while  those  who  find  that  they  can  command  a  greater  num- 
ber of  laborers  than  of  teams,  can  have  the  marl  carried  to  those  portions  of  land 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  marl  pit. 

When  the  operation  of  marling  is  performed  by  persons  who  undertake  it  by 
the  task  or  job,  they  sometimes  furnish  the  wagons  and  teams ;  while,  at  other 
times,  their  employer  finds  them.  In  the  latter  case,  when  the  greatest  distance 
which  the  marl  has  to  be  conveyed  does  not  exceed  from  eight  hundred  and  forty 
to  nine  hundred  and  sixty  Rhenish  feet,  the  sum  paid  for  a  wagon  containing 
eighteen  cubic  feet  will  be  nine  pence.  If  the  employer  finds  his  own  drivers,  as 
well  as  his  own  teams,  he  will  not  have  to  pay  more  than  six  or  eight  pence.  I 
pay  about  a  shilling  here  for  such  a  load.  It  is,  of  course,  understood  that  this 
price  supposes  that  there  is  no  particular  difficulty  attending  the  extraction  of  the 
marl,  and  that  this  substance  has  not  to  be  dug  from  any  great  depth.  This  is 
the  usual  way  in  which  these  matters  are  arranged  vsrhen  the  plow  horses  are 
used  in  conveying  marl,  and  when  the  agriculturist  does  not  choose  to  entrust  his 

\  cattle  to  strange  laborers,  but  rather  that  they  shall  be  driven  by  their  own  cart- 
ers and  drivers. 

Local  circumstances  can  alone  enable  us  to  decide  on  the  expediency  of  keep- 
ing or  hiring  horses  expressly  for  the  performance  of  this  operation,  or  making 
use  of  those  teams  which  are  kept  for  the  performance  of  the  various  operations 
of  tillage  when  not  otherwise  employed.  If  it  is  intended  to  conduct  the  opera- 
tion on  an  extensive  scale,  the  former  course  is  unavoidable  ;  for,  if  the  latter 
were  adopted,  the  marling  would  only  proceed  when  the  laborers  and  teams  were 
not  otherwise  employed.  Whenever  teams  are  kept  expressly  for  the  purpose  of 
conveying  marl,  it  will  also  be  necessary  to  keep  laborers  solely  for  the  perform- 
'  ance  of  that  work. 

The  kind  of  vehicle  used  is  generally  adapted  to  the  cattle  which  are  em- 
ployed. When  horses  are  kept  expressly  for  this  purpose,  tumbrels  drawn  by 
one  horse  will  be  found  to  answer  best ;  and,  in  time,  the  animals  becoirie  so  ac- 
customed to  their  duty  that  one  driver  will  suffice  for  two  or  three  of  these  carts  ; 

(675) 


*44  THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


but,  where  the  ordinary  teams  are  used,  wagons  drawn  by  two  horses  are  prefer- 
.  able.  I  am  no  advocate  for  the  use  of  teams  of  four  horses,  unless  the  distance 
[<  is  very  considerable,  or  the  roads  are  heavy.  Where  such  is  not  the  case,  two 
I  horses  will  dnnv  almost  as  much  as  four.  I  could  never  make  a  team  of  four 
<  horses  draw  more  than  a  load  of  twenty-five  cubic  feet  at  most,  while  two  horses 
will  usually  draw  a  load  of  eighteen  or  nineteen  feet.  A  Rhenish  cubic  foot  of 
I  marl,  in  its  ordinary  state  of  humidity,  weighs  from  a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and 
three  pounds,  Berlin  weight. 

It  is  seldom  that  any  marl,  and  especially  clay  marl,  is  homogeneous  in  its  na- 
ture throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  pit.  In  some  layers  or  particular  spots 
it  will  be  found  to  contain  an  amazing  quantity  of  lime,  while  in  others  it  con- 
tains but  very  little.  Those  who  are  not  sufficiently  accustomed  to  it,  and  una- 
ble to  distinguish  these  variations  in  its  constituent  parts  by  examination  or  touch, 
will  do  well  to  have  recourse  to  a  superficial  analysis.  In  general,  the  deeper 
jve  penetrate  the  more  homogeneous  does  the  marl  become  ;  veins  or  beds  of 
sand  are  often  found  intersecting  it.  This  sand  is  sometimes  of  a  calcareous  na- 
ture, and  is  then  exceedingly  beneficial  to  clayey  soils,  or  may  be  advantageously 
mixed  with  mould  and  peat.  But  even  if  no  use  can  be  made  of  the  sand  or  clay 
thus  found,  and  which  seldom  contains  much  if  any  lime,  it  must  still  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  marl  and  got  rid  of;  and  in  this  case  the  best  course  of  proceedings 
is  to  throw  it  into  those  excavations  whence  no  more  marl  is  to  be  extracted. 

The  thickness  and  nature  of  the  layer  of  marl  can  alone  enable  us  to  decide  on 
the  expediency  of  excavating  to  any  great  depth.  In  general,  the  farther  we 
penetrate  into  the  layer  the  more  calcareous  is  it  found  to  be ;  but  then  the  ex- 
penses attending  the  operation,  the  labor  and  the  danger,  will  be  considerably 
increased,  and  even  doubled,  unless  very  great  precautions  are  taken.  Marl  ex- 
tracted from  a  great  depth  will  have  in  the  first  place  to  be  thrown  on  a  kind  of 
scaffold  before  it  can  de  carried  to  load  the  wagons,  hence  both  the  labor  and 
expense  Avill  be  doubled.  Unremitting  attention  must  likewise  be  bestowed  on 
the  whole  progress  of  the  excavation,  to  see  that  the  walls  do  not  bulge  in  the 
slightest  degree,  or  the  workmen  deviate  from  the  perpendicular ;  for,  should 
either  of  the  sides  of  the  pit  fall  in,  very  serious  mischief  would  be  inevitably 
occasioned. 

When  the  pit  is  excavated  to  any  great  depth,  the  workmen  frequently  have 
to  contend  with  springs  of  water,  which  rise  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  or  filter 
through  the  veins  of  sand  ;  and  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  this  infiux  of 
water  is  so  great  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  abandon  the  pit  altogether.  Hence, 
we  seldom  find  marl-pits  excavated  to  more  than  from  six  to  twelve  feet  below 
the  surface.  Some  agriculturists  have,  however,  extracted  very  good  marl  from 
twice  that  depth. 

The  quantity  or  proportion  of  marl  that  should  be  supplied  to  a  field  varies 
greatly,  being  influenced  by  the  nature  of  the  substance  itself,  of  the  soil  to  which 
it  is  applied,  and  the  end  which  is  to  be  attained  by  its  application.  T^^c  more 
calcareous  marl  is,  the  greater  will  be  the  effect  produced  by  it,  and,  cons.  °auently, 
the  smaller  the  proportion  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  supply.  A  marun^  If 
which  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  loads,  each  containing  eighteen  cubic  feet,  is 
allowed  per  acre,  is  considered  to  be  sufficiently  abundant  for  almost  any  pur- 
pose ;  this  species  of  marl  ought  to  contain  at  least  sixty  parts  in  a  hundred  of 
lime  :  it  is  used  in  the  amelioration  of  clayey  or  argillaceous  Ian. 

The  more  that  clay  predominates  in  marl,  the  greater  mut*  .  -■  '•-•it    .:■)  of 

that  substance  applied  to  any  portion  of  land,  especially  if  thai  ...  -  >  .i  sandy 
nature  :  because,  independently  of  the  chemical  amelioration  whiCii  ,.  .eceives, 
the  soil  will  thus  likewise  derive  a  durable  physical  improvement.  The  marl  is 
spread  over  the  Avhole  surface  of  the  field  in  a  layer  of  an  inch  tliick,  which 
takes  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  such  wagon  loads  as  we  have  been  speak- 
ing of  per  acre.  In  most  countries,  when  the  practice  of  marling  is  first  adopted,, 
quite  as  much  marl  as  has  just  been  stated,  if  not  more,  is  used  ;  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  a  durable  improvement  of  the  nature  of  the  soil  is  thus  produced. 
But  I  have  always  observed  that  in  proportion  as  the  agriculturists  become  more 
acquainted  Avith  the  details  and  results  of  this  operation,  and  practice  it  on  a 
more  extensive  scale,  they  become  more  economical,  and  reduce  the  quantity  of 
marl  above  mentioned  to  sixty,  and  sometimes  even  to  forty  loads  per  acre  ;  and 

1676, 


MANURING   THE   SOIL.  245 

\  they  find  that  this  marling  is  productive  of  the  requisite  effect :    the  only  differ- 
/   ence  is  that  the  effect  is  not  so  durable,  and  does  not  last  more  than  from  ten  to 
twelve  years.     But  then  much  greater  advantages  are  derived  from  a  repetition 
\   of  the  operation,  after  a  lapse  of  twelve  or  sixteen  years,  than  would  have  been 
'  obtained  if  a  very  abundant  manuring  had  been  bestowed  in  the  first  place.    Most 
persons  have,  therefore,  been  led  to  prefer  the  application  of  marl  in  small  quan- 
tities, frequently  renewed.     Sixty  loads  of  marl,  which  contains  about  twenty- 
five  parts  in  a  hundred  of  lime,  is  the  usual  proportion  ;  and  the  layer  which  this 
amelioration  will  add  to  the  soil  is  about  an  inch  thick.     If  the  marl  contains 
much  less  lime,  a  considerably  larger  quantity  must  be  employed  if  we  would  •] 
have  it  to  be  productive  of  equally  satisfactory  results  ;  but  marl  containing  fewer 
than  twenty-five  parts  in  a  hundred  of  lime  is  only  calculated  for  sandy  soils. 

The  differences  in  the  quantity  of  marl  used,  and  in  the  consistence  and  nature 
of  the  soil,  will  serve  to  explain  all  those  apparently  contradictory  results  which 
have  attended  experiments  on  repeated  marlings.  A  second  or  a  third  marling 
has  sometimes  not  only  been  unattended  with  any  good  results,  but  has  even 
been  productive  of  baneful  consequences ;  while,  at  another  time,  a  second  marl- 
ing has  been  attended  with  more  beneficial  results  than  the  first.  In  the  former 
case,  the  soil  already  contained  an  abundance  of  all  that  the  marl  could  bestow  ; 
but  it  had  not  been  properly  manured,  and  common  marl  is  incapable  of  restoring 
humus  to  an  exhausted  soil.  If  the  marl  applied  was  clay  marl,  it  is  possible 
that  the  evil  arose  from  the  soil  being  of  an  argillaceous  nature,  and  thus  be- 
coming saturated  with  clay,  and  actually  deteriorated.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
land  had  been  well  manured,  the  physical  properties  of  the  marl  were  adapted  to 
.  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  thus  the  consistence  of  the  latter  was  sensibly  ame- 
'   liorated.     In  districts  where  the  land  is  regularly  marled  at  certain  intervals,   | 

•  \  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  manure  is  also  applied  to  it,  it  is  generally  considered    ' 
I  that,  when  some  particular  weed  or  weeds  choke  the  crops,  infest  the  soil,  and 

!    shoot  up  luxuriantly  all  over  it,  this  land  requires  marl  rather  than  dung.  Wiien- 
!  ever  this  is  the   case,  the  operation  of  marling,  which  must  of  necessity  be  ac- 
'  companied  by  a  dead  fallow,  not  only  destroys  the  weeds,  but  fertilizes  the  soil 
('  much   more  than  manure  would  do;  for   the  vigorous  vegetation  of  the  weeds 
tends  to  prove  that  the  soil  contains  an  abundant  supply  of  those  juices  which 
are  necessary  to  the  nutrition  of  plants,  but  that  these  juices  are  more  adapted  to 
weeds  than  they  are  to  cereals.     The  chemical  action  of  the  marl,  in  all  proba- 
bility, totally  changes  the  nature  of  the  humus. 

But,  in  those  countries  where  the  land  is  frequently  and  regularly  amended 
with  marl,  only  a  very  moderate  quantity  of  that  substance  is  applied.  It  is  sel. 
dom  that  more  than  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  loads  of  argillaceous  marl  are  be- 
stowed on  an  acre  of  sandy  land  ;  or  that  more  than  ten  loads  of  calcareous  marl 
are  applied  to  an  acre  of  argillaceous  land. 

There  are  various  opinions  with  regard  to  the  duration  of  the  effects  produced 
by  marling,  and,  in  point  of  fact,  this  duration  nmst  of  necessity  be  infiuenced 
and  varied  by  circumstances.  A  considerable  addition  of  argillaceous  marl  will 
afford  a  durable  amendment  of  the  physical  properties  of  a  light  sandy  soil,  and 
will  render  it  capable  of  bearing  more  luxuriant  and  abundant  crops  than  hereto- 
fore, provided  that  it  is  properly  manured.  The  chemical  effect  of  marl  will  be 
perceptible  during  a  period  of  from  ten  to  twenty  years,  according  to  tiie  quantity 
of  that  substance  which  has  been  applied  to  the  land.  The  effects  of  calcareous 
marl  on  a  clayey  soil  can  seldom  be  said  to  endure  more  than  ten  or  twelve  years. 
It  is  according  to  a  calculation  founded  on  this  proportion,  that  in  many  districts 
farmers  are  repaid  the  expenses  incurred  by  those  marlings  which  they  have  be- 
stowed on  the  land  during  the  lime  it  has  been  in  their  possession,  but  of  which 
the  expiration  of  their  lease  has  prevented  their  reaping  all  the  benefits.  Thus, 
'  for  example,  if  a  farmer  has  enjoyed  the  benefits  arising  from  this  operation  only 
I  for  five  years,  he  is  repaid  7-12  of  the  expenses ;  but  if  he  has  enjoyed  them  for 
nine  years,  he  only  receives  3-12. 

In  general,  the  improvement  resulting  from  marling  goes  on  increasing  to  the 
third  year,  provided  that  during  this  period  the  land  is  properly  manured  ;  and 

*  after  that  time  it  progressively  declines.  But  this  result  depends  in  a  great  mea- 
sure on  the  disposition  of  the  marl  to  become  thoroughly  divided  and  to  fall  to 
powder,  since  it  does  not  produce  its  beneficial  effects  until  it  becomes  completely 

(<;77) 


246  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture.  ! 

blended  and  incorporated  with  the  soil :  this  is  the  reason  that  it  is  so  impera- 
tively necessary  to  bestow  all  the  proper  operations  of  tillage  on  land  to  which 
marl  has  been  applied. 

When  horses  are  kept  expressly  for  the  performance  of  this  operation,  as  is  the 
case  in  all  those  places  where  marling  is  practiced  to  any  great  extent,  the  work 
may  be  carried  on  without  interruption  during  the  Avhole  year,  so  long  as  it  is 
not  impeded  by  alterations  of  temperature,  or  by  frosts  which  have  penetrated 
deeply  into  the  ground.  But  where  the  marl  has  to  be  conveyed  by  the  ordinary 
farm  teams,  and  sometimes  even  by  oxen,  the  operation  can  only  be  performed 
during  the  latter  end  of  autumn,  the  winter  season,  and  the  intervening  period 
between  the  spring  seed  time  and  the  harvest.  Marl  conveyed  to  land  during 
winter,  or  at  the  latter  end  of  autumn,  acts  very  promptly  on  account  of  its  being 
completely  divided  and  pulverized  by  the  cold  and  frosts.  When  the  ground  has 
not  become  too  much  hardened  by  frost  previous  to  being  covered  with  snow,  it 
is  worth  while  to  remove  this  latter  substance  from  those  places  where  we  wish 
to  dig,  and  to  break  the  frozen  parts,  and  convey  the  marl  to  the  land  over  which 
it  is  to  be  spread  on  sledges.  Marl  which  is  not  carried  to  the  land  until  winter 
is  nearly  or  quite  gone,  seldom  becomes  sufficiently  pulverized  to  be  minutely  and 
intimately  blended  with  the  soil,  even  though  it  shall  have  received  repeated 
plowings^  and  consequently,  is  productive  of  little  or  no  effect  on  the  first  crop  of  ; 
autumnal  corn.  The  English  system  of  marling  is  seldom  used  here  ;  they  insist 
that,  previously  to  its  being  buried,  the  marl  shall  be  spread  over  the  soil,  and  , 
suffered  to  remain  there,  exposed  to  the  burning  sun  of  two  summers,  and  the  \ 
cold  and  frost  of  one  winter.  If,  as  is  generally  the  case,  the  marl  is  applied  to 
the  fallow  after  the  first  plowing  has  taken  place,  it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  > 
to  follow  out  this  practice,  to  bestow  two  successive  dead  fallows  upon  the  land. 
But  English  agriculturists  likewise  marl  land  which  is  at  rest,  or  laid  down  for 
the  production  of  artificial  grasses;  which  then  shoot  up  luxuriantly,  and  yield  ' 
an  abundant  crop  of  pasturage. 

Marl  which  has  been  put  on  the  land  before  the  commencement  of  winter,  and 
suffered  to  remain  there  until  the  middle  of  summer,  will  generally  be  pulveri- 
zed sufficiently  to  be  thoroughly  incorporated  in  the  soil  by  repeated  plowings, 
harrowings,  and  rollings.  But  when  this  substance  has  not  been  conveyed  to 
the  fields  until  spring,  it  seldom  becomes  sufficiently  pulverized  and  reduced,  and 
remains  in  the  soil  in  lumps  and  clods  after  it  has  been  turned  in.  That  which 
has  been  spread  over  the  land  before  the  commencement  of  the  winter,  produces 
an  immediate  effect ;  while  the  effect  of  that  which  is  not  spread  until  the 
spring,  is  very  tardy,  and,  in  fact,  is  scarcely  perceptible  during  the  first  year.        [ 

Some  agriculturists  who  wish  to  obtain  immediate  benefit  from  the  marl  which 
they  apply  to  their  land,  sow  crops  of  spring  corn  upon  it,  as  barley,  oats,  or 
buckwheat ;  but,  in  general,  with  little  success.  A  carefully  tilled,  complete, 
dead  fallow  is  indispensably  necessary  to  ensure  the  good  effects  of  marl,  and  to 
render  them  speedily  evident. 

It  is  almost  superfluous  to  state  that  the  marl  ought  to  be  spread  over  the  land  / 
as  carefully  and  equally  as  possible.     After  this  has  been  done,  the  land  should    I 
be  well  harrowed  in  dry  weather;  and  if  any  lumps  of  marl  still  remain  undivi-    ' 
ded,  the  roller  should  be' passed  over  it ;  and  subsequently,  when  the  marl  has  been  / 
moistened  with  rain,  and  again  become  dry,  the  harrow  should  once  more  be    , 
used.     The  first  plowing  may  then  be  bestowed,  which  must  be  as  light  as  pos-  / 
sible.     Afterwards,  three  other  plowings  should  be  given,  and  each  succeeded  by  / 
a  harrowing,  and  then  the  intimate  blending  of  the  marl  with  the  soil  may  be  | 
left  to  Nature.     If  the  marl  still  contmues  lumpy,  this  combination  cannot  take 
place,  nor  will  that  substance  become  incorporated  with  the  soil  until  after  the 
lapse  of  a  considerable  period.     Those  portions  of  marl  which  are  not  mixed  ; 
with  the  soil  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder,  are  not  only  wholly  inefficacious,  but 
•  positively  injurious  to  vegetation. 

'  The  expenses  attendant  on  marling  must  necessarily  vary  considerably  under 
different  circumstances  and  in  different  localities.  The  labor  attending  the  ex- 
traction of  this  substance,  and  the  loading  of  the  vehicles  in  Avhich  it  is  to  be 
conveyed,  will  depend,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  depth  from  which  it  has  to 
be  raised.  The  tenacity  of  the  marl  also,  and  the  quantity  of  water  v/ith  which 
the  laborers  have  to  contend  in  the  pit,  cannot  fail  to  have  considerable  influence 

(678) 


MANURING   THE   SOIL.  247 


on  the  expense  of  the  operation.  When  the  marl  can  be  carted  and  carried  away 
as  soon  as  it  is  detached,  the  usual  price  of  a  load  of  eighteen  cubic  feet  is  from 
six  to  eight  deniers*  In  Holstein,  one  shilling  and  sixpence  is  usually  paid  for 
the  same  quantity  ;  and  for  this  sum,  the  laborers  are  expected  to  get  the  marl, 
fill  the  carts,  and  spread  it  over  the  land,  provided  the  distance  of  thehelds  from 
the  pit  admits  twenty-five  loads  per  day  being  carried,  and  they  are  found  in 
teams  and  vehicles.  I  pay  one  shilling  for  the  cartage  of  such  a  load,  and  find 
teams,  aad  mattocks,  and  drivers :  at  this  rate,  the  laborers  are  well  paid. 

The  expenses  of  carriage  depend  entirely  upon  the  distance.  It  not  unfrequent- 
ly  happens  that  calcareous  marl  is  conveyed  to  argillaceous  land,  which  is  at 
least  a  mile  distant ;  and  where  this  is  the  case,  one  team  cannot  convey  more 
than  two  loads  per  day,  and  sometimes  not  more  than  one.  The  operation  of 
marling  will  then  prove  an  expensive  one,  and  will  often  cost  even  more  than  an 
amelioration  of  lime.  Clay  marl  can  only  be  used  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
place  where  it  has  been  extracted ;  attempts  are  therefore  made  to  procure  it 
from  each  field,  or  from  the  nearest  possible  spot.  When  the  distance  is  once 
known,  it  is  easy  to  calculate  the  number  of  loads  which  one  team  can  convey  in 
the  course  of  a  day. 

The  following  will  be  found  to  be  the  usual  amount  of  the  expenses  attendant 
/  on  the  marling  of  an  acre  of  land. 

\  Rix-dol.  Gro8. 

To  getting  and  filling  60  loads  of  marl,  at  8  deniers  per  load 1  16 

Two  horses,  which  will  in  general  be  able  to  convey  the  quantity  requisite  for  an  acre 

of  laud  in  3  days,  at  8  gros.  each  per  day 2       0 

Spreading  the  marl  over  an  acre  of  ground 0       8 

Cost  of  opening  the  marl-pit,  and  other  incidental  expenses 0       6 

Wages  of  the  driver,  at  6  gros.  per  day 0  18 

5      0 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  in  this  estimate  all  attendant  circumstances  are 
considered  to  be  favorable.     In  proportion  as  the  difficulties  of  the  operation  in- 
crease, so  will  the  expenses  be  augmented.     During  the  short  days  of  winter,  not 
more  than  fifteen  loads  per  day  can  be  carried  ;  while,  in  the  suriimer,  when  the 
i|  days  are  long,  as  many  as  twenty-five  can  be  conveyed  with  ease.     In  the  former 
\  season,  therefore,  the  daily  work  done  by  the  teams  must  be  estimated  at  a  low- 
I  er  rate,  in  order  that  the  valuation  may  be  increased  in  the  summer. 

I  knew  a  case  in  which,  in  order  that  the  marling  of  a  field  situated  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  farm  buildings  might  be  executed  as  quickly  and  with 
as  little  delay  as  possible,  vetches  were  sown  on  those  portions  of  land  which  had 
received  this  amelioration  ;  and  the  teams  employed  in  conveying  the  marl  were 
thus  fed  :  they  were  left  there  night  and  day,  and  tethered  w'ith  cord  to  prevent 
them  from  treading  down  the  plants  beyond  the  space  immediately  assigned  them. 
The  use  of  marl  is  always  attended  by  evident  and  beneficial  eflTects,  especially 
when  argillaceous  marl  is  applied  to  a  sandy  soil ;  and  advantageous  results  have 
been  obtained  even  when  after  several  years  of  rest  the  land  has  appeared  so  ex- 
hausted and  sterile  as  scarcely  to  be  worth  the  trouble  of  soAving  it.  Neverthe- 
less, this  effect  is  only  relative,  and  by  no  means  absolute.  The  produce  is  in- 
creased from  two  and  a  half  to  five  bushels  per  acre  for  several  crops,  and  espe- 
cially at  the  third  crop  ;  but  it  subsequently  declines  progressively,  unless  the 
land  is  laid  down  to  rest  for  a  considerable  period,  or  manured  with  stable  dun"-. 
But  the  effect  of  marl  is  far  more  evident  and  beneficial  on  iana  v-vhich  still  con- 
tains both  succulency  and  humus,  which  is  manured  from,  time  to  time,  and  laid 
down  to  grass  before  it  becomes  exhausted:  in  this  case  ten  bushels  of  produce  ' 
r  per  acre  are  frequently  obtained  from  a  field  which,  had  it  not  been  manured, 
'    would  not  have  yielded  more  than  four  bushels. 

The  effects  resulting  from  this  amelioration  will  be  rendered  greater  and  more  ': 
I    durable  if  an  addition  of  stable  manure,  ever  so  small  in  quantity,  be  combined  ' 
I    with  it.      When  the  land  is  not  in  very  good  condition,  it  is  as  well  to  bestow 
I    four  loads  of  dung  on  it,  either  when  it  is  marled  or  in  the  following  year  at  the 
latest.      Should  the  land,  however,  be  tolerably  fertile,  it  is  to  be  feared  that 

*  12  deniers  make  1  groschen,  and  24  groschen  1  rix-dollar,  vrhich,  in  English  coin,  is  worth  fi'oni  4g.  to 
4s.  3d.,  and  in  some  parts  of  Gei-many  even  as  much  as  4s.  6d.     According  to  this  calculation,  therefore,  the 
expenses  attendant  on  the  marling  of  an  aci-e  of  land  will  be  from  £1  or  £1  Is.  to  £1  2s.  6d. 
(679) 


248  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

such  a  course  of  proceeding  would  have  the  effect  of  laying  the  corn ;  two  or 
three  crops  of  cereals  may,  therefore,  be  raised  after  the  marling  has  taken  place, 
and  then  an  amendment  of  stable-manure  be  bestowed  on  the  land.  But  so  soon 
as  this  latter  appears  to  be  necessary  it  should  be  given,  otherwise  the  soil  will 
become  more  exhausted  than  it  would  have  been  had  it  not  been  marled,  and  it 
will  be  a  very  difficult  matter  to  bring  it  into  good  condition  again. 

It  is  likeAvise  advantageous  to  make  use  of  marl,  together  with  peat  or  mould, 
in  the  form  of  a  compost :  this  mixture  is  productive  of  prompt  and  sensible  ef- 
fects even  on  an  exhausted  soil. 

In  England  the  attempt  has  been  made,  and  with  great  success,  to  bury  a  crop 
of  green  buckwheat  as  manure.  Spergula,  or  spurry,  is  equally  well  adapted 
for  this  purpose. 

Of  all  this  class  of  ameliorations,  marling  is  the  one  which  can  in  general  be 
effected  with  least  difficulty  ;  it  is  one  of  the  inost  durable,  and,  if  we  except  a  . 
very  feAv  others,  is  that  which  is  attended  with  the  greatest  advantages. 

There  is  also  another  earth  which  is  productive  of  astonishing  effects  when 
employed  as  manure,  which  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  lime,  and  is 
besides  very  rich  in  humus.  It  is  found  in  those  low  situations  Avhich  have  in 
all  probability  once  formed  the  beds  of  rivers,  or  at  all  events  have  been  covered 
with  water.  This  earth  is  of  a  bluish  color,  and  resembles  a  very  friable  poor 
clay  ;  it  is  soft  to  the  touch,  and  is  frequently  intermingled  with  small  shells.  It 
is  seldom  found  immediately  under  tJie  vegetable  soil ;  a  sterile  layer  of  clay 
usually  intervenes  between  the  two,  which  must  be  broken  through  and  removed 
before  we  can  reach  this  substance.  I  have  analyzed  a  portion  of  this  kind  of 
earth  which  Avas  obtained  from  the  marsiies  of  Oldenburgh,  and  the  following 
Avere  found  to  be  the  proportions  of  its  constituent  parts  : — 


Fine  sand,  ouehalf  of  which  could  be  sepa- 
rated by  washing-  and  the  other  by  boil- 
ing       36 

'i    Carbonate  of  lime 14 


Humus 5 

Fat  clay 44 

Gypsum 1 


The  humus  was  evidently  of  an  animal  nature,  and  when  burned  emitted  a 
fetid  odor.  I  have  no  doubt  that  this  fertilizing  and  ameliorating  earth  might  be 
found  in  manv  places  Avhere  its  existence  is  yet  unknoAvn  ;  it  is  composed  of  the 
residue  of  plants,  fishes,  and  testaceous  or  shelly  matters,  in  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree of  attenuation,  deposited  among  fine  sand,  and  Avhich  have  subsequently 
been  covered  by  depositions  of  those  matters  Avhich  have  beeuAvashed  down  from 
the  elevated  spots  by  rain  or  by  currents  of  Avater.  It  is  well  Avorth  while  to 
take  the  trouble  of  digging  and  searching  for  this  substance  in  all  those  valleys 
Avhich  appear  to  have  been  once  covered  Avith  Avater. 

The  folloAvirg  is  the  manner  in  Avhich  this  earth  is  usually  extracted  : — 

In  the  first  place,  a  pit  or  excavation,  of  about  six  feet  in  width  and  twelve  in 
length,  is  opened  ;  the  layer  of  vegetable  soil  is  thrown  up  on  one  side,  and  that 
of  virgin  clay,  Avhich  is  usuaHy  about  four  or  five  feet  in  thickness,  on  the  other. 
This  ameliorating  earth  which  is  found  underneath  is  then  extracted,  and  the  ex- 
cavations in  search  of  it  are  carried  to  as  great  a  depth  as  they  can  be  without 
danger  ;  the  pit  or  opening  is  then  extended,  and  those  places  whence  the  earth 
has-been  extracted  are  filled  by  throAving  into  them  the  clay  and  vegetable  soil 
before  mentioned  ;  and  so  the  operation  is  carried  on  until  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
this  earth  has  been  obtained. 

This  earth  is,  in  itself,  perfectly  sterile,  at  least  Avhen  first  extracted  ;  but  af- 
ter having  been  mixed  Avith  the  s'oil  and  carefully  tilled,  it  renders  the  latter  ex- 
ceedingly fertile.  Land  Avhich  has  been  thus  ameliorated  is  distinguished  for  a 
considerable  period  by  its  wonderful  fertility. 

A  knoAvledge  of  the  advantages  resulting  from  the  use  of  gypsum  (sulphate  of 
lime)  is  bv  no  means  a  discovery  of  recent  date.  We  find  many  traces  in  the 
annals  of  antiquity  of  its  having  been  knoAvn  and  used  in  isolated  countries  and 
'  places,  but  its  use  as  a  manure  was  but  very  partially  introduced  until  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  Herr  Mayer,  a  clergyman  of  Kupferzell, 
in  the  principality  of  Hohlenlohe,  noticed  it  in  a  correspondence  Avith  Count  Von 
Schulenbcrs,  of  Hehlen,  in  the  electorate  of  Hanover,  as  having  been  long  used 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Gotlingen  as  a  manure.      The  reputation  of  gypsum  was 


MANURING  THE   SOIL.  249 


widely  diffused  by  the  writings  of  Meyer.  Tscheffeli,  the  zealous  Swiss  agri- 
culturist, soon  afterwards  tried  experiments  with  it,  and  the  success  with  which 
they  were  attended  introduced  the  use  of  it  into  Switzerland.  An  account  of  the 
experiments  made  by  Tscheffeli,  as  well  as  those  of  other  celebrated  agricultur- 
ists, to  ascertain  the  properties  and  use  of  gypsum,  will  be  found  recorded  in 
"  Les  Memoires  de  la  Societe  Economique  de  Berne."  Schoubart  aad  Kleefeld 
were  the  first  German  agriculturists  who  made  known  the  beneticial  effects  of 
gypsum  when  used  as  a  top-dressing  for  clover.  But  several  persons  exclaimed 
against  this  practice ;  and  after  making,  or  pretending  to  make,  various  imper- 
fect experiments,  to  say  the  least  of  them,  declared  this  substance  to  be  wholly 
inefficacious,  if  not  injurious.  This  question  was  discussed  for  a  long  tirhe,  with- 
out arriving  at  any  satisfactory  conclusions. 

Among  the  opponents  of  gypsum  were  all  the  proprietors  of  salt  works,  who 
feared  that  if  it  came  into  general  use,  they  should  no  longer  find  a  ready  sale  for 
the  residue  of  their  manufacture,  which  had  previously  been  used  in  all  the 
neighboring  districts.  On  the  other  hand,  the  use  of  gypsum  as  a  manure  soon 
spread  among  the  agriculturists  of  France,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris, 
whence  it  extended  to  America.  From  the  very  first  moment  that  it  was  made 
known  in  this  latter  country,  large  cargoes  of  it  were  imported  from  Montmatre. 
The  use  of  this  substance  was  more  rapidly  extended  in  the  provinces  of  North 
America  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world  ;  and  nowhere  has  it  found  fewer 
partisans  than  among  the  agriculturists  of  England.  In  my  work  on  English 
Agriculture,  I  have  given  as  a  reason  for  this  neglect  the  quantity  of  calcareous 
particles  which  the  soil  of  most  of  the  counties  of  England  contains,  either 
naturally  or  artificially  ;  but  I  was  wrong  in  so  doing,  for  the  effect  of  gypsum  is 
equally  as  sensible  on  land  which  has  been  well  supplied  with  calcareous  parti- 
cles, as  it  is  in  those  counties  where  there  is  a  great  deal  of  gypseous  rock,  and 
where,  to  all  appearance,  the  soil  contains  a  considerable  portion  of  gypsum. 
Perhaps  the  prejudice  which  exists  in  England  against  every  thing  and  every 
discovery  that  is  introduced  by  France  or  even  by  Germany,  may  have  in  a  great 
measure  tended  to  render  the  agriculturists  of  that  country  blind  to  its  utility. 
They  seem  inclined  to  tolerate  and  adopt  only  the  discoveries  and  practices  of  the 
Americans. 

\       It  cannot  be  denied  that  many  of  the  experiments  made  with  the  view  of  veri- 

'  fying  the  effects  of  gypsum  as  a  manure,  have  been  attended  by  the  most  contra- 
dictory results  ;  and  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  its  effects  are  modified  by  various 
circumstances  that  have  not,  as  yet,  been  sufficiently  inquired  into.  The  effects 
resulting  from  the  use  of  this  substance  are  much  greater  on  dry  soils  than  they 

/  are  on  those  which  are  moist  and  damp  ;  and  more  sensible  in  dry  than  in  rainy 
or  wet  Aveather.  A  moist  state  of  temperature  retards  the  effects  of  gypsum,  and 
sometimes  appears  to  suppress  them  altogether,  especially  if  the  gypsum  has 

I  been  calcined.  This  substance  is  not  productive  of  any  effect  on  an  exhausted 
soil  which  contains  but  little  humus.  Its  influence  on  the  vegetation  of  some 
plants  is  very  trifling,  while  on  others  it  exercises  a  marked  power.  Those  plants 
on  which  gypsum  appears  to  produce  the  most  sensible  effects  belong  to  the  pa- 
pilionaceous and  cruciform  orders.  There  is  no  doubt  that  gypsum  acts  upon  the 
plants  themselves,  and,  consequently,  is  more  efficacious  when  its  dust  attaches 

I  itself  to  their  leaves  and  remains  there  for  a  considerable  time.  I  received  a  very 
striking  proof  of  this  effect  in  a  case  where  the  wind  had  carried  the  dust  of  pow-  'i 

'  dere  I  gypsum  over  one  side  of  a  hedge  of  white-thorn,  which,  in  about  eight  ; 
day     began  to  put  forth  rich  and  luxuriant  foliage  ;  while  the  other  side,  which 
had  not  come  in  contact  with  this  fertilizing  dust,  remained  very  much  behind. 
But  gypsum  dpes  not  act  solely  in  this  way,  as  I  was  once  inclined  to  think  that 
it  d^^d  ;  but  I  have  since  been  convinced,  by  recent  experiments  made  on  the  sub- 

'  jed,  that  it  likewise  acts  on  the  soil.     In  the  autumn  of  1808,  we  spread  this 

^  sul  stance  over  an  acre  of  land,  which  was  carefully  marked  out  and  sown  with 
rye.  In  the  spring  of  1809,  white  clover,  intended  to  form  a  pasturage,  was  sown 
0£>  thi?  field,  which  was  considerably  impoverished ;  this  clover  failed  almost 

\  every Arhere,  excepting  on  the  acre  ameliorated  with  gypsum,  where  it  was  so 

I  thick  and  luxuriant  that  this  spot  was  eminently  distinguished  from  all  the  sur- 

'  rounding  land. 

We  have  already  stated  the  manner  in  which  gypsum  acts  upon  the  soil.     In 

(681) 


250  tiiaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

all  probability  it  enters  into  a  reciprocal  but  very  slow  action  with  the  husnus. — 
This  latter  substance  decomposes  the  acid  portion  of  the  gypsum,  and  thus  pro- 
duces carbonic  acid,  or  some  yet  more  compound  substance.  It  is  not,  as  yet, 
known  what  is  the  nature  of  the  matter  thus  formed,  and,  in  all  probability,  nev- 
er will  be,  on  account  of  the  rapidity  with  which  it  decomposes.  It  is  probable 
that  the  sulphur,  thus  deprived  of  oxygen,  blends  with  the  lime  and  with  a  por- 
tion of  the  hydrogenated  carbon  ;  and  that  this  combination  produces  the  lelid 
odor  which  is  disengaged  when  gypsum  is  combined  with  substances  in  a  state 
of  putrefaction.  From  all  appearances,  we  are  led  to  believe  that  this  carbonic 
acid  and  its  new  combinations  are  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  nourishment  of  cer- 
tain plants.  Hence  it  happens  that  the  effect  of  gypsum  is  proportionate  to  the 
quantity  of  humus,  or  other  substances  in  a  state  of  putrefaction,  which  it  meets 
with  in  the  soil  over  which  it  is  spread. 

Gypsum  is  chiefly  used  in  the  cultivation  of  clover,  or  other  plants  of  a  snnilar 
nature,  and  sometimes  also  for  vegetables.  As  it  is  productive  of  a  sensible  effect 
on  those  of  the  cabbage  kind,  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  it  would  also  be  ben- 
eficial to  rape  ;  but  I  do  not  think  there  are  yet  on  record  any  well-attested  exper- 
iments calculated  to  demonstrate  the  truth  or  fallacy  of  this  supposition. 

Gypsum  is  used  both  in  a  calcined  and  an  uucalcined  state,  without  the  effects 
produced  by  it  appearmg  to  be  very  different ;  unless,  indeed,  a  heavy  rain  falls 
immediately  after  this  substance  has  been  spread  in  the  former  state,  when  the 
powder  will  be  agglomerated,  converted  into  hard  stony  lumps,  and  rendered 
wholly  inert.  The  most  important  point  to  be  attended  to  is  to  see  that  the  gyp- 
sum is  powdered  as  fine  as  possible  ;  it  should  be  literally  reduced  to  dust,  if  we 
would  have  it  productive  of  the  most  beneficial  effects  ;  this  is  a  very  difhcult 
matter  when  the  gypsum  has  not  been  calcined,  but  gypsum  which  has  been  sub- 
mitted to  the  action  of  fire  may  easily  be  reduced  to  powder. 

In  some  places  this  pulverization  is  effected  at  a  very  small  expense  by  means 
of  water  mills ;  but,  in  situations  where  no  such  mills  exist,  recourse  is  had  to 
various  other  contrivances.  The  gypsum  is  then  placed  in  mortars  or  troughs, 
and  pounded  with  pestles  or  other  instruments  used  for  the  purpose  of  bruising 
millet  or  making  oil  of  rape,  or  broken  in  pieces  by  means  of  a  grindstone. — 
When  it  is  thus  pounded,  it  is  passed  through  a  sieve,  and  those  parts  which  do 
not  appear  to  be  sufficiently  pulverized  are  pounded  or  ground  afresh.  After 
having  been  thus  prepared,  it  must  be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  in  order  that  it  may 
not  absorb  that  humidity  which  would  tend  to  restore  to  it  some  portion  of  its 
former  adhesiveness. 

A  calm  day  should  be  chosen  for  the  purpose  of  strewing  gypsum,  when  there 
is  little  wind,  and  Avhen  the  dews  have  been  heavy  ;  the  time  chosen  for  the  per- 
formance of  this  operation  should  be  late  in  the  evening,  or  early  in  the  morning, 
especially  when  it  is  used  as  a  dressing. for  clover,  because  at  these  times  the 
dew  on  the  leaves  of  the  plants  will  cause  it  to  adhere  to  them.  This  kind  of 
amelioration  should  never  be  applied  in  windy  or  in  rainy  weather.  Gypsum  sel- 
dom appears  to  be  productive  of  more  beneficial  effects  than  when  used  as  a  top- 
dressing  for  clover,  the  vegetation  for  which  is  already  sufficiently  advanced  to 
enable  its  leaves  to  cover  the  soil ;  this  operation  ought,  therefore,  generally  to 
be  performed  about  the  beginning  of  May.  Some  persons  have,  however,  derived 
advantage  from  strewing  it  over  the  young  clover  plants  in  autumn.  It  is  not  un- 
frequently  used  as  a  dressing  after  the  first  cutting  has- taken  place,  and  with  the 
view  of  accelerating  and  increasing  the  vegetation  of  the  second  ;  and  where  this 
has  been  the  case,  the  second  cutting  has  been  found  to  yield  far  more  than  the 
first,  and  which  it  would  not  have  done  under  other  circumstances.  The  quan- 
tity of  gypsum  requisite  for  an  acre  of  land  varies  from  one  to  two  bushels.  When 
it  is  properly  pulverized,  the  former  will  be  sufficient ;  but  if  such  is  not  the  case, 
a  larger  quantity  must  be  applied. 

All  the  experiments  which  I  have  yet  been  enabled  to  niake,  or  of  which  I 

have  had  an  opportunity  of  watching  the  progress  or  inquiring  minutely  into, 

tend  to  convince  me  that  gypsum  is  productive  of  evident  and  beneficial  effects, 

unless  these  are  counteracted  by  heavy  rains,  variations  of  temperature,  or  some 

,  negligence  or  inaccuracy  in  the'  experiment.     I  do  not,  therefore,  hesitate  to  rec- 

S   ommend  the  use  of  this  substance  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  vegetation  of  clo- 

\  ver,  and  rendering  it  both  vigorous  and  luxuriant,  wherever  it  is  obtained  sufli- 


MANURING  THE  SOIL.  251 


ciently  cheap  to  make  the  expenses  attendant  on  an  amelioration  of  a  bushel  and 
a  half  per  acre  not  exceed  one  rix-dollar  and  eight  groschen,  or  five  shillings  and 
eight  pence  in  English  monej^  If  the  land  is  in  tolerable  condition,  although  not 
excessively  fertile,  we  may  expect  to  obtain  from  six  to  eight  quintals  of  clover 
from  it,  beyond  what  it  would  have  yielded  without  the  intervention  of  gypsum  ; 
it  being,  of  cgurse,  understood  that  the  plants  were  pretty  thick,  since  gypsum 
camiot  create  them  where  they  do  not  exist.  If,  however,  there  is  one  plant  on 
each  square  foot  of  land,  the  eflect  of  the  gypsum  will  be  such  that,  at  the  time 
of  flovv-ering,  the  clover  will  completely  cover  the  soil.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
should  the  clover  be  very  thick,  and  the  soil  sufficiently  rich  and  fertile  to  admit 
the  plants  shooting  up  luxuriantly  without  any  extraneous  aid,  a  dressing  of  gyp- 
sum would  only  produce  an  excess  of  vegetation,  and  tend  to  dispose  the  plants 
to  rot ;  and,  where  such  is  the  case,  it  is  as  well  to  abstain  from  the  use  of  this 
substance. 

All  the  experiments  that  have  hitherto  been  made  seem  to  prove  that  gypsum 
has  little  or  no  direct  eflfect  on  gramineous  cereal  plants  when  spread  immediate- 
ly over  them ;  but  it  is  the  unanimous  opinion  of  every  one  who  has  had  the  op- 
portunity of  observing  this  pomt,  that  the  stubble  of  a  clover  crop  which  has  been 
dressed  with  this  substance  produces  much  finer  cereals,  and  especially  wheat, 
when  turned  in  as  manure,  than  are  ever  obtained  where  the  gypsum  has  not 
been  used.  This  effect  appears  to  have  been  produced  by  the  tendency  of  the 
gypsum  to  augment  the  vigor  and  succulency  of  the  roots  and  stems  of  the  clover,  \ 
and  thus  to  increase  those  portions  of  its  residue  which  this  plant  leaves  both  on 
and  in  the  soil.  It  is  a  Avell  known  fact,  that  the  vigor  and  fineness  of  corn  crops 
succeeding  to  clover  is  always  proportionate  to  the  vegetation  of  that  plant.  Thus 
then,  the  use  of  gypsum  is  indirectly,  if  not  directly,  favorable  to  cereals  ;  it  is 
also  productive  of  still  greater  advantages  by  the  increase  of  fodder,  and  likewise 
of  dung,  which  it  procures. 

This  species  of  manure,  which,  from  the  smallness  of  the  quantity  of  it  that  it 
is  necessary  to  apply  to  the  soil,  may  be  procured  from  great  distances  without 
much  inconvenience  or  expense,  is  then  a  very  valuable  one:  but  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  no  eflect  can  ever  be  expected  from  its  application  to  exhausted 
land. 

Gypsum  leads  us  to  speak  of  other  salts  which  may  be  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ameliorating  the  soil.  But,  if  we  except  the  residue  of  salt  works,  these 
substances  are  seldom  used  for  this  purpose,  on  account  of  their  being  in  general 
too  expensive. 

The  experiments  hitherto  made  with  regard  to  the  use  of  these  salts  have  been 
for  the  most  part  limited  and  partial.  Most  of  them,  and  especially  those  which 
relate  to  common  salt  (muriate  of  soda),  have  been  attended  with  the  following 
results : — When  applied  to  the  soil  in  too  large  a  quantity,  this  substance  has 
completely  checked  vegetation  ;  but  when  the  salt  has  been  washed  by  heavy 
rains,  and  perhaps  partially  decomposed,  it  gives  a  degree  of  strength  and  vigor  ,' 
to  the  vegetation  of  the  succeeding  years.  If  a  small  quantity  of  it  is  spread  \ 
over  a  very  rich  soil,  the  effect  produced  by  it  is  very  sensible,  but  of  short  dura- 
tion ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  this  small  quantity  is  spread  over  an  impoverished 
soil,  no  effect  whatever  is  produced.  This  mode  of  ameliorating  land  is  there- 
fore seldom  practiced  even  in  the  neighborhood  of  salt  mines,  where  it  can  be 
procured  at  a  very  low  price.  But,  on  sea-coasts,  the  effects  produced  by  salt 
water  on  vegetation  become  strikingly  evident ;  this  is  the  reason  that  salt 
marshes  are  preferred  to  others  for  the  pasturage  of  cattle.  The  grass  which 
grows  on  such  places  is  eaten  with  avidity  by  all  kinds  of  cattle,  whether  as  pas-  i' 
turage  or  in  the  form  of  dry  fodder ;  and  it  is  peculiarly  wholesome  and  nourish- 
ing to  them.  But  even  on  the  sea-coast  the  salt  is  speedily  carried  away  from 
the  soil  by  rain  or  other  kinds  of  moisture  :  indeed,  when  land  of  this  nature  is 
analyzed,  few  vestiges  of  saline  matters  are  to  be  found  in  it. 
J  The  experiments  made  with  regard  to  the  use  of  saltpetre  (nitre,  or  nitrate  of 
potassa),  employed  in  very  small  quantities,  have  been  attended  with  much  more 
evident  and  sensible  results  than  those  arising  from  the  use  of  common  salt:  but 
in  ordinary  undertakings,  this  substance  is  not  available  on  account  of  its  being 
so  very  expensive;  nor  should  we  have  spoken  of  it  at  all  had  not  this  circum- 
stance tended  to  demonstrate  the  fertility  of  those  soils  which  spontaneously  pro- 

(683) ^^ _„,,,., ^,^^,^^,.^' 


252  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


duce  nitrate  of  lime.  We  must,  however,  pause  to  observe  that  many  soils  are 
supposed  to  contain  saltpetre  which  really  do  not  possess  a  particle  of  it ;  that 
whitish  substance  which  is  observable  on  all  soils  containing  a  considerable 
quantity  of  mould,  and  which  is  so  often  mistaken  for  saltpetre,  is  neither  more 
nor  less  than  a  lichen  {lichen  humosus)  which  such  land  produces,  and  which 
certainly  is  a  proof  of  fertility.  That  portion  of  saltpetre  which  the  soil  produ- 
ces spontaneously  is  speedily  washed  away  by  rain  or  moisture  ;  hence  this  sub- 
stance is  rarely  found  when  land  is  analyzed  ;  it  is  much  more  frequently  found 
in  the  plants  which  have  sprung  from  such  laud  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  to  Ijrm 
an  essential  portion  of  them,  but  rather  to  have  entered  into  their  composition 
accidentally,  and  to  exist  there  as  a  foreign  body :  this  is  the  case,  for  example, 
in  wild  beet-root. 

It  is  not  worth  while  to  enter  into  any  dissertation  ou  the  subject  of  the  neutral  ) 
salts.  I 

Latterly,  the  metallic  salts,  and  especially  green  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  iron, 
have  been  considered  as  well  adapted  for  the  improvement  of  land.  There  was 
a  time  when  this  substance  was  regarded  as  exceedingly  prejudicial  to  vegeta- 
tion, and  land  impregnated  with  it  was  justly  considered  to  be  sterile.  It  is  only 
witliin  the  last  few  years  that  theory  and  experience  have  combined  to  teach  us 
the  value  and  utility  of  green  vitriol.  When  the  importance  of  oxygen  in  the 
promotion  of  the  germination  of  seeds  and  the  early  development  of  plants  Avas 
first  perceived,  it  was  deemed  possible  to  enclose  this  matter  in  oxides,  acids  and 
acid  salts  ;  but  positive  effects  were  only  obtained  from  those  oxides  and  acids 
which  were  easily  susceptible  of  decomposition,  and  allowed  their  superabund- 
ant oxygen  to  disengage  itself  After  having  made  various  experiments  in  order 
to  elucidate  this  point,  the  influence  of  acids  and  of  acid  salts  on  the  germination 
of  plants  still  appears  to  me  to  be  very  doubtful. 

In  the  experiments  on  the  action  of  green  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  iron,  dissolved 
in  water  and  used  as  a  manure,  the  results  appear  to  vary  exceedingly  ;  some 
persons  have  not  been  able  to  discover  that  it  produced  the  slightest  effect ;  oth- 
ers have  found  it  injurious :  while  a  third  class  have  declared  that  they  have  de- 
rived considerable  benefit  from  the  use  of  it.  In  most  of  those  experiments 
which  I  have  had  an  opportunity  of  investigating,  the  quantity  of  this  solution 
that  was  used,  and  the  extent  of  land  watered  with  it,  have  been  by  no  means 
accurately  defined  ;  it  is  nevertheless  very  important  that  both  these  points  should 
be  ascertained,  and  unless  we  are  acquainted  with  them  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
explain  the  causes  of  those  contradictory  results. 

Experiments  undertaken  by  accident,  and  which  tend  to  determine  the  amelior- 
ating powe-rs  which  some  vitriolized  fossils  possess,  have  given  to  this  subject  an 
importance,  in  a  practical  point  of  view,  which  it  would  not  otherwise  have  pos- 
sessed. In  England  a  species  of  peat  strongly  impregnated  with  vitriol  has  been 
found  ;  and  in  Germany,  in  the  estates  of  Reibersdorf,  belonging  to  the  Count 
d'Einsiedel,  a  mine  of  highly  vitriolized  coal  has  been  discovered,  both  of  which 
substances  form  very  active  manures  when  used  in  small  quantities. 

From  the  results  of  experiments  made  with  these  substances,  ii  appears  evi- 
dent that  vitriol,  when  combined  with  coal,  exercises  a  powerful  influence  on 
vegetation.  Possibly  the  action  of  light  and  air  eff'ects  the  decomposition  of  the 
sulphuric  acid,  the  oxygen  of  which  combines  with  the  carbon  and  forms  car- 
bonic acid,  or  some  other  substance  equally  favorable  to  vegetation.  Nor  is  it 
altogether  improbable  that,  by  means  of  the  hydrogen  which  is  united  with  the 
coal,  the  sulphur  and  the  coal  itself  enter  into  combination,  and  contribute  to  ac- 
celerate and  strengthen  vegetation.  Pure  green  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  iron,  can 
combine  in  the  same  manner  with  the  humus  which  it  meets  with  in  the  soil, 
and  is  then  productive  of  the  most  beneficial  effects.  Farther  light  must  be 
thrown  on  this  subject  by  the  medium  of  patient  investigation  and  carefully  con-  S 
ducted  experiments,  ere  we  can  venture  to  determine  whether  this  substance  is  > 
really  capable  of  ameliorating  land,  and  in  what  proportions  it  should  be  employed.  ' 

The  great  and  incontestibly  good  effects  resulting  from  the  use  of  coal  and  \ 
peat  impregnated  with  vitriol,  ought  to  induce  all  persons  to  have  it  in  their  / 
power  to  dig  in  search  of  these  substances,  and  to  use  them  for  the  amelioration  \ 
of  land.  / 

When  vitriolized  coal  is  used  as  a  manure,  it  is  first  reduced  to  powder,  and  / 

(6S4)  \ 


MANURING  THE  SOIL.  253 

then  spread  over  the  land  after  the  last  plowing  or  sov/ing,  but  not  buried.  The 
quantity  of  this  substance  applied  to  the  land  must  be  regulated  with  the  great- 
est circumspection  and  care.  When  used  too  plentifully,  it  is  injurious  ;  and  if 
it  is  suffered  to  remain  on  the  soil  in  heaps  only  for  a  few  days,  every  trace  of 
vegetation  disappears  for  several  years  from  the  spots  where  such  heaps  have 
stood.  It  ought,  therefore,  only  to  be  unloaded  on  the  roads,  or  on  the  edges  ol 
land  where  little  or  nothing  is  sown.  When  the  soil  is  of  an  argillaceous  or  cil 
careous  nature,  from  30  to  36  bushels  per  acre  maybe  applied  to  it;  but  not 
more  than  from  15  to  18  bushels  must  be  bestowed  on  a  calcareous  soil 

The  question  of  the  ameliorating  or  non-ameliorating  effects  and  properties  ol 
acids  is  a  theoretical  rather  than  a  practical  point,  since  it  rarely  happens  that 
we  are  able  to  make  use  of  these  substances.  Nevertheless,  we  will  pause  to 
make  a  few  remarks  on  this  subject, 

In  theory,  the  use  of  acids  has  been  recommended  for  the  purpose  of  amelio- 
rating the  soil  on  account  of  the  oxygen  they  contain,  which  is  in  itself  highly 
.  favorable  to  vegetation ;  the  fact  that  their  decomposition,  when  in  the  soil,  is 
too  independent  of  external  causes,  appears  to  have  been  wholly  overlooked. 

Those  experiments  which  have  been  made  with  acids  have  been  attended  with 
very  contradictory  results:  it  is  astonishing  that  the  talented  men  by  whom  they 
were  conducted  should  have  omitted  to  inform  us  of  the  nature  and  composition 
of  the  soils  to  which  they  applied  the  acids.  Various  accessory  circumstances 
tend,  however,  to  induce  the  belief  that  it  was  only  on  calcareous  soils  that  sul- 
phuric acid  was  productive  of  beneficial  effects,  and  this  was  the  only  acid  Avith 
which  experiments  were  made  ;  its  good  effects  are  easily  explained  by  the  fact 
that  on  land  of  this  nature  sulphuric  acid  produces  gypsum,  and  causes  the  evap-  ? 
oration  of  the  carbonic  acid.  Those  soils  to  which  it  was  prejudicial  doubtless  ( 
contained  little  or  no  lime. 

Lastly,  we  must  not  omit  to  notice  ashes  as  being  one  of  the  most  active  ma- 
nures, as  well  as  one  which  is  very  frequently  used.     When  thoroughly  burned,    . 
ashes  are  composed  of  earths  and  potash,  to  which  are  sometimes  added  metallic  '■ 
oxides  and  different  salts.     Lime  is  always  the  predominating  earth  which  enters  ^ 
into  their  composition,  even  when  the  plants  whence  they  are  derived  have  not 
sprung  from  a  calcareous  soil. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  potash  contributes  greatly  towards  the  amelioration    [ 
of  land  by  its  decomposing  power;  but,  in  general,  ashes  are  not  used  until  they 
have  been  lixiviated ;  notwithstanding  which,  they  are  still  productive  of  con-  , 
siderable  effect,  although  not  so  great  as  would  have  been  derived  from  their    | 
use  if  they  had  not  been  submitted  to  that  process.      Ashes  must  contain  some  ; 
peculiar  and  hitherto  undiscovered  matter,  which  gives  to  them  an  action  so    ' 
much  more  efllcacious  than  that  of  an  equal  quantity  of  the  same  earth  which 
'L^j  contain,  and  taken  in  another  state.     It  is  possible  that  some  portion  of 
vegetable  life  remains  in  them  which  we  are  unable  to  appreciate  or  discover. 
A  circumstance  which  seems  to  tend  greatly  to  the  support  of  my  opinion  is,  that 
it  has  been  every  where  observed  that  ashes  resulting  from  the  combustion  of  a 
slow  fire,  and  which  have  been  formed,  as  much  as  possible,  away  from  all  con-  ■[ 
tact  with  the  atmosphere,  constitute  a  much  more  efficacious  manure  than  those  '■ 
-"'=nlting  from  a  fierce,  quick  fire. 

In  order  to  render  ashes  which  have  not  been  lixiviated  more  active,  they  are 
somet'mes  mixed  with  recently  calcined  or   pulverized  lime  ;    and  these  sub-  '■ 
stanres,  after  having  been  carefully  mixed  together,  are  slightly  moistened.     By   ' 
mer.ns  of  this  process,  the  potash  contained  in  the  ashes  is  rendered  caustic.     A 
sn-.all  quantity  of  this  mixture  is  used  as  a  dressing  for  clover ;    in  paring  and 
barning,  also,  a  little  lime  is  generally  mingled  with  the  ashes  of  the  turf. 

Although  this  may  appear  to  be  the  proper  place  for  entering  into  a  considera- 
tion of  the  operation  of  paring  and  burning,  we  shall,  nevertheless,  defer  all  rnen- 
tion  of  it  until  we  come  to  treat  of  tillage  generally,  to  which  division  it  certainly   , 
belongs. 

Of  all  the  lixiviated  ashes  tha.t  are  used,  the  refuse  ashes  of  bleachers  and 
soap-boilers  are  generally  preferred.     These  contain  only  a  small  quantity  of  pot-    ; 
ash,  but  are  mixed  with  lime,  and  not  unfrequently  with  gelatinous  portions  of   , 
the  residue  of  the  melted  fat  and  other  substances  used  in   the  manufacture  of 
candles  and  soap.     It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  soap  manufacturers  mix  the  i 

(685) 


25 


254 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


sweepings  of  their  houses  and  j^ards  with  the  ashes ;  but  this  does  not  tend  to 
improve  them.  The  excellent .eft'ects  resulting  from  this  species  of  manure  are 
now  so  well  known,  that  it  is  eagerly  bought  and  carried  to  immense  distances  ; 
but  not  more  than  twenty  years  have  elapsed  since  it  was  thrown  away  as 
rubbish. 

This  kind  of  manure  is  usually  devoted  to  meadow-land.  The  ashes  are 
spread  over  the  turf;  whence,  in  a  very  short  time,  they  cause  grass  or  the  va- 
rieties of  clover  to  appear,  and  replace  the  moss  or  stunted  grass  which  previ- 
ously grew  there. 

Nor  are  these  ashes  productive  of  less  beneficial  eflfects  on  arable  land  ;  only, 
like  all  other  manures  of  a  similar  nature,  care  must  be  taken  that  they  shall  be 
intimately  and  completely  blended  with  the  soil ;  and  to  effect  this,  they  must  be 
only  superficially  buried  at  first,  in  order  that  the  harrow  may  reach  and  distribute 
them.  The  quantity  usually  allowed  for  an  acre  of  land  is  eighteen,  twenty,  or, 
at  most,  thirty  bushels  spread  equally  over  it.  There  are  places  in  which  agri- 
culturists do  not  scruple  to  pay  from  five  to  six  rix-dollars  (21s.  3d.  to  25s.  6d.) 
for  an  amelioration  of  this  nature  •,  but  in  other  districts  it  can  be  procured  at  a 
much  cheaper  rate. 

It  is  not,  however,  productive  of  its  most  beneficial  effects,  unless  the  land  to 
which  it  is  applied  be  thoroughly  impregnated  with  stable  manure:  on  an  im- 
poverished soil,  it  seldom  answers  the  expectations  of  those  who  make  use  of  it. 
This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  practice  of  using  this  substance  is  held  in  the 
highest  estimation  in  those  places  where  land  is  kept  in  pretty  tolerable  condi- 
tion. Its  effects,  too,  are  then  far  more  durable.  Many  persons  assert  that  they 
are  perceptible  for  ten  or  twelve  years  ;  but  such  is  not  the  case,  as  Benekendorf 
justly  observes,  unless  the  land  is  manured  afresh. 

In  places  where  there  is  a  superabundance  of  wood,  and  where  the  demand 
for  this  substance  is  so  small  that  the  most  profitable  use  which  can  be  made  of 
it  is  to  subject  it  Jo  incineration,  in  order  to  obtain  potash  from  it,  the  residue  re- 
sulting from  this  operation  may  be  used  with  the  greatest  advantage  for  the 
amelioration  of  land,  and  the  benefits  thus  obtained  are  often  so  great  as  to  cover 
the  whole  of  the  expenses.  These  ashes  are  carried  to  soils  which  have  been 
repeatedly  plowed,  or  are  used  to  accelerate  the  amelioration  of  newly-tilled  for- 
est land.  '  Every  farm  possesses  some  portion  of  lixiviated  ashes  ;  and  however 
small  this  portion  may  be,  it  is  still  worth  while  to  preserve  it.  If,  as  is  gene- 
rally the  case,  the  ashes  are  thrown  together  in  a  heap  on  the  dung-hill,  they  are 
productive  of  little  or  no  good,  because  they  do  not  produce  all  the  benefit  of 
which  they  are  susceptible,  unless  spread  thinly  and  evenly  over  the  soil.  Here, 
on  the  contrary,  they  would  be  amassed  together,  and  likely  to  destroy  the 
vegetation  on  those  spots  with  which  they  came  in  contact. 

Not  only  do  peat  ashes  differ  essentially  from  wood  ashes  in  containing  little 
or  no  potash,  but  the  constituent  parts  of  ashes  resulting  from  varieties  of  peat 
are  likewise  very  dissimilar.  Lime  generally  forms  the  chief  constituent  of  these 
ashes,  provided  that  the  peat  from  which  they  are  obtained  does  not  contain  too 
large  a  portion  of  sand.  This  lime  exists  in  the  form  of  a  carbonate,  or  in  con- 
junction with  sulphuric,  phosphoric,  and  acetic  acids.  It  is  usually  combined 
with  a  considerable  portion  of  oxide  of  iron,  and  sometimes,  also,  of  sulphate  of 
iron,  when  this  latter  substance  has  not  been  decomposed  by  the  intensity  of  the 
fire. 

The  differences  which  are  observable  in  the  properties  of  peat  ashes  regarded 
as  a  manure,  probably  arise  from  the  variations  which  exist  in  the  nature  of  the 
constituent  parts  of  peat  itself.  There  are  as  yet  so  few  well  authenticated  ex- 
])eriments  on  the  nature  of  peat  ashes,  or  carefully  investigated  analysis  of  them 
made  with  reference  to  their  ameliorating  qualities,  that  nothing  positive  can  be 
said  on  the  subject.  It  has  everywhere  been  found  that  light  friable  ashes  are 
productive  of  more  beneficial  effects  than  those  which  are  heavy,  doubtless  be- 
cause they  contain  less  silica.  Some  persons  prefer  the  white  ashes,  others  the 
grev,  and'others  those  which  are  of  a  reddish  hue  :  th.s  latter  color  arises  from 
the  presence  of  oxide  of  iron.  I  have  seen  more  harm  than  good  resulting  from 
the  use  of  peat  ashes  of  a  red  brown  hue,  which  contained  a  great  deal  of  iron, 
and  also  of  silica,  and  am,  therefore,  inclined  to  believe — at  any  rate,  until  far- 
ther experience  shall  convince  me  to  the  contrary — that  oxide  of  iron  is  not  pr 


MANURING  THE  SOIL.  255 


ductive  of  beneficial  effects  oa  vegetation.  This  point,  certainly,  is  well  worthy 
of  investigation,  especially  in  those  countries  where  a  great  deal  of  peat  is 
burned.  This  species  of  ash«s  is  the  more  frequently  used  as  manure,  in  conse- 
quence of  there  being  no  possibility  of  applying  it  to  any  other  purpose. 

But,  in  some  parts  of  England  and  of  Holland,  peat  is  burned  expressly  for  the  ^ 
purpose  of  making  use  of  its  ashes  in  the  amelioration  of  land.    Considerable  eX' 
tents  of  marshy  land  are  devoted  to  the  growth  of  peat.     Kilns  or  furnaces,  con 
structed  of  stone  or  clay,  are  built  near  to  these  places  ;  at  the  bottom  of  which,  i| 
on  the  grating,  a  layer  of  dry  peat  is  laid  first,  which  is  succeeded  by  a  layer  of 
peat  in  the  state  of  moisture  in  which  it  is  taken  from  the  marsh.     TJie  under- 
most layer  is  then  set  on  fire,  and  its  heat  speedily  dries  the  one  above  it,  and 
causes  it  also  to  ignite ;  so  that  after  the  fire  is  once  permanently  kindled,  it  can 
be  kept  up  without  the  necessity  of  adding  more  dry  peat.     The  combustion  is 
neve-r  suffered  to  proceed  too  rapidly,  because  it  is  well  known  that  the  ashes  lose 
much  of  their  ameliorating  properties  when  the  peat  has  been  too  rapidly  con- 
sumed.    The  ashes  are  withdrawn  from  beneath  the  grating,  and  thus  the  pro- 
cess goes  on,  and  with  it  the  formation  of  fresh  ashes  ;  while  those  that  have 
been  pioduced  are  carried  away. 

Latterly,  so  great  a  virtue  has  been  attributed  in  England  to  the  action  of  ashes, 
that  agriculturists  have  been  advised  not  only  to  burn  the  stubble  which  is  left 
c-n  the  giound  after  the  corn  has  been  reaped,  but  also  to  strew  the  whole  of  the 
straw  over  the  soil,  and  destroy  it  by  combustion.  In  support  of  this  advice,  ex- 
periments have  been  brought  forward  to  prove  that  much  greater  benefits  have 
been  thus  derived  from  the  straw  than  it  would  have  produced  if  mingled  with 
the  dung.  We  shall  not  enter  into  any  discussion  with  respect  to  the  merits  or  / 
demerits  of  this  theory,  because  it  can  only  be  applicable  to  certain  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances and  to  very  fertile  soils.  The  practice  of  setting  fire  to  the  stubble, 
which  for  this  purpose  is  left  very  long,  is  much  followed  in  Hungary,  in  districts 
where  the  soil  is  very  rich. 

The  residue  of  salt-works,  and  the  sediment  which  settles  in  or  attaches  itself 
to  the  sides  ol  coppers  or  boilers — which  matters  are  often  mixed  with  ashes — 
may  be  classed  among  the  number  of  very  active  manures.  Agriculturists  eager- 
ly purchase  these  substances,  and  not  unfrequently  at  a  very  high  price.  The 
sediment  of  large  coppers  or  boilers  is,  for  the  most  part,  composed  of  gypsum ; 
sometimes,  however,  it  contains  a  little  salt.  Many  persons  prefer  it  to  gypsum, 
while  others  do  not  attribute  an  equal  value  to  it. 

Agriculturists  have  been  frequently  led  away  and  deceived  by  wonderful  ac- 
counts of  various  salts,  which,  if  employed  in  ever  so  small  a  quantity,  were  to 
produce  miraculous  effects.  These  oft'springs,  however,  of  quackery  and  an  ex- 
cessive love  of  gain  are,  happily  for  us,  rapidly  losing  ground.* 

But  I  must  not  be  understood  to  confound  those  artificial  compositions  of  gyp- 
sum, oxide  of  iron,  common  salt,  &c.  and,  among  others,  the  valuable  essays  and  : 
recommendations  of  Lampadius  Freyberg  ("  Leipsicher  Economishe  Anzeigen 
Michaelis,"  1805.  A.)  with  those  ridiculous  inventions  ;  for  these  are  used  in  suit- 
able proportions,  and,  not  like  the  miraculous  salts,  in  quantities  not  exceeding  a 
few  ounces  or  pounds  per  acre. 

There  does  not  appear  to  be  the  least  doubt  that  by  using  successively  and  ap- 
propriately warm,  active,  animal  manures,  durable  and  refreshing  vegetable  mat- 
ters and  ameliorations  composed  of  mineral  substances,  which  accelerate  decom- 
position, that  by  successively  bringing  into  action  one  or  other  of  the  different  va- 
rieties of  each  of  these  species  of  manures,  a  greater  amount  of  produce  may  be 
obtained  than  if  one  kind  only  were  used.  But,  in  order  to  obtain  this  success, 
attention,  doubtless,  must  be  paid  to  the  order,  proportion,  and  period  which  best 
agrees  with  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  condition  in  which  it  is,  and  the  number 
of  crops  it  has  borne  since  last  ameliorated.  In  many  countries,  certain  positive 
rules  have  been  laid  down  with  regard  to  this  subject ;  but  these  rules  want  prac- 
tical and  fundamental  utility.  Theoretically  speaking,  nothing  more  can  be  said 
on  this  subject  than  we  have  already  advanced,  because  we  look  in  vain  for  posi-  ' 
tive  and  well  authenticated  experiments  calculated  to  remove  our  doubts.  There 
is  a  wide  field  open  to  the  researches  of  the  chemist  and  scientific  agriculturist ; 

Not  so  in  this  country.    "  New  maniires"  were  never  so  numerous  rs  at  the  present  time. 


256 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  direction  of  a  patient,  scientific  and  accurate  inves- 
tigation to  this  subject  will  not  fail  to  produce  new  and  important  discoveries, 
which  will  teach  us  how  to  apply  all  those  subs^tances  with  which  we  are  fur- 
nished by  Nature,  so  as  best  to  attain  the  end  for  which  they  were  bestowed — 
namely,  the  multiplication  of  living  beings,  and  of  the  comforts  and  necessaries 
of  life". 

Since  Nau  Reissert  and  Seitz  have  opened  the  lists  in  the  "  Annals  of  Agricul- 
ture," ("  Annalen  des  Ackerbau,"  vol.  ix.  p.  210,)  we  may  venture  to  hope  that 
new  experiments  will  soon  determine  how  far  certain  species  of  manures  are  suit- 
able to  certain  plants,  bot'i  as  regards  their  influence  on  the  abundance  and  qual- 
ity of  the  produce.  All  that  is  at  present  known  on  this  subject  will  be  narrated 
when  we  come  to  speak  of  the  cultivation  of  each  separate  kind  of  produce. 

An  agriculturist  who  has  at  his  disposal  those  kinds  of  manure  which  are  not 
in  general  use,  and  who  knows  how  to  employ  them  properly,  may  venture  to 
deviate  from  that  straight  path  which  a  person  who  cannot  procure  these  sub- 
stances, or  does  not  know  how  to  use  them,  must  tread  without  swerving.  By 
means  of  this  variety  of  manures,  the  former  may  adopt  a  system  of  cultivation, 
a  rotation,  or  succession  of  crops,  better  adapted  to  the  circumstances  and  the  de- 
mands of  the  passing  hour,  or  to  his  own  convenience,  than  that  which  he  would 
otherwise  be  compelled  to  fellow.  When  he  can  obtain  street  mud,  or  sweep- 
ings, the  residue  of  some  manufacture,  or  a  supply  of  rich  mould,  he  will  be  able 
to  save  the  stable  manure,  and,  perhaps,  diminish  the  extent  of  land  devoted  to- 
the  purpose  of  raising  fodder.  Gypsum  preserves  to  naturally  rich  lands  the  ca- 
pability of  producing  clover  for  a  considerable  period,  provided  that  the  soil  is  not 
too  deeply  plowed. 

But,  on'the  other  hand,  those  agriculturists  who  do  not  possess  such  extraneous 
means  must  not  allow  themselves  to  be  tempted  to  imitate  their  more  fortunate 
neighbors,  or  strive  to  emulate  the  brilliant  success,  with  the  causes  of  which 
they  are  too  frequently  unacquainted. 

PART  II.... ON  THE  TILLAGE  OF  THE  SOIL.  OR  ITS  MECHANICAL  AMELIO.RATION. 

I  shall  devote  this  portion  of  my  work  to  an  enumeration  and  description  of 
those  various  labors  and  operations  by  means  of  which  the  soil  is  renisred  capa- 
ble of  producing  the  various  crops  which  we  require  from  it,  and  by  which  its 
physical  condition  is  adapted  to  the  attainment  of  the  end  which  the  agriculturist 
has  in  view. 

These  operations  are  all  comprised  in  the  two  following  divisions  : 

1.  Those  the  effects  of  which  are  permanent,  or  at  all  events  of  considerable 
duration  ;  such  as  are  designated  under  the  title  of  ameliorations,  viz.  the  improving 
the  land,  the  formations  of  hedges,  ditches,  and  enclosures  in  general ;  also  drain- 
ing, digging,  forming  canals  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation,  &c. 

2.  Those  which  have  relation  only  to  the  succeeding  crops  and  to  their  sow- 
ings, and  which  must  be  repeated  every  year,  or  at  any  rate  at  certain  short  in- 
tervals. The  latter  are  comprised  under  the  denomination  of  tillage  :  various  cir- 
cumstances tend  to  induce  us  to  occupy  ourselves  in  the  first  place  with  this  di- 
vision, and  then  proceed  to  a  consideration  of  the  more  durable  improvements. 

However  evident  the  necessity  of  tillage  may  be,  there  are,  nevertheless,  vari- 
ous opinions  with  respect  to  the  manner  in  which  it  ought  to  be  performed,  as 
well  in  general  as  in  special  cases,  and  with  regard  to  the  selection  of  the  various 
methods  or  practices  which  should  be  followed.  Success  has  favored  alternately 
one  or  another  of  these  ;  and  hence  an  agriculturist  who  has  received  a  merely 
practical  education,  will  do  well  to  act  upon  the  precepts  and  follow  the  rules 
handed  down  to  him  by  his  forefathers.  vSuch  a  course  of  proceeding  certainly 
does  not  hold  out  the  prospect  of  any  advantages  which  are  not  likewise  enjoyed 
by  his  neighbors,  but  at  the  same  time  it  exempts  him  from  the  evils  frequentlv 
entailed  by  speculations.  Should  he  undertake  new  systems  of  operation  with- 
out being  thoroughly  acquainted  with  their  end  and  purpose,  and  with  all  the 
considerations  which  should  induce  him  to  follow  or  reject  them,  he  will  be  far 
more  likely  to  experience  sensible  losses  than  to  attain  to  any  real  good.  An  en- 
lightened and  scientific  agriculturist,  on  the  other  hand,  whose  endeavor  it  is  to 
arrive  at  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  of  which  his  art  is  capable,  may  enter 
upon  new  modes  of  operation  without  risk,  when  he  knows  the  effects  which 

(688) 


TILLAGE    OF   THE   SOIL.  257 

the  course  of  proceeding  which  he  is  adopting  are  calculated  to  produce,  the  re- 
sults with  which  each  operation  will  probably  be  attended,  and  can  appreciate 
and  understand  the  causes  which  have  influenced  the  success  of  one  mode,  and 
sometimes  of  another. 

'i  he  practice  of  Agriculture  has  in  view  numerous  and  varied  objects,  all  of 
which  cannot  be  attained  in  the  same  manner.  It  is,  therefore,  highly  essential 
that  a  clear  idea  should  be  entertained  of  the  eflfect  which  is  intended  that  a  cer- 
tain course  of  proceedings  shall  produce,  not  only  in  each  isolated  case,  but  also 
in  the  combination  of  all  these  cases  with  one  another,  in  order  that  by  means  of 
this  knowledge  we  may  be  enabled  to  select  that  mode  of  operation  which  will 
at  once  attain  the  required  aim  in  the  best  possible  manner  and  at  the  smallest 
.  possible  expense. 

The  following  are,  in  general,  the  objects  and  effects  of  tillage  : — 

1.  The  loosening  and  pulverization  of  the  soil.  All  kinds  of  land  have  a 
natural  disposition^©  agglomerate  and  become  too  close,  either  in  consequence 
of  th-e  attraction  of  cohesion  of  their  particles,  or  of  the  pressure  exercised  on  them 
by  the  atmosphere.  The  more  argillaceous  a  soil  is,  the  greater  is  this  consist- 
ence and  agglomeration.  But  most  of  the  plants  we  cultivate  are  unable  to  pen- 
etrate so  hard  a  soil,  or  to  derive  from  it  the  nourishment  requisite  for  their  sup- 
port. It  is,  therefore,  necessary  that  the  soil  should  be  loosened  by  some  me- 
chanical process  ;  and  this  should  be  done  as  perfectly  as  possible,  in  order  that 
rich  vegetation  may  be  produced,  and  all  the  nutritive  matters  contained  in  the 
ground  be  placed  within  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  plants.  To  effect  this,  it  is 
requisite  that  the  layer  of  vegetable  earth  should  be  pulverized,  until  not  a  single 
clod  or  lump  remains.  The  fibrous  roots  of  the  plants  do  not  penetrate  these 
clods ;  all  they  can  do  is  to  Avind  themselves  around  them,  and,  consequently, 
clods  of  earth  scarcely  yield  more  nourishment  than  stones. 

The  more  homogeneous,  loose,  and  pulverulent  a  soil  is,  the  more  equally 
will  it  be  penetrated  by  the  roots  of  plants  growing  on  it,  the  more  hair-like  and 
fibrous  roots  will  these  plants  put  forth,  and  the  more  are  the  ramifications  of 
these  roots  separated  from  each  other ;  so  that  thus  all  the  nutritive  particles 
contained  in  the  soil  are  brought  into  contact  Avith  some  one  of  the  suckers  put 
forth  by  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

Some  authors,  and  especially  Jethro  TuU,  convinced  by  personal  experience  of 
the  wonderful  effects  resulting  from  a  complete  pulverization  of  the  vegetable 
layer  of  earth,  have  been  led  to  believe  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  was  produced 
solely  by  this  cause  ;  but  it  has  since  been  clearly  proved  that  such  an  assertion 
is  not  correct.  When  a  field  to  all  appearance  exhausted  has  been  allowed  to 
agglomerate  together  in  clods  and  lumps,  there  is  no  doubt  that  if  it  were  care- 
fully pulverized  it  might  be  made  to  bear  one  or  two  crops  of  grain  ;  but  this  is 
only  because  the  nutritive  juices  and  particles  which  it  contained  are  thus 
brought  within  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  plants,  and  not  because  this  operation  is 
able  to  create  one  particle  of  nutrition. 

A  soil  can  never  be  too  much  loosened  and  pvilverized  ;  it  may,  however,  be 
rendered  too  light  and  spongy  ;  that  is  to  say,  interstices  may  be  formed  in  it, 
and  there  are  vacuums  existing  between  its  particles.  These  voids  or  interstices 
are  injurious  to  plants.  It  has  often  been  noticed  that  divers  kinds  of  products 
suffer  when  they  have  been  sown  on  recently  plowed  land  which  has  not  had 
time  to  sink  down  again,  and,  consequently,  is  full  of  interstices. 

The  comparative  difficulty  or  facility  with  v/hich  this  pulver.zation  can  be  ef- 
feifted,  depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the  nature  and  composition  of  the  soil : 
this  is  the  reason  that  the  operations  by  means  of  which  it  is  brought  about  dif- 
fer so  much  in  their  degrees  of  intensity,  and  why  it  is  necessary  to  repeat  them 
so  much  oftener  on  some  soils  than  on  others.  Besides,  the  degree  of  pulveriza- 
tion bestowed  on  land  must  depend  on  the  kind  of  plant  which  is  to  be  soAvn 
there  :  barley  thrives  best  on  very  loose  and  pulverized  soils,  while  oats  succeed 
equally  well,  if  not  better,  on  land  which  has  not  been  so  much  loosened  ;  this 
kind  of  gram  vegetates  most  vigorously  on  those  soils  the  particles  of  which  ag- 
glomerate together. 

Several  years  will  elapse  before  a  soil  which  has  been  properly  pulverized  will 
become  hard,  or  before  a  crust  will  be  formed  beneath  its  surface.  If  it  is  com- 
posed of  clav,  it  contracts  a  certain  degree  of  adherence  with  itself;   but  this  is 


258  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

never  so  great  as  to  prevent  the  roots  of  plants  from  penetrating  it,  therefore  the 
loosening  and  pulverization  of  that  part  of  the  soil  beneath  the  layer  turned  up    ! 
by  the  plow  is  seldom  repeated  above  once  in  a  certain  term  of  years. 

2.  The  complete  mixture  of  the  parts  of  which  the  soilis  composed.     It  is  never 
more  imperatively  necessary  to  effect  a  thorough  mixture  of  all  the  component  parts   ! 
of  the  soil,  than  when  the  layer  of  vegetable  earth  has  been  augmented  by  deep   ' 
plowings,  which  have  brought  the  virgin  earth  to  the  wrface,  or  by  the  addition    ' 
of  substances  calculated  to  improve  or  ameliorate  it.     An  earthy  mass  composed    J 
of  heterogeneous  substances  is  positively  injurious  to  the  roots  of  plants  :  vegeta- 
tion is  impeded  when  the  young  fibrous  roots  of  plants  pass  from  one  kind  of    ' 
earth  into  another.      An   imperfectly  mixed  soil,  consequently,  produces  stunted, 
sickly  and  diseased  plants:    many  soils  have  been  rendered  almost  barren  for 
several  years,  in  consequence  of  the  ameliorating  earth  which  was  carted  on  to 
them  not  having  been   properly  blended  with  the  vegetable   mould  ;    even   the 
beneficial  effects  of  marl  are  neutralized  by  Avant  of  attention  to  this  essential 
poini ;    in  f-.ict,  the  advantage  which  such  substances  are  capable  of  producing 
never  becomes  apparent  until  they  are  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil. 
Several  kinds  of  manure,  and  especially  those  the  fertilizing  effects  of  which 
arise  from  their  action  on  the  humus  and  vegetable  matters  contained  in  the  soil, 
likewise  remain  inert,  if  not  properly  divided  and   mixed  with  the  vegetable 

\  mould,  and  are  even  likely  to  become  injurious  if  they  come  in  contact  Avith  the 
i  roots  of  plants  before  they  arc  perfectly  divided.  Common  stable  manure  is  not 
'  altogether  inefficacious,  even  when  suffered  to  remain  in  lumps,  because  its  so- 
luble portions  penetrate  into  the  vegetable  soil  ;  but  it  is  not  productive  of  that 
amount  of  advantage  which  might  have  been  derived  from  it,  if  it  had  been  com- 
pletely divided  and  mixed  with  the  land  by  means  of  repeated  plowings.  When 
stable  manure  has  not  been  properly  divided,  the  plants  shoot  up  in  tufts  where 
they  find  an  abundant  supply  of  aliment  ;  while  tliose  spots  which  cojitain  little 
or  no  manure,  either  remain  totally  barren,  or  produce  only  a  few  sickly  plants. 
A  manure  of  this  kind,  when  suffered  to  remain  in  the  soil  in  lumps,  subsequently 
forms  a  species  of  peat ;  and  this  inequality  in  the  growth  of  the  crops  will  con- 
tinue for  several  years. 

3.  The  b?-inging  a  layer  of  earth,  taken  from  a  considerable  depth,  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  in  order  to  submit  it  to  the  influence  of  light  and  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. From  the  remotest  ages  of  antiquity,  the  advantages  resulting  from  the 
aeration  of  land  have  been  known  and  recognized  by  all  attentive  observers,  and 
various  hypotheses  have  been  advanced  to  account  for  this  fact.  The  effect  thus 
produced  has  been  compared  to  the  formation  of  saltpetre  (nitrate  of  potash),  and, 
in  fact,  it  is  somewhat  similar,  since  saltpetre  is  produced  by  the  confluence  of 
some  atmospheric  substances  ;  and  the  oftener  a  new  surface,  and  one  which  bad 
not  previously  been  saturated,  is  brought  into  contact  Avith  the  air,  the  greater  is 
the  quantity  produced.  The  same  substance  (oxygen)  acts  in  this  case  as  in  the 
formation  of  saltpetre.  It  is  by  its  assistance  that  those  tAvo  matters  are  formed, 
in  Avhich  carbon  forms  the  constituent  part  of  the  nutrition  of  plants,  namely,  car- 
bonic acid  and  soluble  extract.  It  is  only  from  exposure  to  the  air  that  humus 
acquires  its  fertility,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  light  has  a  good  deal  to  do  Aviih 
tlie  production  of  this  effect. 

The  soil  appropriates  to  itself  that  portion  of  carbonic  acid  which  is  formed  by 
the  combination  of  oxygen  Avith  the  carbon,  and  that  remains  in  the  inferior  stra- 
tum of  the  atmosphere,  and  is,  in  a  manner,  buried  in  the  interstices  of  the  earth 
which  is  turned  over.  It  is  not  improbable  that  even  the  nitrogen  coaiaiued  in 
the  atmospheric  air,  separated  from  the  oxygen,  has  something  to  do  Avith  the 
amendment  of  the  soil,  and  is  absorbed  by  clay.  Although  Ave  are  not  ye",  ac- 
quainted with  all  the  various  decompositions  which  are  effected,  yet  general  ex- 
perience teaches  us  that  even  the  most  tenacious  clays  may  be  rendered  fertile 
,  and  permeable,  oy  having  their  surface  frequently  changed,  and  fresh  portions 
submitted  to  the  action  of  the  atmospheric  air.  The  amelioration  thus  derived 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  the  absorption  of  substances  adapted  for  the  fertiliza- 
tion of  land,  may  be  made  to  replace  other  ameliorations  for  a  certain  period  of 
years  ;  but  the  effects  produced  by  it  are  neither  so  complete  nor  so  durable.— 
According  to  Du  Hamel  (Treatise  on  the  Amelioration  of  Land,  p.  64),  the  effects 
produced  by  this  operation  are  so  sensible  that  they  are  perceptible  at  first  sight. 

(738) 


TILLAGE   OF  THE  SOIL,  259 

I    "If,"  says  he,  "  half  of  a  field  is  moderately  plowed,  and  the  other  half  repeat- 
I    edly  plowed,  and  these  two  portions  are  subsequently  plowed  athwart,  that  half 

which  has  been  most  frequently  turned  over  and  stirred  will  be  much  browner 

than  the  other." 

4.  The  absorbing,  introducing  into  the  soil,  and  preserving  the  moisture  ivhich 
falls  from  the  atmosphere.  Moisture  does  not  penetrate  into  argillaceous,  close, 
or  tenacious  soils.  When  a  clod  of  this  nature  remains  unbroken  in  the  soil,  and 
becomes  dry,  it  preserves  the  dryness  in  the  centre  during  the  whole  summer. — 
But  the  more  the  particles  of  the  soil  are  separated  from  one  another,  and  the 
more  deeply  the  land  is  turned  up,  the  more  easily  does  the  moisture  penetrate 
into  the  interstices ;  in  fact,  the  deeper  the  plowing  is,  the  more  easily  does  the 
land  absorb  and  retain  humidity.     When  land  has  been  thus  prepared,  the  water 

'!  does  not  flow  back  to  the  surface  so  soon,  nor  is  it  so  speedily  dried  up  and  evap- 
orated in  dry  weather,  but  communicated  to  the  surface  in  proper  proportions. — 

(    These  observations  will  be  found  to  be  everywhere  confirmed  by  experience; 

,  and  it  has  invariably  been  noticed  that  land  which  has  been  deeply  and  carefully 
turned  over  and  stirred  up  does  not  soon  become  hardened  on  the  surface,  neither 

\  does  it  suffer  so  much  as  other  land  from  drouth.     Every  gardener  who  has  dug 

'  up  any  portion  of  his  land  must  acknowledge  the  truth  of  this  observation.  Soils 
which  have  been  plowed  in  the  autumn  resist  the  drouth  of  spring  in  an  almost 

'  .incredible  manner  ;  in  fact,  they  preserve  a  fair  degree  of  humidity  at  the  depth 
of  an  inch  below  their  surface,  while  others  are  parched  to  a  very  great  depth. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  literally  true  that  plowing  dries  land  ;  such  an  effect  can  only 
be  produced  when  the  plowings  are  deep  and  frequent,  and  always  performed  in 
dry  weather.  It  has  been  observed  that  a  slight  plowing,  which  only  moves  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  tends  rather  to  preserve  than  to  dissipate  the  moisture ;  and, 
consequently,  the  insensible  absorption  of  moisture  by  the  soil  from  the  air  is 
greater  than  the  evaporation. 

The  humidity  which  is  enclosed  in  the  interstices  of  the  soil,  and  which 
amasses;  there  in  large  quantities  when  the  land  is  fallowed  before  winter,  is 
doubtless  attended  with  this  disadvantage  ;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  fear  that  it 
will  render  the  soil  too  tenacious  and  compact  during  the  whole  summer.  At- 
tentive observers  have  remarked,  on  the  other  hand,  that  such  soils  are  lighter, 
more  friable,  and  divide  with  less  difficulty,  provided  that  we  wait  until  they  are 
dry :  this  is  a  natural  consequence  of  the  evaporation  of  that  water,  the  elasticity  of 
which  had  separated  the  particles  of  the  soil  by  introducing  itself  between  them. 

5.  The  destruction  of  iveeds.  In  treating  of  the  method  of  knowing  and  judg- 
ing lands,  we  have  divided  weeds  into  two  classes — those  which  increase  and 
multiply  by  means  of  their  seeds,  and  those  which  are  propagated  by  means  of 
their  roots  alone.  This  distinction  is  very  essential  as  regards  the  destruction  of 
weeds  by  plowing. 

Those  weeds  which  are  produced  from  seeds  can  only  be  destroyed  by  the 
seeds  contained  in  the  soil  being  successively  brought  to  the  surface,  and  thus 
enabled  to  germinate  ;  for,  otherwise,  they  might  remain  whole  centuries  in  the 
land  without  losing  their  vitality.  Many,  and,  indeed,  by  far  the  greater  part,  of 
the  iitile  seeds  do  not  germinate  at  all,  unless  brought  into  free  contact  with  the 
atmosphere — which  cannot  happen  while  they  remain  enclosed  in  clods  of  earth  ; 
therefore,  until  these  clods  are  pulverized,  the  seeds  contained  in  them  are  total- 
ly in,ert. 

There  is  not  the  leasj;  chance  of  completely  destroying  the  seeds  contained  in 
the  soil,  or  even  in  the  part  brought  to  the  surface,  unless  all  the  clods  and  lumps 
of  earth  are  thoroughly  pulverized.-  It  is  not,  therefore,  sufficieirt  that  each  lay- 
er, however  thin  it  may  be,  should  be  brought  to  the  surface,  and  into  contact 
with  the  atmospheric  air  ;  it  must  also  be  broken,  divided,  and  reduced  to  pow- 
der. The  plow  alone  cannot  efiect  this  purpose,  and  recourse  must  likewise  be 
had  to  the  harrow. 

But  in  order  to  clear  the  soil  of  those  weeds  which  are  propagated  by  means 
of  their  roots,  and  especially  couch-grass  [triticum  repens),  creeping  bent-grass 
{agrostis  stolonifcra),  and  various  other  gramineous  weeds;  the  corn  or  way- 
thistle  /  .erratula  arvensis),  and  other  varieties  of  thistle,  docks,  &c.,  a  totally 
different  course  of  proceeding  must  be  adopted.  The  only  means  of  destroying 
these  plants  is  to  break  off  the  young  roots  and  shoots,  or  to  tear  them  up  and 

I739J 


X^i^^i^^ii^^^ 


.260  thaek's  principles  of  agriculture. 

expose  them  to  the  influence  of  light  and  air.  They  must  be  brought  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  separated  from  the  earth,  and  placed  in  a  position  in  Avhich  they 
cannot  vegetate  afresh,  as  they  certainly  would  if  the  earth  detached  from  the 
clods  were  suffered  to  fall  on  them  again.  The  harroAV  while  it  tears  up  the 
roots  from  one  place  plants  them  in  another,  by  surrounding  and  covering  them 
with  loose  earth,  in  which  they  soon  put  forth  new  shoots.  When,  therefore,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  destroy  such  roots,  the  ground  should  not  be  harrowed  un- 
til a  short  time  before  it  is  to  receive  a  fresh  plowing  ;  in  order  that  the  roots 
buried  by  the  harrow  shall  not  have  time  to  vegetate  before  they  are  destroyed 
by  the  plow. 

6.  Burying  the  manure.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  mode  of  effecting  an 
admixture  of  the  dung  with  the  soil.  When  the  manure  is  to  be  buried  with  the 
first  plowing,  care  must  be  taken  that  it  shall  be  placed  in  a  position  where,  ac- 
cording to  its  nature,  it  may  produce  the  most  immediate  and  beneficial  effect  on 
.the  first  crop  Avhich  succeeds  the  application  ;  or,  if  the  land  has  to  be  plowed 
several  times,  that  the  manure  shall  be  placed  so  as  to  be  completely  mixed  with 
the  soil.  Long,  strawy  manure  requires  a  deep  furrow  which  will  contain  it ; 
rotten  dung,  on  the  contrary,  ought  only  to  be  covered  by  a  very  thin  layer  of 
earth  ;  therefore  the  plowings  intended  to  bury  it  need  not  be  very  deep. 

7.  Burying  the  seed.  Whether  this  operation  be  performed  with  the  plow, 
the  harrow,  or  any  other  instrument,  the  greatest  possible  attention  must  be  be- 
stowed on  the  execution  of  the  plowing  Avhich  precedes  the  sowing,  in  order  that  , 
the  seed  sown,  whatever  may  be  its  kind,  shall  be  placed  in  the  position  best 
calculated  to  facilitate  its  germination,  Avhen  even  the  finest  of  its  roots  may  be  ' 
able  to  find  nourishment  and  shelter,  and  where  even  its  stem  can  attain  the 
most  perfect  development  without  hindrance.  i 

AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS  * 

Having  pointed  out  the  principal  object  which  tillage  is  intended  to  effect,  we 
will  now  proceed  to  examine  into  the  nature  and  construction  of  the  various  in-    ' 
struments  by  means  of  which  these  different  operations  can  best  be  accomplish- 
ed, and  the  end  in  view  attained  with  the  greatest  advantage  and  precision. 

*  The  implements  -whicli  mankind  have  employed  in  the  cultivation  of  the  earth,  and  their  gradual  im- 
provement, (observes  Mr.  J.  Allan  Ransome,  in  his  excellent  work  on  the  Implements  of  Agriculture,)  is  a 
theme  closely  connected  with  the  histoi-y  of  Agriculture. 

In  tracing  the  gi-adual  progress  of  farming  implements  tov?ards  their  present  state  of  perfection,  it  will  lie 
readily  imderstood  how  steadily,  in  all  ages  and  countries,  they  have  improved  as  Agi-iculture  has  advanced, 
and  how  stationary  they  have  ever  remained  in  those  countries  where  the  science  of  Agriculture,  is  ne- 
glected. It  would  even  seem  that  there  is  an  intimate  connection  between  the  establishment  of  freedom  of 
thought  and  of  action,  and  of  the  progress  of  agiicultural  arts  and  agricultural  life,  of  all  modes  of  life  the 
most  conducive  to  health,  to  \nrtue,  and  to  enjoyment.  The  cultivation  of  the  soil  necessarily  requires  the 
construction  of  implements  for  the  purpose ;  and  it  is  gratifying  to  observe  the  progress  which  has  been 
made  in  them  in  Holland,  in  America,  and  in  England,  and  contrast  the  beautiful  and  labor-lessening  imple- 
ments of  Agriculture  which  these  free  countries  possess,  with  those  of  the  cultivators  of  Spain,  of  Poriiittal, 
and  of  Russia,  or  of  the  more  degraded  slaves  and  ryotts  of  the  countiies  of  the  East,  such  as  those  of  rai'ii-!- 
tine,  and  of  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  These,  it  is  more  than  probable,  have  remained  unaltered,  without 
any  successful  attempt  at  improvement,  for  two  thousand  years.  Tlius  we  find  that  the  Israelites,  instead 
of  employing  in  their  warm  climate  a  threshing  machine,  or  even  a  Bail,  to  thresh  out  theii'  com.  were  ac- 
"  customed  to  turn  their  oxen  on  to  the  bam  floor  to  slowly  tread  out  the  seed.  "Thou  shalt  not  rauzzk;  the 
ox  when  he  treadeth  out  the  com."  (Deut.  xxxv.  4  ;  1  Cor.  ix.  9;  1  Tim.  v  IS.)  And  this  rude  mode  is 
still  the  custom  in  Syria,  and  even  in  Portugal;  and  the  Moors  and  Arabs  (says  Dr.  Shaw, in  his  "  Travels  in 
Palestine,")  still  continue  to  tread  out  their  corn  in  this  way. 

And,  in  accordance  with  this  neglect  of  labor-lessening  implements,  scarcely  any  expedients  beyond  the 
most  primitive  appear  to  have  been  adopted  in  the  cultivation  of  the  earth.  Thus  we  find  the  jirophet  I.'^aiah 
declaring  (xxxii.  'JO),  "  Blessed  are  they  that  sow  beside  still  waters,  that  send  forth  thither  the  feet  of  the 
ox  and  the  ass."  Sir  John  Chardin,  and  others,  have  described  an  indolent' practice  still  prevalent  in  the 
Oriental  counnies,  which  explains  this  expression  of  the  prophet.  It  seems  that  in  planting  rice,  which  is  a 
crop  that  only  flourishes  in  wet,  swampy  grounds  by  the  banks  of  rivers,  that  while  the  earth  is  yet  covered 
with  water,  they  cause  it  to  be  trodden'by  oxen,  asses,  &.C.,  and  that,  after  the  upper  portion  of  the  ground 
has  been  thus  imperfectly  disturbed,  they  sprinkle  the  rice  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

And  if  the  in'ound  is  thus  rudely  prepared  to  receive  the  seed  by  the  action  of  the  feet  of  cattle,  in  a  jnan- 
ner  etjually  imperi'ect  is  the  seed  covered  with  the  earth  by  these  untutored  cultivators.  The  English  farmer 
must  not  expect  to  find  in  these  ill-farmed  and  unenlightened  countries  any  instmments  even  remotely  re- 
sembling the  compact  and  powerful  harrows  of  this  countiy  ;  instead  of  these,  the  branch  of  a  tree,  or  a  ^f.vf 
kigs  of  wood  fastened  coarsely  together,  and  dragged  slowly  over  the  surface  of  the  veiy  thinly  and  paiiially 
disturbed  soil  by  oxen,  are  the  only  means  employed  to  cover  the  seed.  These  instruments  are  thus  de-cri- 
bed  by  G.  W.  Johnson  :  "When  the  plow  has  done  its  utmost  on  the  stitf  soils  of  Bengal,  they  still  remain 
cloddy,  and  unfit  to  be  a  seed  bed.  To  remedy  this,  a  still  more  imperfect  implement  than  the  Indian  plow 
i  is  employed,  which  is  intended  to  produce  the  combined  effects  of  the  roller  and  the  harrow.  This  is  noth- 
ms  more  in  form  than  an  Enalish  ladder  made  of  bamboo,  about  eighteen  feet  long,  drawn  by  four  bullocks 
and  guided  liv  two  men,  who,  to  increase  its  power,  stand  upon  it  as  they  direct,  and  urge  on  the  cattle. 
Again  and  acriiin  has  it  to  pass  over  the  same  surface,  and  then,  as  in  the  case  of  their  plow,  it  causes  a  great 
)  (740f 


The  instruments  are  divided  into  two  classes,  those  which  can  be  worked  by- 
manual  labor,  and  those  which  cannot  be  used  without  the  intervention  of  '. 
draught  cattle.  The  former  are  only  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  gardens,  and, 
therefore,  scarcely  come  within  the  province  of  this  work.  There  are,  however, 
no  doubt,  circumstances  under  which  these  instruments  may  be  used  with  advan- 
tage in  the  tillage  of  fields,  but  such  cases  are  of  rare  occurrence.  Whether  or 
not  it  may  be  advantageous  to  substitute  the  spade  or  hoe  for  the  plow  when  a 
sufficiency  of  laborers  can  be  obtained,  ii  a  problem  which  we  are  not  called  upon 
to  solve,  since  in  by  far  the  greater  pan  of  Europe  spade-husbandry  cannot  be 
employed  to  any  great  extent  without  employing  more  hands  than  can  be  spared 
from  other  occupations  ;  and  in  those  places  where  the  population  is  sufliciently 
numerous  to  admit  of  this  being  done,  the  tillage  of  iields  is  replaced  by  the  cul- 
tivation of  gardens.  We  may,  therefore,  regard  digging  and  plowing  as  the  dis- 
tiirclive  characteristics  of  these  two  kinds  of  cultivation. 

There  is  not  a  doubt  that  land  may  be  as  well  tilled  and  rendered  as  fertile  by 

S  means  of  good  agricultural  implements  worked  by  cattle,  as  it  could  be  by  man- 

'  ual  or  spade-labor,  and  at  much  less  expense.     The  crops  which  succeed  to  a 

^  good  digging  are,  however,  often  far  better  than  those  which  follow  a  slight  or 

careless  plowing.*  . 

The  instruments  that  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  tilling  the  soil  and  preparing    i 


I  gressed  more  rapidly  than  in  the  East,  for  even  in  many  pans  of  Europe  they  still  use  plows 

^  and  most  ill-constructed  character.     Their  teams,  too,  are  equally  neglected  ;  horses,  cows, 

I  goats,  are  harnessed  together  in  a  most  wretched  manner,  just  as  was  the  custom,  it  would 

J  primitive  times  in  Palestine.     (Deut.  xxii.  10.)     The  Geraian  tanners  still  use,  instead  of  a 


expense  of  time  and  labor  without  any  commensurate  etfect.     The  Indian  ryots  show  their  consciousness 
of  the  reason  that  the  operation  of  pulverizing  and  leveling  is  beneficial,   by  calling  it  Rasbandham,  that  is, 
tke  confining  of  the  moisture." — Asiatic  Res.,  vol.  x.  p.  4. 
I        And,  in  countries  somewhat  more  civilized,  the  construction  of  agricultural  implements  has  hardly  pro- 
gressed more  rapidly  than  in  the  East,  for  even  in  many  pans  of  Europe  they  still  use  plows  of  the  heaviest    , ' 
.  :„  ..J    ■,         ..__     m,__=    .  „  .         ,     ,  asses,  and  even 

appear,  in  very 
a  plow,  an  instru- 
ment called  a  "haken,"  which  is  exactly  similar  to  one  used  by  the  Roman  farmers.  Their  harrows  have 
commonly  only  Wooden  teeth,  and  are  worked  with  live  horses  in  a  very  bungling  manner.  (Johnson's 
Farm  Eiicyclopisdia,  p.  559.)  And  still  farther  north,  the  Muscovite  haiTows  ai"e  formed  even  in  a  ruder 
way,  by  merely  fastening  together  the  branches  of  the  tir  tree,  whose  projecting,  partially  trimmed  spurs 
form  the  teeth,  whUe  the  implement  they  use  for  a  plow  is  little  more  than  a  shapeless  bundle  of  sticks  tied 
together  with  tarred  rope. 

As  long,  in  fact,  as  men  continued  to  till  the  earth  as  slaves,  sowing  a  crop  they  were  not  sure  of  rea.ping, 
degraded  in  spirit,  and  totally  uneducated,  it  was  in  vain  to  expect  superior  implements  of  any  kind,  or  any 
eflbrts,  however  shght,  towards  the  improvement  of  Agric\ilture.  In  our  own  Island,  for  instance,  plows 
were,  during  the  early  and  dark  ages  of  its  history,  rudely  constructed,  intolerably  heavy,  and  of  all  kinds  of 
shapes,  a  result  which  might  have  been  reasonably  anticipated  ;  for  by  an  old  British  law  every  plowman 
was  required  to  make  his  own  plow.  The  harrows  and  other  agricultural  implements  were  equally  ill-sha- 
ped. Drills  were  utterly  unknown  until  about  the  sixteenth  century.  And  when,  about  the  year  1730,  the 
celebrated  Jethro  TuU  endeavored  to  banish  the  flail  from  the  bam,  his  neighbors  loaded  him  with  execra- 
tions. The  tradition  of  the  neighborhood  of  Prosperous  farm,  near  Hungerford,  which  TuU  cultivated,  still 
is,  that  he  was  "wicked  enough  to  construct  a  machine,  which,  by  working  a  set  of  sticks,  beat  out  the  corn 
without  manual  labor."  This  is  the  earliest  traditionary  notice  of  athreshingmachine  witji  which  I  am  acquaint- 
ed. Jethro  TuU,  indeed,  must  ever  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  earliest  improvers  of  English  agricultural 
implements  ;  his  plows,  his  horse-hoes,  and  his  ingenious  attempts  to  construct  a  drill  machine,  evince  a 
spirit  of  inquiry,  and  an  advance  in  agricultural  mechanics,  which  betoken  at  once  his  ability  and  his  en- 
thusiasm. He  was  far  indeed  before  the  general  agricultural  knowledge  of  his  age  ;  and  if  he  "did  now  and 
then  suffer  his  enthusiasm  to  carry  him  too  far  in  his  conclusions,  yet  the  very  effort  to  improve  in  hands 
like  his  was  sure  to  be  attended  with  a  measure  of  good  success,  for  his  exertions  not  only  produced  im- 
mediate good  fruits,  but  they  widely  diffused  a  very  general  and  well-founded  suspicion  that  the  implements 
of  that  age  were  not  quite  so  perfect  as  they  might  be  made.  This  led  to  considerable  improvements,  and 
prepared  the  way  for  stiU  more  important  efforts  by  the  next  generation  of  implement  makers. 

*  Spade  husbandry  has  certainly  been  extending  itself  in  England  within  the  last  few  years.  The  late 
Dr.  Yelloly  described  its  introduction  into  the  parish  of  Wymondam,  in  Norfolk,  where  it  seems  many  acres  ' 
were  dug  (.land  after  a  white  crop)  at  9d.  and  2ki.  per  rod.  Of  late,  the  fork  has  in  many  places  superseded 
the  spade,  since  it  lessens  labor,  and  is  better  adapted  to  penetrate  the  hard  substances  on  which  many 
shallow  soils  rest.  The  spade  has  long  been  employed  in  the  husbandry  of  Spain,  France,  and  other  conti- 
nental States.  Rev.  W.  Rham  observes,  (Jour.  Roy.  Ag.  Soc,  vol.  ii.  p.  43,)  "  The  husbandry  of  the 
whole  of  the  north-eastern  part  of  East  Flanders,  where  the  soU  is  a  good  sandy  loam,  may  be  considered  as 
a  mixed  cultivation,  partly  by  the  plow  and  partly  by  the  spade.  Without  the  spade,  it  would  be  impossible 
to  give  that  finish  to  the  land,  atYer  it  is  sown,  which  makes  it  appear  so  like  a  garden,  and  which  is  the 
chief  cause  of  the  more  certain  vegetation  of.the  seed.  There  is  a  «reat  saving  of  seed  by  this  practice,  as 
may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  quantity  usually  sown  in  Flanders  with  that  which  is  required  in  other  coun- 
tries, where  the  spade  is  more  sparingly  used.  In  large  farms  in  England,  the  spade  is  only  used  to  dig  out 
water-furrows,  and  to  turn  heaps  of  earth,  which  are  made  into  composts  with  different  kinds  of  manure. 
But  in  Flanders,  where  the  land  is  usuaUy  laid  in  stitches  of  about  six  or  seven  feet  wide,  the  intervals  are  ; 
always  dug  out  with  the  spade,  and  the  earth  spread  evenly  (sifted,  as  they  call  it)  over  the  seed  which  has  < 
been  harrowed  in. 

The  trenches  are  so  arranged,  that  every  year  a  fresh  portion  of  the  ground  is  dug  out,  and  in  six  years 
the  whole  land  will  have  been  dug  to  the  depth  of  at  least  one  foot.  In  the  next  course,  the  trench  is  dug 
a  few  inches  deeper,  which  brings  up  a  little  of  the  subsoil ;  and,  after  four  or  five  such  courses  of  trench- 
ing, the  whole  soil  comes  to  be  of  an  uniibrm  quality  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  ;  a  most  im- 
portant circumstance  to  the  growth  of  flax,  potatoes,  and  carrots,  aU  of  which  are  very  profitable  crops  to 
the  farmer,  and  the  two  last  indispensable  to  the  maintenance  of  the  laborers  and  the  cattle.  In  the  Waes 
country,  they  proceed  differently,  for  they  have  a  soU  which,  by  repeated  trenchings,  has  long  been  uniform 


262  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

it  for  the  reception  of  the  seeds  and  plants,  and  which  are  worked  by  cattle,  are 
very  numerous,  but  they  may  all  be  comprised  under  the  three  following  classes : — 

(a)  The  plow.  The  intention  of  this  implement  is  not  only  to  divide  the  earth, 
to  loosen  and  throw  it  a  little  on  one  side,  but  also  to  turn  it  over  from  a  given 
depth,  so  that  the  lower  part  of  tlie  furrow  separated  by  the  plow  shall  be 
brought  to  the  top,  and  a  new  surface  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  This  effect  is 
produced  by  that  part  of  the  instrument  Avhich  is  termed  the  mould-board,  and 
which  is  usually  placed  at  the  right-hand  side  of  the  plow. 

(Z»)  The  grubber.  This  instrument  loosens,  stirs,  and  divides  the  soil,  and 
cleanses  it  from  roots  and  weeds,  but  does  not  turn  it  over  ;  because  it  has  not  a 
mould-board.  • 

(c)  Hoes  and  cultivators.  Under  this  denomination  I  comprise  all  kinds  of 
horse-rakes,  hoes,  extirpators,  scarifiers,  drills,  and  sowing  machines,  &c.  which 
only  loosen  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  which  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
paring and  effecting  the  sowings,  or  cultivating  the  crops  during  their  vegetation. 

The  plow,*  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word.  This  implement  ought  to  sepa- 
rate or  detach  from  the  ground  successive  sods  or  slices  of  earth  parallel  with 
the  surface,  but  cutting  them  vertically  by  means  of  the  coulter,  and  horizontally 

in  quality  to  the  required  depth.  There  they  regularly  ti-eneh  one-eixth  part  of  the  land  evei-y  year,  and 
plant  it  with  potatoes,  or  sow  caiTOts  in  it. 

In  a  recent  communication,  Mr.  J.  Beadel,  a  very  experienced  farmer  and  land-agent  of  Witham,  in  Es- 
sex (who  has  used  a  fork  of  an  improved  construction  to  a  considerable  extent,)  observes,  when  conaparing 
the  use  of  the  fork  with  that  of  the  spade  : — 

1.  A  man  can  dig  a  greater  quantity  of  land  in  a  given  time  with  the  fork,  than  he  can  with  a  spade — my 
experience  proves  one-sixth  ;  and  it  strikes  me  it  must  be  so,  because  the  chisel-pointed  ends  of  a  three 
pronged  fork,  can  be  more  easily  pushed  into  a  hard  subsoil,  than  the  continuous  end  of  a  spade. 

2.  It  does  not  bring  up  so  much  of  the  subsoil  as  the  spade,  but  mixes  the  earth  more,  a  great  portion 
slipping  through  between  the  prongs. 

3.  The  bottom  is  left  more  uneven  and  broken  by  the  fork  than  by  the  spade,  which  I  consider  an  advan- 
tage. One  great  objection  to  the  plow  is,  I  think,  the  smooth  glazed  surface  which  it  leaves  below,  and 
which  in  many  cases,  I  fancy,  presents  too  great  a  resistance  to  the  dehcate  fibres  of  ihe^lant.  This  is  /irt-  ^ 
erodox,  but  if  true,  the  plow  will  be  altered  one  day.  And  if  Mr.  John  Morton  be  correct,  that  in  most  in- 
stances the  present  surface  soil  is  nothing  more  than  a  portion  of  the  subsoil  improved  by  cultivation,  it 
must  be  right  to  increase  the  quantum  of  corn-growing  earth  by  subjecting  more  subsoil  to  the  same  opera- 
tion. In  digging,  I  sometiines  use  the  fork  in  the  fuiTow,  and  then  plow  on  to  the  dug  land,  and  so  keep  the 
top  soil  on  the  surface,  without  bringing  the  hungry  subsoil  into  play,  till  after  it  has  been  subjected  to  the 
operations  of  a  regular  rotation. 

*  I  must  beg  my  readers  to  regard  the  minute  du-ections  given,  rather  as  intended  to  assist  in  the  choice 
and  use  of  plows,  than  m  the  fabrication  of  them.  It  is  exceedingly  necessary  that  an  agiiculturist  should 
not  only  perfectly  understand  the  effects  which  will  be  produced  by  certain  modifications  in  the  form  of  i.r 
plow,  but  likewise  to  be  able  to  remedy  those  inconveniences  which  are  frequently  met  with  while  usi-iij 
this  implement;  in  fact,  he  ought  to  know  how  to  employ  it  so  as  to  produce  the  greatest  advantage.  The 
author,  doubtless,  had  tliis  end  in  view  in  the  instructions"  which  he  gives.  But  agriculturists  are  ve'iy  much 
mistaken  when  they  imagine  that  they  can  invent  new  plows,  and  have  them  constructed  on  their  own 
premises,  and  under  their  own  eyes.  These  kinds  of  instruments  are  not  easily  imitated  :  their  mechanism 
is  difficult,  and  requires  skill  and  attention  :  those  persons,  therefore,  who  chose  to  invent  and  fabricate  them 
themselves,  instead  of  procuring  them  from  the  proper  manufactories,  lose  a  great  deal  of  time,  and  expend  , 
three  or  four  times  the  sum  which  it  would  have  cost  them  to  procure  the  plow  even  from  a  consideiable  , 
distance.  The  usual  effect  of  such  attempts  is  to  di:--gust  the  essayists  with  all  imjjrovements,  and  to  cau 
those  who  relate  actual  facts  to  be  accused  of  forming  speculative  and  groundless  opinions 

I  have,  myself,  e.tperienced  the  annoyances  from  which  I  am  endeavoring  to  preserve  others.     I  endeav-     , 
ored,  for  a  long  time,  to  construct  one  of  Small's  plows,  according  to  the  directions  which  I  found  in  several    ' , 
English  authors,  and  flattered  myself  that  I  had  attained   some   degree   of  success,  but  it  jiroved   to  be     , 
ephemeral.    Attributing  those  imperfections  which  resulted  from  my  own  inexperience,  to  the  nature  of  the    ' 
thing  itself  I  uttered  a  general  protest  against  ail  plows  having  an  immovable  and  concave  mould-board,  un-     , 
til  reflection  convinced  me  of  the  utility  of  a  principle  which,  in  spite  of  mj'  failure  and  mistakes,  appearfd 
to  be  evidently  good.     At  this  period,  Schwertz's  work  on  the  Agiiculture  of  Belgium  was  obligingly  for-    '^ 
warded  to  me  by  the  celebrated  de  Fellenberg  ;    I  there  found  a  description  of  the  Ostmale  plow,' which 
threw  a  new  light  upon  the  subject.     But,  this  time,  I  determined  not  to  risk  the  success  of  my  experiment 
by  entrusting  the  fabrication  of  this  instrument  to  the  workmen  in  my  vicinity ;  I  therefore  ordered  it  direct 
from  Ostmale,  and  obtained  vei7  satisfactory  results  from  the  first  tiials  which  I  made  of  u.     But  I  continued 
to  experience  innumerable  difliculties  when  I  endeavored  to  get  this  instrument  imitated  by  the  workmen 
in  my  neighborhood,  and,  at  length,  was  once  more  obliged  to  send  for  a  plow  from  Ostmale,  which,  not- 
withstanding the  expenses  of  caniage,  was  actual!}-  cheaper  than  those  made  in  the  neighborhood,  besides 
being  very  superior  in  quality.     From  that  time  the  Ostinale  plow  has  risen,  every  day,  in  my  estimation, 
and  m  that  of  several  persons  in  the  vicinity ;  and  even  my  laborers,  now  they  h»ve  learned  liow  to  guide 
and  ntake  use  of  it,  prefer  it  to  all  others.      I  hope  that  I  shall  not  be  considered  as  trespassing  on  the  pa- 
tience of  my  readers,  if  I  say  a  few  words  relative  to  the  disadvantages  attending  experiments  with  regard 
to  the  action  of  this  instrument,  which  are  made  without  proper  precaution  and  preparation,  and  in  which    , 
the  plow  has  been  hastily  constructed  by  unskilltiil  hands.     After  the  success  which  I  obtained  from  the    , 
use  of  the  Ostmale  plow,  I  wrote  to  Fellenberg  on  the  subject.      Some  time  afterwards,  when  the  period 
fixed  for  the  fete  at  Hofwyl  was  approaching,  this  celebrated  agriculturist  wrote  me  that  he  had  made  known 
this  plow  to  the  public,  and,  consequently,  that  he  hoped  I  would  procure  him  one  against  the  fete.     I  sur- 
mounted many  difliculties  in  order  to  fulfil  his  wishes,  and  the  work  was  hunied  on,  perhaps  with  too 
much  precipitation.      The  plow  was  just  finished  in  time  to  reach  Hcfwyl  on  the  day  of  the  meeting  of  ag- 
riculturists there  ;  it  appeared  afnc  simile   but  there  was  no  opportunity  of  trying  it  before  hand,  and,  when 
put  in  action  in  the  presence  of  those  assembled,  the  results  obtained  were  any  thing  but  satisfactory,  on 
account  of  some  inaccuracy  in  the  smith's  work,  arising  from  want  of  skill.    Hence,  the  numerous  agricul- 
(742) 


AGRICULTURAL   LVIPLE.MENTS.  263 

detaching  them  by  means  of  the  share,  raising  them  in  general  from  the  left  and 
urniag  them  quite  over  by  means  of  the  mould-board,  so  that  they  shall  be 
brought  as  much  as  possible  within  the  reach  of  the  harroAv,  which  should  then 
be  used  to  break  or  powder  them  completely.  A  Avell-formed  plow  is  that  which 
will  perform  these  operations  Avith  the  least  resistance,  in  the  most  perfect  man- 
(  ner,  with  the  least  risk  from  strain  or  shock,  and  which  tries  the  strength  of  the  ! 
>  cattle  as  little  as  possible  ;  neither  should  the  guidance  of  it  require  any  great  ! 
degree  of  skill,  or  give  the  plowman  too  much  trouble. 

The  other  qualities  which  constitute  a  good  plow  are  as  follows  : — 
1-  It  should  be  as  simple  in  its  construction  as  the  end  which  it  is  destined  to 
attain  will  admit ;  and  consequently  should  have  no  useless  or  too  complicated 
portions. 

2.  It  should  not  be  very  expensive.  If,  indeed,  a  plow  which  cost  three  times 
as  much  as  another  will  last  four  times  as  long,  it  wili  of  course  be  cheaper. 

3.  It  should  be  durable  and  not  liable  to  injury,  shock,  or  strain ;  not  only  in 
order  that  it  may  not  cost  too  much,  but  also  because  it  should  not  require  repair- 
ing too  often,  and  thus  occasion  an  interruption  of  the  operations  and  the  loss  of 
considerable  time. 

,  4.  It  should  be  capable  of  being  easily  guided  and  regulated,  in  order  that  the  c 
soil  may  be  plowed  more  or  less  deeply  at  will,  and  the  furrows  turned  up  of  that 
size  and  form  which  is  deemed  best.  This  disposition  of  things  should  be  wholly 
independent  of  the  plowman,  both  because  it  is  not  always  possible  to  confide  in 
him,  and  because  the  cattle  have  to  work  harder  when  the  laborer  is  striving 
against  the  natural  tendency  of  the  plow. 

It  is  likewise  necessary  that  it  should  eflTect  all  those  purposes  pointed  out  in 
the  last  section,  that  it  should  cut  through  the  earth  which  it  has  to  separate,  and 
turn  it  over  in  an  equal  and  uniform  manner  ;  and  that  it  should  turn  over  the 
furrow  slice  at  an  angle  of  140  degrees,  that  being  an  inclination  which  is  most 
I  favorable  to  the  action  of  the  harrow,  and  consequently  facilitates  the  pulveriza- 
tion of  the  soil. 

Although  the  plow  is  one  of  the  most  necessary  of  all  the  implements  employed 
I  by  husbandmen,  there  is,  perhaps,  no  one  to  wRich  so  little  attention  has  been 
;  paid,  or  which  has  been  less  improved  ;  and  those  alterations  which  have  been 
I  made  in  its  construction  are,  in  general,  far  from  being  improvements,  since  most 
of  the  plows  of  the  present  day  are,  in  point  of  fact,  inferior  to  those  used  by  the 
ancients  ;  and  even  those  in  use  among  some  of  the  less  civilized  nations  are  prefer- 
able. Our  carriages  are  far  superior,  in  point  of  style  and  convenience,  to  the  tri- 
umphal cars  of  the  emperors,  at  least  if  we  may  judge  from  the  representations 
handed  down  to  us  ;  but  our  plows  are  not  as  perfect  as  those  used  by  the  ancient 
Romans.  Some  persons  have  hence  inferred  that  the  form  of  their  plow  was  not 
susceptible  of  improvement,  and  argue  that  if  this  instrument  had  been  capable 
of  being  constructed  on  any  fixed  principle,  it  must  have  been  discovered  during 
the  long  use  Avhich  has  been  made  of  it.  But,  if  we  come  to  consider  the  kind 
of  persons  who  have,  until  very  lately,  had  to  do  with  plows,  and  how  seldom 
these  instruments  have  been  in  the  hands  of  men  endowed  with  any  great  de- 
gree of  reflection,  science,  observation,  or  mechanical  knowledge,  we  shall  cease 
to  wonder  at  the  little  progress  toward  improvement  that  has  been  made; 
the  fact  is,  that  the  plow  has  kept  pace  with  the  intellect  of  the  men  who  have 
had  to  do  with  it. 

Since  this  point  has  been  taken  into  consideration  and  the  attention  of  scien- 
tific men  directed  to  it,  it  has  no  longer  been  denied  that  the  amount  of  labor 
requisite  to  work  a  plow,  and  the  rapidity  or  slowness  with  which  the  operation 
qI  plowing  can  be  performed,  depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the  structure  of  the 
instrument ;  and  it  is  also  allowed  that  this  structure  contributes  materially 
towards  the  success  of  the  crops  and  the  increase  of  the  products.  Although 
some  modern  authors  appear  to  discredit  these  facts,  or  at  any  rate  not  to  believe 
that  the  expenses  attendant  on  the  introduction  of  new  plows  can  be  sufficiently 
compensated  by  the  benefits  resulting  from  their  use  ;  and,  although  some  agri- 

turists  who  were  assembled  at  Ilofwyl  were  led  to  believe  that  the  Belgium  plow  did  not  possess  all  the 
good  qualities  attributed  to  it,  and  this  opinion  was  rapidly  ditFused  through  Switzerland.  Even  up  to  the 
present  day,  the  unfounded  prejudice  thus  excited  continues  to  exist,  notwithstanding  the  invariable  suc- 
cess which  has  attended  the  action  of  this  instrument  when  used  in  its  original  form,  and  not  spoiled  by 
bungling  workmen.  [French  Trans. 

(743) 


264 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


culturists  assure  us  that  they  can  obtain  very  fine  crops  without  having  recourse 
to  any  change,  this  only  tends  to  prove  thai  they  cannot  form  an  idea  of  the 
saving  of  time  and  labor  resulting  from  the  use  of  a  good  plow.  The  general 
improvement  of  Agriculture  certainly  does  not  depend  solely  on  the  beneficial 
alterations  which  can  be  made  in  the  structure  of  the  plow  and  other  agricultural 
instruments  ;  nevertheless,  this  science  will  never  attain  to  all  the  perfection  of 
which  it  is  susceptible  until  proper  attention  is  paid  to  this  important  point.  It 
is  on  this  account  that  a  judicious  and  scientific  agriculturist  cannot  do  Avithout 
an  intimate  acquaintance  with,  and  a  clear  idea  of,  the  functions  and  mechanism 
of  this  implement. 

The  essential  and  active  parts  of  a  plow,  those  which  are  generally  called  the 
body,  are  composed  of  the  following  pieces  : — 

(a.)  The  coulter.  The  use  of  this  part  is  to  cut  the  sod  from  the  firm  ground 
previous  to  its  being  raised  and  turned  over,  and  to  open  a  passage  for  that 
part  of  the  plow  which  is  in  a  direct  line  with  it ;  it  ought  to  keep  the  plow 
even,  and  to  prevent  it  from  turning  toward  the  right.  The  coulter  ought  to  be 
inclined  in  an  oblique  direction,  in  order  to  give  the  plow  a  leaning  in  the  same 
direction  to  Avhich  it  points.  If  we  picture  to  ourselves  the  body  of  a  plow  as 
resembling  a  half  angle,  or  a  rectangular  triangle,  the  coulter  will  in  a  manner 
form  the  point  of  the  angle  ;  it  Avill  prolong  the  side  which  falls  perpendicularly 
on  the  base  of  the  triangle,  as  in  the  following  diagram,  where  a  designates  the 
point  of  the  coulter. 


a 


This  point  determines  the  direction  of  the  plow,  and  the  manner  m  which  it 
moves;  and  in  proportion  as  this  side  of  the  instrument  is  longer,  the  direction 
will  be  stvaighter,  and  the  action  firmer. 

As  the  extremity  of  the  blade  of  the  coulter  forms  the  extreme  point  of  the 
triangle  or  oblique"  surface,  in  order  to  render  the  plow  perfect,  this  portion  of  it 
should  never  be  suffered  to  deviate  from  that  obliquity  :  Ave  find  all  good  plows 
constructed  in  this  manner.  The  blade  of  the  coulter  is  sharp  at  the  edge,  but 
gradually  thickens  toward  the  back,  Avhich  is  sometimes  nearly  or  quite  an  inch 
thick.  This  increase  of  stiength  does  not  exist  on  the  side  which  meets  the  un- 
divided land,  but  on  the  opposite  one  ;  and,  consequently,  the  segment  of  the 
coulter  ought  likewise  to  be  in  the  form  of  a  rectangular  triangle.  By  this  means 
the  left  side  of  the  coulter  will  be  in  a  direct  line  with  the  left  side  of  the  body 
of  the  ploAv. 

In  order  that  the  coulter  may  open  a  path  for  the  body  of  the  plow,  it  is  placed 
a  little  in  advance  of  it ;  the  point  of  this  instrument  is  usually  about  as  far  be- 
fore that  of  the  share  as  is  equal  to  its  width.  The  inferior  part  of  the  sod  or 
furroAv  slice  separated  by  it  from  the  land,  is  then  more  easily  cut  by  the  wing  of 
the  share,  raised  by  the  share  itself,  and  thrown  to  the  right  of  the  ploAv  by  the 
mould-board.  Thus,  the  plow  is  better  engaged  in  the  soil,  and  its  course  is 
more  even. 

If  the  coulter  is  not  thus  constructed  and  cannot  be  placed  in  this  position,  at- 
tempts are  made  to  attain  the  same  end  by  introducing  the  hilt  into  the  beam  in 
an  oblique  direction,  so  that  the  sharp  side  shall  be  turned  outward,  and  a  little 
to  the  left ;  while  its  back,  on  the  contrary,  shall  be  on  the  right  side,  and  face 
the  land  already  ploAvcd.  But  it  is  evident  that  this  arrangement  must  tend  to 
increase  the  friction  and  render  it  greater  than  it  would  be  if  the  coulter  were  in 
the  position  above  described.  It  is  equally  necessary  that  the  hole  destined  to 
I  receive  the  hilt  of  the  coulter  should  be  larger  than  the  hilt  itself,  in  order  to 
<   leave  room  for  the  introduction  of  those  Avedges  which  must  be  inserted  to  give 

\  (744) 


r 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS.  265 

\  to  the  blade  the  proper  direction.     It  is  by  no  means  an  easy  matter  to  place  this 
\    blade  properly,  or  to  arrange  the  wedges  as  they  should  be  ;  this  operation  re- 
'  quires  a  great  deal  of  care  and  skill,  gives  much  trouble,  and  recurs  very  fre- 
quently, and  by  such  means  the  work  is  frequently  interrupted. 

It  is  usually  necessary  to  slant  the  wedges  in  order  to  give  the  blade  of  the 
coulter  a  sufficient  inclination  to  the  left ;  for  the  hole  destined  for  the  reception 
of  the  hilt  being  in  the  middle  of  the  beam,  a  coulter  placed  in  it  in  a  direct  line 
would  incline  too  much  to  the  right,  and  would  not  be  before  the  point  of  the 
share,  especially  as  the  body  of  the  plow,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  is  not  exactly 
in  a  line  with  the  beam,  but  deviates  a  little  to  the  left.  By  means  of  wedges, 
the  proper  direction  may  be  given  to  the  coulter  ;  but  then  it  is  not  perpendicular, 
the  superior  portion  of  the  hilt  inclines  to  the  right,  while-  the  sharp  point  is 
turned  towards  the  left.  It  does  not,  therefore,  cut  through  the  soil  perpendicu- 
larly, but  in  a  sloping  direction;  and  does  not  open  so  free  a  passage  for  the  body 
of  the  plow  as  it  ought  to  do.  In  a  superficial  plowing  of  only  three  or  four 
inches  in  depth,  the  increase  of  friction  which  will  result  certainly  is  not  of  any 
great  importance  ;  but  it  becomes  more  sensible  when  the  land  has  to  be  plowed 
to  the  depth  of  six  inches  ;  on  this  account,  thereibre,  those  plows  which  are  in- 
tended lO  turn  up  the  soil  to  any  considerable  depth,  have  the  coulter  bent  below 
the  hilt,  as  is  the  case  in  Small's  improved  plow.  By  means  of  this  bend,  the 
coulter,  properly  so  called,  (its  blade,)  receives  an  inclination  as  much  to  the  left 
as  is  requisite,  although  the  hilt  is  placed  in  a  perpendicular  position.  For  deep 
plowing,  in  which  the  plow  has  to  overcome  great  resistance,  the  firmness  and 
solidity  of  the  coulter  may  be  greatly  increased  by  means  of  a  piece  affixed  to  it 
with  a  screw,  as  is  the  case  in  Small's  improved  plows.  By  curving  the  coulter 
in  the  manner  above  stated,  one,  great  inconvenience  is  avoided;  the  man  who 
guides  the  plow  is  not  obliged  to  keep  it  constantly  inclined  towards  the  side  on 
i  which  the  soil  is  untouched  in  order  to  keep  it  sufficiently  engaged  in  the  land. — 
'  This  arrangement  enables  the  plowman  to  cause  the  coulter,  however  slantingly 
it  may  be  placed,  to  cut  perpendicularly  ;  but  a  still  greater  evil  than  the  one 
just  mentioned  is  thus  produced,  namely  this — the  share  ceases  to  be  in  an  hori- 
zontal position,  and  the  furrows  cut  by  it,  instead  of  being  even,  are  much  thick- 
er on  the  side  next  to  the  unplowed  land,  than  they  are  on  the  opposite  side,  and, 
consequently,  the  plowing  is  very  irregular. 

Coulters  are  constructed   under  various  forms  ;    sometimes  they  are  perfectly 

straight,  at  others  curved  like  a  sickle,  and  at  others  inclined  in  the  opposite  di-  \ 

rection,  having  a  bulge  in  the  centre.     These  various  forms  are  supposed  to  fa-  C 

cilitate  the  entrance  of  this  instrument  into  the  soil :  but  as  a  curved  line  is  long-  > 

^  er  than  a  straight  one,  it  appears  to  me  that  they  rather  tend  to  increase  the  ( 

;  resistar.ce,  and  that  a  straight  coulter  is  by  far  the  most  preferable.     The  facility  '! 

;  which  a  curved  form  is  intended  to  give  to  the  action  of  the  coulter  is  attained  ! 

quite  as  well  when  this  instrument  is  inclined  and  its  point  projected  forwards  ;    ' 

for  it  is  well  known  that  a  coulter  always  cuts  best  when  it  acts  in  a  slopmg  di-  ' 

i  rection,  although  in  a  line  with  the  motion  given  to  it.     Where  such  is  the  case, 
the  coulter  cuts  outwards,  and  is  thus  more  easily  enabled  to  break  through  the 
adherence  of  the  integral  portions  of  the  soil  ;  it  then  raises  up  the  sod  or  furrow- 
slice,  facilitates  the  entrance  of  the  share  which  follows  it,  and  tears  up  those 
\  roots  which  are  too  large  for  it  to  cut  through  :    its  inclined  blade  tends  to  force 
/  them  upwards,  so  that  they  must  either  break  or  be  torn  from  the  soil  ;  whereas, 
'    a  coulter  placed  perpendicularly  would  push  those  roots  which  it  could  not  cut 
I    through,  onwards  to  the  firm  ground,  where  they  would  impede  the  motion  of 
/  the  plow.      This  instrument  also  raises  those  stones  which  it  would  be  impossi- 
ble to  throw  on  one  side  or  push  forward.      Lastly,  an  oblique  direction  of  the 
coulter   has  the  advantage  of  gi^idng  the  plow  a  slight  tendency  to  enter  more 
.    deeply  into  the  soil  without  increasing  the  friction  too  much.      The  pressure  of 
\  the  soil  on  the  coulter,  by  steadying  the  anterior  portion  of  the  plow  in   the 
||  earth,  compensates  for  the  power  exercised  by  the  draught,  which  rather  tends  I 
to  raise  this  instrument.     The  coulter  of  a  plow  used  on  land  which  has  not  been  > 
freed  from  stones,  should  deviate  more  from  the  perpendicular  than  would  be  \ 
requisite  in  any  other  case  ;  in  fact,  it  may  receive  an  incluiation  of  thirty  degrees  I 
from  the  direct  line  of  the  perpendicular.  > 

As  the  coulter  not  unfrequently  has  to  encounter  considerable  obstacles  and  } 

(7«)_ j 


266  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

resistance,  its  strength  should  be  proportionate  to  the  force  which  it  has  to  over- 
come ;  and  as  the  whole  of  this  strength  cannot  be  given  in  thickness,  the  breadth 
must  also  be  augmented.     Three  inches  will  in  general  be  sufficient ;  but  where 
the  soil  gives  considerable  opposition  to  the  action  of  the  plow,  this  breadth  may    ' 
be  increased.  < 

The  coulter  ought  to  be  laid  with  steel,  and  as  it  undergoes  a  very  great  de- 
gree of  friction,  the  steeling  must  often  be  renewed.  If  the  same  coulter  is  al- 
most always  used,  this  steel  Avill  seldom  last  more  than  a  year  ;  and  in  stony  soils 
not  more  than  six  months.  As  the  position  of  the  coulter  has  considerable  influ- 
ence on  the  direction  of  the  ploAv,  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  this 
pomt,  especially  if  the  coulter  is  not  a  very  good  one,  and  can  only  be  kept  in 
proper  position  by  means  of  wedges.  The  overseer,  or  inspector  of  farm  works, 
will,  therefore,  do  well  to  examine  all  the  plows  every  day,  and  especially  this 
part  of  them,  and  see  that  every  thing  is  in  its  proper  place  ;  the  best  way  to  ef- 
fect this  surveillance  thoroughly  will  be  to  have  the  plows  turned  over  ;  the  time 
[    thus  spent  could  not  be  better  employed. 

There  are  districts  in  which  this  important  part  of  the  plow  is  altogether  done 
away  with,  and  Avhere  it  is  replaced  by  that  part  of  the  share  which  terminates 
it  on  the  left  side,  and  Avhich  is  on  the  same  plane  with  the  left  side  of  the 
body  of  the  plow.  But  it  is  only  where  the  land  is  light,  free  from  stones, 
and"  homogeneous,  or  where  superficial  plowings  alone  are  requisite,  that  it  is 
possible  to  do  without  the  coulter.  On  soiU  of  an  opposite  nature,  which  re- 
quire to  be  deeply  plowed,  a  plow  without  a  coulter  will  perform  its  work  very 
imperfectly,  and  will  increase  the  labor  of  the  draught  cattle  as  well  as  that  of 
the  plowman. 

The  second  essential  part  of  a  plow  is  the  share,  which  separates  the  furrow- 
slice  horizontally.  In  all  well  constructed  plows  the  share  ought  to  begin  to 
raise  the  sod  and  to  conduct  it  towards  the  mould-board  on  an  oblique  but  unin- 
terrupted surface.  The  share  is  composed  of  two  parts — that  which  cuts,  and 
which  is  generally  called  the  wing;  and  that  by  means  of  which  it  is  affixed  to 
the  body  of  the  plow  ;  the  latter  is  termed  the  socket.  The  form  of  the  tirst  is 
greatly  varied  ;  in  general,  however,  it  is  shaped  like  a  rectangular  triangle.  On 
the  side  next  to  the  unturned  earth,  it  is  in  a  line  with  the  coulter  and  the  body 
of  the  plow,  and  is  not  sharp  :  it  is  highly  necessary  that  this  direction  of  the  left 
side  should  be  carefully  attended  to,  or  otherwise  the  plow  will  not  move  steadily. 
The  other  side  of  the  wing,  that  which  is  sloping,  is  usually  laid  with  steel,  and 
sharpened  ;  it  extends  from  the  left  side  of  the  plow,  and  forms  an  angle  of  about 
forty  degrees.  Occasionally  it  receives  a  yet  sharper  angle  of  about  thirty-five  ' 
degrees,  in  order  that  it  may  penetrate  more  easily  into  argillaceous  and  tenacious 
soils  ;  but  it  is  evident  that  in  this  case  the  coulter  must  be  proportionally  length- 
ened if  we  would  have  the  bases  of  this  rectangular  triangle  remain  the  same. 
Sometimes  this  triangle  is  composed  of  one  single  piece  of  iron,  and  is  perfectly 
hollow  ;  at  others,  it  is  hollow  in  the  middle,  and  surrounded  by  three  sides. 
The  first  of  these  two  methods  is  evidently  preferable,  because  the  furrow-slice 
separated  by  the  blade  of  the  share  may  then  be  gradually  raised  with  much  less 
friction,  and  passed  to  the  oblique  surface  which  conducts  it  to  the  mould- 
board. 

The  hinder  part  of  the  wing  ought  to  be  proportionate  to  the   furrow  slice 

which  it  is  intended  to  separate  from  the  soil ;  that  is  to  say,  the  breadth  of  the 

wing  at  the  base  ought  to  be  nearly  equal  to  the  width  of  the  furrow  ;  or,  in 

othe'r  words,  the  angle  at  the  right  of  the  share,  and  which  forms  the  posterior 

extremity  of  its  blade,  ought  to  be  as  distant  from  the  left  side  of  the  body  of  the 

plow  as  the  lower  part  of  tne  mould-board  which  rests  against  the  slice  turned 

over.     I  say  nearly,  because  when  the  breadth  of  the  furrow  is  nine  inches,  the 

wing  may  measure  one  less  ;    the  mould-board  then  turns  the  slice  better  on  its 

own  axis,  because  a  small  portion  of  it  still  remains  uncut,  and  in  contact  with 

)  the  soil.     But  this  difference  must  not  exceed  an  inch  ;  if  it  does,  the  friction  is 

(  increased,  and  the  plow  moves  with  less  ease  on  account  of  the  mould-board  then 

i  having  to  overcome  much  greater  resistance  in  raising  the  slice.  _ 

/       According  to  an  essay  on  dynamics,  the  moving  power  requisite  to  put  in  rao- 

)   tion  a  plow,  the  share  of  which  was  five   inches  wide,  diminished  fifty  pounds, 

{  when  a  share  measuring  seven  inches  in  width  was  substituted  for  the  one  just 

)  (740) 


AGRICULTURAL  L^IPLEMENTS.  267 

mentioned.  Nevertheless,  my  plows  are  manufactured,  the  shares  of  Avhich  are 
too  narrow  even  when  first  made,  and  this  is  an  evil  which  is  daily  increased  by 
use  and  wear. 

The  second  part  of  the  share  is  the  socket,  by  means  of  which  it  is  attached  to 
the  plow  :  this  portion  is  made  and  fixed  in  various  ways.  The  practice  of  fast- 
ening on  the  share  with  nails  is  a  very  bad  one,  and  can  only  be  used  where  the 
land  is  light  and  soft,  and  where  it  is  rarely  necessary  to  sharpen  or  steel  the 
share.  It  is  sometimes  aflSxed  to  the  plow  by  means  of  cramp-irons  or  hinges  : 
those  of  our  pIoAvs  which  are  best  made  are  merely  united  by  means  of  grooves  ; 
but  then,  in  order  that  the  share  may  be  sufficiently  firm,  the  wood  and  iron  must 
be  carefully  worked. 

A  well-formed  share  ought,  as  I  have  already  stated,  not  only  to  separate  the 
slice  from  the  soil,  but  also  to  raise  it,  and  to  form  Avith  the  mould-board  an  even 
surface,  which  beginning  at  the  point  of  the  share,  gradually  rises  obliquely  at 
the  side.  The  wing  of  the  share  is  itself  conve^f,  and  rises  as  it  approaches  the 
left  side.  The  socket  must  not  interrupt  this  elevation,  but  rather  continue  it,  by 
serving  to  unite  the  share  Avith  the  mould-board,  so  that  no  inequality  shall  break 
the  uniformity  Avhich  ought  to  exist  from  the  point  of  the  share  to  the  posterior 
part  of  the  mould-board.  This  is  the  great  and  distinguishing  merit  of  Baily's 
and  Small's  plows,  and  contributes  materially  to  decrease  the  amount  of  friction. 
In  common  ploAvs  there  is  generally  an  inequality  at  this  point,  Avhich  causes  the 
slice  to  be  depressed  before  it  is  again  raised  by  the  mould-board. 

I  have  met  Avith  farmers  Avho  were  fully  sensible  of  the  inconvenience  of  this 
construction,  and  who  had  endeavored  to  obviate  it  by  affixing  a  piece  of  iron  to 
the  neck  and  to  the  ear,  Avhich  Avas  made  to  rest  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  share. 
They  assured  me  that  their  ploAvs  Avere  considerably  improved  by  this  means. 

VVith  respect  to  the  form  of  our  shares,  I  must  refer  my  readers  to  the  descrip- 
tion of  them  Avhich  I  have  already  given  in  my  Avork  entitled  "Beschreibung  der 
nutz  barsten  neuen  Ackergeruethe,"  heft  i.  tafl  iv.  fig.  1,  2,  and  3.  As  the  sock- 
et of  the  share  ought  to  be  very  carefully  united  to  the  body  of  the  ploAv,  and  es- 
pecially to  the  mould-board,  many  smiths  find  it  an  exceedingly  difficult  matter 
,|  to  execute  this  work  ;  but  this  difficulty  would  be. got  rid  of  if  they  procured  a 
model  or  mould  of  iron,  around  which  the  share  may  be  cast  in  a  uniform  man- 
ner. They  can  then  cast  the  iron  of  the  shares,  giving  to  them  the  following 
form  and  thickness : 


14  IN 


At  A  the  plate  is  1-2  an  inch  thick. 
"   B  '■  2-5 

"    C  "  1-4 


When  this  plate  has  been  curved  on  the  model,  it  fits  the  body  of  the  plow- 
very  well,  and  carries  the  furrow  slice  on  to  the  mould-board  with  the  least  pos- 
sible degree  of  friction. 

This  socket  is  applied  to  the  neck  or  sheath  of  the  plow,  which  is  lengthened 
about  a  foot  for  the  purpose  of  receivmg  it ;  it  is,  of  course,  understood  that  the 
form  of  this  part  must  be  made  perfectly  similar  to  that  of  the  share.  See  my 
work  above  mentioned,  heft  i,  tafl  v.  fig.  15  and  16. 

The  neck  or  forepart  of  the  plow  serves  to  unite  together  the  different  pieces 
at  their  lower  extremity  ;  it  slides  along  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  supporting 
itself  agamst  the  unturned  earth.  In  front  the  neck  or  sheath  is  introduced  into 
a  mortice,  and  at  the  back  the  left  handle  is  united  to  it  in  a  similar  mar.ner.- 

(747) 


2G8 


IL.t-ii  ti    I'u 


IS    v>F  AGRICULTURE. 


The  socket  ouglit  lo  have  Uvo  sides,  both  perfectly  connected  together,  the  under 
one  and  the  left-hand  one  which  unite  in  forming  a  right  angle. 

In  general,  andin  all  good  plows,  the  socket  is  protected  with  bands  of  iron 
as  well  on  the  lower  portion  as  on  that  Avhich  rubs  against  the  unturned  earth  ; 
by  this  means  the  friction  is  considerably  diminished,  and  the  wood  preserved 
from  being  worn  away  so  soon  as  it  must  inevitably  have  been  without  this  pre- 
caution. The  same  may  be  observed  with  regard  to  plows,  the  whole  sockets  of 
which  are  formed  of  forged  or  cast  iron  ;  these  are  principally  intended  for  the 
purpose  of  breaking  up  meadow  land  ;  many  of  thetn  are  in  use  in  the  low  coun- 
try and  in  the  marshes  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Oder. 

The  length  of  the  share  determines  that  of  the  body  of  the  plow.  The  ques- 
tion has  been  much  disputed,  whether  or  not,  the  breadth  being  equal,  that  share, 
the  triangle  of  which  is  long,  will  not  be  superior  to  that  in  which  the  triangle 
is  short,  and,  consequently,  to  that  in  which  the  angle  is  less  acute.  Those  who 
argue  in  support  of  the  former  opinion  allege,  in  defence  of  it,  that  the  more  acute 
the  angle,  the  more  easily  does  it  enter  the  ground;  or,  to  speak  scientifically, 
the  less  sensible  the  obliquity  of  a  surface  is,  the  greater  will  be  the  facility  Aviih 
which  a  body  can  be  raised  on  it.  But  here,  as  in  most  cases,  that  which  is 
gained  in  power  is  lost  in  speed  ;  and  thus  the  results  are  rendered  equal.  The 
longer  the  body  of  a  plow  is,  the  greater  Avill  be  the  friction,  and,  consequently, 
the  more  laborious  will  its  progress  be ;  therefore  it  would  be  expedient  to  make 
the  bodies  of  plows  very  short,  if  it  were  not  that  their  progressive  motion  would 
be  rendered  less  straight  and  regular,  and  if,  when  longer,  they  had  not  more 
firmness,  both  on  the  left  side,  which  rests  against  the  unturned  earth,  and  on 
the  lower  part.  Small's  plows  have  short  bodies,  while  Baily's  have  long  ones ; 
the  latter,  therefore,  proceed  more  evenly  and  steadily,  and  can  be  confided  to  un- 
skillful hands  with  greater  safety. 

The  mould-board  is  that  part  of  the  plow  which  characterizes  it,  and  serves  to 
distinguish  it  from  all  other  agricultural  implements.  This  part  ought  to  raise 
the  slice  which  has  been  separated  by  the  coulter  and  share,  to  turn  it  over  and 
throw  it  into  the  furrow  which  was  previously  made.  Here,  then,  is  the  great- 
est degree  of  resistance  ;  and  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  overcome  depends 
upon  the  construction  of  this  part  of  the  plow.  The  mould-board  is  usually  made 
of  a  thin  board  nailed  to  the  right  side  of  the  head  of  the  plow,  near  to  the  share, 
id  the  hinder  part  of  which  is  maintained  in  its  proper  place,  and  fixed  to  the 
handle  and  head  of  the  plow,  by  means  of  one  or  fvj-o  rests.  The  oblique  and  ad- 
vanced surface  of  this  board  enables  it  to  throw  the  furrow-slice  to  the  right  of 
it,  but  it  does  not  turn  it  completely  over  ;  for,  unless  this  slice  is  tolerably  firm 
and  consistent,  it  will  still  adhere  partially  to  the  soil.  In  order  that  this  may 
be  properly  accomplished,  the  length  of  the  mould-board  at  its  hinder  extremity 
ought  to  be  half  the  size  of  the  slice  raised  by  the  plow.  It  is  also  requisite 
either  that  the  mould-board  should  form  a  more  obtuse  angle  with  the  left  side 
of  the  plow,  or  that  it  should  be  very  long.  In  either  of  these  cases,  the  weight 
of  the  earth  and  the  friction  will  render  the  progress  of  the  plow  difficult,  be- 
cause the  whole  weight  of  the  earth  rests  upon  the  mould-board  until  it  has 
passed  its  extremity.  The  quantity  of  earth  which  rests  against  the  mould- 
board,  and  the  friction  produced  by  it,  are  the  very  causes  which  retard  the  pro- 
gress of  the  plow. 

But,  if  the  mould-board  were  so  constructed  as  to  enable  it  to  free  itself  from 
this  load  of  earth  sooner,  the  plow  would  be  considerably  lightened.  This  con- 
stitutes the  great  advantage  which  curved  mould-boards  have  over  others,  espe- 
ciallv  when,  as  I  have  before  mentioned,  they  unite  with  the  share  in  forming  an 
even"  and  uninterrupted  surface.  By  means  of  this  curvature  the  slice,  in  passing 
over  the  share  and  on  to  the  mould-board,  is  turned  on  its  own  axis  ;  so  that  when 
the  revolution  is  half  performed,  it  hardly  touches  the  plow,  but  is  impelled  to- 
ward the  opposite  side  by  its  own  weight,  and  only  requires  a  very  slight  touch 
of  the  posterior  point  of  the  ear  to  turn  it  over  as  thoroughly  as  is  necessary. 

There  are  still  various  conflicting  opinions  with  respect  to  the  form  which  it  is 
desirable  should  be  given  to  a  mould-board,  as  well  as  with  regard  to  that  which 
is  best  calculated  to  turn  over  the  slice  in  the  easiest  and  most  complete  manner. 
In  the  "Museum  of  Natural  History,"  No.  4,  p.  322,  there  is  a  very  circumstan- 
tial mathematical  calculation  given  by  President  Jefferson,  of  the  iJuitod  Slates, 

(7  18) 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


269 


which  almost  exactly  answers  to  the  mould-board  of  Small's  plows.  Baily  has 
written  a  paper  in  some  other  work,  in  which  he  endeavors  to  prove  that  his 
plow  is  the  best ;  but  the  opinions  of  husbandmen  ar<;  still  divided  between  the 
respective  merits  of  the  two.  The  latter  raises  the  slice  almost  insensibly,  and, 
causing  it  to  perform  two-fifths  of  a  circle,  turns  it  over  on  its  axis ;  Baily's  plow 
produces  a  similar  effect,  but  in  a  less  perfect  maimer.  Small's  instruments  are 
best  adapted  for  plowings  which  extend  to  more  than  eight  inches  in  depth  ; 
while  those  of  Baily  do  the  work  quite  as  well  when  merely  superficial  plowings 
are  requisite ;  and  as  the  latter  do  not  need  so  much  care  and  attention,  and  it  is 
easier  to  remedy  error  or  accidents  in  them  than  in  Small's  plows,  they  are,  per- 
haps, on  the  whole,  preferable,  especially  as  ihey  are  more  easily  guided.  The 
differences,  however,  which  exist  in  the  various  forms,  can  only  be  explained  by 
reference  to  the  plows  themselves.  The  mould-board  of  Small's  plow  is  deeper  ; 
it  raises  the  earth  higher  before  throwing  it  on  one  side,  and  it  also  turns  it  over 
more  quickly.  From  being  higher  and  shorter  it  sustains  less  friction  ;  the  dif- 
ference, however,  with  respect  to  this  point  is  only  observable  in  deep  plowings. 
These  two  plows  are  equally  capable  of  gradually  and  obliquely  raising  the  slice, 
and  of  conducting  it  on  an  even  surface  from  the  point  of  the  share  to  the  mould- 
board,  which  turns  it  and  throws  it  on  one  side.  The  mould-boards  of  both  of 
them  get  rid  of  the  earth  a  great  deal  sooner  than  flat  ones  do.  For  common 
use,  Baily's  plow  may  be  regarded  as  the  best  that  can  possibly  be  had  ;  although 
the  plowings  performed  with  Small's  plow  are  far  more  perfectly  and  beautifully 
executed  when  this  instrument  is  well  made. 

Curved  mould-boards  are  also  frequently  made  of  wood  ;  but  when  this  is  the 
case,  the  blocks  must  be  chosen  of  sufficient  thickness  lo  allow  their  receiving  the 
proper  form,  and  they  must  likewise  be  covered  with  plates  of  iron,  otherwise 
they  will  soon  wear  away  and  become  uneven  and  rough.  Cast  iron  mould- 
boards  are  much  cheaper,  and,  provided  that  the  iron  is  not  too  brittle,  are  also 
more  durable  ;  besides,  iron  has  another  great  advantage  over  wood,  it  causes 
less  friction,  and  when  polished  retains  less  earth  on  its  surface. 

Most  of  those  mould-boards  which  are  not  curved,  turn  the  slice  over  in  aver}' 
imperfect  manner  ;  only  a  portion  of  the  earth  raised  by  the  share  is  thrown  above 
that  which  previously  formed  the  surface,  unless  indeed  the  earth  consist  of  a 
continuous  strip  of  turf  adhering  to  itself.  In  order  to  produce  a  proper  reversion 
of  the  soil,  the  distance  which  separates  the  body  of  the  plow  from  the  hinder 
part  of  tfie  mould-board  must  be  much  greater  ;  the  mould-board  must  push  the 
earth  much  farther  than  would  otherwise  be  necessary,  and  the  plow  must  trace 
a  wide  furrow  even  when  the  slice  is  narrow.  The  furrow  in  this  case  is  some- 
times half  as  large  again  as  the  slice.  In  order  to  throw  this  slice  to  such  a  dis- 
tance, a  greater  degree  of  power  will  be  requisite  ;  because  the  earth  rests  much 
longer  on  the  mould-board.  Those  plows,  on  the  other  hand,  which  have  a 
curved  mould-board,  do  not,  properly  speaking,  throw  the  slice  on  one  side,  they 
merely  turn  it  on  its  right  shoulder.  Many  persons  believe  that  flat,  uncurved 
mould-boards  turn  the  slice  over  better,  because  the  surface  of  a  soil  which  has 
been  plowed  with  an  instrument  having  one  of  these  is  always  more  even  and 
horizontal.  It  is  most  true  that  the  slice  can  be  turned  over  much  better  when 
the  furrow  which  is  to  receive  it  is  considerably  wider  than  the  slice  itself.  Our 
plows  turn  the  soil  over,  so  that  one  slice  rests  UDon  another  in  the  manner  here 
represented. 


The  above  form  is  exactly  the  inclination  at  which  the  spaces  which  are  left 
open  between  each  of  the  slices  are  most  likely  to  effect  the  amelioration  of  the 
soil  in  the  best  and  most  perfect  manner  ;  by  this  means  the  air  is,  in  a  manner, 
enclosed  in  the  soil  and  brought  into  contact  with  the  inferior  and  under  portion 
of  it.  These  voids  also  serve  to  retain  the  water  deposited  by  rain,  &c.  ;  and 
when  this  moisture  is  evaporated  by  heat,  it  tends  greatly  to  improve  the  land, 
and  the  soil  gradually  settles  down  and  fills  up  all  the  interstices.     This  surface 

(749) 


THAERS  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


contains  as  many  prisms  as  tiiere  are  lines  or  streaks,  and  has  many  more  points 
of  contact  with  the  atmosphere  than  a  horizontal  surface  could  possibly  have  ; 
the  harrow  also  acts  more  efficiently  on  it  than  on  an  even  surface,  not  only  pul- 
verizing the  soil  completely,  but  also  tearing  up  all  the  roots  which  it  contains. 
Therefore,  in  all  soils  wliich  reciuire  to  be  divided  and  loosened,  this  inclination 
of  tlie  slices  is  attended  witii  manifest  advantage;  and  it  is  only  on  light  soils 
that  it  can  by  any  possibility  prove  prejudicial.  Agriculturists,  whose  land  is  of 
n  light  and  friable  nature,  need  not  trouble  themselves  about  the  form  of  their 
plows  ;  they  may  continue  to  employ  those  generally  used  in  their  vicinity,  how- 
ever imperfect  they  may  be.  Nor  would  our  plows  be  productive  of  any  bad  ef- 
fects, because  light  sandy  soils  not  possessing  any  consistence  will  soon  sink  down 
and  fill  up  those  interstices  wliicii  would  otherwise  remain  empty. 

Lastly,  there  are  convex  mould-boards  made  of  wood  or  iron  ;  these  are  chiefly 
met  with  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Khine.  Plows  of  this  kind  turn  up  the  soil 
quickly,  and  progress  without  difficulty  ;  but  they  do  not  turn  the  slice  over  well 
unless  their  mould-boards  are  made  very  long,  which  would  tend  greatly  to  in- 
crease the  friction. 

The  piece  by  means  of  which  the  lower  part  of  the  plow  is  united  to  the  heam, 
and  wliich  forms  the  anterior  portion  of  the  body  of  the  plow,  is  termed  the 
"  neck"  or  "  throat ;"  it  is  usually  made  of  wood  ;  and  it  is  only  in  Small's  plows 
that  it  is  formed  of  iron.  In  all  improved  plows  this  piece  is  not  perpendicular 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  instrument,  but  is  inclined,  so  that  the  highest  part  of  it 
at  the  back  forms  an  angle  of  from  SO  to  85  degrees.  By  means  of  this  inclina- 
tion that  part  of  it  which  immediately  follows  the  coulter  is  better  able  to  over- 
come the  resistance  which  it  encounters,  and  is  not  so  soon  worn  by  friction. 
When  the  mould-board  does  not  preserve  it  from  wearing,  recourse  is  had  to  an- 
other means  of  rendering  it  sharp  ;  a  strip  of  iron  is  then  affixed  to  it,  or  that 
piece  of  iron  which  terminates  the  plow  on  the  left  hand  side  is  lengthened  ;* 
this  is  the  case  in  Small's  plows.  Some  plows  are  to  be  met  with  in  which  the 
coulter  rests  immediately  on  the  throat,  and  forms  the  extremity  of  it,t  but  they 
are  deprived  of  the  advantage  resulting  from  this  prolongation  of  the  left  side, 
which  cannot  take  place  Avithout  increasing  the  friction.  However  undeniably 
advantageous  this  inclination  of  the  throat  may  be,  many  plows  are  constructed 
m  which  it  is  made  to  turn  in  quite  an  opposite  direction.  A  very  slight  examin- 
ation will,  however,  enable  us  to  perceive  that  such  an  arrangement  is  much  less 
advantageous,  and  that  it  renders  this  portion  of  the  plow  much  less  durable. 

The  beam  is  that  portion  by  means  of  which  the  progressive  motion  that  cau- 
ses it  to  move  through  the  earth  is  communicated  to  the  body  of  the  plow,  and 
which  regulates  the  line  of  draught  which  it  is  impossible  to  attach  to  the  body 
itself. 

The  beam  is  usually  affixed  to  the  fore  part  of  the  body  of  the  plow  by  means 
of  the  neck  or  throat,  and  to  the  hind  part  by  means  of  the  left  handle.  The  un- 
ion of  these  parts  ought  to  be  effected,  so  that  when  the  draught  power  is 'at- 
tached to  the  proper  place,  the  plow  shall  move  horizontally  through  the  earth 
at  the  same  depth  to  which  it  was  first  introduced. 

If  the  beam  is  raised  too  high  in  front,  or  if  the  neck  is  too  long,  the  share  is 
apt  to  penetrate  too  deeply  into  the  soil ;  it  is  then  said  that  the  plow  moves  on 
its  point ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  beam  is  too  low  and  the  neck  too  short,  the 
share  has  then  too  great  a  tendency  to  rise  out  of  the  soil.  The  plow  ought  to 
move  horizontally  forward,  or  at  any  rate,  parallel  with  the  surface  of  the  land, 
and  at  the  same  depth  at  which  it  was  first  placed,  so  that  the  lower  part  of  the 
share  and  the  under  side  of  the  heel  of  the  plow  shall  be  at  equal  distances  from 
the  surface.  This  horizontal  motion  is  communicated  to  wheel  plows  by  means 
of  a  lever,  or  by  elongating  or  shortening  the  beam.  In  those  which  arev/ithout 
wheels,  or  in  other  words,  in  swing  plows,  the  same  effect  is  produced  by  eleva- 
ting or  depressing  the  line  of  draught  which  is- affixed  to  the  bridle  at  the  end  of 
the  beam  ;  but  the  elevation  of  the  beam  then  acts  inversely  on  the  share,  to 
which  it  communicates  a  tendency  to  penetrate  deeper  into  the  earth.  When 
this  is  the  case,  the  share  no  longer  proceeds  horizontally,  it  tears  rather  than 
cuts  the  soil,  and  the  labor  of  the  draught  cattle  is  rendered  exceedingly  fatiguing. 
It  is  on  this  account  that  in  wheel  plows  the  throat  is  not  firmly  morticed  into 

*  Bescbneibung  der  Ackcrgerathe.    Heft.  i.  Tail  2,  fig.  ii.  t  Ibid.    Heft.  L  Tafl  6,  fig.  ii.  a. 

(750) 


AGRICULTURAL   IMPLEMENTS.  271 

the  beam,  but  merely  affixed  to  it  by  means  of  a  wedge,  and  that  some  little  play 
is  allowed  in  the  mortice,  which  serves  to  unite  the  beam  with  the  handles,  in 
order  that  the  beam  may  be  raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure  by  means  of  a  wed^e. 
But  where  this  is  the  case,  the  laborers  are  too  apt  to  alter  the  position  of  xhe 
wedges  in  order  to  be  more  certain  that  the  share  will  not  rise  out  of  the  ground. 
Notwithstanding  this,  the  ploAV  cannot  penetrate  to  any  very  great  depth,  beino- 
prevented  by  the  beam,  which  is  itself  restrained  by  the  axis  of  the  fore  wheels 
on  which  it  rests.  The  beam,  in  this  case,  exercises  a  very  great  degree  of  pres- 
sure on  the  axis,  and  thereby  increases  still  farther  the  obstacles  which  the 
draught  cattle  have  to  overcome.  This  may  be  carried  to  such  an  extent,  as,  on 
tenacious  soils,  to  cause  the  beam  to  snap  at  that  place  to  which  the  bridle  is 
\  aflixed.  In  wheel  plows  this  defective  position  of  the  beam  is  not  so  sensibly 
felt,  and  does  not  matter  so  much,  but  in  swing  plows  the  laborer  can  with  diffi- 
culty contend  against  the  inconveniences  occasioned  by  it. 

The  length  of  tiie  beam  varies  both  in  wheel  and  in  swing  plows.  The  longer 
it  is,  that  is  to  say,  the  more  distant  the  point  oi  traction  isfrom  the  body  of  the 
plow,  the  more  steady  will  the  motion  of  this  instrument  be,  because  then  the 
slightest  deviation  of  the  share  will  be  sensibly  felt  at  the  extremity  of  the  beam  : 
but  this  increase  of  length  tends  materially  to  diminish  the  strength  of  the  beam  ; 
and,  consequently,  it  must  be  made  thicker  in  proportion  as  it  is  elongated. 

Small's  plows  have  shorter  beams  than  Baily's,  and  this  is  onereason  that 
they  are  more  apt  to  deviate  from  the  straight  line.  The  beams  of  most  wheel 
plows  are  usually  made  longer  than  is  necessary,  so  much  so  that  they  project 
iar  beyond  the  axis.  The  point  of  the  beam  which  rests  on  this  axis  may  be 
drawn  nearer  to  the  body  of  the  plow,  or  placed  at  a  greater  distance  from  it  as 
circumstances  seem  to  render  necessary ;  in  the  former  case,  the  point  of  the 
share  will  be  raised,  and  in  the  latter,  depressed.  In  order  to  effect  these  modi- 
fications, several  holes  are  made  in  the  beam,  to  any  one  of  which  the  rino-  at 
the  end  of  the  chain  may  be  affixed  by  means  of  notches  or  of  a  pin,  called  a 
cheek,  and  the  plow  let  down  to  a  greater  depth  below  the  axis,  or  taken  up. 

Viewed  in  its  horizontal  direction,  the  beam  has  not  the  same  tendency  as  the 
body  of  the  plow,  but  rather  inclines  a  little  to  the  right.  If  the  beam  were 
placed  in  an  exact  line  with  the  left  side  of  the  body  of  the  plow,  the  share 
would  not  incline  sufficiently  towards  the  left,  and  would  have  a  tendency  to  rise 
out  of  the  soil.  In  constructing  a  plow,  however,  if  sufficient  care  has  not  been 
taken  to  avoid  this  inconvenience,  some  means  must  be  sought  to  remedy  it ;  this 
is  effected  in  wheel  plows  by  placing  the  beam  on  the  left  side  of  the  axis,  and 
in  others,  by  attaching  the  line  of  draught  to  the  last  hole  on  the  right  side  of 
the  bridle  or  regulator.  But  this  effect  will  always  prevent  the  possibility  of 
cutting  wide  furrow-slices,  even  when  such  a  proceeding  appears  to  be  advisable. 
As  the  beam  is  always  a  little  smaller  towards  the  foremost  end,  the  wood  is 
raised  a  little  on  the  left  side,  while  the  opposite  one  is  left  perfectly  straight.  \ 
The  handles  are  those  pieces  of  wood  by  the  means  of  which  the  laborer  in-  \ 
troduces  the  plow  into  the  soil,  and  corrects  its  deviations.  Properly  speaking, 
these  are  not  used  for  the  purpose  of  directing  the  plow,  since,  if  it  is  well  made, 
it  will  of  its  own  accord  pursue  the  path  traced  out  for  it.  But  when  this  instru- 
ment encounters  some  extraordinary  obstacle,  and  one  or  more  of  its  parts  receive 
a  shock  which  causes  it  to  deviate  from  a  direct  line,  it  is  then  the  office  of  the 
plowman  to  restore  it  to  its  proper  position  ;  but  this  must  not  be  done  by  need- 
less violence,  but  by  a  temperate  and  gentle  exertion  of  strength.  He  ought  to 
be  so  well  accustomed  to  his  duty  as  to  be  able  to  feel  at  once,  by  the  sensation 
communicated  to  his  hand,  any  deviation  of  the  plow,  however  slight,  and  to  be 
ready  to  remedy  it,  as  it  were  almost  instinctively,  by  an  opposite  movement. 

Plows  are  made  with  either  one  or  two  handles,  but,  in  point  of  fact,  only  one 
is  necessary,  namely,  the  left.  Most  agriculturists  prefer  wheel  plows  with  only 
one  haiidle,  in  order  that  a  plowman  who  is  accustomed  to  the  use  of  them  may 
have  his  right  hand  at  liberty  to  use  the  whip,  or  that  little  instrument  by  means 
of  which  he  removes  roots  or  rubbish  and  earth  which  may  be  collected  on  the 
mould-board,  or  in  front  of  the  plow.  Two  handles,  they  affirm,  render  the  plow- 
man idle,  and  encourage  him  to  lean  on  the  plow,  by  Avhich  the  labor  of  the 
draught  cattle  is  considerably  augmented.  Nevertheless,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
the  right  handle  is  occasionally  useful,  that  it  assists  materially  in  fixing  the 

(751) 


272  thaer's  PllI^x'IPLES   of  agriculture. 

plow  in  the  soil,  and  in  overcoming  tiiose  obstacles  which  ii  encounters  more 
quickly  ;  and  that,  moreover,  when  this  handle  is  held  with  a  firm  grasp,  and 
with  the  right  arm  slightly  bent,  it  acts  in  opposition  to  the  earth,  which,  resting 
heavily  on  the  mould-board,  might  easily  cause  the  plow  to  incline  toward  the 
left,  and  render  the  slices  uneven. 

In  common  wheel  plows  the  handles  are  placed  at  the  hinder  extremity  of  the 
plow,  in  order  that  by  then-  means  a  sufficient  degree  of  perpendicular  pressure 
may  be  exercised  upon  it  when  it  is  desirable  that  the  instrument  shall  penetrate 
more  deeply  into  the  soil  ;  but  should  the  soil  be  hard,  the  only  effect  produced 
by  this  pressure  will  be  the  raising  of  tlie  point  of  the  share.  In  English  plows 
without  wheels,  the  handles  or  stilts  are  brought  more  forward  toward  the  front 
of  the  instrument,  and  placed  at  the  point  where  it  experiences  the  greatest  re- 
sistance :  on  their  reascension  at  the  back  of  the  ploAv  they  are  extended  to  a 
sufficient  and  suitable  length.  By  means  of  these  levers  the  laborer,  without 
any  great  degree  of  exertion  of  strength,  is  enabled  to  resist  all  the  deviations  of 
the  plow. 

But  the  slightest  pressure  on  these  handles  is  here  so  sensibly  felt,  that  the 
chief  difficulty  attending  the  use  of  the  plows,  is  to  make  the  ploAvman  abstain 
from  all  violence,  and  from  all  sudden  jerks  of  the  hand.  'In  general,  men  who 
have  never  plowed  before,  are  easily  taught  the  use  of  swing  ploAvs,  and  hoAv  to 
guide  and  manage  them  ;  whereas,  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  this  ope- 
ration all  their  lives,  almost  invariably  commit  the  great  error  of  leaning  too 
heavily  on  the  handles.  As  soon  as  a  person  is  accustomed  to  manage  the  han- 
dles, to  raise  the  hinder  part  of  the  plow  a  little  when  it  seems  disposed  to  quit 
the  ground,  and  to  press  upon  it  when  it  penetrates  too  deeply,  the  direction  of 
these  swing  plows  becomes  so  easy  that  a  child  of  twelve  years  old  might  man- 
age them.  It  is  only  when  the  land  is  unequal  or  hilly,  or  when  the  plow  meets 
with  some  unexpected  obstacle,  that  the  plowman  is  obliged  to  have  resource  to 
the  handles,  in  order  to  keep  the  plow  in  the  direction  Avhich  it  ought  to  go. 
Many  persons  have  imagined  that  it  is  difficult  to  turn  plows  Avithout  wheels, 
when  they  have  reached  the  end  of  the  piece  which  is  to  be  plowed,  and  Avhen 
it  becomes  necessary  to  commence  a  fresh  furroAv  ;  but  they  are  quite  wrong,  for 
there  is  no  other  ploAv  Avith  Avhich  this  can  be  so  easily  effected.  All  that  is  re- 
quisite to  be  done  is  for  the  laborer  to  incline  the  instrument  on  the  right  side, 
suffer  the  draught  cattle  to  pull  it  round,  right  it  by  means  of  the  handles,  raise 
these  latter  a  little,  in  order  to  enable  the  share  to  penetrate  the  soil,  and  then 
alloAV  the  ploAV  to  proceed  on  its  course. 

It  ahvays  ought  to  be  possible  to  regulate  a  plow  so  as  to  cause  it  to  make  the 
furroAvs  of  the  Avidih  and  depth  Avhich  Ave  Avish  them  to  be.  The  arrangement 
by  means  of  which  this  is  effected,  is  attached  to  the  extremity  of  the  beam,  and 
is  very  different  in  wheel  ploAvs  from  those  which  are  Avithout  Avheels.  In  the 
former,  when  the  part  of  the  beam  Avhich  extends  from  the  point  where  it  rests 
on  the  axis,  to  the  body  of  the  plow,  is  elongated,  the  plow  has  a  greater  ten- 
dency to  penetrate  into  the  earth ;  Avhereas,  if  it  Avere  shortened,  the  contrary 
effect  would  be  produced.  Those  holes  Avhich  are  observable  in  the  middle  of 
the  beam,  are  intended  to  effect  this  elongation  or  a  diminution  of  length.  But 
where  the  desired  effect  cannot  thus  be  produced  as  perfectly  as  is  necessary,  a 
regulator  is  generally  placed  in  front  of  the  throat,  or  wedges  are  inserted  at  the 
hinder  end  of  the  beam,  by  the  means  of  which  this  latter  may  be  raised  or  low- 
ered. The  regulators  are  constructed  in  various  ways.  In  wheel  plows,  on  the 
mechanism  of  Avhich  greater  care  is  usually  bestowed,  their  effect  may  be  gradu- 
ated in  an  almost  insensible  manner.  They  are  often  so  contrived  that  by  these 
means  the  breadth  of  the  furroAV-slice  may  be  increased  or  diminished :  for  ex- 
ample, if  the  beam  is  more  inclined  to  the  right,  the  share  will  be  turned  more 
to  the  left,  and  Avill  cut  a  Avider  slice.  In  order,  hoAvever,  to  cut  the  furrov/- 
slice  of  any  considerable  width,  the  point  at  which  the  draught  poAver  is  at- 
tached to  the  fore  Avheels  must  be  altered  ;  and  this  is  effected  by  m.eans  of  a 
regulator.  By  means  of  the  teeth  of  this  last-mentioned  piece,  tJhe  traces  and 
the  Avheel  carriage  may  be  shifted  to  the  right  or  the  left  at  pleasure.  The  con- 
trivances attached  to  plows  to  effect  this  purpose  are  numerous  and  various ;  but  !^ 
there  is  no  occasion  to  give  a  special  description  of  each.  The  most  simple,  cer-  \ 
tainlv',  are  the  best ;  and  this  Avill  be  found  in  the  description  of  the  Norfolk  ploAV,  ) 

'(752) 


AGRICULTURAL   IMPLEMENTS.  '      273 

by  Dickson.  This  is  the  most  perfect  wheel  plow  of  any  with  which  I  am  ac- 
quainted. The  regulator  is  made  of  iron,  and,  consequently,  is  rather  more  ex- 
pensive. Nevertheless,  if  we  come  to  consider  on  the  one  side  how  much  more 
durable  iron  is,  and  with  what  rapidity  the  bar  may  be  suspended  in  the  notches  ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  how  apt  inventions  of  a  similar  kind  are  to  break  when 
constructed  of  lighter  materials,  and  the  difficulty  in  making  them  sufficiently 
firm,  we  shall  come  to  consider  it  as  very  economical.  The  Norfolk  plow  is, 
however,  only  calculated  for  very  light  plowings  which  do  not  exceed  three 
inches  in  depth. 

In  order  to  regulate  the  depth  to  which  a  plow  shall  penetrate  the  earth,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  raise  or  lower  the  line  of  draught  attached  to  the  bridle  at  the 
extremity  of  the  beam,  or  to  advance  this  point  or  draw  it  back.  If  we  wish  to 
determine  beforehand,  according  to  a  given  bight  taken  from  the  point  of  draught 
of  the  animals,  and  according  to  a  certain  length  of  traces,  to  what  depth  the 
plow  will  penetrate  the  soil,  a  straight  line  must  be  drawn  from  the  former  to 
the  body  of  the  plow,  passing  by  that  point  at  which  the  traces  are  attached  to 
the  beam.  The  plow  enters  the  earth  at  the  place  where  this  line  falls.  The 
lower  the  point  to  which  the  traces  are  attached,  the  nearer  will  the  extremity 
of  this  line  approach  the  point  of  the  share  ;  and  the  higher  it  is,  the  farther  will 
it  rise  on  the  body  of  the  plow.  But  in  using  swing  plows,  it  is  quite  sufficient 
to  know  that  by  lowering  the  point  to  which  the  traces  are  attached,  the  plow- 
'I  ings  will  be  rendered  more  superficial ;  and  that  by  raising  it,  the  depth  to  which 
the  plow  penetrates  the  soil  will  be  increased.  The  most  superficial  examina- 
tion will  convince  any  person  who  has  a  swing  plow  before  his  eyes,  that  this 
J  raising  or  lowering  can  be  effected  with  the  utmost  facility  and  promptitude. 
''  By  means  of  this  regulator  a  tendency  may  also  be  communicated  to  the  plow, 
which  leads  it  to  incline  more  to  the  left  or  the  right;  or,  in  other  words,  to  cut 
larger  or  smaller  slices.  To  etfect  the  first,  the  bar  is  attached  more  to  the 
right ;  and  to  effect  the  second,  mo-re  to  the  left. 

Although  the  use  of  wheel  plows  is  so  widely  different,  that  in  some  parts  of 
Germany  the  farmers  have  no  idea  of  plows  without  Avheels,  these  latter  are 
very  useless  appendages,  excepting  in  a  very  few  isolated  cases.  They  increase 
the  weight  which  the  draught  cattle  pull,  Avithout  producing  any  advantage,  and 
seem  to  owe  their  invention  to  erroneous  views,  and  the  introduction  to  their  in- 
genious appearance. 

Wheels  never  can  contribute  to  lighten  the  load  ;  for  when  a  plow  is  properly 
i  regulated,  the  extremity  of  the  beam  scarcely  touches  the  axis.  It  is  only  when 
J-  some  defective  tendency  of  the  instrument  drags  it  into  the  soil,  that  the  beam 
(|  rests  heavily  on  the  axis,  and  then  the  resistance  opposed  by  the  plow  is  ren- 
i  dered  greater  from  the  line  of  draught  being  interrupted  and  receiving  three  dis- 
\  tinct  tendencies:  one  from  the  point  of  draught  to  the  under  part  of  the  fore 
I  wheels;  the  second,  from  this  point  rising  towards  that  point  of  the  beam  to 
which  the  bridle  is  attached  ;  and  the  third,  from  this  latter  point  to  the  share. 

It  is  a  very  general  opinion  that  the  addition  of  wheels  renders  the  motion  of 
the  plow  firm.er  and  straighter,  and  that  by  their  assistance  the  instrument  is 
better  able  to  resist  those  obstacles  which  might  turn  it  aside  from  the  direction 
which  it  ought  to  follow,  and  that  ihey  render  the  task  of  guiding  it  less  diffi- 
cult. But  they  can  only  produce  tliese  effects  by  allowing  the  beam  being  made  / 
longer,  so  that  the  length  of  the  lever  may  give  it  sufficient  strength  to  resist  the  '' 
deviations  of  the  share  ;  and  in  this  case,  when  the  resistance  is  of  a  nature 
which  admits  of  its  being  easily  overcome  by  a  plow,  it  will  be  possible  to  sur- 
hiount  it  quite  as  easily  with  a  swing  as  with  a  wheel  plow  ;  and  as  the  short- 
ness of  the  beams  of  swing  plows  is  the  chief  cause  of  their  being  so  liable  to  be 
thrown  on  one  side,  when  they  are  well  made  they  are  so  constructed  as  to  give 
the  laborer  sufficient  command  over  them  to  prevent  this  deviation,  an  advantage 
which  cannot  be  given  on  wheel  plows.  Even  when  this  resistance  is  not  of  a 
nature  to  admit  of  its  being  easily  overcome  by  the  instrument,  swing  plows  are 
preferable,  because  they  run  much  less  risk  of  being  broken  by  the  efforts  of  the 
cattle,  in  consequence  of  their  springing,  as  it  were,  aside  ;  and  besides,  a  plow- 
man who  is  accustomed  to  guide  them,  will  feel  at  once,  by  the  sensation  com- 
municated to  his  hands,  whether  or  not  it  is  possible  to  overcome  the  obstacle 
which  presents  itself:    and  can,  therefore,  by  means  of  a  slight  pressure,  assist 

(753) 18 


274  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

the  instrument,  and  if  necessary  turn  it  aside,  so  as  to  prevent  it  from  sustaining 
any  injury. 

I  used  to  be  of  opinion  that  a  large  wheel  plow  was  best  adapted  for  ihe  pur- 
pose of  tilling-  stony,  uneven  ground,  full  of  roots,  or  of  clearing  an  uncultivated 
soil  ;  but  experience  has  convinced  me  of  my  error.     I  have  broken  upland  filled 
with  roots  of  trees,  by  means  of  Small's  ploAV,  and  Baily's,  and  with  a  draught 
power  far  less  than  that  Avhich  would  have  been  requisite  to  work  a  large  wheel  i 
plow.     I  have  tilled  land  of  this  nature  Aviih  only  two  horses,  on  which  it  would  ' 
have  been  impossible  to  make  use  of  a  large  wheel  plow,  without  attaching  at  / 
least  six  horses  to  it.     I  must,  however,  confess,  that  the  chief  cause  of  the  ad- 
vantage of  these  swing  plows  arose  in  part,  if  not  wholly,  from  the  coulter  hav- 
ing been  firmly  fixed,  in  the  manner  recommended  by  Small. 

If  plows  without  wheels  lose  a  little  of  their  steadiness  from  the  motion  which 
they  experience  at  the  extremity  of  the  beam,  this  inconvenience  is  more  than 
compensated  by  the  power  and  command  which  the  laborer  has  over  them.     By  ) 
means  of  the  slightest  pressure  he  can  cause  the  ploAv  to  incline  towards  the  left,   ( 
and  thus  cut  a  wider  slice  ;  or,  by  turning  it  towards  the  right,  he  can  dispose  it  S 
to  quit  the  soil.      By  raising  the  handles  a  little,  he  can  cause  it  to  penetrate  \ 
deeper  into  the  ground  :    and  by  lowering  them,  prevent  it  from   entering  any  ( 
farther,  or  cause  it  to  raise  out  of  the  soil  altogether.     Where  the  surface  of  the  ^ 
soil  is  level,  he  has  no  occasion  to  use  any  of  these  precautions :  all  he  has  to  do  ) 
is  to  sufler  the  instrument  to  follow  its  natural  course.     The  great  superiority  of  < 
swing  plows  over  wheels  is  particularly  striking  on  uneven,  hilly  ground,  which    ^ 
is  full  of  risings  and  declivities.      On  such  land  wheel  plows  act  unequally,  and  ) 
trace  furrows  of  various  depths.     This  may  easily  be  accounted  for.     When  they  ( 
ascend  a  rising  ground,  the  fore  wheels  are   higher  than  the  body  of  the  plow,  p 
and,  consequently,  the  point  of  the  share  is  lifted  up  :  in  this  case  it  only  cuts  a  ^ 
very  thin  slice,  and  sometimes  rises  out  of  the  earth  altogether.     On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  plow  is  going  down  hill,  the  fore  wheels  are  lower  than  the  body 
of  the  plov7,  and  then  the  share  penetrates  too  deep.     These  inconveniences  can 
only  be  remedied  by  regulating  the  plow  in  a  different  way  every  time  the  in- 
clination of  the  soil  varies  ;  all  endeavors  made  by  the  laborer  to  remedy  it   in 
any  other  way  will  be  perfectly  useless.      This  is  never  more  evident  than  when 
a  field,  divided  into  ridges,  is  plowed  across  v/ith  a  wheel  plow  :    as  the  fore 
wheels  ascend  the  rising  surface,  the  share  hardly  touches  the  ground  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  when  they  descend  into  the  furrow,  it  enters  too  deeply.     Now,  with 
a  swing  plow,  the  plowman  can,  by  means  of  the  long  handles  with  which  it  is 
furnished,  overpome  these  obstacles,  and  trace  an  even  furrow  without  much  dif- 
ficulty or  the  exertion  of  any  great  degree  of  strength. 

All  plowmen  are  well  aware  of  the  great  difficulty  there  is  in  making  a 
wheel  plow  penetrate  a  hard,  tenacious  soil.  Not  one  of  the  numerous  coniri- 
vances  used  under  similar  circumstances,  nor  of  the  alterations  which  are  made 
in  the  plow  every  time  it  is  put  in  the  ground,  nor  the  pressure  on  the  instrument 
effected  by  the  conductor  which  ascends  to  the  beam,  nor  the  bringing  the  head 
nearer  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  perch,  not  one  of  these  remedies  is  at  all  effica- 
cious, and  the  operation  is  either  badly  executed  or  cannot  be  performed  at  all. — 
A  plow  without  wheels,  having  a  share  which  is,  perhaps,  a  little  more  point td, 
ought,  when  the  handles  are  slightly  raised,  to  penetrate  even  a  barn  floor,  if 
such  a  thing  were  necessary,  and  if  the  moving  power  attached  to  it  is  sufiieient 
to  cut  the  hardest  soil ;  indeed,  provided  that  the  requisite  number  of  draught 
cattle  are  employed,  no  degree  of  draught  or  hardness  of  the  soil  can  impede  its 
action. 

The  greater  the  simplicity  of  the  mechanism  of  plows  without  wheels,  and 
the  increased  solidity  of  their  parts,  cannot  be  overlooked  ;  they  are  less  liable 
to  be  damaged  or  injured,  and  thus  that  time  is  saved  which  is  too  often  necessary 
to  be  devoted  to  repairing  such  implements. 

In  wheel  plows,  the  Avheels  are  not  always  well  made  ;  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  large,  well-rounded  wheels  are  far  superior  to  those  which  are  small  and  ill 
constructed  :  this  advantage  is  not,  however,  very  great,  and  does  not  contribute 
so  much  to  diminish  the  resistance  as  some  persons  think. 

Sometimes  the  wheels  move  round  on  immovable  axlelrees :  at  others  they  are 
affixed  to  the  axle,  or  to  an  iron  axletree,  which  itself  revolves  in  the  body  of  the 

(7541 


wheel  carriage.  The  latter  are  generally  preferred,  especially  when  the  wheels 
are  low,  either  because  the  axle  will  not  then  be  so  soon  worn  out  by  the  friction 
of  the  soil,  or  because,  in  the  other  case,  it  is  imposible  to  prevent  some  portion 
of  earth  from  insinuating  itself  between  the  smallest  wheel  and  the  axle  on 
which  it  turns ;  this  plan  is  not,  however,  without  its  inconveniences. 

Sometimes  the  wheels  are  of  equal  dimensions  :  at  others,  the  spokes  of  the 
right  wheel,  or  that  which  moves  in  the  furrow,  are  increased  to  the  depth  of 
the  furrow  or  nearly  so.  When  the  wheels  are  of  equal  diameter,  the  fore  part 
of  the  plow  is  necessarily  placed  in  an  oblique  position.  This  obliquity  increases 
the  friction  so  much,  and  inclines  the  fore  part  of  the  beam  so  much  towards  the 
right,  that  this  plan  is  only  practicable  for  superficial  plowings  of  not  more  than 
three  inches  in  depth.  Whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  ploAv  the  soil  to  a 
greater  depth,  the  diameter  of  the  right  wheel  riiusi  be  proportionably  increased 
in  order  to  bring  the  wheel-carriage  into  an  horizontal  position.  But  if  two 
wheels  of  unequal  size  are  affixed  to  the  same  axle,  at  each  revolution  the  small- 
er one  will  remain  behind,  and  has  to  be  dragged  after  the  other,  for  two  wheels 
of  uneqtial  dimensions  moving  on  the  same  axis  have  not  an  equal  progressive 
motion.  The  right  wheel,  which  is  largest,  keeps  in  advance  of  the  other,  and 
tends  to  throw  it  on  the  left  side ;  it  consequently  rubs  against  the  unturned  soil, 
and  is  thus  repelled,  so  that  the  wheel  carriage  of  the  plow  vacillates  and  the 
friction  is  considerably  augmented.  If  the  wheels  are  different  in  diameter,  it  is 
highly  requisite  that  at  least  one  of  them  should  move  round  the  axle. 

An  inequality  of  the  wheels  is  likewise  attended  with  considerable  inconven- 
ience when  we  come  to  plow  with  raised  furrows.  If  the  furrow  already  raised 
must  be  still  higher,  at  the  first  motion  of  the  plow,  the  right  wheel  which  stands 
highest  is  immediately  placed  in  a  more  elevated  position,  and  the  fore  part  of 
the  wheel-carriage  so  much  inclined  that  it  frequently  turns  over,  and  k  is  im- 
possible to  fix  the  share  in  the  soil ;  it  likewise  often  happens,  when  the  soil  in- 
clines on  the  side  of  the  furrow,  that  the  right  wheel  is  obliged  to  move  in  the 
preceding  ridge.  It  is  also  found  that  the  first  and  last  furrows  of  large  raised 
ridges  are  always  badly  executed,  unless  every  care  is  taken  to  arrange  the  plow 
so  that  it  shall  be  capable  of  performing  them  properly,  which  is  a  matter  of 
great  importance  in  this  mode  of  tilling  land. 

These  are  some  of  the  inconveniences  attending  the  use  of  plows  with  fore 
wheels.  Which  are  at  best  very  useless  appendages,  and  serve  only  to  increase 
the  resistance  and  the  friction. 

The  only  case  in  which  I  can  give  the  preference  to  wheel  plows  is,  when  they 
are  used  not  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  up  rough,  uneven,  and  tenacious  soils, 
which  oppose  considerable  resistance  to  the  action  of  the  instrument,  but  only 
when  they  are  employed  for  the  purpose  of  performing  sliallow  plowings  with 
large  ridges  on  a  flat  surface.  Here  the  fore  wheels  will  prevent  the  instrument 
from  penetrating  too  deeply  into  the  soil,  and  cause  it  merely  to  pare  the  land. — 
A  wheel  plow  may  be  more  easily  arranged  so  as  to  make  it  cut  larger  slices 
than  a  swing  plow  ;  indeed,  this  can  only  be  effected  with  the  latter  by  a  pecu- 
liar construction. 

Sometimes  a  foot,  similar  to  that  on  which  the  beam  rests,  is  affixed  to  the 
plow  instead  of  wheels  ;  and  the  lower  part  of  this  is  terminated  by  a  kind  of 
hoof,  or  by  a  little  wheel  which  occupies  the  place  of  the  coulter.  At  other 
times,  two  wheels  are  affixed  to  the  back  of  the  plow. 

The  plow  most  generally  used  in  Belgium  is  of  the  former  description  ;  and 
Schwertz,  in  his  account  of  the  Agriculture  of  Belgium,  maintains  that  it  is  far 
superior  to  all  other  plows.  The  body  of  this  instrument  certainly  is  excellent  in 
form  ;  but  the  foot  on  which  its  foremost  part  rests,  and  which  drags  through  the 
soil,  necessarily  intends  to  increase  the  friction.  It  can  hardly  be  said  to  contribute  to 
steady  the  motion  of  the  plow,  and  it  is  likely  to  prevent  the  plowman  from  hav- 
ing as  much  control  over  the  instrument  as  he  otherwise  would.  The  only  ad- 
vantage which  can  be  derived  from  it,  consists  in  its  tendency  to  diminish  the  ef- 
fect of  any  erroneous  motion  made  by  the  plowman.  This  addition  appears  to 
have  been  made  solely  because  the  inventor  feared  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  teach  laborers  the  proper  method  of  guiding  these  plows.  This  foot  cannot  be 
used  on  uneven  ground  ;  for  as  soon  as  it  touches  an  elevation,  or  a  stone,  the 
point  of  the  share  rises  out  of  the  ground,  or,  at  any  rate,  to  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

>  (755) 


276  THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

It  is  always  better  to  substitute  in  place  of  this  foot  a  small  wheel,  similar  to 
that  on  the  skimming  plow.  This  wheel  occasions  less  friction,  A  similar  wheel 
has  also  been  adjusted  to  the  front  of  the  body  of  the  ploAv,  in  the  place  of  the 
coulter,  and  the  outside  of  it  sharpened.  It  is  thouafht  that  by  this  means  the 
separation  of  the  slice,  especially  if  it  is  turf,  is  facilitated  ;  but  it  cannot  be  de- 
nied that  it  is  very  difficult  to  cause  this  wheel  to  penetrate  the  ground.  In  fact,  . 
it  can  only  be  effected  by  giving  the  share  too  great  a  tendency  to  enter  deeply  ^ 
into  the  soil,  or  by  means  of  fore  wheels,  which  depress  the  beam.  Both  these 
methods  augment  the  friction  and  the  resistance,  Avithout  procuring  any  advan- 
tage which  would  not  have  been  attained  equally  as  well  by  means  of  the  coulter.   , 

Endeavors  have  also  been  made  to  add  a  small  wheel  to  the  hind  part  of  the  / 
plow,  in  order  to  diminish  the  friction  of  the  heel  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow. 
The  inconvenience  of  this  addition  is  manifest. 

A  wheel  with  iron  spokes,  and  without  joints,  has  also,  occasionally,  been  af- 
fixed to  plows.  This  is  placed  at  the  side  of  the  mould-board,  across  which  its 
axle  passes,  and  is  supported  at  the  opposite  end  on  the  bottom  of  the  left  han- 
dle. The  outer  extremity  of  the  spokes  are  made  in  the  form  of  a  shovel  ;  and 
it  is  pretended  that  by  this  contrivance,  the  earth  of  which  the  slice  is  composed 
is  turned  over,  and  thoroughly  loosened  and  divided.  In  light,  sandy  soils,  this 
wheel  divides  the  sand  very  well,  and  produces  the  intended  effect.  But  the 
friction  is  so  much  increased,  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  support  the  plow  on 
the  opposite  side  to  prevent  it  from  turning  over.  On  argillaceous  and  tenacious 
soils,  where  this  invention  might  possibly  be  useful,  it  is  incapable  of  producing 
any  effect. 

Among  the  numerous  improvements  and  additions  which  have  been  made  to 
the  plow,  I  shall  only  notice  the  following.  [ 

As  the  reversion  of  the  slice  cannot  always  be  effected  in  a  sufficiently  com- 
plete manner,  a  movable  plate  is  added  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  mould-board  at 
that  part  where  it  rises  above  the  earth,  or  a  triangular  piece,  which  can  be  pro- 
jected forward  by  means  of  a  screw,  is  joined  to  this  part  by  means  of  hinges  or 
of  thin,  flexible  plates  of  tempered  steel ;  the  screw  passes  from  the  inside 
through  the  lower  part  of  the  handle  of  the  plow  opposite  the  back  of  this  mov- 
able piece,  and  can  keep  it  in  any  required  degree  of  inclination,  which  will  en- 
able it  to  overcome  all  the  resistance  of  the  double  plows,  of  which  we  shall  pre- 
sently have  to  speak. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  it  may  be  productive  of  much  benefit,  but  this  is  not  ob- 
tained without  a  considerable  increase  of  friction,  and  without  requiring,  on  the 
part  of  the  laborer,  a  constant  coiroter  pressure  to  prevent  the  plow  from  being 
turned  over.  It  has  been  asked  if  the  reversion  of  the  slices  could  not  be  much 
more  completely  effected  by  a  man  walking  behind  the  plow  than  by  having  re- 
course to  any  of  these  improvements,  which  are  very  apt  to  get  out  of  order.  A 
somewhat,  similar  effect  is  obtained  from  the  elongated  Belgian  mould-board, 
which  is  composed  of  a  board  that  serves  to  lengthen  the  mould-board,  and  of  a 
piece  of  hard  wood  which  forms  the  handle  of  it.  This  elongation  is  affixed  to 
the  body  of  the  plow  by  means  of  a  hook  which  fastens  into  a  ring  placed  behind 
the  mould-board.  A  young  lad  holds  the  handle  and  stands  in  such  a  position  as  \ 
to  cause  the  elongation  to  form  with  the  mould-board  a  more  or  less  obtuse  '[• 
angle.  He  advances  in  a  line  parallel  with  the  plow,  and  raises  or  lowers  the 
handle  according  as  the  resistance  of  the  slice  appears  to  require  it.  This  addi- 
tion ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  very  beneficial  elongation  of  the  mould-board  ;  it  ; 
certainly  is  exceedingly  useful  in  deep  plowings  when  the  farmer  wishes  to  plow 
his  land  in  very  shelving  ridges,  and  likewise  when  he  breaks  up  turf  which  of- 
;  fers  a  considerable  resistance  to  the  action  of  the  plow,  or  can  only  employ  one 
animal  to  draw  the  instrument. 

Various  kinds  of  coulters  have  likewise  been  affixed  to  plows,  for  the  purpose 
of  dividing  and  cutting  the  slice  before  it  is  separated  and  turned  over  by  the 
plow  ;  and  these  have  been  affixed  to  the  beam  by  means  of  a  piece  connected 
with  it.  On  tenacious  soils  this  addition  may  be  productive  of  benefit ;  but  as  1 
have  never  yet  made  any  trial  of  it,  I  cannot  venture  to  assert  that  it  will  not  al- 
so be  attended  with  some  inconveniences. 

Plows  having  a  movable  or  sliding  mould-board  which  can  be  shifted  alter- 
I  nately  from  one  side  of  the  sheath,  or  head,  to  the  other,  have  the  advantage  of 


AGRICULTURAL   IMPLEMENTS.  277 

i'  being  able  always  to  throw  the  earth  on  the  same  side,  and,  consequently,  of  ' 
,  plowing  the  land  fiat  without  any  inequality  or  trace  of  ridges  or  furrows. 
I  When  the  first  furroAv  has  been  traced  and  the  slice  turned  over  to  the  right,  the  ! 
mould-board  is  shifted  to  the  opposite  side  ;  and  thus  the  second  furrow  is  traced 
close  by  the  side  of  the  first,  and  the  slice  of  the  second  rests  upon  that  of  the  i 
first.  These  plows  are  constructed  in  various  ways :  the  mould-board  is  often 
united  to  the  board  which  closes  the  left  side  of  the  plow,  and  forms  with  it  an 
angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees,  the  apex  of  which  is  in  front  of  the  throat  or 
neck  ;  these  two  boards  are  fixed  there  by  means  of  a  movable  peg  or  pin,  and, 
at  their  hinder  end,  are  held  on  by  means  of  an  iron  bow,  which  keeps  them  at  a 
suitable  distance.  By  means  of  this  arrangement,  one  or  other  of  these  boards 
can  alternately  be  put  in  action  by  pressing  the  contrary  one  against  the  head  ; 
I  and  they  are  maintained  in  their  proper  position  by  an  iron  bolt  which  is  placed 
in  one  of  the  holes  bored  in  the  bow.  Plows  of  this  kind  can  likewise  be  employ- 
ed for  the  purpose  of  making  furrows  for  draining  by  placing  the  two  mould- 
boarde  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  head,  so  that  they  shall  raise  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  earth. 

But,  in  general,  the  mould-board  of  this  kind  of  plow  is  detached,  so  that,  when 
it  is  necessary  to  alter  the  position,  it  can  be  removed  altogether  ;  although  only 
aflixed  to  the  plow  by  means  of  hooks,  it  is  yet  sufficiently  firm. 

Occasionally,  plows  of  this  kind  have  only  a  little  ear  instead  of  a  mould-board, 
and  that  is  curved  and  turned  in  various  ways,  and  consequently,  throws  the 
earth  more  or  less  to  the  side.  It  will  easily  be  understood  v/ithout  the  necessity  ! 
of  my  making  any  remarks  on  the  subject,  that  by  this  contrivance  the  soil  is 
very  imperfectly  turned  over ;  besides,  such  plows  require  to  be  constantly  incli- 
ned to  one  side.  All  plows  of  this  kind  ought  to  have  a  share  with  two  sharp 
edges  similar  to  those  of  an  iron  lance. 

In  the  best  of  this  kind,  in  those  by  means  of  which  the  land  can  be  plowed  to 
a  certain  depth,  the  coulter  is  so  contrived  that  the  blade  shall  be  able  to  turn  to 
the  right  or  the  left  as  may  seem  best.  The  manner  in  which  this  is  effected 
varies  in  different  instruments;  but  in  all  those  that  I  have  seen,  it  appears  to  be 
liable  to  frequent  alterations  and  injuries,  so  that,  in  general,  it  accomplishes  the  ' 
purpose  it  is  intended  to  effect  but  very  imperfectly. 

It  is,  in  general,  almost  impossible  to  render  these  plows  very  straight  or  even 
on  the  side  which  comes  in  contact  with  the  unturned  soil,  and"  yet  that  is  a  very 
essential  point  as  regards  the  firmness  and  regularity  of  the  motion  of  the  instru- 
ment. The  friction  attendant  on  their  action  is  therefore  very  great,  and,  conse- 
quently, when  persons  assure  us  that  these  plows  move  very  easily,  and  do  not 
require  any  very  great  draught  power,  we  are  necessarily  led  to  infer  that  they 
can  only  have  been  used  on  light  soils,  and  for  very  superficial  plowings.  I  have 
not  as  yet  seen  any  plow  of  this  kind  that  acts  well,  excepting  the  Mecklenberg 
binot ;  I  therefore  always  prefer  this  instrument,  on  account  of  its  simplicity. 
Plows  having  movable  mould-boards  are  very  much  used  in  countries  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Rhine. 

At  various  periods,  public  attention  has  been  called  to  double-furrow  plows 
having  but  one  beam,  to  which  are  attached  two  shares  and  two  bodies  ;  these 
are  drawn  by  one  team,  advanced  parallel  with  each  other,  and  are  guided  by  a 
man  stationed  behind.  Latterly,  two  plows  of  this  kind  have  been  presented  to 
the  public — one  invented  in  England  by  Lord  Somerville,  and  the  other  executed 
at  Vienna.  I  have  an  instrument  of  this  nature  which  was  made  in  England, 
and  is  very  similar  to  Lord  Somerville's. 

It  is  evident  that  this  kind  of  plow  must  necessarily  require  a  moving  power 
considerably  greater  than  that  which  would  be  sufficient  to  draw  a  more  simple 
(  plow  ;  and,  consequently,  it  can  only  be  productive  of  any  saving  when  the  team 
>  ordinarily  used  has  more  draught  power  than  is  requisite  to  put  in  motion  a  com- 
mon plow.  This  certamly  may  occasionally  happen  ;  but  when,  as  is  generally 
the  case,  the  double  plow  requires  four  horses  instead  of  two,  nothing  can  be 
gained,  because  two  men  will  likewise  then  be  required,  one  to  guide  the  instru- 
ment, and  the  other  to  drive  the  animals. 

I  have  several  other  objections  to  adduce  against  the  instrument  which  I  pos- 
sess, although  it  is  very  well  constructed.  It  is  very  difficult  to  manage  when  it 
becomes  necessary  to  turn  it  at  the  extremity  of  the  furrow :  it  cannot  easily  be 


278  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture, 

made  to  enter  the  soil  ;  and,  in  fact,  Avhen  the  ground  is  hard  this  becomes  almost 
an  impossibility  ;  besides,  the  weight  of  earth  which  rests  on  the  two  mould- 
boards  inclines  the  plow  so  much  towards  the  left,  that  the  Avhole  strength  of 
the  plowman's  right  arm  is  not  suthcient  to  keep  it  in  its  place  ;  and  thus  the 
right  hand  body  only  turns  up  the  soil  very  superficially,  or  is  not  fixed  in  it  at 
all:  these  circumstances  have  induced  me  to  give  up  the  use  of  the  instrument 
altogether. 

Trenching  plows,  on  the  other  hand,  have  two  bodies  placed  in  a  line  with 
each  other,  but  the  one  working  four  or  six  inches  deeper  than  the  other.  The 
front  one  is  generally  higher,  smaller,  and  Aveaker  than  the  hinder  one  :  it  only 
pares  or  skims  off  the  surface,  separating  a  slice  of  earth,  and  turning  it  over  into 
the  furrow  made  by  the  main  body  of  the  instrument ;  the  hinder  plow  raises 
another  slice,  which  it  takes  from  beneath  the  place  which  has  just  been  uncov-  - 
ered,  and  places  it  on  the  slice  turned  over  by  the  first  plow ;  and  thus  the  Avhole 
depth  of  the  furrow  is  thoroughly  turned  over.  I  have  often  made  use  of  a  plow 
of  this  kind  which  was  manufactured  in  England,  Avith  all  possible  care  a^id  at- 
tention, and  in  Avhich  there  Avas  no  Avant  of  hooks  or  joints  to  connect  the  parts 
with  each  other  ;  but  the  greatest  depth  to  Avhich  it  could  be  made  to  penetrate 
in  land  of  a  moderate  stiffness  Avas  seven  inches,  and  the  instrument  did  not  ap- 
pear to  be  able  to  bear  that  amount  of  pressure  Avhich  was  necessary  in  order  to 
overcome  the  opposing  weight  of  earth.  On  calculating  the  expenses  attendant 
on  this  plow,  and  of  the  team  required  by  it,  I  became  convinced  that  I  should 
have  obtained  results  at  a  much  cheaper  rate  by  using  a  common  plow  and  coul-  j 
ter,  to  be  followed  by  men  provided  with  spades  to  dig  up  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 
row to  the  required  depth  ;  an  operation  of  Avhich  Ave  shall  presently  have  to 
speak.  Then  the  plowings  are  not  required  to  be  so  deep  ;  and  one  plow  follow- 
ing the  other  in  the  same  furroAv  will  produce  a  similar  effect.  I  cannot,  there- 
fore, recommend  this  expensive  instrument,  although  in  many  cases,  and  espe- 
cially on  sandy  soils,  it  may  be  very  useful. 

Nevertheless,  under  some  circumstances,  and  particularly  when  a  clover  field 
has  to  be  ploAA'-ed  up,  or  a  piece  of  land  Avhich  has  lain  for  a  considerable  period 
in  repose,  but  not  very  hard,  and  Avhich  does  not  require  very  deep  plowings,  this 
operation  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended.  This  slice  is  cut  horizontally  ' 
through  the  middle,  and  its  surface  is  turned  over  and  lies  at  the  bottom  of  the  ' 
furroAv,  where  it  is  afterAvards  covered  by  the  other  half  of  the  slice  which  is  free 
from  weeds.  A  trenching  or  cutting  flow  is  generally  used  for  this  purpose, 
Avhich  does  not  penetrate  very  deeply,  and  the  upper  part  of  Avhich  is  only  com- 
posed of  a  coulter,  a  share  and  a  small  ear.  But,  in  by  far  the  greater  number  of 
cases,  that  simple  instrument  of  Avhich  I  have  given  an  account  in  my  descrip- 
tions of  agricultural  implements,  under  the  name  of  a  paring  or  skim-coulter  plow, 
will  fully  answer  every  purpose  required.  I  now  invariably  use  it  for  ploAving 
up  my  clover  fields,  and  I  find  not  only  that  all  the  plants  are  thoroughly  buried, 
but  also  that  the  soil  is  perfectly  loosened,  and  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  bestoAV 
a  second  tillage  on  the  land  to  prepare  it  for  the  autumnal  sowings,  even  when 
the  clover  is  in  its  third  year,  or  cattle  have  been  pastured  on  it.  In  all  other 
cases  the  land  Avould  require  three  ploAvings :  therefore,  one  crop  more  of  clover 
may  be  derived  from  it  Avhen  this  instrument  is  used,  than  could  be  obtained  un- 
der any  other  circumstances. 

There  is  also  another  instrument  of  a  similar  kind,  in  Avhich  the  ear  which 
raises  the  upper  part  of  the  slice  from  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  and  turns  it  \ 
over,  is  affixed  in  the  front  of  the  throat  by  means  of  a  peculiar  bar,  which  en- 
ters into  the  beam  of  the  plow.      The  English  farmers,  Avho  consider  this  to  be 
one  of  their  best  inventions,  and  are  quite  right  in  so  doing,  call  it  a  trenching  plow. 

That  termed  the  Preussische  zogge  is  a  very  good  kmd  of  plow,  and  some- 
what similar  to  those  used  in  this  country,  having  no  wheels,  and  being,  like  the 
bijiot,  supported  and  draAvn  by  the  beam  which  is  suspended  to  the  yoke  of  the 
oxen.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  this  is  a  very  light  instrument,  and  that  its  con- 
struction renders  it  able  to  overcome  resistance  and  diminish  friction  as  much  as 
possible.  It  penetrates  the  soil  like  a  pointed  wedge,  and  the  loAver  mould-board 
throAvs  off  the  earth  very  Avell.  It  also  turns  over  tenacious  soils  with  great  fa- 
cility, and  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  them  ;  as  for  lighter  land,  it  divides  and  turns 
it  over  Avithout  forming  any  ridges  or  inequalities.  | 

-(^ss' J 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEAIENTS. 


279 


The  insuumeiit  itself  costs  little  ;  but  as  it  is  very  fragile  it  is  always  neces- 

ry  to  have  twice  as  many  of  them  as  can  ordinarily  be  used,  in  order  that  the 
operations  of  tillage  may  not  be  impeded  by  the  occurrence  of  accidents.  This 
point  might,  however,  easily  be  remedied  ;  and  if  the  instrument  were  construct- 
ed with  more  firmness  and  solidity,  the  use  of  it  would  become  less  expensive  : 
but  its  principal  defect,  or  rather  the  chief  objection  which  is  urged  ag:ainst  it,  is 
the  great  difficulty  in  guiding  it ;  indeed,  it  can  only  be  managed  by  persons  ac- 
customed to  the  use  of  it.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  introduce  it  into  any  dis- 
trict, unless  persons  can  be  engaged  who  have  been  habituated  to  the  use  of  it 
from  their  earliest  youth.  If  not  properly  managed  it  leaves  unturned  ridges  be- 
tween the  furrows,  which  it  only  covers  with  new  earth.  The  inhabitants  of 
East  Prussia  have  reason  to  be  attached  to  this  plow,  since  it  was  first  intro- 
duced among  them. 

The  second  class  of  instruments,  by  means  of  which  the  soil  is  prepared  for 
the  reception  of  tlie  seed,  comprises  the  binoirs.  The  characteristic  difference 
between  binoirs  and  plows  consists  in  the  former  not  having  a  mould-board 
placed  slantingly  on  their  side :  many  persons  in  Germany  have  imagined  that  it 
consisted  in  the  absence  of  the  fore  wheels  and  wheel-carriage. 

The  binoirs  vary  in  shape  and  make,  equally  as  much  as  the  plows  do.  The 
greater  part  of  the  Ptoman  plows  were  of  this  kind,  and  many  such  will  still  be 
met  with  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  France  ;  but  as  there  are  not  any  of  all  these  bi- 
noirs, either  ancient  or  modern,  which  can  surpass  ours,  I  shall  content  myself 
with  describing  them. 

The  Mecklenberg  binoir  thus  far  resembles  a  plow  :  it  partially  turns  over  the 
soil  if  guided  so  as  to  produce  that  efi["ect.  The  following  are  the  parts  of  which 
it  is  composed  : — 1.  A  pointed,  triangular-shaped  iron,  somewhat  resembling 
spade  :  this  is  united  to  the  2d  part,  the  ear.  The  earth  raised  by  the  iron 
slides  obliquely  on  to  the  ear,  on  each  side  of  which  it  falls,  unless  the  binoir  is 
held  in  an  inclined  position  ;  by  toaeans  of  a  slight  inclination  the  laborer  can 
cause  the  earth  to  fall  on  which  side  he  pleases.  The  handle,  or  elongation  of 
this  ear,  passes  across  the  beam,  and  is  there  fastened  by  means  of  wedges  ;  the 
under  part  of  the  ear  rests  on  the  sole  of  the  binoir,  or  that  part  which  slide 
along  the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  By  means  of  Avedges  the  ear  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  according  as  it  appears  necessary  that  the  iron  should  penetrate  more 
or  less  deeply  into  the  ground.  3.  The  beam  is  formed  of  a  piece  of  wood 
naturally  curved  in  the  proper  direction,  and  which  is  chosen  for  this  purpose 
with  great  care.  The  hinder  part  of  it  rests  in  a  mortice  hollowed  out  for  its 
reception  in  the  head  ;  and  the  handle,  which  passes  athwart  and  enters  the  head 
a  little  farther  forward,  keeps  it  in  its  place,  and  serves  to  direct  it.  4.  The  head, 
the  object  and  form  of  which  will  be  fully  explained  in  what  we  have  to  say  re- 
specting other  portions.  5.  The  handle,  by  means  of  which  the  instrument  ]sdi 
rected.  If  it  is  intended  that  the  binoir  should  throw  the  earth  to  the  right  dur- 
ing its  progress,  the  laborer  grasps  the  handle  with  the  right  hand,  and  inclines 
the  instrument  towards  that  side.  Afterward,  when  he  is  returning,  he  take 
the  handle  in  his  other  hand,  and  inclines  the  instrument  towards  the  left  ;  by 
which  means  the  earth  falls  into  the  preceding  furrow,  and  fills  it  up.  If  the  bi- 
noir has  to  be  drawn  by  oxen,  an  elongation  is  made  to  the  beam  by  means  of 
ring  and  a  hook,  the  foremost  extremity  of  which  is  affixed  to  the  yoke  of  the 
animals  so  allow  a  lateral  motion.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  to  be  drawn  by 
horses,  which  does  not,  however,  often  happen,  a  shaft  is  adapted  to  the  extremity 
of  the  elongation  of  the  beam,  and  to  this  the  horses  are  harnessed.  When 
pair  of  horses  are  to  be  used,  the  wheel-carriage  and  fore  v/heels  of  a  plow  are 
attached  to  the  binoir.  No  person  who  is  acquainted  with  this  instrument,  and 
with  the  manner  in  which  it  is  constructed,  can  for  a  moment  doubt  its  efficacy 
in  tilling  the  soil,  in  thoroughly  dividing  all  its  particles,  and  completely  tearing 
up  all  kinds  of  weeds  ;  but  it  turns  over  the  slice  very  imperfectly,  and  has  also 
another  fault,  namely,  it  does  not  move  the  earth  throughout  the  whole  width 
of  the  furrow,  but  leaves  a  ridge  of  unturned  earth  between  each,  which  it  cer- 
tainly covers  v/ith  fresh  mould.  I  have  never  seen  this  instrument  in  operation 
without  being  struck  by  this  defect  in  its  action. 

All  good  agriculturists  in  Mecklenberg  agree  that  the  binoir  is  not  adapted 
for  all  kinds  of  operations  ;  and  that,  especially  when  pasture  grounds  are  to  be 

(759) 


280 


THAER  S  PRn\CIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


broken  up,  or  fields  tilled  that  have  borne  any  kind  of  grain, .all  other  plows  are 
to  be  preferred.     On  the  other  hand,  it  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  second  or 
third  plowings  given  to  such  land  ;  and  also  for  that  tillage  which  precedes  the 
sowings,  when  the  seed  is  deposited  in  open  furrows.     In  the  latter  case,  the  fol- 
lowing is  the  only  inconvenience  attending  its  use:  the  ox  on  the  right   passes 
over  the  newly  tilled  land,  and  treads  it  down  with  his  hoofs  ;  and  thus  holes  are 
formed  in  which  the  seed  collects.     Judicious  agriculturists  will  avoid  this  incon-  . 
venience  by  making  use  of  the  binoir  with  a  wheel-carriage  attached  to  it,  and  ; 
causing  the  ox  to  walk  in  the  furrow.     Land  should  never  be  tilled  with  a  binoir  ^ 
in  the  same  direction  with  the  preceding  plowing,  but  always  in  an  opposite  di-  \ 
rection  ;  by  this  means  the  binoir  cuts  through  and  divides  the  slices  turned  over  S 
by  the  previous  operation.     It  is  a  very  good  plan  to  use  the  plow  and  the  binoir  ( 
alternately  on  tenacious  soils,  provided'  that  a  harrow  with  teeth  projecting  for-  s 
ward  is  likewise  used.     It  is  on  this  account  that  the  operation  of  ploAving  is  al-  ^ 
ways  so  neatly  performed  at  Mecklenberg  ;  in  fact,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  find  I 
a  garden  in  which  the  soil  is  more  thoroughly  loosened,  cleaner,  and  neater,  than  > 
it  is  in  a  Mecklenberg  fallow.     The  only  inconvenience  which  I  can  discover,  at-  ( 
tendant  on  the  alternate  use  of  the  plow  and  binoir,  is,  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  ( 
to  get  the  same  men  and  cattle  to  work  with  both  these  implements.     Persons  ^ 
not  accustomed  to  the  use  of  the  binoir  find  great  difficulty  in  managing  it,  while  c 
those  who  are  habituated  to  guiding  it  can  frequently  work  with  it  for  ten  hours  V 
without  being  fatigued.     It  is,  also,  hardly  possible  to  employ  the  same  draught  ) 
cattle,  and  especially  oxen,  to  draw  a  plow  and  a  binoir  alternately — because,  in  \ 
the  use  of  the  former,  the  right-hand  ox  walks  in  the  furrow,  and,  when  work- 
ing with  the  latter,  it  has  to  pass  over  the  newly  plowed  soil  immediately  at  the 
side  of  the  furrow :  when  the  instrument  is  turned,  the  ox  on  the  left  will  have 
to  walk  over  the  plowed  land,  while  the  other  passes  over  that  which  is  un- 
touched.    Whenever  it  is  practicable  to  have  a  separate  set  of  men  and  beasts 
for  each  of  these  implements,  the  alternate  use  of  them  will  be  found  to  be  at- 
tended with  manifest  advantages. 

The  binoir  is  best  adapted  for  soils  of  a  moderate  degree  of  consistency;  on 
very  compact  and  tenacious  land,  the  use  of  it  is  attended  with  considerable  la- 
bor and  difficulty,  and  a  tolerably  good  plow  is  far  preferable.  This  instrument 
is  apt  to  divide  light  soils  too  much,  and  to  render  them  too  loose  and  friable.* 

The  facility  and  promptitude  with  which  the  binoir  may  be  turned  aside  or 
lifted  up,  renders  it  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  tillage  of  stony  land,  or  that  in 
which  there  are  many  obstacles  to  be  avoided  or  overcome.  This  instrument  is 
the  best  that  can  possibly  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  plowing  abrupt  declivities 
or  hilly  ground  :  and  is  far  more  convenient  than  any  other  kind  of  plow,  because 
it  turns  the  soil  over  much  easier  on  the  side  of  the  declivity,  without  throwing 
it  too  low.  Land  may  be  plowed  with  it  in  any  direction,  whether  horizontally 
or  obliquely,  up  or  down  hill,  and  even  in  a  circle  round  any  obstacle  which  can- 
not be  overcome. 

The  Silesian  hinoir  (der  Schlessische  Ruhrhaaken),  as  maybe  seen  by  the  va- 
rious descriptions  of  it  which  have  been  published,  varies  much  in  its  form. — 
Many  of  the  binoirs  in  Silesia  are  very  similar  to  that  which  I  have  just  de- 
scribed. But  it  is  not  of  those  I  would  speak,  but  of  others,  which,  instead  of 
the  sole  that  slides  over  the  ground,  have  only  a  spade-shaped  iron,  by  mears  of 
which  they  turn  up  the  soil ;  and  two  handles  behind,  for  the  purpose  of  guiding 
them. 

The  only  use  of  these  instruments  is  to  alternate  with  the  ploAv,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  breaking  up  the  soil  across  the  plowings,  and  for  this  purpose  they  are 
perfectly  well  adapted. 

The  Livonian  binoir  is  an  implement  which  acts  on  the  soil  by  means  of  a  bi- 
furcated iron,  which,  being  curved  forward,  penetrates  the  ground  with  its  two 
points,  and  loosens  it.     Another  shovel-like  iron,  placed   at  the  end  of  a  handle, 

id  which  resembles  in  its  shape  those  which  are  used  to  cleanse  plows  from 
dirt  or  mud,  only  being  a  little  larger,  serves  to  throw  the  earth  a  little  on  one 
side.     This  latter  piece  is  fastened   by  means  of  a  pin,  and  may  be  turned  either 

A  full  and  detailed  account  of  the  Mecklenberf;  binoir  is  given  by  Schvhmacher—s.  man  to  whose  re- 
he  science  of  Agriculture  is  very  much  indebted— in  his  work  e 
als  einem  vorzuglichem  Werkzeuge  ansiall  dcs  piluges."'     Berlin  :  1774. 


work  entitled  "Abhandhung  v( 


(760) 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS.  281 

to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  according  as  it  is  requisite  to  throw  the  earth  on  one 
side  or  on  the  other.  If  we  except  these  two  pieces,  this  plow  does  not  contain 
any  portion  of  iron ;  there  are  no  hooks,  and  the  whole  is  fastened  to  the  pole  to 
which  the  horses  are  harnessed,  by  means  of  cords.* 

One  circumstance  relating  to  this  binoir,  which  renders  it  exceedingly  hard 
wprk  for  laborers  who  are  not  accustomed  to  the  instrument,  is,  that  the  hinder 
part  requires  a  great  deal  of  leaning  or  pressure,  without  which  it  penetrates  too 

i  deeply  into  the  soil. 

The  cart  binoir  is  an  instrument  which  runs  on  wheels,  and,  when  once  en- 

I  tered  into  the  soil,  requires  no  guidance  ;  in  general,  the  lalDorer  mounts  upon  it 
or  upon  a  horse,  and  thus  goes  forward  with  it.     It  is  chiefly  used  in  the  low 

I  countries  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Vistula,  and  is  far  better  adapted  for  the  cul-  < 
tivation  of  flat  alluvial  soils  than  any  plow.  This  mstrument  is  not,  however,  ' 
adapted  for  breaking  up  land  which  has  been  pressed  doAvn  and  hardened  by  , 

'  wagons  ;  such,  for  instance,  as  can  easily  be  tilled  by  one  of  Baily's  plows,  drawn  >[ 
by  a  pair  of  oxen  ;  and,  if  not  a-dapted  for  breaking  up  argillaceous  soils,  it  is  per-  ^ 
fectly  useless,  for  the  Mecklenberg  binoir  is  fully  capable  of  performing  every-  / 
thing  that  is  requisite  for  the  subsequent  tillage. 

The  third  class  of  agricultural  implements  comprises  those  by  means  of  which 
the  soil  is  not  turned  over  or  plowed  very  deeply,  but  is  well  cultivated  to  a  depth 
of  three  or  four  inches,  and  with  great  saving  of  time  and  labor ;  by  means  of 
which  the  soil  is  thoroughly  pulverized  and  mixed  to  that  depth,  and  the  seeds 
of  all  kinds  of  weeds  destroyed,  by  being  in  the  first  place  brought  to  the  surface  / 
and  made  to  germinate,  and  subsequently  destroyed,  and  the  roots  of  other  weeds  ] 
torn  away  or  killed  by  being  cut  in  pieces.     It  is  not  until  latterly  that  this  class  [• 
of  instruments  has  become  known  to  us.    We  are  chiefly  indebted  to  the  English 
for  the  discovery  and  invention  of  them  ;  indeed,  the  mechanical  talents  and  in- 
genuity of  that  nation  have  tended  very  materially  to  improve  the  science  and 
practice  of  Agriculture.     There  is  a  great  variety  of  these  instruments  used  in 
England.     Every  farmer  employs  the  one  best  adapted  t6  the  nature  of  his  land,  ' 
and  to  the  end  which  he  has  in  view.     Occasionally  he  makes  such  alterations 
as  seem  best  to  him  in  their  construction  ;  but  these  modifications  are  seldom  of    ] 
any  great  importance.     All  those  persons  who  invent  or  improve  such  instru- 
ments, almost  always  name  them  afresh;  and  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that    ' 
the  same  instrument  will  receive  a  different  appellation  in  each  district  where  it 
is  used.    We  must  not,  therefore,  imagine  that,  because  we  hear  it  lauded  under 
another  name,  it  is  a  different  kind  of  instrument.     If  we  wait  until  we  can  see 
or  obtain  a  circumstantial  description  of  it,  we  shall  generally  find  that  it  differs 
very  little  from  those  we  are  already  acquainted  with.     The  different  instru- 
ments appertaining  to  this  class  may  be  ranged  under  the  following  denomina- 
tionts : 

1.  Scarifiers.  In  general  these  instruments  are  armed  with  curved  knives,  somewhat  similar  in 
form  to  the  bill-hooks  or  pruning  knives  used  by  gardeners.  These  knives  are  affixed  to  bars 
passing  across  a  wooden  frame,  resembling  that  of  a  harrow  :  they  are  not  arranged  behind  one 
another,  but  in  such  a  manner  that  each  one  shall  trace  its  ow^n  line  separate  from  any  of  the  oth- 
ers. Tlic  cliief  use  of  scarifiers  is  to  penetrate  the  soil  and  divide  it  to  a  certain  depth,  and  to  cut 
through  argillaceous  soils,  and  loosen  them  more  deeply  than  a  harrow  could,  and  turn  up  the  un- 
der portions  and  bring  them  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere.  Cattle  are  occasionally  harnessed 
to  the  instrument  itself;  but  in  general  a. wheel-carriage  and  fore  wheels  are  affixed  to  it,and  two  \ 
handles  are  attached  to  the  back  in  order  to  weigh  it  down  and  cause  it  to  penetrate  the  ground. 
At  other  times,  small  wheels  are  added  to  each  of  the  angles  of  the  scarifier,  which  can  be  raised 
or  lowered  at  pleasure,  so  as  to  give  the  instrument  a  greater  or  less  tendency  to  enter  the  soil. 

The  same  frame  maj'  be  made  to  receive  other  irons ;  for  example,  an  extirpator  may  be  trans- 
formed into  a  scarifier,  by  substituting  the  knives  which  constitute  the  latter,  lor  the  shares  or  feet 
w^hich  belong  to  the  former. 

2.  Horse-rakes,  ^crapers,  leveling  plmvs.  I  give  them  this  latter  name,  because  they  act  on  the 
soil  in  the  same  ^^'ay  as  the  blade  of  a  plane,  by  cutting  the  earth  horizontally  to  a  depth  of  one 
or  moi-e  inches  below  the  surface,  and  dividing  it.  Those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  common 
horse-rake,  which  is  used  to  keep  the  walks  and  alleys  of  large  gard<-ns  clean,  will  be  able  to 
fonr.  a  very  correct  idea  of  this  class  of  instruments.  The  blade  maf  be  rendered  more  or  less 
oblique,  according  as  it  is  deemed  requisite  that  it  shall  penetrate  the  soil  to  a  greater  or  leas 
depth.  The  frame  to  which  the  blade  is  attached  is  supported  by  two  handles,  and  the  foremost 
part  of  the  beam  usually  rests  upon  a  wheel:  sometimes  the  fore  wheels  of  a  plow  are  affixed  to 
these  iniplemeuts.     They  are  chiefly  used  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  from  the  gi'ound  the  stubble 


*  A  description  of  this  instrument  will  be  found  in  the  vi^ork  entitled  "Anzeigen  der  Leipsiger  QEkonom- 
Ischen  Societen  von  der  Ostermesse  des  Jahrs,"  1804,  A 


282  tiiaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

of  torn  crops,  and  tearing-  up  the  weeds  which  spring  there.     They  are  also  used  for  the  purpcise   ' 
'     of  leveling  land  in  which  the  earth  has  been  heaped  up  round  the  roots  ot  the  plants  wliich    ' 
formed  the  last  crop.     They  are  principally  used  for  this  purpose  in  the  county  of  Kent,  wliere    ' 
they  are  employed  to  give  a  certain  degree  of  tillage  to  land  after  the  bean  crops  have  been  gath- 
ered, and  to  prevent  the  soil  from  becoming  infested  with  weeds  during  the  period  which  has  to   , 
elapse  before  the  proper  time  arrives  for  plowing  it,  previous  to  the  sowing.     This  operation  may   . 
be  performed  very  quickly,  and  does  not  require  any  very  great  degree  of  draught  power.     ]3y 
means  of  it  the  soil  may  be  prepared  in  a  very  short  time  for  the  reception  of  spurrey,  buckwheat, 
radishes,  &c.  ;  because  it  frequently  happens  that  at  a  certain  depth  below  the  surl'ace  of  the 
earth  is  tolerably  loose  and  light,  and  it  is  only  the  surface  which  requires  to  be  divided. 

3.  Hoes.  The  instruments  which  are  comprehended  under  this  denomination,  act  on  the  .soil 
by  means  of  feet,  teeth,  or  shares,  more  or  less  pointed  or  obtuse,  and  more  or  less  horizuntal  or 
inclined,  and  which  are  .shaped  like  a  .shoe  or  a  goose's  foot.  They  are  intended  to  loosen  the 
whole  surface  of  the  laud  over  which  they  pass  ;  and  for  this  purpose  the  tines  are  arranged  in 
two  or  three  lines,  so  that  no  particle  of  the  .soil  shall  escape  them,  but  every  portion  be  tin-own 
.  by  the  front  row  of  teeth  into  such  a  position  as  not  to  escape  the  action  of  the  hinder  ones  ;  and 
'  thus  each  clod  may  be  repeatedly  acted  upon  and  broken.  The  exlirpator,  an  instrument  which 
is  how  very  much  used,  and  t)f  the  utility  of  which  every  practical  agriculturist  must  be  con- 
vinced, belongs  to  this  class.  This  instrument  may  be  made  of  various  sizes.  Where  the  land  is 
verj-  even,  the  number  of  feet  on  every  rail  may  be  increased  :  thus,  six  may  be  affixed  to  the 
back  row,  live  to  the  front,  &c.  But  where  the  land  is  unequal,  it  is  better  to  make  use  of  a  nar- 
rower extirpator,  and  which  has  not  so  many  tines.  The  draught  power  must,  of  counse,  be  pro- 
I  poriionate  to  the  size  of  the  instrument ;  and  il'  four,  or  even  six  horses  are  requisite  to  put  in  mo- 
I  tion  a  large  extirpator,  two  will  suffice  for  a  small  one.  The  more  tenacious  the  soil,  the  more 
pointed  must  the  tines  be.  It  is  also  advisable  to  make  the  front  row,  those  which  are  to  open 
the  ground,  sharper  than  the  hinder  ones.  The  irons  maj'  be  rendered  flatter  or  more  convex,  or 
may  be  so  constructed  as  to  have  several  diverging  points,  according  as  the  instrument  is  intended 
merely  to  move  the  land,  or  to  divide  it  thoroughly  and  turn  it  over.  The  depth  to  which  tliese 
tines  shall  penetrate  the  soil,  may  be  regulated  by  raising  or  depressing  the  beam.  In  my  opin- 
ion, the  tines  in  the  front  row  ought  to  be,  at  least,  half  an  incli  longer  than  the  hinder  ones,  in  or- 
der that  they  may  penetrate  more  deeply  into  the  soil,  even  when  the  beam  is  not  raised.  With- 
out this  precaution  they  do  not  enter  so  far  as  the  hind  ones,  and  frequently  only  slide  along  the 
surface. 

There  are  few  soils  which  will  not  be  benefited  by  the  use  of  this  instrument. 
Several  persons  who  have  employed  it  with  great  advantage,  have  assured  me 
that  v.dien  the  tines  or  shares  are  sufficiently  pointed,  it  penetrates  easily  even  in- 
to the  most  tenacioas  soils.  The  only  places  in  which  it  cannot  so  well  be  used, 
are  those  where  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  full  of  large  immovable  stones. 
When  employed  on  such  soils,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  tines  or  shares  do 
not  break,  or,  at  any  rate,  that  others  shall  be  at  hand  to  replace  those  which  are 
injured,  and  also  that  the  points  shall  be  strong  enough  to  enable  them  to  resist 
the  action  of  four  horses.  Small  stones  Avill  not  impede  this  instumeut,  even 
should  they  be  too  large  to  admit  of  their  passing  between  the  irons  ;  all  that  is 
requisite  to  be  done  here  is  for  the  conductor  to  stop  the  cattle  for  a  moment,  and 
throw  the  stones  on  one  side.  It  cannot,  however,  be.  denied  that  stony  land 
wears  out  the  shares  very  soon.  On  land  overgrown  with  couch-grass,  or  which 
i  contains  undecomposed  lumps  of  turf,  or  potato  haulm,  or  other  things  of  a  simi- 
lar nature,  the  action  of  this  instrument  is  certainly  impeded  ;  but  still  it  can  act, 
although  not  without  labor  and  difficulty.  In  such  cases,  the  laborer  must  lift  up 
the  exlirpator  now  and  then,  and  shake  it  Avell  ;  or,  should  this  not  be  sufficient,  , 
he  must  stop  and  clean  it — an  operation  which  is  very  quickly  performed  by  | 
means  of  an  instrument  similar  to  a  small  shovel,  and  which  is  also  used  with  ' 
the  plow. 

The  use  of  the  extirpator  is  so  beneficial,  that  it  not  only  supersedes  all  plows 
which  bestow  a  merely  superficial  tillage,  but  surpasses  them  in  their  effects..  , 
whether  as  regards  the  divison  of  the  soil,  the  affecting  of  an  admixture  of  its    | 
component  parts,  or  the  cleansing  it  from  weeds  :  it  is  from  its  great  utility  in  the    '. 
latter  capacity  that  it  derives  its  name.     Besides,  with  an  extirpator  having  six  | 
tines  in  the  back  row,  and  drawn  by  four  horses,  and  driven  by  two  men,  equally    [ 
as  much  work  can  be  done  as  would  be  effected  by  six  plows,  each  drawn  by  two  \ 
horses  and  driven  by  one  man,  and  often  more,  because  an  extirpator  moves  more 
quickly  than  a  plow.     It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  use  of  this  instrument  is  at-    \ 
tended  with  great  saving.     When  a  piece  of  ground  has  been  turned  up  to  the  re- 
quisite depth  by  a  plow,  the  extirpator  may  be  used  with  advantage  for  all  the  sub- 
sequent plowings  bestowed  on  it,  and  a  more  complete  fallow,  and  more  free  from  ' 
weeds,  will  thus  be  obtained  than  could  possibly  have  been  procured  by  any  other 
means  ;  provided  that  this  instrument  is  used  in  time,  and  the  weeds  have  not  been 
alloAved  to  gain  too  great  an  ascendency.     Besides,  an  extirpator  distributes  and 
(-62)  


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


283 


smoothes  laud  much  better  thau  a  plow,  raising  and  dividing  the  soil  on  emi- 
nences, and  with  the  assistance  of  a  harrow  subsequently  spreading  these  por- 
tions over  the  hollows  and  lower  spots  :  this  effect  is  peculiarly  apparent  when 
it  is  alternately  used  in  every  direction.  The  extirpator  may  also  be  used  for  the 
purpose  of  burying  the  seed  ;  but  there  is  another  instrument  of  which  we  shall 
presently  have  to  speak,  which  is  better  adapted  for  this  purpose.  Provided  that  the 
land  ]s  tilled  before  the  commencement  of  winter,  the  extirpator  is  lully  capable 
of  bestowing  on  it  every  preparation  for  the  reception  of  the  seed  of  any  kind  of 
grain,  and  especially  of  barley.  By  its  action,  the  soil  is  pulverized  to  the  re- 
quisite depth,  and  the  necessary  portions  of  nourishment  brought  within  the  reach 
■  even  of  the  smallest  of  the  germs.  Land  tilled  in  this  way  retains  its  moisture 
much  longer  than  it  does  when  the  plow  only  is  used — a  point  of  no  small  im- 
ponance  in  dry  spring  weather. 

If  a  sufficient  period  is  suffered  to  elapse  between  each  of  the  operations  of  til- 
lage bestowed  by  this  instrument,  those  seeds  of  weeds  which  were  enclosed  in 
the  clods  broken  by  the  first  operation  will  germinate,  and  the  plants  produced 
by  them  acquire  sufficient  development  to  admit  their  being  torn  up  and  destroy- 
ed by  the  second.  The  roots  of  weeds  are  also  brought  into  contact  with  the  air 
and  destroyed  by  being  repeatedly  torn  and  cut.  The  utility  of  this  instrument 
becomes  strikingly  evident  wlien  land  which  has  borne  weeded  crops,  for  which 
it  received  the  proper  plowing  and  cultivation,  is,  on  the  following  spring,  to  be 
prepared  for  the  reception  of  oats.  By  means  of  it,  I  have  been  able  to  succeed 
in  raising  good  crops  of  large  two-rowed  barley,  from  very  sandy  land,  on  which 
this  kind  of  grain  could  not  possibly  have  succeeded  if  it  had  been  sown  in  the 
spring  after  a  single  plowing.  The  extirpator  may  also  be  employed  with  great 
success  oa  a  broken  up  clover  field,  where  one  plowing  has  not  been  sufficient  to 
divide  and  loosen  the  soil.  When  this  instrument  cannot  be  used,  three  separate 
plowings  must  be  bestowed  on  such  land,  which  necessarily  tends  to  retard  the 
sowings.  The  extirpator  is  fullj  capable  of  loosening  a  soil,  and  rendering  it 
sufficiently  friable,  and  will  likewise  destroy  the  roots  of  the  clover. 

Nor  is  this  instrument  conducive  of  less  benefit  to  land  which  has  been  plowed 
up  after  bearing  a  crop  of  peas  or  vetches.  It  is  well  known  that  such  land 
should  always  be  broken  up  immediately  after  the  crop  has  been  gathered  in  ; 
and,  likewise,  that  it  is  then  liable  to  become  hard  and  infested  with  weeds,  if 
not  tilled  a  second  time  ;  but  every  moment  is  too  precious  to  admit  of  time  to 
plow  it  again.  By  means,  however,  of  the  extirpator,  the  surface  may  be  renew- 
ed, and  the  soil  so  thoroughly  loosened  that  it  is  ready  for  the  reception  of  seed, 
without  the  necessity  of  any  other  preparation. 

Lastly,  I  have  derived  considerable  advantage  from  passing  this  instrument 
lightly  over  a  field  of  potatoes,  when  these  plants  were  just  shooting  up  and 
bearing  a  few  leaves.  This  operation  destroys  the  weeds  which  have  sprung  up 
there,  and  causes  the  crop  to  be  less  infested  with  parasitical  plants.  Many  per- 
sons have  considered  that  this  end  is  attained  equally  well  by  the  use  of  the  har- 
row, especially  if  after  having  planted  the  potatoes  with  a  plow,  the  soil  is  left  \ 
in  the  condition  to  which  it  was  reduced  by  that  implement.  I  agree  with  them  ' 
that  the  ground  should  always  be  harrowed  directly  after  the  crop  is  sown,  in 
order  that  the  germination  of  all  the  seeds  and  roots  of  weeds  that  it  contains  may 
be  facilitated,  and  that  they  may  shoot  up  sufficiently  high  to  admit  of  their  sub- 
sequently being  destroyed  by  the  action  of  the  extirpator.  It  is  generally  admit- 
ted that  this  operation  cannot  be  performed  when  the  potatoes  are  planted  on 
narrow  and  raised  ridges. 

Various  implements,  furnished  with  teeth  or  prongs  of  different  shapes,  or 
shares,  have  been  invented  in  Germany,  for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  and  tilling 
the  soil  to  a  greater  or  less  depth.  These  are  constructed  in  various  shapes,  and 
are  of  different  sizes  ;  some  being  armed  with  large  wide  irons,  others  with  small 
narrow  ones,  and  having  three,  four,  five,  and  even  six  rows  of  them.  Some  have 
a  wheel  carriage  attached  to  them,  while  others  are  drawn  by  means  of  a  stiff 
pole.  D'Arndt,  a  man  celebrated  in  this  country  for  the  superior  skill  and  excel- 
lence with  which  his  fields  are  sown  and  cultivated,  makes  use  of  several  instru- 
ments of  this  kind. 

The  most  celebrated  agricultural  instrument  invented  by  D'Arndt,  is  the  solv- 
ing ploiv  {saatpflug),  which  produces  an  effect  similar  to  that  of  the  small  Eng- 

(763) 


I  284 

!  lish  e 


THAERS   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


lish  extirpator.  The  shares  of  this  instrument  are  generally  four  in  number,  and 
formed  like  common  plow-shares;  they  are  fixed  to  iron  legs,  which  are  attached 
to  bars  about  eight  or  ten  inches  apart.  The  beam  passes  through  these  bars,  and 
like  that  of  the  extirpator,  is  adapted  to  a  wheel-carriage,  on  which  it  can  bo 
raised  or  lowered,  according  as  it  appears  requisite  that  the  shares  should  enter 
deeply  or  superficially  into  the  earth.  At  first,  D'Arndt  had  appended  small 
mould-boards  or  ears  to  each  of  these  shares,  in  order  by  this  means  actually  to 
plow  the  land  and  turn  it  over.  But  he  subsequently  became  convinced  that  it 
was  better  without  aa  addition  which  tended  greatly  lo  increase  the  amount  of 
friction  and  resistance,  and  to  clog  the  instrument  with  weeds  and  clods  of  earth 
without  communicating  to  it  the  good  qualities  of  a  plow.  This  instrument  is 
chiefly  used  for  the  purpose  of  burying  the  seed 'in  land  already  tilled  and  prepar- 
ed, and  it  is  fully  capable  of  effectin;;  iliis  purpose  in  the  most  complete  and  per- 
fect manner.  After  the  seed  has  been  spread  over  land  previously  well  harrow- 
ed, this  instrument  is  so  regulated  as  to  cause  it  to  penetrate  to  a  depth  of  about 
two  inches  below  the  surface,  and  is  then  passed  over  the  whole  of  the  field. 
This  is  a  very  laborious  operation  for  two  horses  and  a  man,  but  the  seed  ap- 
pears to  be  better  distributed  than  it  is  by  any  other  means  with  which  I  am  ac- 
quainted. After  a  slight  harrowing  has  been  bestowed  on  the  soil,  the  seed  AviU 
be  found  to  be  placed  at  a  suitable  depth  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
properly  mingled  with  the  soil,  perfectly  divided,  and  not  laid  in  heaps  or  hidden 
under  impenetrable  clods,  but  placed  in  the  situation  most  favorable  to  the  de- 
velopment of  its  germ  and  the  extension  of  its  roots.  Thus,  therefore,  by  means 
of  this  sowing-ploAV  at  least  one  quarter  of  the  quantity  of  seed  otherwise  requir- 
/  ed  will  be  saved  ;  many  persons  have  assured  me  that  it  saves  more  than  the 
'i  half;  besides,  this  instrument  does  the  work  of  four  plows  with  far  less  labor, 
/  accelerates  the  operation  of  sowing,  and  enables  the  farmer  to  choose  the  most 
i\  propitious  moment  for  the  performance  of  it.  I  must,  however,  state  that  I  have 
'.  not  yet  used  one  of  these  implements,  because  my  land  is  not  sufficiently  free 
from  weeds  to  admit  of  my  employing  it  with  advantage. 

The  English  have  a  great  many  implements  of  this  kind,  differing  in  form,  but 
productive  of  similar  effects.  In  order  to  divide  tenacious  soils  better,  and  facili- 
tate the  entrance  of  the  shares  into  the  ground,  a  knife  or  coulter  is  sometimes 
placed  before  each  of  them,  or  knives  and  shares  are  made  to  alternate.  Some 
of  these  instruments  are  so  carefully  and  ingeniously  contrived,  that  the  shares 
can  be  moved  farther  apart  or  nearer  together  as  occasion  may  require  ;  but 
where  this  is  the  case,  the  mechanism  becomes  more  complicated  and  the  instru- 
ment more  fragile. 

Great  care  must  always  be  taken  to  choose  from  this  variety  of  instruments 
those  which  are  best  adapted  to  the  end  which  it  is  proposed  they  should  attain, 
and  to  the  soil  and  circumstances  of  the  undertaking  on  which  they  are  to  be 
employed.  It  is  very  ill-judged  economy  to  refrain  from  the  purchase  of  such  as 
are  calculated  to  fulfil  the  proposed  end  in  the  best  possible  manner  ;  it  not  un- 
frequently  happens  that  the  advantages  arising  from  the  employment  of  them  are 
so  great  that  their  cost  is  repaid  in  the  course  of  the  very  first  year,  nay,  some- 
times in  the  very  first  season.  j 

This  observation  applies  particularly  to  the  sowing  plow,  which  more  than  repays 
its  original  cost  by  the  quantity  of  seed  which  it  saves.  It  will  hardly  be  be- 
lieved that  there  can  be  among  agriculturists  men  of  such"  narrow  minds,  or  who 
are  so  little  sensible  of  their  actual  interests  as  to  grudge  the  sum  which  such  an 
instrument  costs,  although  fully  sensible  of  all  the  advantages  arising  from  the 
employment  of  it ;  or  authors  so  blind  and  bigoted  by  prejudice  and  avarice  as  to 
defend  and  advocate  such  niggardly  and  futile  policy.  The  poorest  mechanic 
does  not  hesitate  to  purchase  the  tools  adapted  to  his  art  as  soon  as  he  becomes 
convinced  that  it  will  tend  to  facilitate  and  improve  his  labor  and  render  the 
'  fruits  of  it  more  perfect.  It  is  such  contracted  views  as  these  which  retard  the 
progress  and  perfection  of  the  noble  science  of  Agriculture,  and  debase  it  below 
the  level  of  the  meanest  art. 

Harrows. 
Harrows  constitute  a  second  class  of  instruments  which  are  indispensably  ne- 
cessary in  the  tillage  of  arable  land  ;    and  without  which  the  plow  would  culti- 
'  vate  the  soil  but  verv  imperfectly. 

'^_  l764,  "  


J  These  instruments  are  also  made  of  various  sizes  and  forms,  as,  of  course,  they 
must  be,  in  order  to  enable  them  to  fulfil  ail  the  different  purposes  for  which 
they  are  intended.  They  are  divided  into  two  classes  ;  the  heavy  harrows,  or 
those  which  are  drawn  by  two,  four  or  six  horses  and  the  light  harrows,  of  which 

'  a  single  horse  can  draw  one  if  not  two. 

The  large  harro^^'s  are  composed  of  strong  bars  of  wood,  connected  together  by  cross  bars  mor- 
ticed into  them,  and  armed  with  long  iron  teeth  or  prongs,  each  of  which  weighs  one  or  more 
pounds.  This  class  is  chiefly  used  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  the  fuiTow  slices  of  a  turfy  soil 
that  has  been  turned  over  by  plowing,  or  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  and  dividing  the  clods  on 
tenacious  soils  ;  they  are  quadrangular  or  triangular  in  form.  In  the  latter  case,  these  teeth  or 
tines  are  sometimes  shorter  toward  the  foremost  angle  of  the  harrow,  or  that  to  which  the  draught 

('.power  is  attached,  and  increase  in  size  at  each  row,  so  that  the  hindenuost  row  contains  the 
largest.     Handles  are  occasionallj-  added  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  harrow,  by  means  of  which  it 

I  can  be  raised  up  or  forced  deeper  into  the  soil ;  the  teeth  are  either  perpendicular,  or  inclined 
with  the  front  forward,  or  curved  forward  like  a  bill-hook. 

The  teeth  of  small  harrows  are  either  formed  of  wood  or  iron  ;  indeed,  there  are  some  in  which 


.    a  tooth  of  wood  and  one  of  iron  are  placed  alternately.      Many  agriculturists  have  altogether  ^v.- 
'    jected  harrows  having  wooden  teeth  as  wholly  ineflBcacious ;    there  are,  however,  circum.stances 
under  which  the  use  of  them  will  prove  advantageous  not  only  on  sandy  soils,  for  which  they  are 
peculiarly  adapted,  but  also  on  heavy  land ;  which,  although  tolerablj'  well  divided,  still  contains 
a  great  number  of  clods.     On  such  land  it  is  much  easier  to  expedite  the  motion  of  wooden  har- 
rows than  of  those  of  iron,  and  the  suddenness  of  the  stroke  tends  more  to  break  the  clod  than  the 
weight  of  the  instrument  or  the  material  of  which  it  is  formed.     Wooden  harrows  are  likewise 
preferable  to  iron  ones  for  the  purpose  of  covering  small  seeds,  or  of  be.stov/ing  a  slight  cultiva- 
'     lion  on  land  in  which  the  plants  are  just  shooting  up,  or  for  smoothing  and  equalizing  the  surface     ' 
',    of  a  soil  where  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  teeth  should  penetrate  to  any  depth.     There  are,  how-   ,' 
,    ever,  many  persons  who  make  use  of  wooden  harrows  for  the  sake  of  economy,  when  iron  ones   / 
*    would  be  far  preferable.  ^ 

In  the  variously  shaped  small  harrows  the  teeth  or  prongs  are  sometimes  fastened  in  a  perpen- 
dicular, at  others  in  an  inclined,  position  :    where  the  latter  is  the  case,  the  instrument  may  be 
used  either  for  light  and  superficial,  or  for  deep  and  heavy  harrowings,  as  may  seem  i-equi'site. 
When  the  draught  power  is  attached  to  the  instrument  in  such  a  manner  that  when  it  moves  for- 
ward the  points  of  the  teeth  incline  toward  the  front,  these  will  penetrate  better  into  the  soil  and   | 
produce  a  greater  effect ;    but,  when  turned  in  an  opposite  direction,  their  action  is  less  sensible, 
and  they  often  merely  glide  over  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  scarcely  disturb  it.      The  teeth  or 
prongs  of  the  haiTow  are  very  seldom  round,  but,  in  general,  of  a  quadrangular  or  triangular 
shape;  this  latter  form  is  most  preferable,  because  the  angle  is  more  acute  ;  they  are  also  occa-    | 
sionally  shaped  like  coulters,  with  a  sharp  edge  and  a  broad  back. 
\        There  are  various  ways  of  fixing  these  teeth  or  pi-ongs  in  the  harrow;  sometimes  they  are  in-   ' 
serted  into  the  balls  or  beams  by  being  driven  in  like  a  nail ;  and  at  others  they  are  merely  rivet- 
ed on,  or  fastened  with  nuts  or  screws.     In  the  former  ca.se,  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be 
made  of  a  greater  length,  in  order  to  allow  their  being  driven  in  sufficiently  far  to  render  their 
hold  firm,  and  yet  a  sufficient  length  remain  outside  to  admit  of  their  being  sharpened  when  the     ' 
point  becomes  blunted.     But  teeth  thus  inserted  are  very  apt  to  be  lost ;  the  striking  of  a  harrow   ' " 
against  a  stone  will  frequently  serve  to  knock  one  or  more  out ;    and  they  are  not  unfrequently   , ' 
pulled  out  by  persons  who  happen  to  require  a  bit  of  iron  for  a  bolt,  or  for  any  other  purpose. 
Those  teeth  which  are  most  firmly  attached  to  the  harrow  are  nailed  on  to  the  frame  or  beam,  af- 
ter having  been  previously  riveted  into  a  bar  of  iron  ;  those  which  are  shaped  like  coulters  are 
frequently  fastened  on  with  screws,  in  order  that  they  may  be  taken  off  whenever  it  becomes  ne- 
cessary to  sharpen  them. 


The  following  are  the  chief  points  necessary  to  be  attended  to  in  a  large  har- 
row, if  we  would  have  it  perfectly  fulfil  all  the  purposes  of  tillage  for  which  we 
intend  it : 

1.  The  teeth  should  be  at  a  sufficient  distance  from  one  another  to  admit  of  the  earth  passing 
between  them,  and  to  prevent  it  from  gathering  into  heaps. 

2.  They  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  inrrows  which  they  have  to  trace  in  the  soil  shall  be  at 
equal  distances  from  each  other. 

3.  Each  tooth  or  prong  should  trace  its  own  particular  line,  and  one  not  fall  into,  or  become 
confounded  with  another. 

4.  The  rows  of  teeth  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  in  order 
that  all  parts  of  the  instrument  may  act  with  equal  power.  In  by  far  the  greater  number  of  har- 
rows the  third  essential  point  is  overlooked  :  the  teeth  are  disposed  angle-ways,  so  that  those  in 
the  third  row  fall  into  the  lines  traced  by  those  in  the  first  rcw,  and  those  in  the  fourth  into  the 
lines  traced  by  the  second  row :  thus,  one  portion  of  the  teeth  is  absolutely  useless,  for  the  clod-s 
acted  upon  by  the  first  row  are  either  broken  or  thrown  on  or-3  side,  and,  consequently,  are  not 
touched  by  the  other  teeth.  Another  inconvenience  also  frequently  arises  from  several  rows  of 
teeth  falling  into  the  same  line,  too  deep  a  furro\v  is  formed ;  for  example,  when  land  is  harrowed 
after  having  been  sown  with  very  small  seeds,  the  defect  just  alluded  to  is  very  apt  to  cause  the 
seed  to  be  buried  too  deeply.      This  defect  might  be  in  some  measure  remedied  by  attaching  the 

I  draught  power  a  little  toward  the  side  of  the  front  beam  instead  of  exactly  in  the  centre,  so  that  the 
body  of  the  harrow,  not  being  in  a  right  angle  with  the  traces,  may  move  in  a  sloping  or  diagonal 

'  \  direction.  The  lines  thus  drawn  will  receive  a  different  direction,  and  be  less  liable  to  run  into  one 
another ;  but  where  this  is  done,  that  portion  of  the  soil  over  which  only  an  angle  of  the  barrow 
passes  will  be  less  perfectly  tilled  than  any  of  the  rest,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  cause  the  in- 
(765) 


286  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

strument  to  go  ovei-  it  again,  whereby  the  amount  of  actual  labor  is  increased.     This  inconvenience 
is  less  sensibly  felt  in  circular  harrowing,  because  the  instrviuent  is  then  passed  several  times  over 
each  portion  of  land.     In  those  districts  where  the  farmers  coufino  themselves  to  longitudinal  har- 
rowing, it  is  highly  requisite  that  the  teeth  of  the  instrument  should  be  so  arranged  that  each  may    ^ 
trace  its  own  distinct  line  ,  and  also  that  these  lines  shall  be  at  equal  distances  from  one  another.    ', 

In  some  harrows  the  draught  power,  instead  of  being  attached  to  either  of  the  sides,  is  affixed    ' , 
to  the  point  or  angle  ;  such  instruments,  especially  when  their  teeth  are  curved  forward,  have  a 
starting  or  jumping  motion,  which  contributes  greatly  to  break  the  clods  and  divide  tiie  soil. — 
The  regulator,  by  means  of  which  the  draught  cattle  are  harnessed,  is  movable,  and  therefore  fa- 
vors this  jerking  motion  ;  but  in  this  case  the  ban-ow  must  necessarily  pass  more  or  less  over  the 
part  which  it  had  traversed  before.    When  these  harrows  are  small  but  heavy,  and  provided  with 
strong  teeth,  they  are  productive  of  material  benefit  to  strong  heavy  soils,  especially  when  driven 
over  these  at  a  brisk  trot.     The  form  of  a  haiTow  is  usually  that  of  a  square — the  sides  of  vi-hich 
are  sometimes  equal,  and  at  others  unequal  in  length  ;  and  the  draught  power  may  be  attached 
,     either  to  the  length  or  to  the  width  :  there  are  frequenthr  five  beams  in  the  length,  but  only  three 
)    in  the  width.     Some  harrows  are  of  a  triangular  Ibrm,  and  then  the  draught  power  is  attached  to 
-    one  of  the  angles. 

In  those  places  where  the  land  is  plowed  in  elevated  ridges,  and  where  it  is  only  harrowed 
longitudinally,  a  large,  stiff  harrow  will  not  be  able  to  act  upon  the  whole  surface  of  the  ridge. — 
An  instrument  divided  into  two  parts,  which  are  united  to  one  another  by  means  of  rings,  hinges, 
or  little  chains,  so  that  half  inclines  on  each  side  of  the  summit  or  crown,  is  therefore  used.  Where 
the  ridges  are  all  of  equal  width,  two,  three,  or  sometimes  four  han-ows  are  thus  joined  together, 
so  that  the  whole  width  of  the  ridge  is  tilled  at  once.  The  draught  cattle  are  attached  to  these  by 
means  of  a  common  spring-tree  bar  affixed  to  the  middle,  and  the  horses  walk  in  the  centre  of  the 
ridge,  or  a  horse  is  harnessed  to  each  extremity  of  a  pole  or  beam,  which  is  as  long  as  the  ridge 
is  wide,  and  these  animals  walk  in  the  open  furrows  on  either  side ;  this  is  by  i'ar  the  most  pref- 
erable mode  of  proceeding  on  damp,  -wet  soils.  This  pole  is  affixed  to  the  harrows  by  means  of 
chains  proceeding  from  it  to  each  of  the  instruments,  which  are  thus  all  put  in  motion  at  once. — 
Should  the  ridges  be  raised  so  high  above  the  furrow  that  the  pole  just  mentioned  is  in  danger  of 
rubbing  against  the  crown  of  them,  an  axle,  mounted  on  wheels,  and  stretching  the  whole  breadth 
of  the  ridge,  is  then  made  use  of;  these  wheels  pass  along  the  open  furrows,  and  ought  to  be  of 
sufficient  hight  to  keep  the  pole  or  axle  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  ridge.  This  is  a  rather 
complicated  an-angement,  but  one  that  is  very  beneficial,  especially  where  moist,  wet  land  has  to 
be  harrowed  after  the  sowing  has  taken  place,  as  it  prevents  the  cattle  from  passing  over  the 
plowed  land  and  treading  it  down  ;  it  is  well  known  that  on  soils  of  this  nature  the  seed  seldom 
springs  up  in  those  places  which  have  been  trodden  down  by  the  feet  of  cattle. 

Ill  those  places  where  several  horses  are  always  used  in  harrowing,  these  animals  are  placed  in 
a  slanting  position,  so  that  it  shall  only  be  necessary  to  lead  the  first,  and  all  the  others  shall  be 
forced  to  follow  in  the  same  direction.  To  effect  this,  the  straps  of  the  bridle  of  the  second  horse 
are  attached  to  the  trace-bar  of  the  first,  those  of  the  third  to  the  second,  and  so  on.  By  means  of 
this  arrangement  it  is  much  easier  to  keep  the  horses  in  the  required  position. 

Harrows  ought  always  to  be  provided  with  sledges  on  which  they  can  be  transported  to  and 
from  the  fields.  These  sledges  are  also  useful  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  the  swing-plows  to 
and  from  the  land  on  which  they  are  to  be  used.  As  the  harrow  is  a  vei-y  important  implement, 
and  one  that  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  and  as,  moreover,  it  forms  a  very  considerable  item  in  the 
expenses  of  an  agricultural  undertaking,  all  possible  care  should  be  bestowed  on  it ;  when  not 
used,  these  inistruments  should  be  kept  under  cover,  and,  whether  in  the  farm-yard  or  in  the  fields, 
should  never  be  suffered  to  lie  on  the  ground,  but  always  raised  and  propped  one  against  another. 

Harrows  are  sometimes  provided  with  branches  or  bushes,  and  for  this  purpose  several  frames, 
consisting  of  three  or  more  cross-beams  without  teeth,  are  kept ;  this  kind  of  han-ow  is  very  effica- 
cious when  it  is  only  necessary  to  level  inequalities  and  break  those  clods  which  have  escaped 
the  teeth  of  a  common  haiTow.  They  are  likewise  used  for  the  purpose  of  burying  small  seeds, 
as  clover,  &c.  The  bushes  used  for  this  purpose  should  be  strong  and  elastic,  but  not  too  thick,  or 
placed  too  close  to  each  other,  or  they  will  be  apt  to  fonn  furrows  and  carry  away  the  seed  which 
they  .should  only  bury. 

Some  persons  make  use  of  harrows  formed  of  branches  interlaced  and  woven 
like  basket-work,  and  speak  highly  of  the  efficacy  of  such  instruments. 

It  is  a  point  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  operation  of  harrowing  should 
be  properly  performed,  and  at  the  fitting  season  ;  where  buch  is  not  the  ca?e,  the 
inconveniences  resulting  cannot  be  compensated  by  any  care  or  perfection  of  till- 
age. The  extirpator  is  the  only  instrument  which  can  supersede  or  diminish,  to 
any  considerable  degree,  the  use  of  the  harrow. 

The  operation  of  harrowing  may  be  divided  into  the  following  varieties  : 

1.  Longitudinal  harrowing,  or  harrowing  in  the  same  direction  with  the  plowing. 

2.  Cro.is  harrowing,  or  intersecting  the  ridges  and  furrows  formed  by  the  plow. 

,  3.  Serpentine  har7-owing,  or  turning  the  harrow  alternately  from  one  side  of  the  ridge  to  the 
,  other,  and  thus  making  it  describe  a  line  somewhat  resembling  two  figures  of  8  placed  one 
<     under  the  other. 

4.  Round  harrowing.     As  this  highly  efficacious  mode  of  harrowing  is  but  little  known  in 

,    most  countries,  I  shall  enter  into  a  more  circumstantial  description  of  it.     It  can  be  practiced  as 

'  I   well  in  those  places  which  have  been  deeply  plowed,  and  where  the  ridges  are  high  and  wide, 

as  it  can  on  those  which  are  plowed  as  evenlj'  and  uniformly  as  possible.     The  horses,  of  which 

there  are  usually  four  or  six,  are  harnessed  in  the  way  before  described — some  to  the  trace-bar, 

others  to  the  harrow.     The  driver  takes  hold  of  tlie  front  horse  on  the  left,  by  the  bridle,  and 

1766) 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS.  287 

makes  him  walk  around  him.  The  other  horses  must,  as  may  easily  be  conceived,  describe  a 
larger  circle  the  farther  they  are  from  the  center.  When  the  circle  is  almo.st  complete,  the  man 
jroceeds  a  few  steps  farther  and  repeats  the  same  evolution  ;  and  so  on,  until  the  whole  surface 
^as  been  passed  over  by  the  harrow.  It  may  easily  be  supposed  that  the  horse  which  is  farthest 
from  the  driver  has  the  hardest  v.-ork  to  pcrfonii ;  and,  therefore,  the  weakest  and  smallest  are  . 
always  placed  in  the  center,  and  the  largest  and  strongest  on  the  outside ;  or  else,  when  they  are  , 
nearly  equal  in  strength,  they  are  worked  alternately,  first  in  one  place  and  then  in  the  other. — 
The  (iuis;de  horse  is  generally  obliged  to  proceed  at  a  rapid  trot,  even  when  the  center  one  is 
moving  as  slowly  as  possible.  When  the  soil  is  very  heavy,  and  the  outer  horses  are  obliged  to 
work  at  full  trot,  in  order  to  divide  and  loosen  it  thoroughly,  they  become  very  much  exhausted ; 
indeed,  this  operation  can  only  be  executed  by  animals  full  of  strength  and  vigor.  It  cannnt  be 
denied  that  this  mode  of  harrowing  takes  up  a  great  deal  of  time,  because  every  part  of  the  sur- 
face lias  to  be  repeatedly  pa.ssed  over;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  produces  an  effect  which  could 
not  be  obtained  from  any  other  method  of  conducting  the  operation,  duick  haiTowings  of  this 
description  are  usually  performed  with  harrows  having  wooden  teeth,  because  horses  could  not 
support  the  labor  occasioned  by  heavy  instruments.  When  the  land  has  been  completely  har- 
rowed in  this  manner,  the  instruments  are  drawn  over  it  lengthwise — the  rate  of  going  in  this 
case  being  also  a  brisk  trot.  The  driver  mounts  the  first  horse  in  order  to  make  him  go  more  rap- 
idly. This  operation  is  best  executed  in  Mecklenberg ;  there  is  not,  in  f»,cl.  any  other  operation 
of  Agriculture  to  which  so  much  attention  is  paid  in  that  country. 

It  is  even  more  essential  that  favorable  weather,  \vhen  the  ground  contsius  a  proper  quantity 
of  moistare,  should  be  chosen  for  the  performance  of  tliis  kind  of  harrowing,  than  it  would  be  for 
plowing.  If  the  land  is  too  moist,  the  harrowing  will  be  very  likely  to  do  more  harm  than  good, 
and  to  harden  and  agglomerate,  instead  of  dividing  the  soil.  It  is  also  of  importance  that  the 
ground  should  not  be  suffered  to  become  too  dry  and  hard  before  this  operation  is  performed,  as 
it  is  then  impossible  to  manage  it.  Even  when  the  most  favorable  season  and  the  most  suitable 
degree  of  temperature  have  been  chosen,  all  other  agricultural  operations  must  be  suspended 
while  this  one  is  in  hand.  In  the  table,  therefore,  of  those  team  labors  which  are  to  be  executed 
in  any  particular  week  or  month,  harrowing  must  always  occupy  a  principal  place. 

The  Roll. 

The  roll  is  another  exceedingly  useful  agricultural  implement ;  in  fact,  it  is 
impossible  to  dispense  with  it  in  any  complete  system  of  tillage,  let  the  nature 
of  the  soil  be  what  it  may.  We  shall,  in  the  first  place,  examine  the  various 
uses  to  which  this  instrument  is  applied.  It  is,  indeed,  essential  that  this  ex- 
amination should  be  gone  through  before  treating  of  the  different  forms  given  to 
the  roll,  these  latter  being  determined  by  the  purposes  for  which  the  instrument 
is  to  be  used. 

The  first  object  usually  aimed  at  in  the  employment  of  this  instrument,  is  to 
break  those  clods  or  indurated  masses  of  earth  which  have  resisted  the  action  of 
the  harrow  ;  or,  at  all  events,  to  bury  them  in  the  ground,  so  that  at  the  next 
harrowing — which  when  thus  buried  they  cannot  well  escape — they  must,  of  ne- 
cessity, be  somewhat  diminished  in  size.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  in  countries 
where  the  soil  is  very  tenacious,  and  tillage  very  carefully  conducted,  it  is  the 
custom,  even  after  preparatory  plov/ings,  first  to  harrow,  then  to  pass  the  roll 
over  the  ground,  and  then  to  harrow  again.  In  such  places,  land  not  treated  in 
this  manner  would  be  looked  upon  as  being  very  badly  prepared. 

The  second  object  of  rolling,  is  to  give  a  somewhat  greater  degree  of  compact- 
ness to  a  soil  which  is  too  light  and  friable,  and  to  unite  its  component  parts. 
The  roll  is  not  employed  for  this  purpose  to  so  great  an  extent  as  it  might  be 
with  advantage  ;    its  action,  in  this  case,  being  highly  beneficial,  particularly  in 
counteracting  the  bad  effects  produced  on  extremely  light  soils  by  the  too  fre- 
quent use  of  the  plow,  and  likewise  in  preventing  the  too  rapid  evaporation  of  the  ) 
moisture  contained  in  the  soil.     This  application  of  the  roll  is  particularly  re-  ( 
sorted  to  on  the  spongy  soils  of  valleys  ;  in  such  situations,  indeed,  it  cannot  Veil   J 
be  dispensed  with.  ? 

The  third  use  to  which  the  roll  is  applied,  is  to  press  down  and  make  firm  the  v 

ground  about  newly-sown  seeds,  and  to  cause  the  latter  to  adhere  better  to  the  > 

'    soil.      Sometimes,  when  very  small  seed  is  to  be  sown,  it  is  found  advantageous  ) 

to  pass  the  roll  over  the  ground  before  the  seed  is  sown,  so  as  to  level  it  thor-  i 

oughly,  and  facilitate  a  more  equal  distribution  of  the  seed  than  could  otherwise  ,> 

take  place.     Where  the  ground  has  been  thus  leveled,  those  seeds  which  hap-   ( 

pen  to  fall  together,  separate  from  each  other  ;  and  it  is  seldom  that  two  are  I 

I  found  lying  in  one  spot.     The  harrow  is  then  passed  over  the  ground  ;  and  this  ( 

^  operation  is  followed  by  repeated  rollings,  which  obliterate  the  lines  drawn  by   ( 

the  harrow.     The  roller  may  also  be  employed  Avith  advantage  on  soils  which   ) 

are  neither  particularly  moist  nor  tenacious,  after  the  harrow  has  been  used  to   \ 

cover  the  seed.      This  operation  serves  to  press  the  earth  more  closely  into  con-  s 

,_(^6T)_ ^ 


288  THAERS  PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE 

tact  with  the  seed,  Avhich  then  germmates  and  springs  up  with  much  greater 

rapidity.     The  truth  of  this  will  he  plainly  seen  by  observing  those  parts  which 

have  escaped  the  action  of  the  roll ;  for  there  the  seed  does  not  spring  up  so  •■ 

quickly  as  it  does  where  the  ground   has  been  well  pressed  by  this   instrument. 

Probably,  too,  the  pressure  may,  by  the  greater  compactness  which  it  gives  to 

the  soil,  prevent  any  rays  of  light  from  penetrating,  and  thus  interfering  with  the 

process  of  germination.      Another  advantage  derived  from  this  leveling  of  the 

{  soil  by  the  roll  is,  that  the  harvest  is  greatly  facilitated  ;  for  it  enables  the  la- 

\   borers  to  reap  or  mow  closer  to  the  ground,  a  point  of  great  importance,  espe- 

l  cially  as  regards  the  pea  and  bean  crops. 

S  The  fourth  great  use  of  the  roll  is  to  cover  with  mould,  or  press  against  or  into 
I  the  ground,  the  roots  of  those  plants  sown  in  the  preceding  autumn,  which  have 
('  been  detached  by  the  frost.  Soils  rich  in  humus,  such  as  those  found  in  valleys, 
)  sometimes  swell  up  in  the  spring  to  such  a  degree  that  the  roots  of  the  plants  J 
'}  contained  in  them  are  forced  up.  In  such  cases,  if  a  fall  of  rain  does  not  speedily, 
occur,  the  roll  affords  the  only  means  of  restoring  them  to  their  proper  position. 

Lastly,  the  roll  is  sometimes  employed  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  insects 
which  injure  the  young  plants,  and  which,  particularly  during  the  night,  come  J 
up  to  the  surface  to  seek  their  food.      When  applied  for  this  last-mentioned  pur- 
pose, the  operation  of  rolling  should  always  be  performed  after  the  close  of  day.     f 

The  roll  is  moved  by  means  of  a  frame  or  carriage,  in  which  the  two  extremi- 
ties of  its  axis  are  fixed.  The  roll  itself  is  generally  rouQd,  but  varies  greatly, 
both  in  length  and  diameter  ;  and  the  shorter  it  is  the  more  powerfully  does  it 
act.  Increase  of  length,  far  from  adding  to  the  amount  of  pressure,  actually  de- 
tracts from  it,  by  causing  the  weight  to  be  sustained  on  a  greater  number  of 
points  of  the  surface  at  once.  The  usual  length  of  the  cylinder  is  from  six  to 
nine  feet ;  the  diameter  varies  from  one  to  tAvo  feet. 

Hexagonal  and  octagonal  rolls  are  also  in  use.  They  are  much  more  efficient 
for  the  purpose  of  breaking  clods  than  round  ones  ;  because,  at  each  step  of  their 
progress,  they  fall  to  the  ground  more  suddenly,  and  move  with  a  less  equal  mo- 
tion. But  they  require  greater  force  of  traction  than  round  rolls,  which  is  prob- 
ably the  reason  why  they  are  so  little  used.  I  consider  that  they  are  capable  of 
producing  highly  advantageous  effects  on  tenacious  soils. 

With  the  same  view,  rolls  are  sometimes  made  with  grooves  or  flutings  ;  but 
if  the  soil  on  which  they  are  used  is  not  very  dry,  these  flutings  and  spaces  be- 
come filled  with  mould,  and  the  efficacy  of  the  roll  is  of  course  diminished. 

The  carriage  of  the  roll  is  made  in  various  forms,  none  of  which  appear  to  me 
to  possess  any  great  advantages  over  the  others  ;  I  refrain  from  giving  any  de- 
scription of  them,  being  fully  persuaded  that  all  my  readers  must  be  acquainted 
with  some  one  among  the  number.  The  only  particular  which  positively  de- 
mands attention  is,  that  the  carriage  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  the 
driver's  sitting  upon  it.  That  he  should  do  so  is  desirable  :  first,  because  the 
weight,  and  consequently  the  effect  of  the  roll,  is  thereby  increased  ;  and,  sec 
ondly,  because  the  cattle  can  then  be  driven  at  a  brisker  pace,  provided  that  the 
labor  does  not  fatigue  them  too  much.  Another  advantage  attendmg  this  ar- 
rangement is,  that  it  protects  the  driver  from  the  annoyance  of  the  dust,  to  which 
he  would  otherwise  be  exposed.  Rolls  without  frames  are  likewise  made  use 
of,  the  extremities  of  the  axles  of  which  turn  in  rings  which  are  attached  to  the 
shafts  by  hooks.  When  the  direction  of  a  roll  thus  mounted  has  to  be  reversed, 
there  is  no  occasion  to  turn  the  instrument  itself,  but  it  is  only  necessary  to  take 
the  horses  off,  unfasten  the  rings  for  a  moment,  and  re-fasten  them  again,  when 
the  shafts  and  the  horses  have  been  brought  round  to  the  proper  position.  This 
mode  of  proceeding  obviates  all  those  inconveniences  produced  by  the  roll  drag- 
ging a  quantity  of  earth  round  with  it  as  it  turns  ;  an  inconvenience  which  is  not, 
^  however,  so  perceptible  when  the  circle  described  by  the  roll  in  turning  is  rather 

<  large. 

<  Some  persons  use  stone  rolls  on  their  fields.  There,  doubtless,  are  cases  in 
;  which  such  pressure  on  the  ground  may  prove  advantageous  ;  it  appears,  how- 
)  ever,  to  rne,  that  in  most  instances,  it  will  be  found  too  powerful,  and  consequent- 
'}  ly  the  use  of  these  very  heavy  rolls  cannot  be  generally  recommended.  I  have 
/  frequently  derived  advantage  from  passing  a  stone  roll  over  a  sandy  soil  soon  af- 
\  ter  its  being  dug  or  plowed  up,  but  this  is  the  only  trial  of  the  kind  I  have  made 


r^ 


PLOWING. 


289 


Spiky  or  pointed  rolls.  These  rolls  are  armed  with  iron  points,  the  intention 
of  which  is  to  effect  a  more  complete  division  of  the  clods  ;  and  they  are  still 
used  for  this  purpose  in  many  agricultural  establishments.  Rolls  of  this  descrip- 
tion can  only  be  used  on  very  dry  soils,  and  when  the  proper  time  for  harrowing 
successfully  has  been  suffered  to  pass.  Where  the  soil  is  argillaceous,  and  like- 
wise contains  moisture,  it  slicks  to  the  points,  and  becomes  so  hrmly  amassed 
between  them  that  the  Avhole  instrument  is  soon  covered  with  it,  and  the  points 
cease  to  be  productive  of  any  effect.  This  inconvenience  is  less  to  be  feared  with 
rolls  which  are  armed  with  iron  hammers  instead  of  points,  the  hammers  being 
placed  at  greater  distances  from  each  other  than  the  points.  These  hammers 
never  fail  to  break  the  clods  with  which  they  come  in  contact. 

English  writers  have  often  recommended  the  use  of  rolls  armed  at  intervals 
with  sharp  circles  or  rings,  for  various  purposes,  and  especially  for  that  of  form- 
ing furrows  in  the  soil,  and  for  several  other  uses  to  which  I  shall  have  to  revert 
elsewhere. 

It  is  necessary  that  a  favorable  period  and  weather,  when  the  ground  is  sufii- 
ciently  dry,  should  be  chosen  for  rolling,  as  for  harrowing.  It  is  absolutely  ne- 
cessary that  the  humidity  of  the  soil  should  not  be  so  great  as  to  cause  it  to  stick 
to  the  roll,  for  when  that  is  the  case  the  operation  is  likely  to  prove  more  injuri- 
ous than  beneficial,  not  only  to  tenacious  and  clayey  soils,  but  also  to  those  which 
are  lighter,  inasmuch  as  it  hardens  the  ground,  and  forms  over  it  a  crust  which 
is  impervious  to  air  and  atmospheric  action.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  it  is 
not  right  lo  wait  until  ttie  clods  of  tenacious  land  have,  by  the  evaporation  of  all 
their  moisture,  become  so  hard  as  to  render  the  action  of  the  roll  on  them  totally 
inefficacious. 


PLOWING. 

In  the  performance  of  this  operation  it  is  requisite — 

1.  That  the  Une.s  traced  by  the  plow  should  be  perfectly  straight,  and  parallel  with  one  another; 
the  furrow-slices  all  equal,  and  uniformly  turned  up,  so  that  they  may  not  overlap  each  other,  or 
form  any  iuequiilities  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  If  it  be  otherwise,  that  is  to  say,  if  the  slices 
are  not  of  equal  breadth,  the  operation  becomes  more  difficult,  because  at  every  deviation  from 
the  straight  line  the  resistance  which  the  earth  opposes  to  the  instrument  becomes  increased. 

2.  That  the  plow  ailvance  at  a  regular  and  uniform  depth,  and  on  a  line  parallel  to  the  surface 
of  the  soil ;  that  is  to  say,  that  it  do  not,  as  is  the  case  when  it  is  not  well  guided,  sometimes  cut 
thick  and  at  others  thin  slices. 

3.  That  the  plow  empty  the  furrow  as  completely  as  possible,  so  that  the  earth  may  not  fall  in 
again  after  the  instrument  has  passed  ;  and  that  the  portion  of  soil  not  yet  raised,  but  which  has 
just  been  divided  by  the  plowshare,  may  form  not  an  acute  but  a  right  angle  with  the  bottom  of 
the  furrow  on  which  it  borders. 

4.  That  the  furrow-slice  be  turned  up  at  an  angle  of  about  40  degrees,  or  so  as  to  form  with  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  or  the  bottom  of  the  fun-ow.  an  angle  of  from  40  to  50  degrees ;  which  is 
in  most  cases  the  best  inclination. 

5.  That  the  divided  slices  be  always  of  the  same  breadth;  and  that  it  be  such  as  is  required  by 
the  nature  of  the  soil  itself,  and  the  purpose  of  the  operation. 

6.  That  they  likewise  preserve  the  depth  which  it  is  desirable  to  give  them. 

7.  That  the  ridges  or  heaps  of  earth  between  the  furrows  be  of  a  suitable  length  and  breadth, 
and  that  their  sides  be  parallel  to  one  another,  so  that  they  may  not  terminate  in  a  point;  for  such 
a  form  tends  to  increase  the  labor  of  plowing  considerably  by  rendering  it  necessary  to  turn  ire- 
queutly. 

8.  That  the  plows  be  placed  one  after  another  on  different  parts  of  the  land  to  be  plowed,  so 
that  the  operation  may  be  executed  in  tlie  best  possible  order,  and  with  as  httle  loss  of  time  as 
possible. 

The  fulfilment  of  these  essential  conditions  is  secured  to  a  certain  extent  by  ta- 
king care  that  the  plow  is  properly  constructed  ;  but  it  also  depends  in  a  great 
measure  on  the  skill  of  the  plowman,  Avho  must  not  be  actually  stupid,  or  quite 
a  novice  in  the  use  of  the  instrument.  The  accomplishment  of  all  the  other  op- 
erations is  essentially  dependent  on  the  skill  displayed  by  the  plowmen  in  the  ex- 
ecution of  theirs.  This  remark  applies  particularly  to  the  head  plowman,  who 
directs  and  superintends  the  operation,  it  being  his  duty  to  see  that  the  furrows 
are  cut  with  that  perfect  straightness  of  which  we  have  already  spoken.  The 
selection  of  the  head  plowman  is  not,  therefore,  a  matter  of  trifling  moment,  and 
it  is  exceedingly  important  that  this  man  should  have  a  correct  eye. 

The  inspector  of  the  work  should  look  well  that  all  these  things  are  carefully 
attended  to  ;  it  is  his  special  duty  to  determine  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  slice 
according  to  the  object  which  is  to  be  attained  by  the  plowing  ;  and  if  entire  con- 
fidence with  regard  to  this  matter  cannot  be  placed  in  the  head  plowman,  it  is 

(769) .19 


290  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

.   the  place  of  the  inspector  to  mark  out  the  distribution  of  the  banks  or  ridges. 

/   We  shall  see  in  the  sequel  what  there  is  to  be  observed  with  respect  to  certain 

I   peculiar  forms  of  the  plow. 

The  width  of  the  sod  or  furrow-slice  must  be  regulated  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  the  object  to  be  obtained  by  the  plowing.  The  greater  the  tena- 
city of  the  soil,  the  narrower  should  these  slices  be  cut;  for  when  they  are  too 
broad,  it  is  impossible  to  divide  and  break  them  properly  with  the  harrow. 
From  a  light  or  sandy  soil,  on  the  other  hand,  Avide  slices  may  be  cut  without  , 
any  inconvenience,  because  the  harrow  always  has  sufficient  power  over  such 

i    land  to  pulverize  it  completely. 

The  greater  ttie  depth  of  the  furrows,  the  less  should  be  their  v/idth,  both  be- 
cause the  plow  would  otherwise  have  too  mucli  resistance  to  overcome,  and  be- 
cause if  the  pieces  of  earth  or  sods  cut  out  of  them  are  both  broad  and  thick,  they 

i\  cannot  be  turned  over  so  completely  a-s  they  ought  to  be.  But  when  the  plowing 
is  merely  superlicial,  there  is  no  objection  to  the  width  of  the  slices  being  increas- 
ed.    If  the  object  in  viev/  is  only  to  bury  stubble,  or  to  turn  up  the  turf  of  land 

',   lying  fallow,  in  order  to  facilitate  its  decomposition  and  disintegration,  plowing- 

'   in  wide  slices  is  admissible,  and  in  certain  respects,  perfectly  preferable. 

It  has  already  been  observed  that  two  or  three  inches  more  or  less  in  the 
breadth  of  a  slice  make  a  great  deal  of  difference  in  the  quantity  of  work  done  by 
a  plow.  When  the  object  is  to  divide  a  tenacious  soil  very  minutely,  the  most 
convenient  and  proper  breadth  for  the  slice  is  six  or  seven  inches  ;  but  where  the 
soil  is  light,  an  almost  equal  advantage  will  be  gained  by  making  the  slices  a 
foot  wide.  The  length  of  ground  traversed  by  the  plow  in  plowing  a  field  is  in- 
versely as  to  the  breadth  of  the  slices:  that  is  to  say,  the  length  traversed  when 
the  slice  is  seven  inches  wide,  is  to  that  passed  over  when  it  is  twelve  inches 
wide,  as  12  to  7-^;  so  that  (supposing  the  rate  of  progress,  or  in  other  words, 
the  pace  at  which  the  cattle  move,  to  be  equal  in  both  cases,)  twelve  hours  are 
spent  in  plowing  a  field  with  furroAvs  seven  inches  wide  ;  while  only  seven  hours 
would  be  required  to  plow  it  if  the  furrows  were  twelve  inches  wide. 

If  the  mould-board  cannot  be  turned  alternately  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  plow 
but  is,  on  the  contra.ry,  fixed  to  the  right  side  of  it,  the  land  cannot   be  plowed 
perfectly  flat  and  even  ;  but  the  plowed  surface  must  necessarily  be  divided  into  b 
banks  or  ridges,  separated  by  furrows,  and  elevated  in  the  middle  in  proportion   \ 
to  the  depth  of  these  furrows.     The  ploAving  is  said  to  be  raised  or  flat  according  \ 
as  the  ground  is  turned  up  in  ridges  intended  to  be  permanent,  or  the  operation  is  j 

.  conducted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  keep  the  surface  as  equal  and  uniform  as  pos-   / 

i  sible. 

The  surface  may  be  flattened  and  equalized  to  a  certain  extent  by  plowing  from  > 
the  edges  to  the  middle  of  those  ridges  which  had  previously  been  plowed  from 
the  middle  to  the  edges  ;  that  is  to  say,  those  ridges  in  which  the  first  two  sods 
or  slices  have  been  thrown  one  against  the  other.*  If  the  land  be  plowed  alter- 
nately outward  and  inward  to  the  same  depth,  the  banks  or  ridges  remain  tol- 
erably fiat  ;  and  if  it  be  subsequently  plowed  across  and  circularly  harrowed,  no 
sensible  elevation  or  depression  will  remain  to  destroy  the  equality  of  the  sur-  ( 
face.     If,  however,  we  would  bestow   the   best    possible  tillage  on  a  piece  of  $' 

*  In  order  to  render  the  subsequent  remarks  more  easy  of  comprehension,  I  consider  it  requisite  to  give  ) 
exact  detinitions  of  certain  technical  terms  used  to  designate  the  vai-ious  operations  and  other  matters  con-  ) 
nected  with  plowing.  ) 

To  flow  a  ridge  outward  is  to  begin  the  plowing  in  the  middle,  so  that  the  first  two  furrow  slices  cut  by  ) 
the  plow  mav  rest  one  against  the  other.  J 

To  plow  inward  is  precisely  the  contraiy  ;  it  consists  in  beginning  at  the  two  sides,  so  that  the  slices  first  / 
divided  fall  into  the  trenches  by  which  the  ridge  is  bounded,  and  the  last  two  falling  in  opposite  directions  1 
leave  an  open  space  or  furrow  in  the  place  previously  occupied  by  the  crown  or  summit  of  the  ridge.  ) 

A  ridge  or  hank  is  a  band  of  earth  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  plow-lines,  and  terminated  on  J 
each  side  by  a  trench. 

A  hallow  or  gutter  is  a  single  fun-ow  traced  by  the  plow. 

Tke  crown  of  the  ridge  is  its  highest  pai-t  where  two  divided  slices  of  earth  cut  from  the  furrows  hnre 
been  thrown  one  against  the  other. 

Tfie  shoulder  n^  the  ridge  is  that  part  of  it  which  abuts  on  or  teiTninates  it  toward  the  trench. 

The  trench  is  the  hollow  space  from  which  the  plow  has  removed  that  portion  nf  earth  which  forms  the 
shoulder  of  the  rid^^e  ;  or  in  other  words,  it  is  the  hollow  ridge  which  one  ridge  foi-ms  with  another,  and 
serves  to  drain  ofl'the  superfluous  \vater. 

The  furrow  is  the  long  hollow  space  which  the  plow  forms  as  it  separates  and  turns  over  the  slice,  or  tnat 
space  which  was  occupied  by  the  slice  before  it  was  detached  and  removed. 

The  furrow-slice  or  sod  is  that  portion  of  earth  which  the  plow  r;'.ises  from  the  furrow,  and  tums  over  on 
the  side.  [Frendt  Trans. 

(770) 


PLOWING.  291 


ground,  it  will  be  advisable  not  to  leave  the  ridges  always  in  the  same  place,  but 
to  change  their  position  by  uniting  the  halves  of  two  difierent  ridges.  To  effect 
this,  the  shoulders  of  the  ridge  must  be  turned  over  into  the  furrow,  and  the 
slices  successively  raised  supported,  one  against  the  other  until,  on  reaching  the 
middle  of  each  of  the  whole  ridges,  furrows  are  formed  in  those  places  formerly 
occupied  by  the  crowns  or  summits.  In  this  manner,  that  portion  of  ground 
which  had  been  merely  covered  by  the  two  first  furrow  slices  forming  the  crown, 
becomes  perfectly  tilled  and  cultivated. 

The  flat  mode  of  plowing  is  decidedly  preferable  in  places  where  portions  of 
land  of  considerable  breadth  belong  to  the  same  proprietor,  and  where  there  are 
no  particular  and  important  reasons  for  giving  the  preference  to  high  and  narrow 
ridges.     In  most  cases  these  advantages  outweigh  those  which  are  incontestibly  'i 
attached  to  the  latter  description  of  ridges.     The  drainage  of  Avater,  the  accom- 
plishment of  which  is  in  many  places  sought  to  be  obtained  by  means  of  the  fur- 
rows which  separate  the  ridges,  is  always  eflfected  much  more  completely  by 
means  of  the  furrows  which  are  traced  on  land  plowed  evenly,  and  immediately 
after  the  seed  has  been  sown  ;  and  the  more  so  as  these  furrows  are  always 
traced  in  the  direction  most  likely  to  facilitate  the  drainage  of  the  water,  and 
have  an  advantage  not  always  possessed  by  the  furrows  which  separate  the  ridges 
from  one  another.     Great  numbers  of  these  channels  or  drainage  furrows  may  be 
made  in  places  where  they  are  necessary,  and  they  may  be  altogether  let  alone    i 
where  not  required.     On  land  which  is  plowed  flat  and  evenly,  the  vegetable  ; 
mould  remains  equally  distributed  over  the  whole  surface  ;  whereas,  that  which 
,   is  plowed  in  ridges  is  deprived  of  it  in  some  places  and  overloaded  with  it  in 
\  others.     The  former  retain  over  their  whole  surface  an  equal  thickness  of  newly 
turned  earth  ;  they  also  admit  of  a  more  equable  distribution  of  the  manure, 
which  on  lands  plowed  in  narrow  ridges  is  apt  to  collect  in  the  furrows.     Then, 
again,  the  soluble  extractive  matter  of  land  plowed  flat  is  not  carried  away  as  it 
is  down  the  slope  of  the  ridges  into  the  furrows.     But,  above  all,  the  seed  can 
be  distributed  much  better  and  more  equally  over  evenly  plowed  land  ;  it  may, 
in  fact,  almost  be  scattered  at  random  ;  the  harrow  also  acts  more  uniformly 
over  the  whole  surface  than  it  can  do  over  the  surface  of  land  plowed  in  ridges. 
Circular  harrowing,  which  is  so  exceedingly  efficacious,  is  almost  impracticable 
on  land  plowed  in  ridges  ;  and  even  cross  harrowing  is  rendered  much  more  dif- 
ficult by  this  mode  of  arranging  the  surface.     Moreover,  land  plowed  flat  is  much 
more  easily  cleared  from  couch-grass,  and  all  those  weeds  which  multiply  by  ' 
means  of  their  roots  ;  the  carriage  of  the  manure  and  especially  of  the  harvest 
is  facflitated  there  ;  and  lastly,  the  reaper,  binder,  and  gleaner,  accomplish  their 
work  on  it  with  much  less  difficulty.     The  corn  lies  flat  upon  it  after  having  been 
separated  from  the  stubble,  and  does  not  fall  into  the  furrows  and  get  spoiled  by 
the  water  lodged  there,  as  is  too  frequently  the  case  on  land  which  is  plowed  in 
narrow  ridges.     The  rake  also  performs  its  office  with  much  more  ease  and 
promptitude  ;  in  fact,  it  is  only  on  land  plowed  in  this  manner  that  it  is  possible 
.   to  use  the  large  rake,  an  implement  of  great  utility  at  harvest  time. 
\       The  advantages  just  enumerated  are  so  great,  that  it  is  only  a  small  number  of 
particular  cases,  of  which  Ave  shall  presently  have  to  speak,  that  can  warrant  the 
formation  of  ridges  on  a  flat  soil. 
,       The  equal  distribution  of  all  the  elements  of  fertility  over  land  plowed  evenly 
,'  gives  an  equal  degree  of  strength  and  a  uniformity  of  appearance  to  the  whole 
■    crop.     On  such  land  we  do  not  see  the  disagreeable  spectacle  presented  by  eleva-    > 
'    ted  ridges,  on  the  top  of  which  the  corn  is  too  rich  and  is  laid;  while  the  sides  and    ' 
,    the  hollows  present  nothing  but  impoverished,  sickly  looking  plants,  or,  what  is    ! 
sill  worse,  weeds. 

The  ridges  usually  formed  on  land  may  be  divided  into  three  classes : — 


1.  Ridges  or  banks  of  the  width  of  16,  20,  or  30  plow-lines  or  more. 

2.  Narrower  and  less  elevated  ridges,  which  are  not  bounded  by  deep  furrows ;  these  are  from 
6  to  8  or  12  plow-lines  in  width. 

3.  Narrow  and  considerably  elevated  ridges,  separated  from  each  other  by  deep  furrows;  these 
are  from  4  to  6  or  8  fuiTow-slices  broad. 

It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  properly  between  these  different  kinds  of  ridges, 
in  order  tha*  what  we  are  about  to  say  with  regard  to  them  may  be  properly  un- 
derstood.    Ridges  of  intermediate  widths  may  doubtless  be  found,  the    lassifica- 

(771) 


292  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

tion  of  which  is,  therefore,  uncertain  ;  but  such  are  chiefly  found  only  in  those 
places  where  tillage  is  ill-conducted,  or  directed  by  those  persons  who  act  without 
method  or  reflection. 

Broad  ridges,  elevated  in  the  center,  are  often  formed  by  accident  and  without 
intention,  especially  where  the  property  has  been  divided  into  long,  narrow  strips 
of  land.  For,  since  land  so  divided  must  have  been  twice  plowed  from  the  mid- 
dle outward  for  every  time  that  it  was  plowed  from  the  edges  inward,  the  earth 
must  necessarily  have  become  heaped  up  in  the  middle,  and  the  crown  of  the 
ridge  thus  formed.  In  places  where,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  there  have  been 
no  ditches  between  the  lands  of  ditferent  proprietors,  or  where  these  ditches  have 
been  filled  up  for  the  sake  of  gaining  additional  surface,  all  the  plowmen  have 
avoided  throwing  the  earth  to  the  outside,  from  fear  that  if  they  did  so  their 
neighbor  might  carry  off"  that  which  was  tlius  placed  within  his  reach.  In  this 
manner,  ridges  of  considerable  breadths  have  become  elevated  in  the  middle  to 
such  a  degree,  that  two  men  walking  in  the  parallel  furrows  which  bound  them 
will  not  be  able  to  see  each  other. 

Such  ridges  or  banks  are  not  only  found  on  lands  in  which  there  is  more  to  be 
feared  fi-om  wet  than  from  drouth,  but  even  on  dry  and  sandy  soils.  It  is  usual- 
ly advisable  to  form  moist  land  into  broad  ridges,  as  it  is  said  that  by  this  means 
a  portion  at  least  of  the  crop  is  secured,  and  good  produce  obtained  from  the 
crown  of  the  ridge,  even  if  that  on  the  side  is  sickly,  or  small  in  quantity.  It  is 
thought  also,  that  if  the  ridges  were  less  elevated,  the  crop  obtained  would  be 
next  to  nothing.  It  is  true  that  in  the  greater  number  of  cases  this  inconve- 
nience might  be  obviated  in  another  way,  and  that  here  the  preference  should  be 
given  to  high  and  narrow  ridges.  Nevertheless,  the  use  of  high  and  broad  ridges 
is  attended  with  advantages  quite  peculiar  to  itself,  and  if  the  arc  formed  by  their 
segment  be  properly  rounded,  and  the  furrows  which  bound  them  made  of  a  pro- 
per depth,  they  afford  the  best  and  probably  the  only  means  of  turning  to  ac- 
count lands  which  are  parceled  out  into  small  portions  and  intermingled  with 
the  property  of  others. 

It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  ridges  of  this  description  are  frequently  met 
with  on  dry  lands,  and  in  districts  where  there  is  little  humidity  ;  in  such  situa- 
tions, so  far  from  being  attended  with  any  advantage,  they  are  calculated  to  do 
nothing  but  mischief  in  every  way.  These  broad  and  highly  curved  ridges  are 
often  formed  gradually  and  quite  unintentionally,  by  plowing  them  from  the  mid- 
dle to  the  edges  more  frequently  than  in  an  opposite  direction  ;  in  other  cases, 
they  owe  their  formation  to  an  ill-advised  imitation.  I  know,  indeed,  an  instauce 
of  a  person,  who,  attributing  the  heavy  crop  yielded  by  a  stiff  soil  thus  divided  to 
this  method  of  plowing,  thought  he  should  obtain  a  similar  result  from  a  sandy 
soil  in  the  neighborhood  by  treating  it  in  a  similar  manner. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  inconveniences  resulting  from  broad 
and  very  elevated  ridges : 

1.  The  best  mould,  that  -which  has  been  most  completely  manured,  becomes  heaped  up  in  the 
middle  of  the  ridge,  and  gradually  removed  from  the  sphere  of  usefulness  and  activity  by  tiie 
depth  at  \vhich  it  is  immersed,  wliile  the  virgin  or  barren  earth  is  continually  being  taken  from 
the  bottom  of  the  furrovs's  and  earned  to  the  sides  of  the  ridge. 

2.  Although  the  crown  of  the  ridge  is  preserved  from  superfluous  moisture,  the  sides  are  much 
more  exposed  to  it.  Besides,  the  water  is  often  enclosed  in  the  trenches,  on  account  of  the  end 
ridges  or  borders  being  equally  as  high  as  the  others,  and  thus  preventing  that  drainage  which 
w^ould  otherwise  take  place  there. 

3.  During  long-continued  rains  the  Avater  often  overflows  as  high  as  the  crowns  of  the  ridges, 
even  when  there  is  a  free  passage  for  its  escape  ;  because,  in  proportion  as  the  light  soil  has  been 
heaped  up  on  the  crov/n  of  the  ridge,  just  in  a  similar  proportion  has  a  quantity  of  plastic  clay  been 
raised  from  the  bottom  of  the  trench  and  deposited  on  the  sides.  Now  this  clay  completely  pre- 
vents the  ^^-ater  collected  in  the  porous  soil  of  the  crown  of  the  ridge  from  draining  away.  This 
water  can  neitlier  make  its  way  into  the  impervious  soil  of  the  lower  sti-atum,  nor  pass  out  through 

]    the  clay  on  the  sides  of  the  ridges.     Such  are  some  of  the  most  evident  disadvantages  of  broad, 
, '    elevated  ridges  in  wet  weather. 

4.  On  the  other  hand,  in  diy  weather,  when  light  showers  are  so  beneficial  to  the  crop.?,  those 
banks  or  ridges  which  are  very  high,  and  the  sides  of  which  slope  abruptly,  derive  but  little  ad- 
vantage from  this  source,  because  the  water,  instead  of  penetrating  the  hardened  crust  which  cov- 
ers the  surface  of  the  soil,  merely  glides  over  it  and  flows  off  into  the  furrows  ;  and  thus  it  not  un- 
frequently  happens  that,  after  such  a  shower,  the  quantity  of  water  which  flows  into  the  furrows 
is  more  than  sufficient  to  fill  them,  w^hile  the  crown  of  the  ridge  remains  almost  as  dry  as  it  was 
before. 

5.  Broad,  high  ridges  prevent  the  sun  from  exerting  an  equal  influence  over  all  parts  of  the  sur- 
(772) 


PLOWING.  293 


face.  This  is  particularly  the  case  when  the  ridges  run  from  west  to  east ;  for  there  is  then  a 
,  striking  difference  between  those  sides  of  them  which  have  a  northern  and  those  which  have  a 
I  southern  aspect.  On  the  northern  side  the  crops  are  much  less  luxuriant,  and  their  growth  is, 
likewise,  much  retarded.  The  difference  in  the  progress  of  vegetation  on  the  two  sides  is  some- 
times so  great  that  it  beconres  necessary  to  reap  the  corn  on  the  southern  side  long  before  that 
growing  on  the  northern  side  has  reached  maturity. 

6.  When,  during  the  rigor  of  winter,  the  snow  which  covered  the  crown  of  the  ridges  has  been 
blown  away  by  the  wind ;  or  when,  in  the  most  critical  part  of  the  spring  season,  the  sun  melts 
this  snow  during  the  day,  and  the  water  in  the  furrows  overflows  the  ridges,  and  freezes  there 
during  the  night,  the  plants  on  the  crown  of  the  ridge  are  often  torn  up  by  the  roots  and  complete- 
ly destroyed ;  so  that  the  portion  of  land  from  which  most  was  expected  yields  no  crop  what- 
ever. 

7.  If.  on  the  other  hand,  the  temperature  is  favorable  to  vegetation,  the  com  on  the  crown  of  the 
ridges  sometimes  becomes  so  luxuriant  that  it  is  laid,  and  yields  but  a  small  quantity  of  grain ; 
while,  on  the  sides  of  the  very  same  ridges,  and  especially  near  the  furrows,  the  plants  have  a 
most  wretched  appearance,  and  yield  butverj'  poor  ears  from  a  different  cause. 

8.  The  difficulties  attendant  on  the  operation  of  plowing  are  greatly  augmented  by  these  ridges. 
It  is  hard  to  say  which  is  the  best  period  to  select  for  its  execution.  The  crown  of  the  ridge  is 
ofien  quite  hard  from  drouth,  while  the  sides,  and  still  more  the  shoulders,  ai'e  so  soft  as  scarcely 
to  be  able  to  support  the  pressure  produced  by  the  feet  of  the  cattle.  In  such  cases,  a  judicious 
husbandman  will  plow  the  crown  of  the  ridges  first,  and  defer  the  plowing  of  the  lower  part  until 
the  soil  there  shall  be  sufficiently  dry.  But  it  is  easj'  to  conceive  how  much  the  sowings  must  be 
retarded  by  such  a  mode  of  procedure,  and  how  greatly  all  the  difficulties  of  plowing  must  be  in- 

d. 


9.  Circular  ban-owing  is  absolutely  impracticable  on  these  ridges ;  the  advantages  resulting 
from  this  operation  are,  therefore,  lost  to  land  laid  out  in  this  way.  It  i.s,  likewise,  very  diiBcult  to 
spread  the  seed  over  them  in  an  equal  and  uniform  manner ;  and  the  labor  of  this  operation  is  ren- 
dered much  greater,  as  also  is  that  of  the  harvest. 

10.  The  apparent  advantages  accruing  from  the  increase  of  surface  obtained  by  laying  out  land 
in  these  undulating  ridges  are  more  than  counterbalanced  by  tlie  deficiency  of  produce  on  a  large 
portion  of  the  surface. 

These  disadvantages  are  so  palpable  that  the  least  reflection  would  long  ago 
have  been  sufficient  to  cause  the  abandonment  of  the  practice  of  plow^ing  land  in 
broad,  high  ridges,  at  all  events  wherever  the  width  of  the  land  would  admit  of 
its  being  abolished,  had  not  even  the  most  enlightened  agriculturists  been  de- 
terred by  the  fear  of  the  losses  resulting  from  the  use  of  ridges  of  a  medium  size, 
when  the  change  is  effected  too  suddenly. 

"Where  these  broad  and  elevated  ridges  have  been  only  recently  formed,  the 
alteration  and  reduction  of  them  may  be  commenced  without  delay.  I  have 
known  several  instances  in  which  this  alteration  has  not  only  been  effected  with- 
out the  slightest  loss,  but  has,  on  the  contrary,  immediately  led  to  the  production 
of  much  finer  crops.  But  when  these  ridges  have  existed  for  a  considerable  pe- 
riod, and  the  soil,  which  is  naturally  fertile  and  was  heaped  on  the  crown  of  the 
ridges,  has  been  for  a  long  time  withdrawn  from  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  . 
and  pressed  down  by  the  feet  of  the  cattle  to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  traced  by 
the  plow — then,  I  say,  this  sc^.:,  although  it  may  contain  a  sufficient  proportion  of 
humus  and  carbon,  is  unfit  for  vegetation,  and  requires  to  be  gradually  called  in- 
to action  by  the  atmospheric  air. 

If  too  great  a  quantity  of  this  earth  be  brought  to  the  surface  at  once,  the  air 
does  not  appear  to  contain  a  sufficiency  of  matters  to  saturate  it  thoroughly  and 
restore  it  to  its  natural  fertility.  The  vegetable  mould,  which  has  been  thrown 
to  the  bottom  of  the  furrows,  is  equally  liable  to  be  buried  at  too  great  a  depth  ; 
at  all  events,  it  does  not  compensate  for  the  loss  experienced  at  that  part  of  the 
land  formerly  occupied  by  the  crown  of  the  ridge. 

The  ridges  ought  not,  therefore,  to  be  lowered  all  at  once,  nor  the  land  turned 
up  and  tilled  to  too  great  a  depth  at  first ;  especially  if  these  operations  are  not  to 
be  followed  by  a  complete  dead  fallow. 

A  very  skillful  agriculturist  has  pointed  out  the  mode  of  proceeding  in  the  tri- 
ennial crop-rotation,  accompanied  by  fallows,  in  order  to  reduce  these  broad  and 
elevated  ridges  in  the  course  of  three  years.  The  method  which  he  has  adopted 
with  complete  success  is  fully  described  in  "  The  Annals  of  the  Agriculture  of 
Lower  Saxony."     Third  year. 


(773) 


294 


THAEllS   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


The  following  figure  will  assist  us  in  explaining  it : 


1- 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

6. 
7. 

8. 

A  B 

zz 

It 

c 
c 

D   E 

z< 

d'e 

F 

The  mark  /^  signifies  plowing  outward,  while  ^  signifies  plowing  inward. 

For  the  Fallow  Year. 

1 .  First  plmoin^.     Plow  all  the  ridges  inward. 

2.  Second  ploivmg.  Plow  the  ridges  A  B  together,  outward  ;  that  is  to  say,  begin  the  opem- 
tion  by  throwing  the  first  two  furrow  slices  into  the  furrow  which  separates  them,  and  leave  off 
at  their  two  outer  trenches.  The  ridges  D  and  E  are  to  be  similarly  treated  ;  C  and  F  are  to  be 
again  plowed  inward,  so  that  they  may  fill  the  fuiTOWs  which  separate  them  from  A  and  B  and 
D  E  ;  the  trench  in  the  middle  of  C  and  F  remains. 

3.  Third  plcnving.  This  is  begun  at  C  and  F,  which  are  plowed  outward  ;  on  the  other  hand, 
the  large  ridges,  A  B  and  D  E,  are  plowed  inward. 

4.  Fourth  plowing. — C  and  F  are  plowed  inward,  while  A  B  and  D  E  Eire  plowed  outward 
and  united.  Before  the  gi'ain  is  sown,  the  trenches  in  the  middle  of  C  and  F  are  filled  up  by  two 
light  plowings.  After  the  seed  has  been  spread  over  the  ground,  the  furrows  necessary  for  drain- 
age are  made. 

For  the  Spring  Corn  Year. 

5.  First  plowing.  All  the  ridges  are  plowed  mward.  This  operation  must  be  very  superfi- 
cially performed. 

6.  Second  plowing.  A  and  D  are  plowed  outward  in  the  spring ;  B  C  and  E  F  plowed 
inward. 

7.  Third  ploiuing,  and  that  which  precedes  the  sowing ;  B  C  and  E  F  are  united,  while  A  and 
D  are  plowed  inward. 

For  the  Third  Year.     Peas. 

8.  A  is  united  to  B,  and  C  and  F  are  plowed  inward. 

By  means  of  cross  and  circular  harrowing,  the  soil  will  hy  this  time  he  so 
completely  leveled  as  to  admit  of  its  being  plowed  across  after  the  crops  of  peas 
have  been  gathered.  The  last  traces  of  the  old  ridges  will  thus  be  obliterated, 
and  the  vegetable  soil  so  well  mixed  that  there  will  be  no  reason  for  apprehend- 
ing any  failure  of  the  crops  sown  there  either  during  the  operation  or  subse- 
quently to  it.  Sometimes,  after  the  first  plowings,  the  soil  accumulated  in  the 
places  previously  occupied  by  the  furrows,  becomes  pressed  down,  and  forms 
hollows  here  and  there  ;  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  pay  great  attention  to  the 
formation  of  the  drainage  furrows,  so  that  the  stagnation  of  water  may,  in  all 
cases,  be  prevented.  If  the  hollows  just  spoken  of  be  of  considerable  dimen- 
sions, it  will  not  be  difficult  to  fill  them  up  by  throwing  earth  into  them  with  the 
plow. 

Should  the  spots  formerly  occupied  by  the  crowns  of  the  ridges  appear  too 
much  impoverished,  a  little  manure  may  be  put  upon  them. 

This  plan  of  operations  may  be  modified  according  to  the  position  of  the  fields. 

Narrow  and  slightly  raised  ridges  are  adopted  in  several  countries.  As  these 
ridges  are  only  raised  in  a  trifling  degree  above  the  furrows,  they  are  not  liable 
to  the  same  objections  as  those  which  are  much  raised ;  but  the  number  of  fur- 
rows is  increased  far  beyond  what  is  necessary.  Although  these  trenches  are 
sown  as  well  as  the  other  portions  of  the  land,  yet  they  yield  but  a  very  light 
crop,  either  because  they  are  less  rich  in  vegetable  mould,  or  because  the  water 
which  collects  in  them  during  wet  weather  is  very  injurious  and  prejudicial  to 
the  growth  of  corn.  It  is  true  that  the  crowns  of  the  ridges  yield  a  heavy  crop 
from  the  circumstance  of  the  vegetable  mould  and  manure  being  heaped  there ; 
but  this  does  not  compensate  for  the  loss  on  the  other  parts. 

Sometimes  the  position  of  the  ridges  is  never  changed,  but  they  are  plowed 

alternately  inward  and  outward.      As  it  is  in  this  case  difl[icult  to  make  the 

plow  act  upon  that  slice  which  remains  in  the  centre  and  forms  the  crown  of  the 

ridge,  that  point  is  often  wholly  neglected. 

>       In  other  places,  a  far  better  plan  of  proceeding  is  adopted,  namely,  that  of  al- 

L(774)__V _..._ 


PLOWING. 


295  ' 


iering  the  arrangement  of  the  ridges  so  that  their  crowns  may  come  into  the 
places  formeily  occupied  by  the  furrows,  and  these  latter  be  situated  where  the 
crowns  of  the  ridges  formerly  were.  Recourse  is  also  had  to  cross  plowing,  and 
then  the  ridges  are  not  formed  until  that  plowing  which  immediately  precedes 
the  sowings. 

Ridges  of  this  description  present  only  two  advantages  :  first,  the  thickness  of  the 
vegetable  mould  on  the  space  occupied  by  the  ridges  is  slightly  increased  ;  and  sec- 
ondly, the  circulation  of  air  between  the  plants,  to  which  this  arrangement  of  the 
surface  gives  rise,  tends  to  diminish  that  inclination  which  corn  has  to  droop  or 
be  laid  when  it  grows  on  too  rich  a  soil. 

It  is  very  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  kind  of  ridges  just  spoken  of 
and  those  which  are  narroio,  and  at  the  same  time  highly  elevated  and  curved  ; 
such  as  in  trome  districts  are  formed  by  the  -union  of  four,  six,  and  sometimes 
eight  plow-lines,  and  are  occasionally  so  much  elevated  as  to  rise  to  the  hight  of 
fifteen  and  often  eighteen  inches  above  the  furrows.  Ridges  of  this  description 
are  to  be  met  Avith  in  Franconia,  and  some  countries  south  of  Germany  ;  in  va- 
rious departments  of  the  south  of  France  ;  sometimes  also  in  Spain  and  England  ; 
but  most  of  all  in  Belgium.  We  find  a  detailed  account  of  those  used  in  this 
latter  country  in  Schwertz's  work,  entitled,  "  An  Introduction  to  the  Knowledge 
of  Belgian  Agriculture."* 

Opinions  are  so  much  divided  respecting  the  utility  or  inconveniences  of  this 
kind  of  ridges,  and  the  propriety  of  retaining  or  rejecting  them,  that  we  deem  it 
necessary  to  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  arguments  advanced  on  both  sides  ; 
for,  however  absurd  they  may  appear,  they  are  nevertheless  supported  by  the 
authority  of  agriculturists  of  the  highest  talent,  and  by  the  practice  of  many  emi- 
nent men. 

In  the  first  place,  the  advantage  derived  from  these  ridges  by  vegetation  is, 
that  the  plants  are  supplied  with  a  thicker  layer  of  earth,  which  is  composed 
entirely  of  vegetable  matter,  light,  and  strongly  impregnated  with  substances 
derived  from  the  atmosphere  ;  this  layer  is  collected  afresh  at  each  ploAving,  and, 
consequently,  the  plants  can  easily  penetrate  it  with  their  roots,  botli  in  a  verti- 
cal and  horizontal  direction,  and  derive  the  requisite  amount  of  nourishment 
from  it.  On  soils  thus  arranged,  when  the  ridges  are  well  formed  and  the  fur- 
rows traced  in  such  a  manner  as  to  enable  them  to  discharge  all  the  water  that 
runs  into  them,  the  plants  never  suffer  from  excess  of  moisture,  and  are  equally 
safe  from  those  injuries  resulting  from  excessive  heat  ;  because  the  light  earth 
heaped  up  by  the  plow  is  capable  of  retaining  moisture  for  a  considerable  pe- 
riod. In  places  where  the  lower  stratum  of  the  soil  is  impervious,  the  plants 
are  raised  up  sufficiently  high  to  remove  ail  fear  of  their  being  injured  by  stag- 
nation of  water  ;  so  that  even  in  those  parts  of  the  field  where  the  furrov/s  are 
filled  with  water,  for  want  of  proper  outlets  for  drainage,  the  ridges  are  often 
seen  covered  with  very  fine,  healthy  crops.  It  is  said  to  be  a  very  rare  occurrence 
for  plants  growing  on  this  kind  of  ridges  to  be  injured  by  the  winter.  The  ai- 
mosphere  exerts  its  beneficial  action  upon  the  soil  of  such  ridges,  and  especially 
on  their  elevated  shoulders  during  the  whole  period  of  vegetation  ;  these  shoul- 
ders are  exposed  to  the  fertilizing  influence  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  the  plants 
growing  on  them  enjoy  all  the  advantages  of  light  and  heat. 

Again,  as  this  arrangement  of  the  surface  supplies  the  plants  both  with  light 
and  air,  it  favors  the  formation  and  ripening  of  the  grain  in  the  ear,  causes  a 
more  prompt  evaporation  of  the  water  with  which  the  plants  are  charged  during  ! 
wet  weather,  and,  consequently,  lessens  the  danger  of  their  being  laid  ;  it  allows 
of  the  crops  being  hoed,  and  therefore  enables  us  to  keep  the  soil  free  from  weeds. 
Finally,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  in  Belgium,  land  arranged  in  this  manner  always  \ 
yields  very  plentiful  crops.  \ 

Other  persons  advance  serious  objections  against  high,  narrow  ridges,  and  af- 
firm that  the  following  inconveniences  have  resulted  from  their  adoption  of 
them : — 

They  occasion  the  loss  of  a  considerable  extent  of  surface,  for  the  furrows  yield 
no  produce  ;  thus,  one-half,  or  at  least  one-third,  of  the  land  is  barren,  or,  at  all 
eTents,  yields  Ijut  a  scanty  crop. 

*  Anieitung  zur  Kenntniss  der  Belgischen  Landwirthscliaft. 

(775) 


296  THAERS  PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

It  is  difficult  to  form  these  ridges  ;  it  takes  a  great  deal  of  time  and  a  great 
deal  of  draught  power  to  plow  them  outward. 

It  is  no  less  difficult  to  ploAv  them  inward,  or  to  unmake  them  ;  and  this  ope- 
ration is  often  very  imperfectly  performed.  It  is  not  unusual  for  the  last  strip  of 
earth  to  remain  uaplowed,  because  the  plow  has  no  hold  on  it,  and  falls  into  the 
furrow. 

The  sowing  of  these  ridges  is  likewise  difficult ;  the  seed  does  not  get  equally 
'  distributed,  and  thus  a  great  deal  of  it  is  lost.  But  the  operation  which  is  most 
J  imperfectly  performed  is  the  harrowing. 

I  If  high  ridges  enjoy  the  fertilizing  advantages  arising  from  the  action  of  the 
\\  atmosphere,  they  are  likewise  more  exposed  to  its  influence  at  periods  when  that 
!'  influence  is  prejudicial  to  vegetation.  Injurious  variations  of  temperature  have 
'\  more  effect  upon  land  heaped  up  in  this  maatier  than  they  have  upon  a  flat 
\  surface. 

'       The  produce  of  the  crops  obtained  from  high,  narrow  ridges  is,  even  under  the  . 

I I  most  favorable  circumstances,  not  greater  than  it  would  be  if  the  same  land  were 
'i  cultivated  with  care,  but  on  a  less  troublesome  and  expensive  plan.     ■^ 

;  The  ridges  in  question  render  the  gathering  in  of  the  harvest  a  much  more 
\  difficult  operation. 

I  The  question  respecting  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  those  ridges  hav- 
!'  ing  been  lately  received,  I  think  it  requisite  to  state  my  own  opinion  on  the  sub- 
'!  ject  with  some  degree  of  precision;  a cknoAvl edging,  at  the  same  time,  that  I 
'  have  not  hitherto  had  any  opportunity  of  observing  the  effects  of  this  arrange- 
!  ment  of  land,  or  of  making  trial  of  it,  and,  consequently,  do  not  speak  from  per- 
',  sonal  experience. 

]■  There  is  no  reason  to  fear  that,  by  the  adoption  of  these  ridges,  any  part  of  the 
i  vegetable  soil  will  be  rendered  inactive,  especially  in  places  where  the  stratum 
'  of  it  is  not  sufficiently  thick,  since  the  earth  when  thus  heaped  up  is  no  lesswith- 
'  in  the  reach  of  the  plants,  the  roots  and  suckers  of  which  penetrate  sufficiently 
!  deep  into  the  loosened  earth  to  enable  them  to  reach  all  parts  of  it,  and  thence 
S  to  derive  a  requisite  supply  of  nourishment.  In  fact,  plants  are  enabled  to  grow 
\<  more  closely  together  oa  tliese  ridges,  on  account  of  their  roots  being  able  to  pen- 
/  etrate  deeply  into  the  ground,  and  having  less  occasion,  therefore,  to  spread 
'  themselves  horizontally  ;  consequently,  they  do  not  injure  those  which  grow 
/  next  to  them.  Above  ground,  the  ears  which  would  otherwise  have  been  too 
\  close  together  have  more  room  to  expand.  Many  persons  who  have  seen  land 
'  cultivated  in  this  manner  assert  that  there  are  no  empty  spaces  to  be  seen  be- 
/  tween  the  ears  of  corn  which  grow  upon  it.  AVhen  the  layer  of  vegetable  earth 
/  is  too  thin  to  admit  of  the  plants  penetrating  to  a  sufficient  depth,  this  defect  is 
'!  sensibly  diminished  by  the  heaping  up  of  the  earth  upon  the  ridges,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  plants  growing  on  it  acquire  greater  strength  and  firmness. 

On  "the  other  hand,  it  cannot  be  denied  that,  when  land  is  arranged  in  this 
manner,  the  operation  of  plowing  becomes  more  difficult,  and  takes  up  more 
time.  The  formation  of  the  ridges  on  a  flat  surface  ;  the  labor  required  for 
changing  their  position  ;  that  of  lowering  and  cutting  down  the  crowns  of  the 
old  ridges  ;  cartage  ;  the  spreading  of  manure,  and  particularly  the  manner  of 
applying  it  to  the  Surface  of  the  soil,  covered  merely  by  the  earth  which  has  been 
taken  from  the  furrow,  and  to  the  shoulders  of  the  ridges  ;  the  digging  up  and 
deepening  of  the  furrov/s  with  the  spade  ;  the  clearing  and  weeding  the  ground  ; 
the  breaking  up  of  the  superficial  crust ;  the  operation  of  double  plowing,  which 
consists  in  driving  two  plows  one  after  the  other  along  the  same  furrow  ;  the  use 
of  the  leveling  machine  ;  the  raking  up  of  weeds  ;  and  all  those  manifold  opera- 
tions described  in  detail  by  Schwertz,  require  great  labor,  care,  and  practice :  so 
that,  as  the  author  himself  observes,  the  proper  execution  of  all  thdse  manipula- 
tions is  the  practical  test  of  the  skill  and  industry  of  the  husbandman.  It  must 
be  always  borne  in  mind,  that  these  ridges  cannot  fulfil  all  the  purposes  for  which 
they  are  intended  unless  every  requisite  operation  is  properly  and  carefully  per- 
formed ;  where  such  is  not' the  case,  a  very  indifferent  crop  is  suie  to  be  the 
result. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  in  places  where  the  agricultural  laborers  are  not  very 
skillful  that  the  crops  are  nowhere  so  poor  and  bad  as  they  are  upon  land  thus 
arranged  ;  whereas,  upon  the  land  of  the  industrious  Belgian,  the  finest  crops  are 

(776) 


[  always  those  growa  on  ridges.  Hence  it  would  appear  that  this  arrangement 
of  the  surface  ought  not  to  he  practiced,  or  even  recommended,  excepting  in 
places  where  the  hand  of  the  proprietor  himself,  or,  at  all  events,  his  vigilant 
eye,  superintends  every  operation  ;  and  where,  as  in  Belgium,  the  laborer  has  an 
immediate  interest  in  the  success  of  the  crop.  It  is  very  evident  that  this  prac- 
tice is  not  equally  well  adapted  for  large  farms  in  which  it  is  impossible  for  the 
proprietor  to  exercise  a  strict  surveillance  over  the  whole,  or  for  places  where 
proper  care  and  attention  in  the  performance  of  all  the  operations  of  husbandry 
can  only  he  obtained  by  the  employment  of  coercive  measures,  and  does  not  arise 
>  from  a  zeal  and  an  interest  in  the  work  itself. 

•  As  to  the  manner  of  sowing  and  harrowing  these  ridges,  I  confess  I  am  unable 
to  form  a  distinct  idea  of  it.  It  seems  to  me  that  an  immense  quantity  of  seed 
must  be  wasted,  unless  indeed  very  great  pains  are  taken  in  the  spreading  of  it. 
I  do  not  understand  how  the  harrow  can  penetrate  the  ground  to  a  sufficient 
'  depth  to  distribute  the  seed  properly  and  break  the  clods,  without  at  the  same 
time  lowering  the  ridges  and  filling  up  the  furrows  ;  I  have  looked  in  vain  for 
any  explanation  of  these  difficulties  in  Schwertz's  work.*  Probably  the  soil  is 
so  well  prepared  by  the  preceding  operations,  that  it  divides  and  breaks  up  of 
itself. 

One  of  the  principal  advantages  attendant  on  narrow  ridges  arises  from  the  fa- 
i  cility  with  which  in  so  populous  a  country  as  Belgium  they  admit  of  the  crops 
being  weeded  and  cultivated  ;  but  in  those  places  where  it  is  altogether  impossi- 
ble to  devote  the  requisite  time  to  the  weeding  of  crops,  the  weeds  increase  rap- 
idly on  the  shoulders  of  the  ridges,  and  the  crops  are  not  so  neat  and  clean  as  they 
ought  to  be.  These  narrow  ridges  are  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  practice  of  sow- 
ing corn  in  rows,  so  strongly  recommended  by  TuU  ;  the  great  agriculturist 
having  directed  that  the  seed  should  be  sown  in  tAvo  or  three  rows  on  the  ci'own 
of  the  ridge,  by  means  of  his  sowing  machine  :  while  the  shoulders  are  alternately 
plowed  inward  and  outward,  and  submitted  to  the  fertilizing  influence  of  the  at- 
mosphere. 

In  order  to  free  the  soil  of  its  superabundant  moisture,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
make  a  large  number  of  the  furrows  which  separate  the  ridges  ;  this  object  can, 
however,  be  much  better  attained  by  means  of  furrows,  made  in  the  direction 
best  calculated  to  carry  off  the  water.     Where  the  land  is  too  flat  to  admit  of  this 

Generally  speaking,  the  use  of  naiTow  ridges  has  only  obtained  a   footing  in  those  places  where  the  soil 

ake 


is  light,  and  where  the  plowings  are  merely  superficial.  In  such  situations  they  make  use  of  a  haiTOW 
adapted  to  the  form  and  size  of  the  ridge,  or  use  two  harrows  of  the  same  kind,  which  cover  two  ridges,  and 
are  fastened  together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  act  simultaneously  without  interfering  with  or  impeding  one 
another.  1  have  seen  such  on  the  fertile  plains  of  Lodi.  In  working  these  harrows  the  driver  walks  be- 
hind, holding  in  one  hand  a  whip  or  a  long  slick  armed  with  a  gn.-id,  and  in  the  other  a  kind  of  handle  attach- 
ed to  the  harrow  with  a  small  chain,  and  which  enables  him  without  difficulty  or  inconvenience  to  direct 
that  Lateral  motion  of  the  instrument,  that  shaking  pj-oduced  by  the  roughness  of  the  ground,  which  contributes 
60  efficaciously-to  the  breaking  of  the  clods. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Parmn  an^  Modena  the  lands  destined  for  the  pi'oduction  of  autumnal  com  are  all  divi- 
ded into  very  narrow  ridges  ;  notwithstanding  they  are  of  an  argillaceous  nature  :  but  instead  of  the  harrow 
a  kind  of  leveling  machine  is  there  made  use  of,  composed  of  two  cross  pieces,  and  which  acts  upon  two 
ridges  at  a  time.  If  tlie  land  be  covered  with  large  clods,  care  is  previously  taken  to  divide  them  with  mal- 
lets. The  seed  is  generally  sown  in  rovvfs,  but  there  would  be  no  sensible  disadvantage  in  sowing  it  at 
random,  since  in  clearing  out  the  trenches  that  portion  of  seed  which  had  fallen  between  the  ridges  might 
be  taken  up. 

In  Bologna  and  Romagna,  where  a  considerable  portion  of  the  land  is  of  a  highly  argillaceous  nature,  the 
fields  are  divided  into  elevations  of  fi-om  thirty  to  forty  inches  in  breadth,  slishtly  curved,  and  bounded  by 
ditches  or  drainage  furrows,  and  even  the  autumnal  corn  is  sown  upon  them  "in  lines.  After  ha\-ing  leveled  . 
the  gi-ound  as  evenly  as  possible,  the  seed  is  scattered  over  it  at  random,  and  then  buried  by  making  small  [ 
ridges,  or  rather  undulations,  about  one  metre  in  breadth,  but  which  are  not  separated  from  each  other  by 
absolute  fun'ows.  In  order  to  form  these  undulations,  the  plowman  sometimes  uses  the  ordinary  plow,  and 
then  finishes  the  ridge  in  two  plow  courses  ;  but  he  more  frequently  makes  use  of  a  plow  with  two  mould- 
boards,  which  by  throwing  the  earth  raised  by  the  share  both  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  foi-ms  in  one  sin- 
gle course  the  halves  of  two  ridges,  which  are  afterward  completed  in  the  same  manner.  In  order  to 
bury  the  seed  more  completely,  and  level  the  surftice  a  little,  a  beam  of  wood,  to  which  is  attached  a  num- 
ber of  furze  bushss  or  boughs  of  trees,  is  dragged  over  several  of  these  Uttle  ridges  at  once.  This  operation 
breaks  the  principal  clods,  and  throws  back  a"  small  quantity  of  mould  and  seed  into  the  hollow  which  sep- 
arates the  ridges.  But  when  the  soil  is  vei-y  tenacious,  this  operation  does  not  prevent  hollows  or  small 
heaps  of  earth  from  remaining  between  the  ridges,  which  retain  the  water  during  vrinter  and  injure  all  the 
])lants  in  their  neighborhood.  Besides,  as  the  beasts  of  draught  always  walk  over  the  place  which  is  to  be 
occupied  by  the  crown  of  the  ridge  which  they  are  forming,  they  bury  a  portion  of  the  seed  with  their  feet 
to  a  very  great  depth.  It  is  true  that  this  seed  is  replaced  by  that  which  the  plow  throws  on  to  these  places, 
together  with  the  sod  or  furrow  slice  ;  but,  then,  the  bottom  of  the  ridsre  is  so  much  the  more  deprived  of 
it.  These  disadvantages  will  be  apparent  to  any  one  who  will  cast  an  attentive  glance  over  the  corn  crops 
of  thc?e  two  covmtdes.  I,  therefore,  emleavor  to  persuade  my  farmers,  both  of  Bologna  and  Romagna,  to 
Btibstilu  e  ridges  of  the  breadth  of  live  metres  for  chese  undulations,  and  to  separate  them  by  furrows  pro. 
perly  clcHred.  [French  Trans.  1814. 

(777- 


298  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

mode  of  drainage,  raised  ridges  certainly  are  useful:  but  even  then  their  uulity 
is  but  very  imperfect,  and  only  capable  of  protecting  the  crops  against  a  very 
moderate  degree  of  humidity.         ' 

I  shall  not  venture  to  decide  whether  or  not  the  top  of  the  ridge  which  is  first 
divested  of  its  covering  of  snow,  does  or  does  not  suffer  more  than  an  even,  uni- 
form surface  during  the  spring,  when   the  ground  is  alternately  frozen  and  thaw- 
ed, and  during  the  very  cold  nights  which  occur  about  that  time.     It  appears  to 
me  that  such  must  be  the  case  ;  since  in  those  springs  Avhich  have  presented  the 
.   greatest  variations  of  temperature,  such  for  example  as  that  of  1804,  the  top  or    . 
i]  crests  of  the  wide  ridges  wliich  in  general  yield  the  finest  crops  were  so  much  ' 
'i   injured  by  the  severity  of  the  winter  as  to  yield  no  crop  at  all. 

In  my  opinion,  it  is  an  incontrovertible  fact,  that  the  getting  in  of  the  harvest 
[  cannot  be  so  easily  effected,  and  requires  more  hands  on  land  laid  out  in  ridges, 
than  it  does  on  Hat  fields  :  the  common  scythe — that  instrument  which  tends  so 
materially  to  facilitate  the  labor,  cannot  be  used  here — nor  can  the  large  rake-: 
the  sickle  is  chiefly  employed  in  places  where  the  soil  is  thus  laid  out,  and  the 
corn  is  placed  in  bundles,  which,  on  these  raised  ridges,  requires  great  care,  and 
cannot  be  done  without  the  aid  of  a  great  number  of  laborers. 

With  regard  to  the  formation  of  these  ridges,  and  all  the  operations  thereunto 
appertaining,  I  must  refer  my  readers  to  the  classic  work  of  Schwertz,  of  which 
1  have  already  spoken,  a  work  which  every  person  who  intends  to  introduce  such 
a  system  of  cultivation  on  his  land  ought  to  be  in  possession  of.  I  am  the  more 
induced  to  make  this  reference  from  the  circumstance  of  not  knowing  the  exact 
way  in  which  such  ridges  are  formed. 

The  first  consideration  to  be  taken  into  account  when  land  has  thus  to  be  laid 
out  in  ridges,  is  the  direction  of  the  inclination  most  likely  to  facilitate  the  drain- 
age of  moisture  from  the  furrow,  and  such  a  one  should  be  adopted  unless  there 
are  good  reasons  for  preferring  some  other.  But  where  this  point  is  quite  imma- 
terial, the  ridges  should  be  traced  from  north  to  south,  in  order  that  the  grain  on 
each  side  of  them  may  enjoy  nearly  equal  advantages  from  the  influence  of  the 
sun's  rays  ;  otherwise,  the  vegetation  of  those  parts  inclining  toward  the  north, 
will  be  much  more  backward  than  that  on  those  Avhich  face  the  south.  Were  it 
not  for  this,  it  would  be  better  to  plow  from  east  to  west,  because  the  soil  then 
receives  the  rays  of  the  sun  more  vertically  so  long  as  it  remains  in  the  state  in 
which  it  was  left  by  the  plow,  and  profits  more  by  their  influence. 

On  fields  situated  on  mountains,  hills,  or  declivities  of  any  kind,  the  ridges  are 
usually  arranged  in  a  very  injudicious  manner,  viz.,  in  the  same  direction  with 
the  declivity  of  the  soil.  Such  is,  at  all  events,  the  case  in  places  where  the 
land  is  very  much  divided  and  the  property  intermingled,  probably  because,  from 
the  time  the  division  was  first  made,  nobody  has  been  found  who  would  take  the 
superior  or  upper  part  of  his  portioix,  all  the  fertilizing  juices  and  particles  of 
which  are  washed"  downward,  or  would  resign  his  share  of  the  lower  parts  which 
possess  so  many  decided  advantages. 

This  injudicious  arrangement  of  the  ridges  is  attended  with  many  inconven- 
iences. When  heavy  rams  fall,  the  vegetable  soil  is  easily  washed  away  by 
them  ;  and  it  not  unfrequently  happens,  that  at  the  top  of  the  declivity  large  hol- 
lows are  to  be  found,  from  which  the  earth  has  been  washed  down  to  the  bottom, 
where  it  forms  high  embankments.  When  only  light  showers  fall,  the  water 
runs  too  rapidly  from  the  upper  part  of  the  field,  which  is  often  suffering  from 
drouth,  while  the  lower  portions  have  a  plentiful  supply  of  moisture.  The 
cattle  employed  in  plowing  are  dreadfully  exhausted  by  the  up-hill  work ;  those 
which  are  naturally  indolent  and  disinclined  to  exertion,  require  very  severe 
treatment  to  make  them  get  through  their  work  ;  while  others,  that  are  active 
and  full  of  spirit,  become  heated,  and  are  thus  rendered  liable  to  take  disease. — 
Nothing,  therefore,  but  a  minute  parceling  out  of  the  land  can  justify  such  an 
arrangement  of  the  ridges. 

The  most  advantageous  disposition  of  them  that  can  be  made  on  an  inclined 
surface,  is  to  give  them  a  horizontal,  or  slanting  direction.  The  former  is  prefer- 
able on  gentle  declivities  ;  the  latter  on  abrupt  inclinations.  By  this  means  mois- 
ture is  retained  longer  in  the  trenches  on  hights  exposed  to  drouth,  and  more 
humidity  is  communicated  to  the  superior  ridges.  Even  on  rapid  declivities,  the 
water  flmvs  slowly  in  those  furrows,  the  obliquity  of  which  diminishes  their  in- 

(778) 


PLOV/iivG.  299 

clination.  When  heavy  rains  fall,  they  do  not  wash  the  earth  from  the  bottom 
of  the  furrows  ;  and  if  the  showers  come  bui  seldom,  the  land  does  not  suffer  so 
much  from  dryness.  It  has  sometimes  happened  that  the  mere  act  of  changing 
the  direction  of  the  ridges  has  tended  considerably  toward  the  amelioration  of 
property  situated  on  hilly  places,  increased  the  amount  of  produce  obtained  from 
I  it,  and  rendered  the  crops  less  casual. 

/       The  arrangement  just  mentioned  is  also  calculated  to  lessen  the  labor  of  the 
I  drauglit  cattle,  although  it  cannot  be  denied  that  it  increases  that  of  the  laborer. 
1  When  fields  situated  on  a  declivity  are  plowed  by  a  common  plow,  having  an  im- 
movable ear  which  turns  the  slice  alternately  upward  and   downward,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  produce  a  proper  revision  of  the  furrow  slice  when  turned  from  the 
I    lower  side,  because,  in  that  case,  it  has  to  describe  a  larger  segment  of  a  circle 
before  it  arrives  at  that  point  from  which  its  own  weight  will  cause  it  to  fall  over. 
It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  it  falls  back  into  the  furrow.     The  plowman  is, 
therefore,  compelled  to  exert  all  his  strength  to  keep  the  plow  inclined  tovv'ard 
the  right,  and  is  frequently  obliged  to  turn  over  the  slice  with  his  foot,  unless  he 
is  followed  by  some  person  whose  express  duty  it  is  to  turn  over  the  slice  with 
.  his  foot,  his  hand,  or  with  a  fork.     The  besc  thing  which  can  be  made  use  of  in 
such  cases,  is  that  elongation  of  the  mould-board  described  by  Schwertz  in  his 
"  Agriculture  of  Belgium." 

On  rapid  declivities  it  is  almost  impossible  to  turn  the  slice  over  from  below 
upward.  There  the  only  thing  to  be  done  is  always  to  turn  the  slice  toward 
the  bottom,  until  the  whole  field  is  transformed  into  a  series  of  terraces,  each  one 
lower  than  the  other.  This  cannot  be  effected  v/ith  a  common  plow,  having  an 
immovable  mould-board,  except  by  managing  it  so  that  it  shall  always  be  en- 
gaged in  the  soil  on  one  side,  and  shall  turn  the  slice  over  on  the  one  that  imme-  > 
diately  preceded  it,  a  mode  of  proceeding  Avhich  occupies  a  great  deal  of  time,  ( 
and  fatigues  the  cattle  very  mmecessarily,  causing  them  to  pass  over  every  inch 
of  ground  twice.  It  is  far  better  to  make  use  of  a  plow  having  a  movable 
mould-board,  Avhich  can  be  turned  either  to  the  right  or  left,  as  seems  requisite. 
Instruments  of  the  description  just  mentioned  are  invariably  used  in  all  places 
where  they  are  known.  The  Mecklenbergbinoir  is  very  useful  in  these  circum- 
I  stances;  indeed,  in  many  cases  it  is  superior  to  the  plow,  because  it  does  not 
,  throw  the  earth  so  low  as  that  instrument.  It  will  easily  be  conceived  that  by 
degrees  the  plow  will  amass  all  the  good  soil  at  the  foot  of  the  declivity,  while  the 
top  will  become  barren.  Judicious  agriculturists  remedy  this  evil  by  applying  all 
their  manure  to  the  upper  part  of  the  field,  or  at  any  rate,  distributing  it  in  such 
a  manner  that  that  part  shall  always  receive  the  greatest  proportion  ;  but  this 
renders  the  carriage  of  the  manure  a  much  more  laborious  operation. 

When  the  rapid  declivities  are  plowed  in  a  slanting  or  inclined  direction,  it  is 
of  the  utmost  importance'  that  such  an  inclination  should  be  given  to  the  ridges 
as  will  prevent  the  plow  from  having  to  encounter  any  sudden  or  abrupt  declivi- 
ties.    Nothing  but  mere  general  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  guidance  on  this  point. 
I    The  first  thing  a  farmer  should  do  before  laying  out  the  ridges,  is  to  traverse  his 
'    land  in  all  directions,  and  ask  himself  in  different  places  how  the  slices  can  best 
be  turned  over.     In  some  places  he  will  find  it  necessary  to  plow  outward ;  in 
others,  to  plow  inAvard  ;  and  in  others,  again,  always  to  turn  the  slice  over  on 
the  same  side.     The  facility  with  which  the  work  will  be  performed,  as  well  as 
,,    the  goodness  of  it,  will  depend  essentially  upon  the  accuracy  of  the  plowman's 
I    eye,  and  his  skill  and  experience  in  operations  of  this  nature.     The  binoir  will, 
in  general,  be  found  to  be  preferable  to  the  ploAV  on  hilly  fields,  because  in  turn- 
ing over  the  soil  it  enables  the  laborer  to  exercise  his  will  and  judgment  with 
greater  freedom.      It  is  a  beautiful  sight  to  see  the  order  and  regularity  with 
which  rapid  declivities  can  be  plowed  by  skillful  men,  who  are  accustomed  to 
the  use  of  this  instrument. 

By  means  of  the  arrangement  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  and  by  giving 
an  oblique  direction  to  the  furrows,  the  water  may  be  made  to  drain  away  so 
gradually  as  not  to  carry  any  portion  of  earth  with  it,  nor  yet  deepen  the  fur- 
rows through  which  it  passes. 

If  it  should  now  be  asked,  what  depth  should  be  given  to  the  plow  ng,  the  va- 
riety of  opinions  which  exist  with  regard  to  this  point  entangle  us  in  a  labyrinth 
of  discussion,  through  which  we  vainly  endeavor  to  thread  our  way.     There  is 

(779) 


300 


THAEK  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


a  very  great  difference  between  piowmg  a  soil  deeply,  the  vegetable  la3^er  of 
v-hich  is  not  only  homogeneous  to  a  considerable  depth,  but  is  also  equally  fer- 
tile throughout  the  whole  of  that  depth,  and  augmenting  a  more  or  less  superfi- 
cial layer  of  earth  by  means  of  deeper  plowings,  or,  in  other  words,  rendering  its 
constituent  parts  homogeneous  to  a  greater  thickness,  and  impregnating  them 
with  fertilizing  particles  throughout  their  whole  extent. 

Every  attentive  observer  must  admit  the  manifest  superiority  of  deep  over  shal- 
low soils.  The  depth  to  which  the  roots  of  plants  will  penetrate  when  they 
meet  with  a  fertile  soil,  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  these  plants.  There 
are  some,  the  roots  of  which  have  been  traced  to  a  depth  of  fifteen,  twenty,  and 
even  thirty  feet  ;  as,  for  example,  sainfoin  and  lucerne.  Red  clover  will  push  its 
roots  to  a  depth  of  nearly  three  feet ;  and  several  other  plants  of  common  growth 
probably  penetrate  even  to  a  greater  depth,  when,  instead  of  encountering  obsta- 
cles, they  meet  with  a  loose,  fertile  soiL  I  have  pulled  carrots  two  feet  and  a 
half  in  length,  the  top-root  of  which  was  probably  another  foot  long.  But  as 
land  is  chiefly  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  various  kinds  of  grain,  its  value  ceases 
to  mcrease  beyond  the  depth  attained  by  the  roots  of  cereals  ;  at  least  to  a  simi- 
lar extent. 

The  unassisted  eye  will  frequently  enable  us  to  trace  the  roots  of  corn  to  a 

ipth  of  eight  inches  ;  and,  with  the  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass,  we  can  distinctly 
see  that  these  roots  have  been  broken  off,  and  some  portion  of  them  still  left  in 
the  ground.  I  have  myself  seen  corn  grown  on  the  shoulders  of  ridges,  with 
roots  twelve  inches  long  ;  but  I  do  not  think  they  would  have  attained  this  length 
any  where  excepting  on  the  shoulders  of  the  ridges,  where  the  influence  of  the 
atmosphere  is  suflSciently  powerful  to  encourage  their  growth  :  they  would  never 
have  penetrated  so  far  on  a  flat  soil,  even  had  it  been  equally  rich.  The  seed, 
when  sown,  is  usually  placed  about  two  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil ; 
consequently,  the  roots  which  we  can  see  are  six  inches  long,  and  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  the  fine  extremities  of  their  fibres  extend  to  a  depth  of  at  least 
twelve  inches.  Hence  it  appears  that  we  may  consider  twelve  inches  to  be  the 
proper  average  depth  for  a  soil  adapted  to  corn,  and  admit  it  as  a  principle,  that 
the  plants  penetrate  thus  far  where  they  find  the  earth  sufficiently  loose  and  fri- 
ible.  Where  the  plants  are  sown  very  closely  to  each  other,  their  roots  are 
still  more  disposed  to  penetrate  into  the  ground.  Wherever  we  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  observing,  we  shall  see  that  the  roots  avoid  each  other,  and  put  forth 
their  largest  shoots  in  those  places  where  they  Avill  not  interfere  with  others : 
this  is  most  perceptible  in  plants  growing  in  water,  because  we  have  more  op- 
portunity of  observing  the  direction  of  the  roots  there.  When,  therefore,  a  plant 
is  prevented  by  those  around  it  from  extending  its  roots  in  a  lateral  direction,  it 
pushes  them  downward,  provided  that  instead  of  encountering  obstacles,  it  meets 
with  a  loose  soil  well  impregnated  with  nutritive  matter.  But  if,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  root  encounters  a  hard  or  sterile  substance,  it  extends  itself  on  all  sides, 
and,  in  this  case,  when  the  plants  are  very  close  together,  their  roots  form  a 
thick  and  knotty  tissue,  dispute  with  each  other  for  room  and  nutriment,  the 
weakest  give  way  before  those  which  possess  more  vigor,  and,  however  ad- 
vanced in  their  vegetation,  are  v/eakened,  or  latterly  perish.  The  deeper  a  soil 
is,  the  nearer  together  can  plants  be  made  to  grow  in  it  without  injuring  each 
oiher,  and  the  greater  number  of  them  will  attain  to  perfection.  No  attentive 
observer  can  avoid  remarking  the  wide  difference  which  exists  between  deep  and 
shallow  soils.  It  appears  in  proportionate  degrees  in  soils  of  four,  six,  eight,  or 
tAvelve  inches  in  depth  ;  provided  that  such  soils  are  equally  impregnated  with 
humus  throughout  their  whole  extent.  If  it  were  possible  to  conceive  that  each 
grain  of  corn  bears  a  plant,  we  ought  to  be  able  to  sow  land  having  a  layer  .of 
vegetable  soil  eight  inches  in  thickness  twice  as  closely  as  we  could  one  which 
had  only  four  inches  depth,  and  obtain  a  double  crop  from  it.  In  this  manner 
the  value  of  the  soil  would  be  determined  by  a  multiplication  of  its  surface  by  its 
depth. 

But  we  must  not,  however,  venture  to  carry  out  this  principle  to  its  fullest  ex- 
tent, because  the  influences  of  the  atmosphere  always  give  to  extent  of  surface 
an  advantage  over  depth:  in  fact,  if  we  take  a  cubic  foot  of  earth,  and  divide  it 
into  a  space  of  two  square  feet,  the  latter  will  always  bear  a  greater  number  of 
plants  than  could  possibly  grow  on  the  former.     No  impartial  observer  who  has 

(780) 


PLOWING.  301 

had  any  experience  in  this  matter,  will,  however,  venture  to  dispute  the  fact  that 
depth  of  land  has  a  great  influence  over  its  value.  In  order  not  to  exceed  the 
bounds  of  truth,  I  shall  lay  it  down  as  a  principle  that  this  value  is  increased 
eight  per  cent,  by  every  additional  inch  of  depth  Avhich  the  soil  acquires  from 
SIX  to  ten  inches,  and  diminished  in  equal  proportion  from  six  to  three  inches. 

But  deep  soils  have  likewise  another  advantage  :  they  sufi'er  much  less  from 
drouth  and  from  moisture  than  those  in  Avhich  the  layer  of  vegetable  earth  is 
more  shallow.  When  the  weather  is  wet,  and  a  great  deal  of  rain  falls,  the  wa- 
ter sinks  into  a  loose  soil,  impregnated  with  humus  as  low  as  the  vegetable  layer  i^ 
extends.  Such  a  soil  absorbs  a  quantity  of  moisture  proportionate  to  its  depth  ' 
before  it  suffers  any  to  return  to  the  surface.  This  is  the  reason  why  garden  | 
ground,  which  is  well  tilled  with  spade  labor,  never  suffers  from  excess  of  hu-  I 
midity  even  when  the  surface  of  shallower  soils  would  be  drenched  with  moisture  ;  ' 
so  long  as  the  water  does  not  ebb  back  to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  it  doeslitlle  or  | 
no  harm  to  the  plants.  Deep  lands  retain  the  moisture  which  they  have  absorbed  , 
for  a  considerable  period,  and  communicate  it  to  the  surface  when  that  becomes  \ 
parched  and  dried  up.  Nor  is  this  advantage  confined  to  the  extent  to  which  the  ' 
roots  of  the  plants  reach  ;  I  am  well  convinced  of  this  from  having  noticed  that  / 
during  a  long  period  of  dry  Aveather,  a  crop  of  cereals,  growing  on  land  that  had  \ 
some  years  before  been  dug  up  to  a  depth  of  three  feet,  suffered  much  less  than  ' 
another  which  grew  on  a  soil  only  a  foot  and  a  half  deep,  although  both  these  | 
soils  had  received  exactly  the  same  amount  of  cultivation  and  preparation. 

Nor  is  this  all :  crops  of  grain  growing  on  deep  soils  suffer  much  less  from  ^ 
sudden  changes  of  temperature,  from  drouth,  or  from  heat ;  because  their  roots, 
being  able  to  penetrate  farther,  are  less  subject  to  the  action  of  these  influences 
than  they  would  be  if  nearer  to  the  surface.  During  excessively  hot  or  very  dry 
weather,  it  is  evident  that  the  plants  are  much  fresher  in  deep  than  in  shallow 
soils  ;  in  fact,  they  invariably  perish  in  the  latter. 

Lastly,  it  has  been  every  where  remarked  that  corn  growing  on  deep  soils  is  ) 
much  less  liable  to  be  laid  even  when  very  luxuriant  in  vegetation  ;  this  is,  doubt-  •', 
less,  owing  to  the  greater  degree  of  strength  which  the  depth  of  the  roots  gives  ' 
to  the  lower  .part  of  the  stalk,  a  strength  which  corn  growing  on  shallow  soils  \ 
never  can  attain,  because  then  the  fresh  shoots  put  forth  by  plants  growing  ', 
closely  together  cannot  find  sufhcient  nutriment  to  enable  them  to  attain  their  \< 
full  vigor.  Nor  is  it  to  cereals  alone  that  this  depth  of  soil  is  beneficial ;  it  is  .[ 
not  less  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  plants  the  roots  of  which  penetrate  deeper  \ 
into  the  soil,  and  seek  their  nourishment  beyond  the  level  occupied  by  the  roots  [' 
of  corn.  This  is  the  reason  why  a  deeper  soil  than  is  absolutely  necessary  for  | 
the  cultivation  of  cereals  is  always  desirable,  although  the  value  added  by  this  i 
increase  of  depth  does  not  increase  so  rapidly  as  in  the  layer  which  suffices  for 
the  roots  of  corn.* 


*  "  The  chemical  effect  of  pulverizing  and  breaking:  up  a  subsoil  is  certainly  advantageous  to  the  plant  in    ' , 
two  ways,  besides  others  with  which  we  are  very  likely  at  present  to  be  unacquainted T  lirst,  it  renders  the      , 
soil  penetrable  to  a  much  greater  depth  by  the  roots  or  minute  fibres  of  the  plant,  and  consequently  renders 
more  available  any  decomposing  matters  or  earthy  ingredients  which  that  substratum  may  contain  ;    and, 
secondly,  it  renders  the  soil  much  more  freely  permeable  by  the  atmosphere,  rendering  in  consequence  a     . 
greatly  increased  supply  not  only  of  oxygen  gas  to  the  roots  af  the  plants,  but  also  jielding  more  moisture    ' : 
not  only  from  the  soU,  but  from  the  atmospheric  air:   which  moisture,  let  it  be  remembered  by  the  culti- 
vator, is  in  all  weathers  as  incessantly  absorbing  by  the  soil  as  it  is  univei'sally  contained  in  the  atmosphere, 
abounding  most  in  the  latter  in  the  very  periods  when  it  is  most  needed  by  the  plants,  that  is  in  the  warm- 
est and  driest  weather.  ■ , 

"  It  is,  perhaps,  needless  to  prove  that  the  roots  of  commonly  cultivated  plants  will  penetrate,  under  fa- 
vorable circumstances,  a  much  greater  depth  into  the  soil  in  search  of  moisture  than  they  can,  from  the  re- 
sistance of  the  case-hai-dened  subsoil,  commonly  attain.     Thus  the  roots  of  the  wheat  plant,  in  loose,  deep 
Boils,  have  been  found  to  descend  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet,  or  even  more  ;    and  it  is  evident  that,  if 
plants  are  principally  sustained  in  dry  weather  by  the  atmospheric  aqueous  vapor  absorbed  by  the  soil,  that 
that  supply  of  water  must  be  necessai-ily  increased,  by  enabling  the  atmospheric  vapor  and  gases,  as  well    ( 
as  the  roots  of  plants,  to  attain  to  a  greater  depth ;   for  the  interior  of  a  well  pulverized  soil,  be  it  remem-    / 
bered,  continues  steadily  to  absorb  this  essential  food  of  vegetables,  even  when  the  surface  of  the  earth  is    * 
drying  in  the  sun. 

"And  by  facilitating  the  admission  of  aii-  to  the  soil  another  advantage  is  obtained,  that  of  increasing  its 
temperature.  The  earths  are  naturally  bad  conductors  of  heat,  especially  downward  ;  thus  it  is  well  known 
that  at  the  siege  of  Gibraltar  the  red-hot  balls  employed  by  the  garrison  were  readily  earned  from  the  fur- 
naces to  the  batteries  in  wooden  barrows,  whose  bottoms  were  merely  covered  with  earth.  Davy  proved 
the  superior  rapidity  with  which  a  loose,  black  soil  was  heated  compared  with  a  chalky  soil,  by  placing 
equal  portions  of  each  in  the  sunshine  ;  the  first  was  heated  in  an  hour  from  65°  to  86°,  while  the  chalk  was 
only  heated  to  69°  (Elem.  of  Agri.  Chem.  p.  178).  This  trial,  however,  must  not  be  regarded  as  absolutely 
conclusive,  since  the  surface  of  the  black  soils  naturally  increases  more  rapidly  in  temperature  when  ex- 
posed to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  than  those  of  a  lighter  color.  A  free  access  of  air  to  all  soils  also  adds  to 
(781) 


p 


302  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


But  if  we  would  have  a  soil  attain  all  these  advantages,  and  permanently  pes 
sess  them,  it  is  requisite  that  from  time  to  time  it  should  De  plowed  to  the  very  ' 
bottom  of  its  vegetable  layer,  turned  over,  loosened,  and  every  part  submitted  to  / 
the  vivifying  and  beneficial  action  of  the  atmosphere.  Unless  this  is  done,  it  will,  ' 
if  merely  superficially  plowed,  generally  lose  all  those  advantages  of  which  we 
have  been  speaking  ;  a  hard  crust  or  pan  will  be  formed  immediately  beneath  the 
sphere  of  the  plow's  action,  which  cuts  off  the  earth  beneath  it  from  all  commu- 
nication with  the  atmosphere  and  with  the  layer  of  vegetable  mould.  Experi- 
ence has  convinced  me  that  it  is  not  necessary  that  this  deep  plowing  should 
take  place  every  year,  but  only  that  it  should  be  repeated  once  in  every  six  or 
seven  years,  especially  if  during  the  interval  the  depth  of  the  plowings  given  to 
it  are  varied,  for  nothing  contributes  so  materially  to  form  the  crust  of  which  we 
have  spoken  as  repeated  plowings  of  equal  depth.  It  appears  that  the  alternate 
cultivation  of  cereals  and  of  plants,  the  tuberculous  roots  of  which  penetrate  far- 
ther than  the  others,  likewise  contributes  toward  the  loosening  of  the  inferior 
layer  of  the  soil,  and  maintaining  its  communication  with  the  upper  and  superior 
layer. 

Land  ought,  therefore,  to  be  plowed  every  seven  years  to  the  very  bottom  of  its 
layer  of  vegetable  soil ;  and  the  intervening  plowings  may  be  more  or  less 
superficial,  and  varied  in  their  depth  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
bestowed. 

It  IS  quite  another  thing  to  bring  the  layer  of  earth  which  is  beneath  the  veget- 
able soil  to  the  surface  by  means  of  deep  plowings,  a  layer  which,  even  if  it  is 
of  a  similar  nature  with  the  superior  stratum,  is  seldom  or  never  impregnated 
with  the  same  quantity  of  humus,  and  never  fertilized  by  the  influences  of  the 
atmosphere  and  the  substances  contained  in  it.  This  unfertile  and  frequently 
sterile  soil  must,  in  the  first  place,  be  ameliorated,  impregnated  with  humus, 
and  saturated  by  the  atmosphere,  before  we  can  hope  to  derive  any  crop  from  it.  \ 

AVe  have,  however,  seen  cases  in  which  earth  thus  brought  to  the  surface  has, 
after  remaining  some  time  in  the  air,  become  exceedingly  fertile  without  the 
addition  of  manure.  On  submitting  this  earth  to  various  chemical  analyses,  we 
ascertained  that  it  contained  carbon  ;  but  its  fertility  was  speedily  exhausted,  and 
if  the  soil  had  not  been  immediately  manured,  it  would,  after  having  borne  one  or 
two  crops,  have  become  perfectly  sterile,  and  have  required  repeated  ameliora- 
'    tions  in  order  to  convert  it  into  vegetable  earth. 

It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  when  the  layer  of  earth  is  thus  dug  up  it  is 
productive  of  very  bad  eflects  at  first,  and  is  so  barren  that  it  can  only  be  sown 
with  those  vegetables  the  top-roots  of  which  seek  their  nutriment  at  a  great  depth 
below  the  surface  ;  nor  does  it  acquire  fertility  until  it  has  been  repeatedly  ma- 
nured and  exposed  for  a  considerable  period  to  the  fertilizing  influence  of  the  at- 
mosphere.    But  this  method  of  improving  land  which  requires  so  large  a  quantity 
of  ameliorating  substances  becomes  a  very  serious  undertaking  when  it  has  to  be 
extended  over  any  considerable  extent  of  surface  ;  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
and  unless  there  are  very  great  facilities  for  procuring  manure  from  extraneous 
sources,  one  field  cannot  be  thus  improved  without  depriving  all  the  others  of  the 
portion  necessary  to  maintain  their  fertility  ;  at  any  rate,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
sacrifice  the  value  of  the  produce  of  a  great  extent  of  surface,  in  order  to  increase 
I  that  of  a  small  piece  of  ground.     It  may  be  that  in  many  cases  the  value  thus  ac- 
l  quired  by  the  soil  far  exceeds  the  loss  in  produce  ;  but  very  few  agriculturists  are 
I    sufficiently  speculative  to  make  such  sacrifices. 

The  practice  of  deepening  the  layer  of  vegetable  earth  by  means  of  digging  or 
'    deep  plowings,  can  only  be  pursued  with  advantage  where  the  existing  system 
of  cultivation  tends  to  produce  a  larger  quantity  of  manure  than  can  be  employed 
with  any  degree  of  profit  for  the  improvement  of  the  actual  vegetable  soil. 

There  are  many  cases  in  which  an  agriculturist  must  be  content  with  a  very 
superficial  layer  of  vegetable  earth,  and  not  for  a  moment  think  of  increasing  its 
depth  by  digging  or  by  deep  plowings.  Not  to  take  into  account  of  those  places 
in  which  the  inferior  stratum  of  the  land  will  not  admit  of  its  depth  being  aug- 
mented, it  frequently  happens — 

(a).  That  by  means  of  the  turf  or  herbage  which  has  taten  possession  of  the  surface  of  the  soil, 

their  fertility,  by  promoting  the  decomposition  of  the  excretory  matters  of  plants,  which  otherwise  would 
remain  for  a  longor  period,  to  the  annoyance  of  plants  of  the  same  species."  [Johnson's  Farm.  Eiicy. 

(782) 


PLOWING.  303 


B  very  thin  layer  of  vegetable  earth  has  been  formed,  beneath  which  is  an  absolutely  sterile  soil, 
either  of  an  argillaceous  or  a  sandy  nature  ;  and  the  farmer  has  only  just  manui-e  enough  to  pre- 
serve the  fertihty  of  this  layer  of  vegetable  mould,  or  perhaps  he  has  not  enough,  and  is  obliged 
to  depend  on  the  formation  of  a  new  layer  of  turf  for  the  preservation  of  its  fertility.  In  such  a 
case,  inste'^d  of  deteriorating  from  the  value  of  this  small  quantity  of  vegetable  earth  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  new  layer  of  sterile  soil,  the  best  thing  which  can  be  done  is  to  keep  it  as  much  together 
as  possible,  and  maintain  its  fertility  by  means  of  the  scanty  portion  of  manure  which  can  be  al- 
lowed to  it  and  by  careful  tillage,  especially  if  the  formation  of  another  layer  of  turf  may  be  cal- 
culated on  ;  for  this  latter  springs  almost  entirely  from  the  first  two  inches  of  the  layer  of  vegeta- 
ble earth,  and  the  humus  contained  in  the  rest  has  little  or  notliing  to  do  with  it. 

(b).  If  the  fanner  has  been  endeavoring  to  amend  his  land  by  an  addition  of  marly  clay,  mould, 
&c.  or  by  paring  and  burning  (practices  which  are  exceedingly  beneficial  to  superficial  soils,  al- 
though not  calculated  for  deep  ones),  he  must  take  -care  not  to  plow  or  dig  this  land  too  deeply, 
or  to  disseminate  through  too  large  a  space  that  amelioration  which  is  adapted  only  to  a  very  thin 
layer  of  earth.  The  depth  of  soil  should  never  be  augmented  unless  it  has  been  determined  that 
an  extra  quantity  of  these  amelionuons  shall  be  bestowed,  and  then  the  land  should  be  plowed 
or  dug  up  before  they  are  appHed.  The  same  rule  is  applicable  to  tho.se  cases  in  which  an  ar- 
gillaceous and  very  tenacious  soil  is  o  be  ameliorated  with  lime  or  calcareous  marl,  the  quantity 
of  which  is  only  sufficient  for  a  certain  thickness  or  depth  of  vegetable  earth. 

(c).  If  a  sandy  soil  has  always  been  plowed  to  the  same  depth,  and  a  hard  crust  or  pan  has 
consequently  gradually  become  formed  below  the  layer  of  earth  submitted  to  the  action  of  the 
plow,  this  crust  cannot  be  broken  without  doing  mischief  If  the  superior  layer  of  soil  has  been 
plentifully  ameliorated  by  good  cultivation,  this  pan  which  exists  underneath  it  will  prevent  the 
moisture,  or  tliose  fertilizing  substances  which  become  detached  from  the  soil,  from  escaping 
lower  down  ;  and  beneath  this  crust  a  bed  of  pure  sand  will  frequently  be  found  to  exist.  Cases 
of  this  nature  may  occasionally  be  found  united  with  those  appertaining  to  the  former  class,  for  it 
not  unfrequently  happens  that  after  land  has  been  marled  a  similar  crust  is  formed  ;  and,  however 
desirable  it  may  be  that  this  shoijld  exist  at  a  greater  depth,  it  cannot  be  broken  or  removed  far- 
ther down  without  doing  harm,  and  therefore  it  is  better  to  leave  it  alone. 

f^).  Lastly,  and  in  almost  every  case  whei-e  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  the  layer  of 
vegetable  earth  should  be  deepened,  and  where  it  is  likely  to  produce  loss  instead  of  profit. 

Ill  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases  in  which  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  deep- 
en the  layer  of  vegetable  earth,  it  is  best  to  do  it  gradually.  By  the  expression 
"  deepening  the  layer  of  vegetable  soil,"  we  mean  the  bringing  to  the  surface 
such  a  quantity  of  virgin  earth  as  can  be  intimately  combined  with  the  vegetable 
soil,  and  enter  irxto  combination  with  it.  By  this  means  the  previously  existing 
vegetable  layer  is  not  totally  buried  or  rendered  inort,  and  that  absorption  of  sub- 
stances from  the  atmosphere  which  always  takes  place  in  newly  turned  soil  be- 
comes more  easily  effected. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  prmcipal  considerations  which  ought  to  be  care- 
fully weighed,  prior  to  the  undertaking  of  the  operation  of  plowing  deeply,  or 
increasmg  the  thickness  of  the  layer  of  vegetable  earth. 

1.  What  is  to  be  expected  from  the  earth  thus  extracted  from  the  inferior  stratum  of  the  soil, 
and  has  never  before  been  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  plow,  taking  into  consideration  its  nature' 
and  composition  ? 

To  resolve  this  question,  the  earth  must  be  submitted  to  a  chemical  analysis,  in  order  to  discover 
what  proportions  of  clay,  sand,  lime,  or  carbon  enter  into  its  composition  ;  nor  must  the  stone.s, 
both  small  and  large,  which  it  contains  be  left  unnoticed.  The  best  way  of  practically  ascertain- 
ing the  effect  which  it  is  likely  to  produce  on  vegetation,  is,  most  undoubtedly,  to  give  it  a  trial  in 
flower-pots,  or  on  a  bed  in  a  garden  which  is  plowed  up,  and  then  covered  with  a  layer  of  this 
earth. 

2.  What  changes  will  be  produced  by  the  admixture  of  a  certain  quantity  of  this  earth  with 
the  superior  layer  of  the  soil  ? 

Will  the  defects  of  the  latter  be  increased,  diminished,  or  corrected  by  such  a  mixture  ?  "Will 
this  new  earth  give  a  greater  degree  of  consistence  to  loose  soil,  or  will  it  diminish  the  tenacity  of 
a  clayey  one  ;  or,  agam,  will  it  increase  the  defects  of  both  or  either?  What  are  the  proper  pro- 
portions in  which  it  should  be  mingled  with  the  vegetable  layer,  in  order  to  form  a  soil  adapted  to 
the  situation  of  the  field  and  the  climate  in  which  it  is  placed  ? 

3.  How  far  will  the  quantity  of  manure  which  the  agriculturist  has  at  his  disposal  contribute  to 
I    impregnate  and  fertilize  this  new  earth  to  the  requisite  depth  ? 

Upon  these  considerations  will  depend  the  propriety  of  performing  this  opera- 
tion, and  the  ex,tent  to  which  it  should  be  carried. 

It  has  not  yet  been  distinctly  specified  what  is  to  be  understood  by  the  terms 
"  deep  plowings,"  "  superficial  plowings,"  or  "  plowings  of  a  moderate  depth." 
In  order,  therefore,  to  be  able  to  attach  some  definite  meaning  to  them,  we  will 
suppose  a  superficial  plowing  to  be  only  from  two  to  four  inches  in  depth :  a 
moderate  plowing,  one  in  which  the  instrument  penetrates  from  four  to  seven  in- 
ches ;  and  a  deep  plowing,  one  in  which  the  soil  is  turned  up  to  from  eight  to 
twelve  inches  below  the  surface.  All  plowings  deeper  than  this  are  designated 
double  or  extra  plowings  ;  because  it  is  scarcely  practicable  to  turn  up  land  which 

(783) 


304 


THAER  S   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


not  previouslv  been  tilled,  beyond  the  depth  of  twelve  inches  with  a  common 
plow.  I  cannot  form  the  least  idea  of  those  plowings  which  are  said  to  be  carried 
to  a  depth  of  from  eighteen  to  four  and  twenty  inches. 

After  what  has  already  been  said,  it  will  be  evident  that  in  the  greatej:  number 
of  cases  in  which  it  is  desirable  to  plow  the  land  to  a  greater  depth  than  has  be- 
fore been  attempted,  it  is  best  not  to  add  above  two  inches  in  depth  of  virgin 
earth  at  a  time  to  the  vegetable  soil ;  more  than  this  quantity  camiot  be  properly 
ameliorated  and  amalgamated  with  the  upper  layer.  This  operation  ought, 
wherever  such  a  course  of  proceeding  is  practicable,  to  be  undertaken  at  that  pe- 
riod which  will  admit  of  the  layer  of  newly  turned  earth  being  exposed  to  the 
itmospheric  influences  for  the  longest  period  of  time  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  ought  to 
be  performed  just  before  the  beginning  of  winter.  It  should  also  be  allowed  to 
continue  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere  during  the  whole  summer,  because  the 
fertilizing  effects  of  the  air  are  even  more  eifective  during  this  season  than  ihey 
are  in  the  winter.  Such  a  soil  ought  to  receive  a  dead  fallow,  or,  at  any  rate, 
ily  to  be  made  to  bear  those  vegetables,  the  top-roots  of  which  penetrate  be- 
jrond  the  new  layer  of  earth,  and  seek  their  nutriment  in  the  old  vegetable  soil ; 

else,  those  plants  the  roots  of  which  lodge  themselves  below  that  layer,  as  is 
the  case  with  most  of  those  which  come  under  the  denomination  of  fallow  or 
weeded  crops.  As  the  new  earth  thus  remains  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  is 
constantly  moved  and  loosened,  it  enters  into  close  contact  with  the  atmosphere, 
and  every  particle  of  it  becomes  saturated  with  atmospheric  substances. 

It  is  highly  important  that  the  chief  and  most  efficacious  portions  of  the  ma- 
nures should"  be  reserved  for  this  new  earth  ;  and  wherever  the  arrangements  of 
the  undertaking  will  admit  of  it,  it  is  desirable  that  the  manure  should  be  con- 
veyed to  it  and  carefully  spread  over  it  before  the  commencement  of  winter,  and 
suifered  to  remain  on  the  surface  during  the  whole  of  the  season,  because  ma- 
nure AA^hich  remains  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  during  the  winter  is  productive  of 
highly  ameliorating  eSects,  provided  there  are  no  declivities  or  slopes  down 
which  its  juices  and  succulency  may  be  carried  away  by  the  rains.  Should  such, 
hoAvever,  exist,  the  manure  may  still  be  carried  to  the  ground  and  spread  over  it 
at  the  same  time  ;  but  then,  instead  of  being  left  on  the  surface,  it  should  be 
^carefully  buried  by  a  superficial  ploAving.  In  the  succeeding  spring  the  ground 
should  again  be  slightly  ploAved  and  carefully  harroAved  ;  the  ploAA'ing  Avhich 
precedes  the  soAving  must  also  be  very  superficial,  in  order  that  the  neAv  layer  of 
earth  may  be  as  little  as  possible  covered  by  the  old  vegetable  soil. 

In  this  manner  I  have  repeatedly  and  successfully  effected  a  complete  admix- 
ture of  a  neAV  layer  of  earth  with  the  old  vegetable  soil,  thoroughly  ameliorated 
the  whole,  and  sensibly  increased  the  depth  of  the  vegetable  earth,  in  the  course 
of  one  smgle  summer  ;  I  have  obtained  an  immediate  increase  of  all  the  crops, 
id  at  the  close  of  the  rotation  have  again  proceeded  to  deepen  the  soil.  Many 
persons  have  followed  a  similar  course  of  proceeding,  and  have  never  experienced 
any  of  those  misfortunes  or  failures  Avhich  too  frequently  attend  operations  of  this 
nature  when  performed  with  too  much  precipitation,  at  unsuitable  periods,  or 
without  due  consideration  of  the  concomitant  circumstances  and  of  the  rotation. 

Those  who  propose  to  deepen  the  layer  of  vegetable  earth  after  the  manner 
described  in  the  previous  pages,  and  to  carry  this  operation  to  a  depth  of  more 
than  tAvelve  inches,  will  find  a  common  plow  incapable  of  effecting  it.  They 
must,  therefore,  have  recourse  to  double  plowing,  Avhich  is  performed  either  by 
means  of  the  trenching  ploAv,  spoken  of  in  a  previous  page  of  this  volume,  or  else 
by  two  plows  folloAving  each  other  in  the  same  furrow.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
first  plow  cuts  and  turns  over  a  more  or  less  thick  slice  ;  while  the  second  raises 
another  from  beneath  the  place  occupied  by  the  first  furroAv  slice,  and  reverses  it 
on  tins  latter.  This  operation  can  be  performed  by  means  of  common  Avheel- 
plows,  provided  that  the  second  is  so  arranged  as  to  cause  it  to  penetrate  deeper 
into  the  soil  than  the  first,  and  that  it  has  a  raised  and  lengthened  mould-board, 
the  higher  extremity  of  Avhich  is  divergent,  and  a  high  Avheel  on  the  right  side 
of  llie  wheel  carriage.  But  the  operaUons  performed  by  means  of  such  a  plow 
are  verv  laborious,  and  require  great  draught  poAver.  The  best  way  of  accom- 
plishing it  is  to  make  use  of  one  of  Small's  plows  behind,  and  one  of  Baily's  in 
front:  in  this  case,  three  horses  Avill  be  sufficient  to  draAV  the  second  instrument 
when  the  ploAving  is  intended   to  penetrate  to  a  depth  of  from  tAA^elve  to  four- 


teen  inches  ;  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  animals  will  have  to  work  very  hard. 
This  operation  can  be  better  performed,  and  in  many  cases  quite  as  economically, 
-,by  means  of  spade  labor.  Nine  or  ten  men  distributed  at  equal  distances  from 
each  other  may  folloAv  the  plow  ;  as  soon  as  it  has  passed,  they  dig  up  the  ground 
to  the  full  depth  of  their  spade,  and  throw  the  earth  which  they  thus  raise  on 
that  just  turned  over  by  the  implement.  Nine  or  ten  good  able  laborers  are  quite 
sufficient  to  keep  pace  with  a  plow  on  soils  of  a  moderately  clayey  nature  ;  and 
where  plenty  of  hands  are  to  be  obtained,  I  much  prefer  this  mode  of  proceeding. 

Pierre  Kretschmar,  an  author  who  was  very  highly  esteemed  in  his  day,  pre- 
tended to  be  able  to  keep  his  land  in  a  state  of  perfect  fertility  by  bringing  to  the 
surface  a  fresh  layer  of  earth  alone  ;  because,  to  use  his  oAvn  words,  the 
layer  of  earth  which  is  buried  enjoys  a  period  of  repose,  and  thus  renovates  its 
exhausted  powers,  while  that  on  the  surface  is  producing  crops.  He  stated  in 
his  work  entitled  "  Ooconomische,"  published  at  Leipsic  in  1749,  as  well  as  in 
several  of  his  other  writings,  that  the  necessity  of  fallows,  rotations  of  crops,  and 
manure,  may  thus  be  done  away  with.  The  experiments  made  by  him  on  some 
land  near  Berlin,  which  had  been  granted  to  him  by  Frederick  II.  were,  as  may 
easily  be  supposed,  attended  with  the  most  fatal  results.  Had  he  immediately 
set  to  work  to  procure  manure  from  Berlin  to  ameliorate  the  virgin  earth  which 
he  continued  to  bring  to  the  surface,  he  might,  under  certain  modifications,  have 
continued  to  obtain  crops  from  his  land  ;  but  he  had  not  a  sufficiently  definite  idea 
of  the  science  of  Agriculture,  and  destroyed  and  ruined  his  fortune  by  commencing 
scheme  without  carrying  out  any  of  them.  The  interest,  however,  excited  by 
this  man,  contributed  not  a  little  to  direct  public  attention  to  the  science  of  Agri- 


*  M.  Von  Thaet-  did  not  live  to  witness  the  gi'eat.  good  effects  on  some  sorts  of  the  subsoil  plow  of  Mr. 
Siuiil;,  of  Deanston,  and  of  Sir  Edmund  .Stracey,  who  has  given  the  results  of  his  experience  (Jour.  Roy. 
Ei(^.  Agri  ik>c  vol.  i.  p.  256;  with  a  jilow  he  has  constructed,  and  which  he  calls  the  '  rackheath  subsoil- 
plow." 

"  On  my  corning,"  he  remarks,  '-to  reside  on  my  estate  at  Blackheath,  about  six  years  since,  I  found  live 
hundred  acres  of  heath  land,  composing  two  farms  (which  had  been  enclosed  under  an  act  of  Parliament 
about  forty  years),  without  tenants  ;  the  gorsc,  heather,  and  fern  shooting  up  in  all  parts.  In  short,  the  land 
was  in  such  a  condition,  that  the  crops  returned  not  the  seed  sown.  The  soil  was  a  loose,  loamy  soil, 
had  been  l>roken  up  by  the  plow  to  a  depth  not  exceeding  four  inches,  beneath  which  was  a  substralum 
(provincialiy  called  an  iron  pan),  so  hard,  that  wilh  difficulty  could  a  pickax  be  made  to  enter  in  many 
places  ;  and  my  bailitf,  who  had  looked  after  the  land  for  thirty-five  years,  told  me  that  the  lands  were  not 
worth  cultivation — I  hat  all  the  neighboring  farmers  said  the  same  thing — and  that  there  was  but  one  thiu"- 
to  be  done,  viz.,  to  pUuit  with  fir  and  forest  trees  ;  but  to  this  I  paid  but  httle  attention,  as  I  had  the  year  pre"^ 
ceding  allotted  some  parcels  of  ground,  taken  out  of  the  adjoining  lands,  to  some  cottages  ;  to  each  cottage 
about  one-third  of  an  acre.  The  crops  on  all  these  allotments  looked  fine,  healthy,  and  good  ;  producinrr  ex- 
cellent wheat,  carrots,  peas,  cabbages,  potatoes,  and  other  vegetables  in  abundance.  The  question  then^vas. 
how  was  this  done  ?  On  the  outside  of  the  cottage  allotments  all  was  barren.  It  could  not  be  by  the  ma- 
e  that  had  been  laid  on,  for  the  cottagers  had  none  but  that  which  they  had  scraped  fi-om  the  roadt. 
The  magic  of  ail  this  I  could  ascribe  to  nothing  else  but  the  spade  ;  they  had  broken  up  the  land  eighteen 
inches  deep.  As  to  digging  up  five  hundred  acres  with  the  spade,  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches,  at  an  ex- 
pense of  £6  an  acre,  I  would  not  attempt  it.  I  accordingly  considered  that  a  plow  might  be  constructed  so 
as  to  loosen  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches,  keeping  the  best  soil  to  the  depth  of  four  inches,  and 
near  the  surface,  thus  admitting  air  and  moisture  to  the  roots  of  the  plants,  and  enabling  them  to  extend 
their  spongioles  in  search  of  food,  for  air,  moisture,  and  extent  of  pasture,  are  as  necessary  to  the  thriving 
and  increase  of  vegetables  as  of  animals.  In  this  attempt  I  succeeded,  as  the  result  will  show.  I  have  now 
broken  up  all  these  five  hundred  acres,  eighteen  inches  deep.  The  process  was  by  sending  a  common 
plow,  drawn  by  two  horses,  to  precede,  which  turned  over  the  grotmd  to  the  depth  of  four  inches ;  my 
=ubsoil-plow  immediately  followed  in  the  furrow  made,  drawn  by  four  horses,  stimng  and  breaking  the 
soil  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  deeper,  but  nothing  turning  it  over.  Sometimes  the  the  iron  pan  was  so 
hard,  that  the  horses  were  set  fast,  and  it  became  necessary  to  use  the  pickax  to  release  them  before  they 
could  proceed.  After  the  first  year,  the  land  produced  double  the  former  crops,  many  of  the  can-ots  bein" 
sixteen  inches  in  length,  and  of  a  proportionate  thickness.  This  amendment  could  have  arisen  solely  from 
the  deep  plowing.  Manure  I  had  scarcely  any,  the  land  not  producing  then  stover  suflicient  to  keep  any 
stock  worth  mentioning,  and  it  was  not  possible  to  procure  sufficient  quantity  from  the  town.  The  plow 
tore  up  by  the  roots  all  the  old  gorse,  heather,  and  fern,  so  that  the  land  lost  all  the  distinctive  character  of 
heath  land  the  first  year  after  the  deep  plowing,  which  it  had  retained,  not,  withstanding  the  plowing  with  the 
common  plows,  for  thirty-five  years.  Immediately  after  this  subsoil-plowing  the  crop  of  wheat  was  strong 
and  long  in  the  straw,  and  the  grain  close-bosomed  and  heavy,  weighing  full  sixty-four  pounds  to  the  bushel. 
The  quantity,  as  might  be  expected,  not  large  (about  twenty-six  bushels  to  the  acre),  but  great  in  compari- 
son to  what  it  produced  before.  The  millers  were  desirous  of  purchasing  it,  and  could  scarcely  believe  it 
was  grown  upon  the  heath  land,  as  in  former  years  my  bailiff  could  with  difficulty  get  a  miller  to  look  at  his 
sample.  Let  this  be  borne  in  mind,  that  this  land  then  had  no  manure  for  years,  was  nin  out,  and  could 
only  have  been  ameliorated  by  the  admission  of  air  and  moisture  by  the  deep  plowing." 

Su.h-Tii.rf  Plow.— "  Being  on  the  subject  of  the  subsoil-plow,"  says  Sir  Edmond  Stracey,  "  I  may  aa  well 
leli  you  I  have  contrived  another  plow,  from  the  use  of  which  the  greatest  benefit  has  been  derived  by  my 
_  rkland.  I  call  this  my  '  sub-turf  plow.'  It  is  used  to  loosen  the  turf  about  ten  mches  and  a  half  deep  be- 
low the  surface,  without  turning  over  the  flag.  There  are  no  marks  left  by  which  it  can  be  known  that  the 
land  has  been  so  plowed,  except  from  the  straight  hnes  of  the  coulter,  about  fourteen  inches  from  each  other. 
In  about  three  months  these  lines  are  totally  gone  ;  the  additional  quantity  of  aftermath,  and  its  thickness'  ' 
I'.roduced  from  the  grass  thus  treated,  have  been  the  subject  of  admiration  of  all  my  neighbors."  '    i 

(833) 30  I 


306  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

culture,  and  to  induce  men  of  talent  to  make  experiments  and  engage  in  researches 
on  this  subject. 

There  is  likewise  a  method  of  loosening  the  soil  to  a  considerable  depth  with- 
out turning  it  over,  or,  in  other  words,  without  bringing  the  substratum  to  the 
surface,  and  one  that  is  practiced  with  great  success  on  loose  soils  ;  this  operation 
is  effected  by  means  of  a  plow  without  a  mould-board,  and  having  only  a  e-trong, 
low,  convex  share.  This  instrument  passes  along  the  furrow  as  a  common  plow, 
stirs  up  the  earth  to  the  bottom,  and  thoroughly  breaks  and  divides  it.  The  ex- 
cellent manner  in  which  this  operation  is  performed  is  probably  hardly  surpassed 
in  those  countries  where  the  soil  is  plowed  to  a  depth  of  sixteen  inches  with  com- 
mon plows. 

In  my  opinion  plowings  should  never  be  carried  beyond  that  depth  which  we 
term  moderate,  unless  they  are  intended  to  prepare  the  soil  for  the  reception  of  ' 
weeded  or  leguminous  crops.  A  very  superhcial  plowing  will  in  general  suffice 
for  grain,  or  the  land  may  merely  be  tilled  with  those  instruments  which  tend  lo 
accelerate  and  facilitate  labor  ;  because  when  a  soil  has  once  been  thoroughly 
loosened  and  pulverized  to  the  bottom  it  retains  its  porousness  and  permeability 
for  many  years,  especially  if  composed  of  one-half  sand  and  thoroughly  impreg- 
nated with  humus. 

In  order  to  to  be  able  to  form  any  correct  idea  of -the  number  of  plowings  which 
it  is  necessary  to  bestow  on  land,  we  must  consider  each  of  the  principal  rotations 
separately. 

In  most  of  our  alternate  rotations  the  soil  is  tilled  before  the  commencement 
of  winter  to  its  utmost  depth,  or,  at  any  rate,  as  deeply  as  the  plow  can  conven- 
iently be  made  to  go.  Where  this  depth  exceeds  twelve  inches,  recourse  must 
be  had  to  double  plowings.  The  second  tillage  is  superficial,  it  being  merely  in- 
tended to  bury  the  duag  ;  and  the  third,  or  that  which  precedes  the  sowing,  pen- 
etrates a  little  farther.  The  land  is  tilled  to  a  still  greater  depth  by  means  of  the  . 
horse-hoe,  while  heaping  up  the  earth  round  the  plants  of  weeded  crops,  which, 
in  order  to  facilitate  this  operation,  are  sown  in  rows.  After  the  crop,  a  skim- 
ming or  paring  plow  is  passed  over  the  ground,  and  also  a  harrow  if  requisite,  in 
order  to  smooth  it  ;  and  then,  before  winter  comes  on,  it  is  plowed  slightly.  It 
is  seldom  that  an  actual  plowing  is  given  to  land  thus  tilled  in  the  spring  ;  such  [ 
an  one  would  be  both  superfluous  and  injurious  to  land  containing  fifty  parts  in  a 
hundred  or  more,  and  which  has  been  properly  prepared  for  the  fallow  crops,  es-  ', 
pecially  if  the  season  proves  dry.  All  that  is  requisite  to  be  done  is  thoroughly 
to  loosen  the  surface  of  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  by  means  of  an 
extirpator,  to  harrow  it,  to  sow  the  grain,  (which  is  usually  ba,rley,)  to  bury  it 
with  a  small  extirpator,  and  then  to  harrow  the  soil  afresh  ;  or,  if  the  land  is  to 
be  sown  Avith  clover,  to  scatter  the  seed,  and  then  pass  the  roller  over  it.  After 
bearing  a  crop  of  barley,  the  land  is  suffered  to  grow  clover  only  for  a  year  or 
two.  The  preparation  for  the  autumnal  corn  consists  in  one  plowing  of  a  mode- 
rate depth  ;  but  the  skimming  plow  is  likewise  passed  over  the  soil.  This  plow- 
ing is  performed  at  least  a  month  before  the  period  of  sowing,  in  order  that  the 
soil  mav  have  time  to  sink  down  again,  which  is  necessary  to  the  success  of  the 
crop.  The  autumnal  corn  is  sown  witliout  farther  preparation.  Some  agricul- 
turists make  use  of  the  small  extirpator  to  bury  the  seed,  and  subsequently  pass 
a  harrow  over  the  land.  In  the  following  spring,  when  vegetation  recommences, 
this  harrowing  is  repeated  when  time  or  weather  will  admit  of  it  ;  and  in  order 
that  this  latter  one  may  be  more  efficacious,  it  is  seldom  that  the  autumnal  har- 
rowing is  carried  so  far  as  to  cause  it  to  break  all  the  clods  ;  it  is  deemed  belter 
that  they  should  remain  until  the  spring,  in  order  that,  by  then  breaking  them, 
the  harrowmg  which  takes  place  at  that  season  may  supply  the  plants  with  new 
earth. 

If  the  autumnal  corn  is  to  be  succeeded  by  a  green  crop,  one  or  two  ploAvings 
are  given  to  the  land,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  state  of  the 
temperature.  Land  is  prepared  for  vetches  (which  are  to  be  mown  while  green) 
by  two  or  three  plov/ings.  After  the  leguminous  crop  has  been  gathered  in,  a 
moderately  deep  plowing  is  given  with  as  little  delay  as  possible.  Shortly  after- 
ward the  land  is  harrowed ;  and  before  St.  Michael's  day  the  seed  is  placed  in 
the  ground,  buried  with  a  small  extirpator,  and  subsequently  harrowed. 

If  the  farmer  wishes  to  obtain  a  crop  of  oats  after  his  autumnal  corn,  he  be- 

(834, 


PLOWING.  307 


stows  a  slight  tillage  on  the  soil  in  the  autumn,  and  in  the  following  spring 
plows  it  to  a  moderate  depth,  sows  it  with  oats,  and  buries  the  seed  by  the  ac- 
tion of  a  small  extirpator,  succeeded  by  a  harrow.  This  crop  is  sown  about  the 
middle  of  May,  when  the  seeds  of  those  weeds  contained  in  the  soil  have  germi- 
nated and  begun  to  vegetate.  Such  are  the  plowings  usually  given  to  land  culti- 
vated according  to  the  system  termed  "  alternate  rotations,"  where  no  second 
crops  are  required  from  it. 

In  those  systems  of  cultivation  which  require  a  dead  fallow,  the  chief  attention 
must  be  directed  to  that  pomt ;  for  as  a  whole  year  is  sacrificed  in  order  to  devote 
to  the  soil  the  requisite  amount  of  tillage,  it  would  be  unpardonable  not  to  render 
this  tillage  as  perfect  as  possible,  and  to  endeavor  to  attain  the  purpose  and  in- 
tention of  the  fallow  to  its  fullest  extent. 

A  fallow  ought  to  be  productive  of  the  following  advantages: 

1.  A  suitable  increase  in  the  deptli  of  the  layer  of  vegetable  earth  by  means  of  deep  plowing's. 
2.  The  reversion  of  the  earth.  3.  Its  pulverization.  4.  Its  due  admixture.  .5.  Its  exposure  to  the 
influences  of  the  atmosphere  ;  and  6,  and  w^hat  is  most  important,  the  destruction  of  all  the  v^eeds 
contained  in  it.  If,  by  means  of  a  fallow,  all  these  advantages  can  be  obtained,  the  benefits  aris- 
ing fi-oni  it  will  be  sensibly  felt  through  a  long  series  of  years. 

In  the  system  of  cultivation  which  is  associated  with  the  triennial  rotation,  a 
fallow  plowed  three  times  is  a  very  common,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  very  im- 
perfect thing.  It  rarely,  if  ever,  attains  the  object  in  view.  In  general,  the 
Want  of  a  sufficient  pasturage  for  the  cattle  prevents  the  field  from  being  broken 
up  until,  the  end  of  June.  Thus,  the  soil  only  receives  half  a  year  of  repose  and 
pasturage,  and  half  a  fallow. 

In  those  fallows  which  are  accompanied  by  four  plowings,  the  first  of  these  is 
usually  given  in  the  autumn,  or  before  the  commencement  of  winter ;  but  some- 
times it  is  postponed  until  the  spring,  which  is  very  injudicious. 

Fallows  are  rarely  plowed  five,  six,  or  seven  times,  except  on  the  very  best 
soils,  and  among  agriculturists  who  know  how  to  estimate  their  soil  and  to  ap- 
preciate the  value  of  this  careful  tillage,  or  who  are  of  a  sufficiently  speculative 
disposition  to  induce  them  to  sacrifice  the  produce  of  their  fields  during  one  year, 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing  their  fertility.  Such  a  system  of  cultivation  would, 
undoubtedly,  be  both  practicable  and  beneficial  in  our  climate. 

The  first  plowing  is  called  the  "  fallow-plowing  ;"  and  this  operation  is  desig- 
nated by  the  terms  "  breaking  up,"  or  "fallowing"  land  (hrachfurche),  especially 
when  it  relates  to  the  tillage  of  land  that  has  borne  grass,  or  been  mere  pasture 
ground.  If  the  soil  to  be  tilled  has  previously  been  corn  land,  the  term  sturzen, 
(to  fallow)  is  then  made  use  of;  but  this  is  applicable  to  all  first  plowings. 

The  second  plowing  is  termed  "  re-delving"  (ivandefahne)  ;  when  it  is  being 
performed,  they  say  that  they  "  re-delve,"  or  turn  the  fallow  over.  This  expres- 
sion is  adopted  in  some  countries,  because,  during  this  operation,  the  slice  revers- 
ed by  the  first  plowing  actually  is  turned  over  a  second  time. 

The  third  plowing  is  designated  by  the  appellation  of*'  stirring  up"  {ruhrfar- 
hee),  because,  in  fact,  it  consists  in  stirring  up  the  soil  and  bringing  to  the  sur- 
face all  those  portions  which  had  not  previously  been  brought  into  contact  with 
the  atmosphere.  If  this  plowing  is  repeated,  it  is  said  that  the  soil  is  "  stirred" 
again.     The  last  plowing  is  called  the  "  seed-lime  plowing"  [saatfahre). 

The  Romans  distinguished  these  diff"erent  plowings  from  one  another  by  cer- 
tain terms.  They  called  the  first  ''  praescindere  ;"  the  second,  "  uer^ere  ;"  the 
third,  "fringere  ;''''  the  fourth,  "  offringer  ;"  the  fifth,  "  refringere  ;"  and  the 
sixth,  or  the  one  preceding  the  sowings,  "  lirarc.''''  Every  nation,  and  almost 
every  province,  has  its  own  peculiar  denominations  for  these  plowings  ;  and  it  is 
necessary  to  become  perfectly  acquainted  with  them,  if  we  could  acquire  any  in- 
formation with  regard  to  the  Agriculture  of  the  country. 

When  repeated  plowings  are  given  to  land  as  preparations  for  spring  and  au- 
tumnal corn  sown  consecutively,  each  of  these  is  frequently  characterized  by  , 
some  peculiar  term,*  ' 

Almost  all  scientific  men  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  fallowing  or  first  plowing 
ought  to  be  very  superficial-     Formerly,  however,  in  the  system  of  cultivation 

*  \Ve  have  here  left  out  several  technical  terms  vi^hich  are  peculiai-  to  the  German  language.  The  author 
designates  oats  sown  after  repeated  plowings,  by  the  tei-m  Felghafer ;  those  sown  subseqaently  to  another 
crop  uf  cereals  and  with  the  prepai-ation  of  one  plowing  only,  as  Hartlandhafer ;  and  those  sown  on  grass  or 
brokcn-up  pasture  land,  by  that  of  Drusc/iliafer.  [French  Trans. 


'  308 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


connected  with  a  triennial  rotation,  a  totally  opposite  opinion  was  entertained,  j 
Munchhausen,  in  his  work  entitled  "  Haus-vater,"  considered  that  it  should  be  as  ) 
deep  as  the  plow  can  conveniently  be  made  to  penetrate.  In  the  system  of  alter-  ( 
nate  cultivation  and  pasturage,  this  plowing  must  necessarily  be  very  superficial,  S 
and  merely  skim  off  and  turn  over  the  turf,  since  the  object  of  it  is  merely  to  ? 
break  that' up.  Were  a  thick  slice  turned  over,  it  would  not  loosen  and  pulver-  ( 
ize,  nor  would  the  turf  become  decomposed.  As,  in  a  triennial  rotation,  the  fal-  > 
low  plowing  is  seldom  bestowed  until  late  in  the  year,  when  the  soil  is  for  the  ) 
most  part  covered  with  grass,  it  is  advisable  that  in  general  it  should  be  merely  < 
superficial.  But  if  it  takes  place  before  the  commencement  of  winter,  the  opera-  ) 
tion  should  be  carried  to  the  utmost  depth  of  the  soil,  because  the  under  part  of  / 
the  soil  Avill  thus  be  submitted  for  a  longer  period  to  those  fertilizing  influences  ) 
of  the  atmosphere  which  are  so  necessary  and  so  beneficial  to  it.  When  the  ag-  > 
riculturist  wishes  to  augment  the  layer  of  vegetable  mould,  he  must  do  so  by  the  < 
fiirst  plowing.  < 

The  soil  is  generally  suffered  to  remain  in  the  state  to  which  it  is  reduced  by  [ 
the  first  plowing  during  the  Avhole  of  the  winter,  in  order  that  a  greater  extent  of  ( 
surface  may  be  presented  for  the  air  to  act  upon.  This  practice  is  peculiarly  J 
!  adapted  to  land  which  contains  a  great  quantity  of  weeds  propagated  by  their 
roots,  because  the  roots  and  germs  of  these  are  much  more  easily  destroyed  when 
I  thus  exposed  to  the  air,  than  when  buried  again  and  covered  over  with  earth,  as 
is  the  case  after  harrowing  it.  But  where  the  soil  is  chiefly  infested  by  weeds 
springmg  from  seeds,  these  latter  may  be  made  to  spring  up  and  vegetate  before 
winter  comes  on,  by  fallowing  the  land  early  in  the  autumn,  and  then  harrowing 
it.  Besides,  the  mfluence  of  the  atmosphere  is  not  altogether  impeded  by  this 
harrowing,  Isecause  the  air  can  penetrate  sufficiently  into  the  loose  earth  to  fer- 
tilize it,  and  is  enabled  to  act  more  powerfully  on  the  pulverized  clods  than  it 
could  on  hard  masses  of  earth.  The  layer  of  herbage  is,  however  more  com- 
pletely decomposed  when  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  compact,  and  the  air  cannot 
get  at  the  plants  of  which  it  is  composed.  In  fact,  when  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  atmosphere  the  turf  remains  green,  and  not  unfrequently  sprouts  out  between 
the  interstices  left  among  the  slices  cut  off  by  the  plow  ;  the  decomposition  of 
turf,  therefore,  whether  it  be  thin  or  tenacious,  will  be  favored,  not  only  by  ma- 
king use  of  the  harrow  in  order  to  cover  it  with  earth,  but  also  by  employmg  the 
roller  to  press  it  down. 

It  is  seldom  that  the  land  is  plowed  twice  before  the  commencement  of  win- 
ter, however  advantageous  such  a  proceeding  might  be  :  whenever  this  is  done, 
the  first  plowing  ought  to  be  superficial  and  to  take  place  directly  after  the  har- 
vest ;  and  the  second  carried  to  the  utmost  depth  of  the  soil,  and  bestowed  a 
short  time  before  the  beginning  of  winter. 

The  second  plowing  is  generally  not  given  until  spring,  and  until  all  the  sow- 
ings are  effected.  It  should  never  take  place  too  early  in  the  year,  but  should 
rather  be  deferred  until  all  the  weeds  contained  in  the  soil  have  begun  to  shcut 
up.  It  is  not  customary  to  harrow  the  soil  after  the  second  plowing,  although 
this  operation  might  be  advantageous  ;  but  if  it  becomes  necessary  to  defer  this 
plowing,  the  harrowing  cannot  be  dispensed  with :  without  it,  the  ground  Avould 
get  so  hard  that  it  would  be  exceedingly  difficult  to  plow  it,  especially  in  dry 
weather.  If  the  field  thus  fallowed  had  previously  been  pasture  or  meadoAv 
land,  and  thickly  covered  with  herbage,  the  second  plowing  must  be  performed 
in  the  same  direction  Avith  the  first,  because  cross  plowings  would  form  the  turfs 
into  clods,  which  would  be  brought  to  the  surface  and  dragged  along  by  the  har- 
row and  could  v/ith  difficulty  be  divided. 

When  the  first  plowing  has  been  superficial,  the  second  must  be  deep,  in  order 
to  bring  up  the  earth  from  the  bottom  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  cover  up  the 
slice. 

After  such  a  second  plowing  the  harrow  is  always  used.  If  the  field  was  mere 
grass  land  before  being  broken  up,  the  harrowing  must  be  performed  with  heavy 
harroAvs,  in  order  that  by  this  means  the  crust  raised  to  the  surface  of  the  field 
may  be  loosened  and  completely  divided.  In  all  other  cases  the  common  harrow 
will  be  fuUv  capable  of  breaking  down  the  clods. 

It  has  fre'quently  been  asked,  whether  this  harrowing  should  take  place  immc- 
diatelv  after  the  second  ploAving,  or  deferred  until  nearer  to  the  period  of  the 

(836) 


PLOWING.  309 


7] 


third  plowing''.  At  this  season  of  the  year,  exposure  to  the  influence  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  highly  beneficial  to  the  soil.  If  the  weather  be  dry,  the  roots  of  the 
weeds  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays  are  considerably  injured.  Hence  it 
would  appear  advantageous  to  postpone  the  harrowing ;  but  where  the  soil  is  te- 
nacious, care  must  be  taken  that  it  does  not  get  too  dry,  otherwise  the  clods  will 
get  so  hard  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  the  harrow  to  break  them.  On  the  oth- 
er hand,  when  a  foil  is  not  divided,  but  is  left  in  the  state  to  which  it  was  redu- 
ced by  the  plowing,  it  is  not  so  favorable  to  the  germination  of  those  seeds  en- 
closed in  the  clods  as  it  would  .be  if  thoroughly  divided.  If,  therefore,  the  object 
of  the  farmer  be  to  get  rid  of  the  seeds  of  weeds,  it  is  requisite  that  the  soil 
should  be  immediately  harrowed,  in  order  that  those  seeds  which  are  brought  to 
the  surface  by  this  operation  may  be  allowed  time  to  germinate  and  shoot  up  be- 
fore the  period  of  the  ensuing  plowing. 

When  the  width  of  the  field  will  admit  of  it,  the  third  plowing  should  be  in  a 
contrary  direction  to  the  other  two :  and  this  cross  ploAving  will  produce  afar 
better  division  of  the  clods  than  could  have  been  effected  had  the  land  been  al- 
/  ways  tilled  in  the  same  direction.  Those  roots  contained  in  the  furrows  previous-  [ 
.'  ly  formed  Avill  thus  be  detached  and  loosened,  if  not  torn  up  ;  and  the  banks  of  I 
untouched  earth  which  are  frequently  left  between  the  furrows  will  be  cut  through 
and  broken  do^vn:  this  will  account  for  the  fact  that  land  which  has  been  care- 
lessly or  badly  plowed  will  always  be  considerably  ameliorated  by  the  operation 
being  repeated  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  former  ridges.  The  third  tillage 
can,  however,  be  performed  much  better  with  a  binoir  than  it  could  with  a  plow, 
because  the  former  is  better  adapted  than  the  latter  for  the  purpose  of  tearing  up 
the  roots  of  weeds,  and  bringing  those  clods  of  earth  contained  in  the  soil  within 
the  sphere  of  the  action  of  the  harrow. 

The  harrowing  which  follows  this  plowing  ought  to  be  performed  with  pecu- 
liar care,  because  it  is  capable  of  producing  a  wonderful  effect  on  the  soil.  The 
roots  of  the  weeds  are  by  this  time  sufficiently  loosened  to  admit  of  their  being  . 
dragged  to  the  surface,  and  at  this  season  of  the  year  the  sun's  rays  possess  sufli-  i 
cient  power  to  wither  them  up  and  destroy  them.  The  observations  which  we 
made  when  speaking  of  the  expediency  of  harrowing  immediately  after  the  second 
plowing,  or  deferring  it  far  a  while,  will  be  equally  applicable  to  this  case  ;  but 
here,  as  it  is  highly  important  that  the  roots  of  vivacious  weeds  should  be  torn 
up,  and  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun's  rays  previously  to  being  again  buried, 
this  operation  should  be  postponed  for  as  short  a  period  as  possible. 

The  manure  is  usually  buried  by  this  plowing,  and  as  it  is  desirable  that  this 
should  not  be  placed  at  any  great  depth  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  the  third 
plowing  must  be  more  superficial  than  either  the  second  or  the  fourth. 

If  this  plowing  can  be  performed  during  favorable  weather,  that  is  to  sav, 
when  there  has  been  a  succession  of  warm  days  accompanied  by  showers,  this 
circumstance  will  be  found  to  have  considerable  influence  not  only  on  the  ensu- 
ing crop  of  cereals,  but  also  on  the  whole  rotation  ;  and,  in  fact,  the  reciprocal 
action  of  the  soil  and  the  manure  is  then  considerably  augmented.  Those  weeds 
springing  from  seeds,  as  well  as  those  propagated  by  their  roots,  are  then  much 
more  completely  destroyed  and  eradicated  than  they  possibly  could  have  been 
had  the  weather  proved  cold  or  damp.  It  is,  therefore,  highly  necessary  that  this 
operation  should  not  be  deferred  longer  than  is  absolutely  unavoidable,  and  that 
it  should  be  performed  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  summer. 

If  too  much  rain  does  not  fall  after  this  tillage,  and  the  arrangements  of  the 
undertaking  will  admit  of  it,  it  will  be  highly  beneficial  to  stiff  clay  soils  to  be- 
stow another  plowing  on  them  ;  the  durable  amelioration  of  the  land  thus  obtain- 
ed, and  the  improvement  and  augmentation  of  the  crops  yielded  by  it,  will  amply 
repay  the  expense  of  such  an  operation.  When  this  last  mentioned  tillage  is  per- 
formed by  means  of  a  binoir,  the  land  is  tilled  in  a  cross  or  contrary  direction  ; 
but  if  the  plow  is  made  use  of,  such  a  course  of  proceeding  is  almost' impractica- 
ble, on  account  of  the  inconveniences  attendant  on  havmg  to  turn  so  frequently. 

Lastly,  the  seed  fallow,  or  that  plowing  which  is  to  precede  the  sowing,  may 
be  performed  either  with  a  plow  or  a  binoir.  This  operation  is  made  to  penetrate 
to  the  utmost  depth  of  the  soil,  unless,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  with  wheat,  al- 
though it  never  should  be  with  rye  crops,,  the  seed  is  to  be  buried  with  the  plow. 
This  operation  ought  to  be  performed  as  carefully  and  evenly  as  possible.  Should 

(S37; 


310  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

any  inequalities  still  exist  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  a  harrow  may  be  passed 
lightly  over  it,  after  it  has  been  suffered  to  remain  for  a  while  in  the  state  to 
which  it  was  reduced  by  the  plow  ;  this  must  be  done  in  order  to  prevent  the 
seed  from  falling  into  deep  holes,  or  from  being  amassed  too  thickly  in  rows, 
which  always  injures  the  crop.  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  this  occurs  except- 
ing on  land  carelessly  ploAved.  The  seed  is  buried  by  means  of  cross-harrowing, 
or,  where  it  can  be  managed,  of  round  harrowing.  There  are  various  contradic- 
tory opinions  existent  respecting  the  propriety  of  using  the  extirpator  rather  than 
the  binoir,  to  give  the  ground  its  last  tillage  preparatory  to  sowing  the  seeds.  It 
appears  to  me  that  the  latter  instrument  is  by  far  the  most  preferable,  because 
where  it  is  made  use  of  there  is  less  danger  of  the  seed  becoming  accumulated 
in  the  furrows  :  but  then  some  means  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  cattle  from 
walking  on  the  plowed  land. 

When  the  second  plowing  has  been  performed  during  favorable  weather,  and 
carried  to  a  proper  depth,  all  the  succeeding  tillages  may  be  effected  by  means  of 
the  extirpator  ;  the  operations  can  be  much  more  quickly  performed  with  this 
instrument,  and  it  is  decidedly  superior  to  the  plow  on  all  soils  of  a  loose  nature. 
The  promptitude  with  which  the  tillage  can  be  effected  by  it  enables  the  farmer 
to  seleet  the  most  favorable  period  for  the  performance  of  each  operation  ;  it 
breaks  the  clods,  too,  much  more  completely,  and  thus  enables  the  seeds  contain- 
ed in  them  to  vegetate  sooner  and  be  destroyed  with  less  difficulty.  Unfortunate- 
ly, this  instrument  cannot  be  made  use  of  for  the  purpose  of  burying  common 
stabl*  manure :  where  this  has  to  be  done,  recourse  must,  therefore,  be  had  to 
the  plow  ;  but  if  the  manure  merely  consists  of  a  thoroughly  decomposed  compost 
mixture,  or  of  lime,  the  extirpator  will  be  found  peculiarly  serviceable. 

There  doubtless  are  many  countries  in  which  the  farmers  have  not  the  least 
idea  of  the  necessity  of  bestowing  this  amount  of  labor  and  attention  on  a  fallow. 
The  being  compelled  to  reserve  some  pasturage  for  the  cattle  during  half  the 
summer,  however  poor  and  scanty  it  may  be,  obliges,  or  at  any  rate  inclines, 
many  agriculturists  not  to  break  up  the  ground  for  the  purpose  of  fallowmg  it 
until  toward  the  end  of  June,  and  to  continue  this  tillage  in  July  ;  then  there  is 
not  a  moment  to  be  lost  if  we  would  plow  it  three  times  without  deferring  the 
sowing,  the  more  especially  as  this  is  the  period  at  which  the  manure  is  carried. 
These  three  plowings  may  be  sufficient  to  loosen  and  divide  sandy  soils,  and  ren- 
der them  thoroughly  homogeneous  ;  in  fact,  it  is  not  improbable  that  too  great  a 
degree  of  tillage  bestowed  on  them  would  tend  to  injure  rather  than  benefit  the 
ensuing  crops,  by  depriving  the  land  of  its  adherence  and  consistency.  But  three 
plowings  are  far  from  being  sufficient  to  eradicate  all  the  weeds,  consequently, 
'  in  such  places  the  soil  is  overrun  to  a  dreadful  extent  with  every  description  of 
weed,  and  especially  with  couch-grass  :  this  is  accounted  for  by  the  plowings 
being  so  near  together  as  not  to  allow  time  for  the  seeds  contained  in  the  clods  to 
germinate.  Besides,  the  manure  cannot  be  sufficiently  divided  and  mixed  up 
with  the  soil  to  enable  the  lirst  crop  to  derive  those  advantages  from  it  which 
might  otherwise  be  obtained.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  on  fallowing  laud 
which  has  been  thus  tilled,  lumps  of  dung  are  found  similar  in  appearance  to 
peat,  and  which  can  with  difficulty  be  broken.  It  is  on  land  thus  cultivated  that 
it  may  with  truth  be  asserted,  manure  produces  less  effect  on  the  first  than  on  the 
second  crop.  For  the  sake  of  a  scanty  pasturage  the  farmers  forego  all  those  ad- 
vantages which  might  be  attained  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  produce  of  their  land 
for  one  whole  year.  Necessity  may  be  pleaded  as  an  excuse  for  this  error,  but 
whence  arises  that  necessity  ? 

The  usual  preparation  for  spring  corn  is  three  plowings ;  and  in  order  to  have 
time  to  give  these,  the  land  is  broken  up  in  the  autumn  after  the  sowings  of  the 
season  are  completed.  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  the  ground  is  broken  up  im- 
mediately after  the  harvest,  even  in  agricultural  undertakings  where  this  is  prac- 
ticable :  the  old  proverb  "  Let  the  plow  follow  the  sickle,"  ought  to  be  attended 
to  oftener  than  it  is.  But  whenever  this  is  done,  the  land  may  be  plowed  a  sec- 
ond time  before  winter  comes  on,*  otherwise  that  operation  must  be  performed 

*  I  find  it  an  excellent  practice  to  till  my  fields  once  or  twice  with  the  extirpator  immediately  after  harvest 
13  over.    This  does  not  occupy  much  time,  and  the  seeds  of  those  weeds  which  have  shot  up  during  the    i 
growth  of  the  autumnal  corn  have  then  time  to  geraiinate  before  they  are  too  deeply  buried.     In  fact,  i  ci 
not  expatiate  too  largely  on  the  advantages  which  I  derive  from  the  use  of  the  extirpator,  and  especiiJly 
that  one  improved  by  M.  Fellenberg.  \French.  Tram 

(838) 


PLOWING.  311 


as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  weather  will  permit.  Properly  speaking,  the  second 
plowiug  ought  to  be  deeper  than  the  first,  and  to  be  succeeded  by  a  harrowing  ;  a 
third  plowing  must  then  be  bestowed  on  the  land,  and  this  succeeded  by  a  fourth, 
which  is  intended  to  bury  the  seed,  unless  heavy  rains  prevent  it. 

This  ought  to  be  the  preparation  for  the  spring  sowing,  but  it  not  unfrequently 
happens  that  weather  or  Vv'ant  of  hands  prevent  the  farmer  from  giving  it,  and  he 
is  forced  to  content  himself  with  two  plowings,  the  tirst  of  which  is  very  imper- 
fect. Oats  and  large  two-rowed  barley  are  frequently  sown  Avith  this  scanty 
amount  of  tillage,  because  the  farmer  fears  that  if  he  stops  to  give  more  they 
will  not  be  got  into  the  ground  soon  enough.  Small  spring  barley,  in  four  rows, 
need  not  be  sown  so  earlj^  and  it  is  probable  that  it  is  on  this  account  that  it  is 
preferred  in  those  places  where  the  triennial  rotation  is  in  full  vigor  ;  in  fact,  in 
this  rotation  it  is  so  necessary  that  three  plowings  should  be  bestowed  on  land  in- 
tended for  the  reception  of  barley,  that  the  farmer  must  not  be  deterred  from  giv- 
ing them,  by  any  fear  of  the  evil  consequences  which  may  result  from  such  a 
late  sowing.  The  tillage  bestowed  on  land  in  the  spring  as  a  preparation  for  bar- 
ley, frequently  contributes  far  more  to  loosen  the  soil  than  one  plowing  at  the  end 
of  autumn  given  to  land  which  is  to  be  fallowed  in  the  ensuing  year,  especially  if 
the  spring  is  drier  than  the  latter  end  of  autumn  was. 

The  practice  of  half  plowing  is  frequently  had  recourse  to  for  the  purpose  of 
fallowing  land.  This  operation  consists  in  raising  slices  of  earth  with  the  plow, 
which  are  turned  over  strips  of  untouched  ground,  which  latter  alternate  with 
the  furrows  emptied  by  the  plow  throughout  the  whole  of  the  field,  and  are  cov- 
ered by  the  furrow  slice  :  but  the  slices  must  be  rather  wider  than  the  strips  of 
earth  if  we  would  have  the  latter  entirely  covered  by  them.  This  practice  facili- 
tates the  decomposition  of  stubble,  the  action  of  frost  on  the  ground,  and  the 
loosening  of  the  earth  ;  it  enables  the  harrow  to  act  more  efficiently  on  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  to  tear  up  the  couch-grass  and  other  weeds,  and  to  divide  the  soil 
more  completely.  But  this  operation  must  not  be  delayed  too  long,  otherwise, 
on  land  thus  tilled,  the  slice  which  covers  the  strip  will  have  entered  into  vege- 
tation with  it,  and  there  will  be  great  difficulty  in  leveling  the  soil.  This  mode 
of  plowing  prevents  the  land  from  suffering  from  excess  of  humidity,  because  the 
water  runs  into  the  furrows  left  open  by  the- plow  and  leaves  the  slices  dry. 
Sometimes  after  the  harrowing  the  operation  of  half  ploAving  is  repeated  ;  but  on 
this  occasion  the  order  is  reversed,  the  strips  are  transformed  into  furrows,  and 
the  slices  raised  thence  are  inverted  on  the  places  previously  occupied  by  the 
furrows. 

But  whenever  it  is  practicable  to  plow  the  land  across,  that  will  be  even  more  / 
beneficial  than  a  second  half  ■plowing.  \' 

The  operations  of  plowing  require  constant  attention  from  the  fanner,  or  from  I 
the  person  who  has  the  management  of  the  undertaking ;  they  must,  in  a  manner  i 
of  speaking,  never  be  lost  sight  of,  even  though  not  always  able  to  be  present.  If 
he  has  several  plows  at  work,  he  ought  to  put  each  one  under  the  guidance  of 
some  laborer,  and  on  no  account  to  forbear  testifying  his  displeasure  if  he  finds 
the  slices  carelessly  turned  over,  or  the  furrows  crooked  or  uneven  ;  should  he 
fail  to  do  this,  the  same  spirit  of  negligence  will  soon  pervade  every  portion  of 
this  operation. 

The  first  plowing  requires  the  greatest  attention  ;  every  possible  care  must  he 
taken  to  make  the  slices  of  equal  width  and  depth  throughout.  Next  to  this  op- 
eration, the  one  which  precedes  the  sowings  requires  most  precision  ;  the  inter- 
mediate plowings  are  of  comparatively  but  little  importance.  Should  it  be  ne- 
cessary to  perform  several  plowings  on  different  parts  of  the  farm  at  the  same 
time,  the  most  skillful  laborers  must  always  be  picked  out  for  those  just  men-  ( 
I    tioned.  ,  « 

Both  the  eye  and  hand  of  the  master  should  invariably  be  put  in  requisition  to 
see  that  all  the  plows  are  in  proper  working   order,  even  though   the  care  of  all 
\  the  agricultural  implements  may  be  the  province  of  the  inspector  of  the  in-door 
operations,  or  the  overseer  or  head  laborer. 

In  order  to  make  sure  that  the  laborers  shall  execute  that  quantum  of  work 
which  they  ought  to  do  and  are  able  to  perform  in  a  given  time,  it  is  desirable 
that  large  extents  of  ground  should  be  divided  into  portions  by  driving  in  stakes, 
or  by  parceling  out  the  soil  into  a  certain  number  of  beds  ;  such  a  division  will 

(839) 


312  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


■^■^^^^%i^>^^^y 


also  be  found  useful  for  distributing  the  manure,  the  seed,  and  various  other  ope- 
rations. 

In  large  agricultural  undertakings  is  it  advisable  to  employ  several  plovi^s  on 
one  bed,  or  to  divide  them  among  the  different  ridges  ?  There  are  many  farm- 
ers who  make  use  of  ten  or  twelve  plows  one  after  another,  and  thus  plow  toler- 
ably large  beds  of  land  in  but  few  plow-lines  ;  this  plan  is  adopted  in  order  to 
render  the  task  of  overlooking  the  laborers  one  of  less  difficulty,  and  to  enable 

/  one  bailiff  or  overseer  to  direct  the  operation  of  all  the  instruments  at  once,  and 

',   superintend  the  plowing.     Others  either  only  put  one  plow  on  each  ridge,  or  at 

most  not  more  than  two  or  three:  this  is  my  practice.     The  latter  appears  to  be 

.  the  best  mode  of  proceeding,  Avhen  we  come  to  consider  that  if  several  plows  are 
at  work  one  after  another  they  will  all  be  stopped  by  the  slightest  disarrange- 
ment of  the  foremost  one.  Besides,  while  thus  working  after  each  other  one  will 
cover  the  faults  of  another,  so  as  to  render  it  impossible  to  discover  which  of  the 
i  laborers  work  Avell,  and  which  badly  ;  the  master  or  overseer  is  consequently  un- 
able to  appreciate  the  degree  of  skill  manifested  by  each  of  his  men.  It  is  im- 
possible to  make  teams  and  laborers  work  together  whose  activity,  strength,  and 
skill  are  not  equal.  Lastly,  unless  the  beds  are  left  unfinished,  almost  all  the 
plows  are  obliged  to  stand  still  while  one  or  two  of  them  are  finishing  the  oper- 
ation. 

It  is  easy  to  distribute  several  ploAvs  over  the  same  field,  and  yet  allow  them 
to  be  sufSciently  near  together  to  admit  of  all  being  under  the  surveillance  of  one 
person,  without  putting  them  on  the  same  bed  or  ridge  ;  all  that  is  requisite  to 
be  done  is  carefully  to  mark  out  the  ridges,  and  to  allot  to  each  plow  its  own. 

The  borders  or  mounds  of  earth  at  the  extremity  of  the  ridges,  and  on  which 
the  team  turns  in  order  to  commence  a  fresh  furrow,  require  particular  attention 
and  examination,  because  the  pressure  of  the  feet  of  the  cattle  on  those  parts 
hardens  the  earth  excessively.  If  the  land  is  plowed  outward,  in  order  to  form 
a  ridge,  they  frequently  oppose  a  high  bank  to  the  drainage  of  water;  if  the 
ground  is  plowed  inward  the  water  collects  in  the  middle  furrow  ;  it  is  better, 
therefore,  to  give  them  only  one  inclination,  or,  in  other  words,  to  turn  over  all 
the  slices  on  the  same  side. 

Plowing  can  only  be  productive  of  all  the  advantages  which  it  is  capable  of 
producing  when  the  ground  is  in  a  proper  state  to  benefit  by  that  operation  ;  that 
is  to  say,  when  it  is  sufficiently  dry  and  friable,  and  inclined  to  divide.  When 
the  soil  is  moist,  so  much  so  that  the  slices  adhere  together,  and  the  friction  of 
the  plow  forms  a  shining  crust,  which  when  dry  becomes  extremely  hard,  it  di- 
vides into  lumps  harder  even  than  the  soil  was  before  it  took  place  ;  and  these 
lumps  part  again  into  clods  of  various  sizes,  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
break  until  they  have  been  acted  upon  and  restored  to  their  primitive  permeabil- 
ity by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  and  of  frost.  It  may  easily  be  supposed  that 
such  a  plowing  neither  destroys  the  Aveeds  themselves  nor  such  of  their  seeds  as 
are  contained  in  the  soil;  tiie  couch-grass  is  only  multiplied  by  being  cut :  be- 
sides, the  labor  of  this  operation,  which  is  in  itself  so  useless,  is  very  fatiguing  to 
the  draught  cattle.  On  the  other  hand,  the  plowing  is  equally  laborious,  both 
to  tlie  laborers  and  to  the  cattle,  when  the  ground  is  too  dry,  especially  if  badly 
constructed  wheel-plows  are  used  ;  the  soil  does  not  in  this  case  divide  equally, 
but  splits  into  clods.     Nevertheless,  Avith  the  help  of  good  implements,  and  Avith 

'  an  accession  of  draught  poAver,  the  operation  can  be  performed  under  these  cir- 
cumstances ;  and  the  only  inconvenience  attendant  on  the  ploAving  of  dry  soils  is 
the  expenditure  of  time  and  labor  ;  for  the  clods  just  spoken  of  fall  to  pieceis  as 
soon  as  ever  a  heavy  rain  comes  on,  and  form  a  very  permeable  and  friable  soil. 
In  all  cases  it  is  of  the  greatest  possible  importancethat  the  period  at  Aviiich  the 
soil  possesses  that  degree  of  humidity  which  is  most  favorable  to  the  operation  i 
should  be  chosen  for  the  ploAving  of  stiff  clays.  And  as  this  favorable  degree  of 
moisture  does  not  pervade  Avhole  farms  or  even  Avhole  fields  at  the  same  time,  it 

;    requires  constant  and  vigilant  attention  on  the  part  of  the  farmer  to  enable  him 

(    to  seize  on  the  exact  moment  Avhich  is  propitious  to  each  particular  spot. 

I        It  is  by  his  attention  to  these  minutiae  that  the  scientific  is  distinguished  from 
the  merely  practical  agriculturist  ;  and  this  circumstance  alone  Aviil  frequently 

I    render  the  crops  of  the  former  I'tir  superior  to  those  of  the  latter.     The  places 

'    which  are  most  diificult  to  be  ploAved  ought  to  be  taken  at  the  most  favorable 


CLEARING  LAND.  313 


period,  and  all  the  manual  and  draught  power  which  the  farmer  has  at  his  dis- 
posal brought  into  play  for  the  purpose  ;  it  is  often  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
not  a  single  day  should  be  lost. 

The  English  [in  some  counties — Ed.]  designate  that  state  of  the  soil  in  which 
"•t  is  exactly  fit  to  be  plowed,  by  the  word  tid.  They  say  "  the  soil  has  now  the  * 
tid,''''  or  "  the  land  was  plowed  or  sown  at  good  <n/."  Our  laborers  say  "  the 
soil  is  now  gaare,''''  or  it  has  been  plowed  or  sown  at  the  most  favorable  period. 
The  French  say,  "  the  soil  is  nov»r  de  prise,"  or  "it  has  been  plowed"  oi  hon 
temps. 

It  is  necessary  to  select  the  moment  for  harrowing  with  even  more  care  than 
that  for  plowing  ;  the  state  of  the  soil  will  always  determine  the  expediency  of 
performing  the  harrowing  at  once,  or  deferring  it  to  some  future  period.  It  is, 
doubtless,  exceedingly  desirable  that  the  soil  should  be  left  for  a  certain  period 
in  the  state  to  which  it  was  reduced  by  the  action  of  the  plow,  because  it  is  then 
brought  into  closer  contact  with  the  atmosphere,  and  a  great  portion  of  the  weeds 
contained  in  it,  as  well  as  their  roots,  withered  and  dried  up  ;  in  general,  there- 
fore, it  is  better  i\ot  to  harrow  the  soil  immediately  after  the  plowing.  I  should 
not,  however,  advise  any  one  to  postpone  the  harrowing  until  a  few  days  before  ; 
the  ensuing  plowing,  because  in  that  case  those  seeds  of  weeds  contained  in  the 
soil  have  not  time  to  germmate  ;  besides  the  roots  of  the  weeds  cannot  then  be 

I  so  easily  separated  from  their  hold  in  the  soil  and  pulled  up.  Hence  it  will  ap- 
pear that  the  best  period  for  harrowing  is,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  middle  of 
that  space  of  time  which  intervenes  between  one  plowing  and  another  ;  but  this 
must  not  be  thought  to  be  applicable  to   every  kind  of  soil  indiscriminately,  and 

'  can  only  be  considered  as  a  general  rule  when  applied  to  such  as  do  not  resist 
the  action  of  the  harrow  Avhen  they  have  got  rid  of  their  superabundant  moisture.    ' 

Tenacious  soils  which  become  harder  the  more  they  are  impregnated  with  wa- 
ter, require  that  the  exact  moment  when  they  can  be  divided  with  least  difficulty 
should  be  embraced  for  harrowing  them  ;  it  is  dangerous  to  allow  this  to  pass 
by,  especially  if  the  temperature  seems  settled  ;  thus  it  is  often  advisable  to  har-  ,' 
row  land  on  the  same  day  on  which  it  is  plowed.  It  is  on  this  account  that  in 
some  countries,  the  soil  of  which  is  of  an  argillaceous  nature,  it  is  customary  to 

'  attach  a  third  horse  to  the  trace  of  the  right-hand  horse  attached  to  the  plow,   i 
which  animal  draws  a  little  harrow,  and  thus  divides  the  soil  immediately  after    ' 
the  plow  has  passed  over  it.     Young  horses  which  require  training,  or  weak  an- 
imals, are  employed  in  this  work. 

CLEARING  LAND. 

It  is  seldom  that  uncultivated  land  can  be  plowed  until  after  it  has  been  clear- 
ed ;  nevertheless,  we  have  permitted  our  instructions  with  respect  to  the  former 
to  precede  those  relaiing  to  the  latter,  because  they  constitute  an  introduction  to 
what  we  shall  noAV  have  to  say  ;  and,  besides,  a  farmer  always  ploAvs  the  arable 
land  he  has  already,  before  he  attempts  to  clear  and  take  in  fresh  portions. 

In  order  not  to  separate  the  various  portions  of  this  subject,  we  must  here  en- 
ter into  an  examination  not  only  of  the  manner  in  which  the  operation  of  clear- 
ing should  be  conducted,  but  also  of  those  financial  considerations  which  must 
not  be  lost  sight  of  in  such  an  undertaking. 

That  the  chief  part  of  waste  land  might  be  turned  to  advantage,  is  a  question 
'>vhich  admits  of  no  doubt  whatever.  Land  covered  with  furze  ;  the  soil  of  an- 
cient forests  overrun  with  this  plant,  or  covered  by  stagnant  water  ;  those  moving  '' 
sands  which  are  often  carried  from  place  to  place  by  the  wind,  and  threaten  de- 
struction to  the  neighboring  country;  neglected  tracts  which  yield  nothing  at  all, 
or  at  most  but  a  scanty  return  ;  in  short,  almost  all  kinds  of  land  are  susceptible 
of  some  kind  of  tillage,  and  capable  of  yielding  certain  varieties  of  produce.  But 
operations  of  this  nature  are  not  always  attended  with  profit  ;  on  the  contrary,  it 
often  happens  that  land  thus  brought  into  cultivation  eventually  costs  ^s  much, 
if  not  more,  than  it  would  have  been  necessary  to  give  for  the  purchase  of  such 
as  was  already  in  a  state  of  cultivation. 

Even  when  the  plan  of  proceeding  in  conducting  these  operations  is  such  as 
positively  to  ensure  success,  the  outlay  of  money  which  they  require,  and  the 
time  v/hich  they  occupy,  are  so  considerable,  that  whoever  thinks  of  undertaking 
such  improvements  should,  in  the  first   place,  carefully  consider  whether  or  not 

■Ml) 


314  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

it  will  be  in  his  power  to  carry  them  out,  and  whether,  during  their  progress,  he 
may  not  find  cause  to  regret  the  expenditure  of  so  much  labor  and  capital  upon 
them.     Both  public  and  private  interest  demand  that  undertakings  of  this  nature 
should  rather  be  left  altogether  unatterapted  than  abandoned  in  the  middle  or 
imperfectly  executed.     It  often  happens  that  those   sacrifices  which  have  been 
made  for  the  sake  of  bringing  fresh  portions  of  land  into  cultivation  are  not  fol- 
lowed by  any  satisfactory  returns,  because  they  have  not  been  carried  out  to  the  ] 
requisite  extent.     Indeed,  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  for  land  thus  treated  to    | 
become  even  more  sterile  than  it  was  before.     A  pasture  capable  of  keeping  \ 
sheep,  or  land  on  which  bushes  and  small   trees  grew,  may  by  these  means  be 

,  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  barren  waste.  Such  occurrences  frighten  and  dis- 
courage  the  descendants  of  those  who  have  engaged  in  such  speculations  for 
several  generations,  and  cause  them  to  blame  their  ancestors  for  having  deprived 
the  other  lands  on  their  estate  of  that  cultivation  and  manure  which  would  have 
benefited  them  so  materially,  and  wasted  it  in  a  vain  speculation. 

When,  therefore,  such  an  undertaking  is  in  contemplation,  it  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  all  the  circumstances  connected  with  the  locality  in  Avhich  it  is 
to  be  executed  should  be  carefully  examined,  and  an  exact  estimate  of  what  may 
be  the  value  of  the  land,  and  how  much  that  may  be  influenced  by  position,  &c., 
made.  It  must  also  be  considered  under  all  the  relations  pointed  out  in  the  trea- 
tise on  "Agronomy,"  and  in  that  division  which  relates  to  the  "  Valuation  of  Es- 
tates." 

It  is  also  necessary  to  inquire  whether  we  possessanabsoluteright  of  property 
over  the  land  ;  whether  we  can  dispose  of  it  by  legacy  or  by  sale  ;  or  whether,  on 
the  other  hand,  we  possess  but  a  limited  right  in  it.     All  liabilities  attached  to 

I    the  soil,  or  taxes  based  upon  the  amount  of  produce  which  are  likely  to  intrench 

I  so  largely  on  the  returns  as  to  exceed  the  profit  arising  from  the  improvement  of 
the  soil,  and  thus  annihilate  the  advantages  which  might  have  been  expected  to 

'  accrue,  must  be  taken  into  accouftt.  Tithes  too  often  actually  destroy  the  profits. 
It  is  likewise  necessary  to  be  well  assured  that  the  requisite  number  of  labor- 
ers for  carrying  on  the  work  can  always  be  procured  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
also  that  the  labor  which  may  be  expected  from  them  is  proportionate  to  the  wa- 
ges which  they  demand ;  whether  it  is  necessary  to  provide  oneself  with  the 
teams  which  will  be  required,  and  maintain  them  upon  purchased  fodder,  or  on 
the  other  hand,  whether  the  beasts  of  draught  which  must  be  employed  in  the 

I  operation,  can  be  hired  in  the  neighborhood.  Finally,  and  this  perhaps,  ought  to 
be  the  first  consideration,  whether  we  shall  have  at  our  disposal  for  a  sufficiently 
long  period  the  amount  oi' capital  requisite  to  cover  all  the  outlay,  and  whether 
we  can  dispense  with  the  interest  of  it  during  the  whole  time  that  the  improve- 
ments are  in  progress. 

There  are  two  cases,  in  particular,  which  require  to  be  well  distinguished. 
Either  the  clearing  is  to  be  performed  in  the  neighborhood  of  an  agricultural  es- 
tablishment already  organized,  and  carried  on  in  connection  with  it,  so  that  it 
may  be  performed  with  the  same  teams,  laborers,  and  resources,  and  at  the  most 
convenient  periods;  or  an  entirely  new  establishment  is  to  be  organized  upon  the 
very  soil  submitted  to  the  operation,  and  the  agriculturist  has  to  look  to  that  soil 

;    for  the  means  of  cultivating  and  improving  it. 

^  In  the  former  case,  the  difficulties  to  be  encountered  are  not  so  great  as  in  the 
latter.  Nevertheless,  it  is  necessary  maturely  to  consider  in  Avhat  manner  the 
land  about  to  be  brought  into  cultivation  can  best  be  placed  in  connection  with 
the  existing  establishment,  and  to  determine  to  what  extent  the  old  and  new  por- 

I  tions  of  soil  will  be  able  to  assist  each  other  ;  how  they  can  be  blended  together 

,  so  as  to  form  a  well-regulated  and  well-proportioned  whole  ;  and,  above  all 
things,  carefully  to  inquire  whether  the  nature  and  situation  of  the  land  about  to 

(    be  enclosed  will  admit  of  its  being  subjected  to  the  same  rotation  as  the  rest,  or 

'    whether  the  system  of  cultivation  employed  on  it  must  be  diflferent  from  that  of 

'    any  of  the  rest  of  the  farm  lands. 

in  eflfecting  such  an  addition  to  the  land,  it  is  not  unusual  to  fall  into  one  of 
two  extremes. 

Sometimes  the  old  land  is  neglected  from  a  predilection  for  the  new  and  the 
entire  resources  of  the  estate  exclusively  devoted  to  the  latter,  to  the  rnanifest 
detriment  of  the  whole.     The  consequence  of  this  is,  that  the  net  profit  is  often 

(342) 


CLEARING  LAND.  315 


diminished  during  a  long  series  of  years  ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  and  most  fre- 
quently, the  new  land  after  having  been  broken  up  is  treated  merely  as  an  acces- 
sory to  that  portion  previously  in  a  state  of  cultivation.  It  is  exhausted,  depriv- 
ed of  all  its  nutritive  principles  and  power  by  being  made  to  bear  a  series  of  crops 
intended  for  sale  or  for  home  consumption,  without  rendering  back  to  the  soil 
whence  they  sprang  the  manure  arishig  from  it.  This  mode  of  proceeding 
is  based  upon  the  erroneous  supposition  that  the  soil  naturally  contains  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  nutritive  matter  to  enable  it  to  produce  a  succession  of  crops  ; 
and  when  this  is  exhausted,  a  moderate  manuring  with  dung  will  restore  it  to  a 
state  of  fertility.  Experience  has,  however,  clearly  proved,  that  when  newly 
.  cultivated  soils  have  been  thus  impoverished,  they  do  not  recover  their  condition 
until  after  having  been  repeatedly  manured,  and  without  such  treatment  actually 
yield  no  profit.  Under  such  circumstances,  they,  are  usually  abandoned  in  their 
exhausted  state  as  barren  and  useless  soils,  incapable  even  of  affording  a  scanty 
sustenance  to  sheep,  and  are  made  use  of  as  scare-crows  to  frighten  other  persons 
and  deter  them  from  entering  into  speculations  of  a  similar  nature. 

The  rule  which  it  is  most  important  to  observe,  and  which  can  never  be  trans- 
gressed with  impunity,  is  to  endeavor  to  derive  a  sufficient  quantity  of  substantial 
fodder  from  the  newly  cultivated  land  to  admit  of  a  larger  number  of  cattle  being 
maintained.     Unless  this  land  consist  of  an  alluvial  soil  of  great  natural  fertility, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  cause  it  to  bear  at  least  two  crops  of  fodder,  or  else  be 
laid  dbwn  to  grass  during  that  period  ;  for  each  crop  of  corn  obtained  from  it,  and 
the  whole  of  the  manure  resulting  from  the  consumption  of  its  produce,  must  be 
bestowed  upon  it.     If  this  is  not  done,  an  equal  extent  of  the  old  fields  must  be 
laid  down  to  grass,  instead  of  the  newly  cleared  land,  and  the  manure  produced 
by  the  cattle  fed  upon  such  pastures  devoted  to  the  improvement  of  the  latter. 
But  under  such  circumstances,  even  though  the  plan  thus  described  may  be  capa- 
)  ble  of  etfecting  the  fertilization  of  the  newly  cleared  lands,  still,  if  the  earth  of 
which  the  soil  is  composed  be  of  a  very  light  and  porous  nature,  it  must  not  be 
,    submitted  to  the  action  of  the  plow  for  several  successive  years,  unless  care  be 
taken  to  alternate  the  corn  crops  with  crops  of  clover  and  other  fodder  plants  ; 
[    otherwise  the  land  will  be  deprived  of  all  its  consistency.     In  a  word,  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  newly  cleared  land,  we  must  endeavor  to  give  to  the  Avhole  of  the  ag- 
\  ricultural  establishment  that  equilibrium  and  those  just  proportions  which  will 
]'  ensure  its  success,  and  avoid  all  risk  of  disturbing  the  harmony  of  the  whole. 
'       The   difficulties  to  be  surmounted  are  much  greater  when  the  operation  of 
clearing  has  to  be  undertaken  in  a  remote   situation,  and  a  new  agricultural 
establishment  founded  and  arranged  on  the  land  itself     In  such  cases,  it  is  per- 
fectly impossible  to  do  without  cattle,  if  we  would  bestow  that  quantity  of  ma- 
nure on  the  soil  which  is  indispensable  to  its  fertility ;  these  cattle  cannot  be 
maintained  without  an  adequate  supply  of  fodder,  and  the  fodder  cannot  be  raised 
unless  the  soil  is  manured  and  tilled.     These  things  are  naturally  dependent  up- 
on one  another:  it  is  therefore  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  bring  the  soil  into 
a  productive  state  ;  and  this  is  the  foundation  of  the  whole  undertaking.     Conse- 
quently, we  may  consider  it  as  an  invariable  rule  and  fundamental  principle,  that 
in  the  first  place,  a  portion  only  (greater  or  less  according  to  circumstances)  of 
I  the  land  which  is  to  be  cleared  shall  be  broken  up  and  brought  into  cultivation, 
!  and  then  the  clearing  be  gradually  extended  to  the  remainder  ;  the  first  portion 
must  be  brought  into  as  good  condition  as  possible,  by  bestowing  upon  it  all  the 
labor  and  manure  which  it  requires,  in  order  that  it  riiay  be  able  to  produce  those 
crops  which  will  serve  to  supply  the  subsequently  cleared  pieces  of  land  with  the 
manure  necessary  for  their  fertilization,  and  thus  serve  as  the  basis  of  the  whole 
undertaking. 

If  the  teams  i^equired  for  the  execution  of  the  tillage  operations  of  the  first  por- 
tion of  land  can  be  hired  in  the  neighborhood,  it  will  be  found  more  economical 
to  employ  them,  although  paying  highly  for  them,  than  to  keep  teams  belonging 
to  the  establishment ;  unless,  indeed,  employment  can  be  found  for  the  latter 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  year.  If  the  proprietor  should  have  an  agricultural 
establishment  at  no  very  great  distance,  it  will  perhaps  be  most  advantageous  to 
send  the  teams  thence  to  the  new  estate,  during  that  portion  of  the  year  at  which 
they  can  best  be  spared. 
It  is  seldom  that  cattle  can  be  maintained  at  first,  on  account  of  there  not  be- 

(843) 


316 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


mg  a  sufficient  supply  of  that  kind  of  fodder  which  they  require,  and  because,  if 
they  were  purchased  under  such  circumstances,  they  would  eventuallv  cost  more 
than  they  would  repay.  Sheep,  on  the  contrary,  may  almost  always  be  main- 
tained, for  no  one  would  think  of  attempting  to  cultivate  spots  so  barren  as  not 
to  be  capable  even  of  yielding  a  scanty  sustenance  to  these  animals.  Should 
there  not  be  a  sufficient  quantity  of  fodder  at  first  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
sheep  during  the  winter,  only  such  as  are  intended  to  be  slaughtered  must  be 
kept.  But  the  requisite  amount  of  pasturage  will  soon  be  obtained  if  the  ani- 
mals are  penned  on  the  land  which  has  been  sown  with  fodder  plants,  and  if  only 
such  plants  have  been  sown  as  are  of  rapid  growth,  as  spurry,  radishes,  rape, 
buckwheat,  kc,  and  the  sheep  that  are  fattening  are  made  to  eat  them  while 
green.  After  these  plants  have  been  gathered  or  eaten  off  the  ground,  the  sheep 
must  again  be  penned  on  it  ;  and  subsequently  it  may  be  soavit  with  grain,  inter- 
mixed with  red  or  white  clover,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  in  order  to 
obtain  fodder  from  it  or  leave  it  as  pasture  land.  When  a  portion  of  the  land  to 
be  cleared  has  thus  been  brought  into  a  state  of  cultivation,  the  clearing  may  be 
continued  from  year  to  year  ;  and  the  establishment  will  soon  be  in  a  sufficiently 
prosperous  state  to  be  able  to  support  horned  cattle  and  produce  stable  manure. 

When  a  soil  which  has  been  left  for  some  years  in  the  state  of  pasture  land, 
after  having  been  previously  sown  with  clover,  is  broken  up,  j)lentiful  crops  will 
be  obtained  from  it ;  and  this  portion  will  yield  not  only  corn  enough  for  supply- 
ing the  establishment  with  bread,  but  also  the  quantity  of  fodder  requisite  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  horses  ;  and  then  is  the  time  to  effect  a  complete  and 
perfect  organization  of  all  the  several  parts  of  the  establishment. 

At  the  commencement  of  such  an  undertaking,  the  first  and  only  point  to  be  at- 
tended to,  is  the  means  of  obtaining  fodder,  and  through  it  manure.  It  will,  gen- 
erally speaking,  be  necessary,  for  a  considerable  period,  to  abandon  all  idea  of  ob- 
taining any  net  profit ;  indeed,  it  will  rather  be  desirable  to  devote  a  second 
amount  of  capital  to  the  tillage  of  the  land  which  we  wish  to  improve  and  bring 
into  cultivation,  and  advance  certain  sums  for  that  purpose,  which,  may,  hov.^- 
ever,  be  gradually  diminished  every  year.  This  outlay,  and  the  interest  which 
it  would  have  yielded  under  investment,  will  be  amply  repaid  by  the  increase  of 
produce  which  will  eventually  be  obtained  from  the  soil.* 

From  what  has  already  been  said,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  operation  of  clear- 
ing and  improving  land,  when  executed  upon  soils  of  ordinary  fertility,  absolutely 
requirt'S  a  command  of  pecuniary  resources,  united  with  a  great  deal  of  ability, 
zeal  and  patience.  No  person  ought,  therefore,  ever  to  undertake  it  who  is  short 
of  money,  or  who  is  not  largely  gifted  with  experience  and  perseverance  ;  al- 
though it  too  often  happens  that  persons  Avho  possess  least  of  all  these  qualifica- 
tions, are  the  very  men  who  engage  in  such  speculations.  Many  agriculturists 
have  been  completely  ruined  by  operations  of  this  nature ;  even  when  the  soil  on 
which  they  worked  was  of  a  very  good  quality,  they  have  been  compelled  to 
abandon  the  enterprise  without  bringing  it  to  a  favorable  conclusion.  Under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances,  the  soil  does  not  attain  any  great  degree  of  fertil- 
ity, if  from  any  cause  it  has  been  impossible  to  bestow  the  full  amount  of  outlay 
which  it  requires,  and  of  tillage  upon  it ;  unless,  indeed,  it  is  naturally  possessed 
of  an  almost  inexhaustible  quantity  of  nutrition  and  richness,  as  is  the  case  with 
the  marshes  of  the  Oder  and  the  Wartba. 

At  all  events,  clearing  of  land  is  an  undertaking  not  at  all  adapted  to  the  cir- 
cumstances and  resources  of  small  farmers,  or  of  the  peasantry.  Even  if  any  one 
were  inclined  to  assist  men  of  this  class  in  such  operations  by  pecuniary  advance, 
they  would  be  unable  to  extend  their  views  through  a  long  series  of  years  ;  they 
r'ould  require  to  reap  the  fruits  of  their  labor  at  once.  There  is  certainly  every 
reasonable  ground  for  expecting  a  speedy  return  of  capital  when  the  soil  to  be 
cleared  has  been  for  years  old  forest  or  pasture  land,  supposing  that  an  exhaust- 
ig  system  of  cultivation  is  resorted  to,  and  the  land  by  repeated  plowings,  with- 
out any  attempt  at  obtaining  the  means  of  maintaining  cattle  and  procuring  ma- 
nure, is  made  to  produce  a  rapid  succession  of  crops  intended  for  sale.  But  it 
must  be  remembered  that  such  a  course  of  proceeding  will  soon  reduce  any  soil,   i 

*  See  the  "  Annalen  des  Ackerbaues,"  1808,  vol.  vii.  p.  313,  in  which  will  be  found  a  detailed  accrunt  and 
estimate  of  a  project  for  clearina;  an  extent  of  uncultivated  ground.  - 

(844;  / ,; 


CLEARING  LAND. 



however  naturally  rich,  to  a  state  of  absolute  sterility  ;  and  that  when  in  that 
!  state  it  certainly  may  be  made  to  keep  a  few  sheep  from  absolute  starvation,  but 
'  is  incapable  of  nourishing  or  fattening  them.     There  is  no  country  on  which  so 
'  great  an  extent  of  waste  land  has  been  brought  into  cultivation  within  the  last 
I  half  century,  as  has  been  in  Scotland  and  the  north  of  England.     In  both  these 
countries  the  clearing  has  been  for  the  most  part  successfully  performed  by  soci- 
eties instituted  expressly  for  the  purpose,  the  members  of  which  actively  interest 
ed  themselves  in  the  matter.     These  societies  purchased  an  extensive  tract  of 
land,  and  caused  it  to  be  cleared  under  the  superintendence  of  a  very  able  man  ; 
then,  when  it  had  been  prepared  for  tillage,  and,  in  many  cases,  not  until  it  was 
|i  actually  brought  into  a  state  of  complete  cultivation,  it  was  sold  in  separate  por- 
/  tions,  either  with  or  without  the  buildings,  or  else  farmed  out.     But,  on  the  oth- 
er hand,  these  clearing  operations  have  never  been  successful  when  the  land  has 
been  parceled  out  before  the  clearing  was  performed  ;  for  the  petty  farmers  have 
then,  as  in  our  own  country,  been  invariably  ruined. 

When  some  substance  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  manuring  the  soil  is  found 
upon  it,  as  marl,  mould,  peat,  lime,  &c.,  the  clearing  may  be  accomplished  in 
much  less  time.  The  operation  is  equally  facilitated  when  irrigated  meadows 
can  be  formed  by  stopping  the  course  of  small  rivers  or  brooks,  or  accumulating 
the  waters  of  springs ;  when  such  accessories  can  be  attained,  they  should  al- 
ways be  attended  to  at  once. 

The  first  things  to  be  done  are  carefully  to  determine  on  the  manner  in  which 
the  land  about  to  be  cleared  can  best  be  turned  to  account ;  to  lay  down  a  plan  of 
operation  which  is  drawn  up  with  due  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the 
ends  proposed  to  be  derived  from  it ;  and  to  precisely  and  perseveringly  adhere 
to  such  a  plan  when  once  it  is  arranged.  It  is  highly  important  that  the  im- 
provement of  the  land  should  be  commenced  at  that  part  which  is  most  capable 
of  being  converted  into  meadow  or  pasture  ground,  even  though  it  should  bo  de- 
termined to  submit  this  land  to  the  plow  at  some  future  period  ;  by  so  doing,  a 
supply  of  manure  will  be  ensured,  and  the  fertility  of  those  portions  of  land  sub- 
sequently cleared  will  be  increased. 

It  is  upon  the  soil  of  ancient  forests  that  operations  of  this  nature  are  usually 
performed,  and  it  is  upon  such  soils  that  they  are  attended  v/ith  the  greatest  ad- 
vantages and  success,  both  as  regards  the  person  by  Avhom  they  are  undertaken 
and  society  in  general.  The  preservation  of  old,  decayed  forests  is  not  at  all  like- 
ly to  remedy  those  evils  Avhich  are  constantly  complained  of,  arising  from  a 
scarcity  of  wood.  To  remedy  this  evil  it  is  rather  necessary  to  pull  up  all  sickly 
and  isolated  trees,  to  extirpate  bushes,  and  establish  thickly  planted  and  well  en- 
closed forests.  There  are  many  countries  possessing  little  forest  land  in  which  a 
scarcity  of  wood  is  not  more  felt  than  it  is  in  others  in  which  forests  and  woods 
occupy  a  considerable  portion  of  the  surface.  In  many  cases  it  would  be  advisa- 
ble and  beneficial  to  enclose  and  convert  into  plantations  those  corn  lands  which 
have  been  well  cultivated,  but  have  become  exhausted  ;  and  thus  gradually  ex- 
tirpate and  replace  the  old  forests,  and  convei't  them  into  corn  lands.  The  soil 
of  forest  land  usually  contains  a  sufficient  quantity  of  nutritious  matter  to  enable 
it  to  produce  both  crops  of  fodder  and  of  corn,  even  without  being  manured  with 
dung;  and,  consequently,  will  yield  an  immediate  return  for  the  expenses  of 
clearing,  without  being  exhausted  by  so  doing. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  extirpation  of  trees  and  bushes  often  requires  a 
great  deal  of  labor,  and,  therefore,  various  machines  have  been  invented  for  the 
purpose  of  performing  the  operation  with  greater  facility.  But  these  contrivan- 
ces have  not  as  yet  exhibited  any  decided  advantages  ;  and  it  now  appears  to  be 
a  well  attested  fact,  that  it  is  not  in  the  power  of  mechanical  science  to  invent 
any  machine  possessed  of  sufficient  force  to  uproot  large  and  old  trees. 

The  clearing  df  wood  and  forest  land  is  in  general  performed  by  task  work, 
the  price  being  regulated  either  by  acres,  or  by  the  number  of  cords  or  fathoms 
of  wood  resulting  from  the  process.  In  this  case,  care  is  taken  to  stipulate  defi- 
nitely that  the  ground  shall  be  cleared  of  roots  as  thoroughly  as  possible :  very 
frequently  the  heads  of  the  trees,  or,  in  other  words,  the  portion  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  trunk  from  which  the  roots  grow,  or  from  which  the  stem  is  separat- 
ed, are  given  as  payment  for  the  labor  of  clearing  land. 

AVhen  the  ground  is  overrun  with  the  roots  of  black-thorn,  brambles,  or  even 

(845) 


318  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

by  the  stumps  of  oak,  elm,  ash,  or  maple  trees,  it  is  very  difficult  to  clear  it  so  ! 
',    completely  as  to  prevent  the  roots  from  throwing  up  new  shoots.     The  trouble  of 
I  this  may  be  saved  if  the  ground  is  to  be  suffered  to  remain  for  several  years  as  ; 

pasture  or  meadow  land  ;  it  will  then  be  sufficient,  after  having  torn  up  the  prio- 
':  cipal  roots,  to  cut  away  the  smaller  ones  to  a  depth  of  a  few  inches  below  the 
'  surface  of  the  soil,  and  then  to  level  the  ground  as  evenlv  as  possible.  If  the 
'  roots  throw  up  fresh  shoots,  these  latter  will  usually  be  very  vigorous  on  the  first 
i  year  ;  but  then  they  may  be  mowed  at  the  same  time  with  the  grass  as  close  to 
the  ground  as  possible,  and  the  quantity  of  hay  is  thereby  increased.  On  the 
]  second  year  the  number  of  shoots  put  forth  is  greater,  but  they  are  more  weakly, 
I  and  the  roots  themselves  rarely  survive  the  third  year  ;  in  most  instances  they 
\  decay  and  die  away,  and  thus  become  converted  into  manure.     When  this  has 

taken  place,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  land  from  bemg  submitted  to  the  ac-    ', 
\[  tion  of  the  ploAV,  and  well  turned  up.     If,  on  the  contrary,  the  soil  be  converted 
'!  into  corn  land  before  it  has  been  carefully  cleared  of  all  the  roots  contained  in  it,   , 
i    the  latter,  favored  by  the  tillage,  put  forth  their  shoots  with  great  vigor,  and  ' 
.'  their  extirpation  then  becomes  exceedingly  difficult. 

Next  10  the  soil  of  ancient  forests,  waste  lands  and  common  pasturages  are 
most  generally  cleared,  after  having  been  parceled  out  among  those  persons  who  ' 
can  ky  any  claim  to  them,  or  after  these  persons  have  been  authorized  to  bring 
their  land  into  a  state  of  cultivation.  Land  of  this  description  is  usually  in  a  most 
disordered  condition,  the  surface  being  rugged  and  uneven,  and  covered  with 
mole-hills,  ant-hills,  and  old  stumps  of  trees  and  bushes.  In  the  clearing  of  for- 
ests, the  greatest  difficulty  is  presented  by  the  rootj  uf  the  trees  ;  but  in  the  lands  I 
of  which  we  are  speaking,  the  main  point  to  be  overcome  is  the  turf,  which  is 
always  more  compact  and  tenacious  than  that  which  is  formed  under  the  shade 
of  trees,  or  has  been  constantly  covered  with  leaves. 

Many  agriculturists  have  found  great  difficulty  m  destroying  a  tenacious  and 
uneven  layer  of  turf ;  there  have,  in  fact,  been  some  who  were  absolutely  dis-   i 
mayed  bv  the  difficulties  attendant  on  such  an  undertaking.     Hence  it  has  arisen 
that  several  plans  have  been  devised  for  the  purpose  of  attaining  this  end  with  [ 
greater  facility,  some  of  which  have  been  put  into  practice.     The  following  are 
some  of  the  principal  of  them: — 

1.  The  first,  and  that  which  is  in  most  general  use,  consists  in  effecting  the  destruction  of  tlie 
turf  b}'  a  year  and  a  half  or  two  yeai's'  fallowing.  The  turf  is  broken  in  the  autumn,  or  after  the 
ground  has  been  sufficiently  impregnated  \vith  rain,  and  care  is  taken  in  the  first  plowing  not  to 
turn  up  the  soil  to  a  greater  depth  than  that  occupied  by  the  roots ;  supposing  that  the  surface  is 
sufficiently  even  to  admit  of  the  attainment  of  that  end.  The  following  method  has  been  verj- 
Rtrongly  recommended  to  me  for  the  purpose  of  effecting  this  removal  of  the  crust  of  the  soil,  but 
I  have  "not  as  yet  put  in  practice : — A  plow  is  to  be  used  having  a  coulter  and  share,  and  no  mould- 
board,  which,  consequently,  cuts  the  turf  vertically  and  horizontally  without  turning  it  up  ;  be- 
hind this  plow,  in  the  same  furrow,  and  arranged  so  as  to  penetrate  to  the  same  depth,  follows  a 
second  plow,  having  a  mould-board  :  this  latter  detaches  the  cut  portion  of  the  turf,  and  turns  it 
completely  over.  It  is  evident  that  this  mode  of  operation  is  calculated  to  succeed  Nvonderfully 
well  ;  but  I  have  never  yet  met  with  any  turf  that  could  not  be  broken  by  the  first  operation  of 
the  plow,  especially  if,  in  cases  in  which  the  inequality  of  the  surface  prevented  the  cut  portion 
from  being  completely  reversed,  I  caused  the  plow  to  be  fallowed  by  a  laborer  whose  business  it  . 
was  to  assist  the  turning  up  of  the  soil  with  his  foot  or  with  a  pitchfork.  Whatever  may  have 
been  the  tenacity  of  the  turf,  I  have  never  hames.sed  more  than  two  horses  to  the  plow  used  for  ' 
the  perfonnance  of  this  operation  :  indeed,  I  have  often  employed  only  oxeri.  Oxen  are  not, 
however,  so  well  adapted  for  this  work  as  horses,  when  the  soil  contains  a  greater  number  of 
roots  ;  because,  though  they  certainly  pull  regularly,  they  are  too  apt  to  suffer  themselves  to  be 
arrested  by  obstacles.  Moreover,  it  will  readily  be  understood  that  when  cattle  are  employed  on 
this  work,  it  is  necessarj'  to  feed  them  well,  and  to  diminish  the  period  of  labor.  If  the  layer  of  ' 
turf  is  very  thick,  it  will  be  beneficial,  first,  to  pass  a  haiTow  over  it  in  the  same  direction  with  the 
plo\ving  ;  and,  subsequently,  to  roll  it  with  a  heavy  roller,  in  order  that  it  may  be  withdrawn  from 
the  action  of  air  and  light,  and,  consequently,  putrefy  and  decompose,  instead  of  putting'forth  new 
shoots.  If  any  portions  of  an  uneven  surface  should  escape  the  action  of  the  plow — an  evil,  which 
in  many  cases,  is  unavoidable — they  must  be  broken  with  the  spade  or  hoe,  or  they  are  liable  to 
prove  very  injurious. 

The  soil  should  be  left  in  this  state  during  the  whole  of  the  winter,  and  even  longer,  until  it  has 
been  watered  by  the  warm  rains  of  spring.  During  this  interim,  the  harrow  may,  however,  be 
passed  over  it  a  second  time. 

When  the  upturned  turf  begins  to  look  green  again,  and  to  put  forth  new  shoots  from  its  roots, 
we  may  conclude  that  the  lower  part  is  dead.  It  is,  however,  necessary  to  obtain  some  more 
decisive  proof  of  this  before  using  the  plow  ;  for  it  is  not  advisable  to  turn  up  the  ground  a  second 
time  until  such  is  actually  the  case. 

The  second  plowing  must  then  be  perfoi-med  in  the  same  direction  as  the  first,  but  penetrating 
|S4G) 


rather  more  deeply,  in  order  that  the  divided  portions  of  turf  may  be  covered  with  a  certain 
tity  of  the  lovs^er  stratum  of  earth.  It  is  very  injudicious  to  perform  this  second  pic 
ways,  because  the  furrow-slices  are  by  that  means  cut  hi  square  pieces,  which  escape 
and  cannot  be  divided  by  it.  But  if  the  furrow  slices  of  earth,  the  tenacity  of  which  is  often 
diminished  by  fermentation,  are  merely  turned  up,  the  use  of  a  large  haiTow  -will  be  productive 
of  complete  success,  especially  if  this  instrument  is  drawn  by  four  horses  and  furnished  with  long 
teeth,  and  provided  that  its  action  is  continued  until  the  tissue  formed  by  the  roots  has  been  divided 
as  completely  as  possible. 

The  third  plowing  should  be  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  other  two,  and  should  be  executed 
with  care  and  regularity  ;  and  subsequently,  after  a  small  harrow  has  been  passed  over  the  soil, 
it  should  be  left  in  repose  until  it  begins  to  put  forth  grass,  when  it  should  be  plowed  a  fourth 
time,  and  after  that  the  autumnal  com  sown. 

This  complete  summer  fallow  will  be  sufficient  thoroughly  to  loosen  and  clear  any  soil  that  is  of 

warm,  dry  nature,  and  not  excessively  overrun  with  weeds ;  but  it  will  not  be  sufficient  for  a 
moist,  cold  soil,  the  surface  of  which  is  uneven,  and  which  is  greatly  infested  with  weeds,  or  with 
roots  possessing  a  considerable  degree  of  tenacity,  life,  and  vitality.  Nevertheless,  many  agricul- 
turists do  not  go  beyond  this  mode  of  operation,  and  make  a  point  of  sowing  their  land  in  the  au- 
tumn, whatever  may  be  its  state  and  nature. 

Where  such  is  the  case,  the  corn  succeeds  very  %vell  in  some  places;  while  in  others  it  alto- 
gether fails,  or  is  clioked  up  with  weeds.  Satisfied  with  the  crops  obtained  from  the  first-men- 
tioned spots,  these  men  hope  soon  to  see  it  extend  over  the  whole  of  the  rest  of  the  land.  It  can- 
not, however,  be  denied,  that  the  losses  which  must  result  from  so  defective  a  .system  of  tillage 
greatly  exceed  the  advantages  derived  from  this  anticipated  crop,  and  that  it  would  have  been 
better  to  have  continued  the  fallowing  for  another  year,  in  order  to  render  the  preparation  and 
loosening  of  the  soil  more  complete.  At  all  events,  I  would  never,  in  such  a  case,  sow  the  au- 
tumnal corn  ;  but  rather  plow  the  land  two  or  three  times  more  beforehand,  and  then,  during  the 
summer,  cause  it  to  bear  a  crop  of  plants,  the  perpendicularly  des.cending  roots  of  which,  and  the 
thick  shade  of  their  leaves,  might  lighten  and  eiynch  the  soil  ;  such  as  leguminous  plants,  buck- 
wheat, and  flax,  which  succeed  remarkably  well  on  rich  soils,  though  they  exhaust  them  a  little. 
Potatoes,  radishes,  and  other  weeded  crops,  are  likewise  productive  of  this  beneficial  efTect.  I 
should  not  however,  cause  these  to  be  succeeded  by  autumnal  corn,  but  rather  sow  spring  barley, 
intermingled  with  clover,  which  I  should  suffer  to  remain  for  two  years.  1  am  convinced  that  it 
is  by  pursuing  this  course  the  soil  may,  with  the  greatest  degree  of  certainty  and  success,  be 
brought  into  a  state  of  permanent  fertility.  I  have  observed  that  clover  seldom  if  ever  succeeds 
on  newly  cleared  lands,  when  the  soil  has  not  been  prepared  by  the  cultivation  of  the  fallow 
crop. 

2.  The  second  method  above  alluded  to  consists  in  sowing  a  crop  of  spring  com,  after  having 
given  one  deep  plowing  to  the  land.  It  will  be  understood  that  this  practice  can  only  be  earned 
into  effect  upon  a  soil,  the  surface  of  which  is  tolerably  even,  and  not  in  any  great  degree  infested 
with  weeds  ;  and,  moreover,  that  the  plosving  must  be  performed  with  great  care.  Oats  are 
generally  preferred  for  this  purpose ;  because,  if  they  are  sown  pretty  thicklj^  in  rows,  and  in 
good  time,  and  afterward  well  buried  by  harrowing,  they  succeed  remarkably  well,  and  produce 
plenty  of  grain,  if  not  a  large  quantity  of  straw,  provided  always  that  the  weather  and  temperature 
is  favorable  to  them.  Barley  would  not  answer  at  all  upon  a  soil  that  had  been  so  little  loosened. 
Many  persons  assert  that  they  have  obtained  the  greatest  advantages  from  practicing  the  system 
here  pointed  out ;  and  that  when  their  land  had  been  cleared  of  stubble,  after  the  gathering  in  of 
the  oats,  they  found  it  to  be  more  completely  loosened  than  it  would  have  been  by  fallowing  ;  so 
much  so,  indeed,  that  they  were  able  o  sow  it  immediately  with  rye.  Others,  and  mj'self  among 
the  number,  have  found  the  turf  so  little  decomposed,  and  the  soil  so  imperfectly  divided  and 
loosened  after  the  oat-harvest,  that  fallowing  appeared  indispensable  ;  besides,  the  crop  of  autum- 
nal corn  which  followed  the  oats  was  inferior  to  that  which  might  have  been  expected,  had  the 
grain  been  sown  immediately  after  the  clearing.  Nearly  all  the  comparative  experiments  which 
have  been  made  upon  this  subject  tend  to  discourage  the  adoption  of  oats  as  a  first  crop. 

Ou  the  other  hand,  I  have,  in  common  with  other  agriculturists,  derived  the  greatest  advan- 
tages from  sowing  flax  upon  the  turf  of  a  piece  of  cleared  ground,  after  it  had  been  well  turned 
up,  and  when  the  .soil  vyas  not  too  dry  or  too  poor.  This  flax  always  attains  an  extraordinary 
length,  and  is  of  a  particularly  good  quahty.  It  is  equally  rich  in  fibre  as  in  grain,  and  possesses 
this  great  advantage  over  that  sown  on  fallow  ground,  namely,  that  it  requires  very  little  weed- 
ing. I  put  in  the  seed  of  this  crop  with  the  harrow,  which  covered  it  up  very  well,  even  though 
tlie  plow  had  brought  to  the  surface  but  a  very  small  quantity  of  the  earth  beneath  the  layer  of 
turf,  properly  so  called. 

When  the  soil  appeared  too  dry  to  admit  of  the  success  of  flax,  I  sowed  millet  in  it,  which, 
when  cultivated  with  the  hoe,  or  by  hand  labor,  cleared  off  the  greater  part  of  those  weeds  which 
had  sprung  up  among  it,  and  somewhat  thinned,  succeeded  admirably. 

These  two  crops  of  plants  always  left  the  soil  so  light  and  friable,  that  the  plowing  perfoiiscd 
for  the  purpose,  of  clearing  away  the  stubble  was  sufficient  to  divide  it  completely,  and  the  au- 
tumnal grain  wa^  sown  upon  it  without  any  farther  tillage.  This  mode  of  proceeding  is,  however, 
only  practicable  when  the  stratum  of  turf  does  not  contain  too  many  asperities. 

3.  The  third  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  remove  the  crust  of  the  earth  with  a  hand  implement  or 
plow  adapted  for  the  purpose,  divide  the  turf  into  pieces,  and  place  them  in  heaps  with  stable 
manure  or  lime,  which  will  assi.st  in  the  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  matter,  and  then  leave 
them  in  that  state  until  the  decomposition  is  completed  ;  during  this  time  to  plow  the  soil  which 
has  been  thus  pared  several  times,  subsequently  to  spread  the  compost  over  it,  and  bury  it  either 
by  sowing  in  rows  or  by  a  thorough  harrowing.  This  method,  which  I  have  tried  several  times, 
produces  very  abundant  crops,_and  brings  theland  into  an  admirable  state  of  fertility,  because  it 
ensures  the  absolute  decomposition  of  the  turf,  its  transformation  into  humus,  and  gives  it  a  more 

i847i 


complete  aeration  than  could  be  obtained  in  any  other  manner.  But  it  is  evident  that  this  mode 
of  proceeding  must  be  more  expensive  than  the  others,  and  that  it  can  only  be  adopted  on  small 
portions  of  land. 

4.  The  fourth  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  bum  the  layer  of  turf.  In  my  "  English  Agriculture,"  I 
have  described  this  operation  with  regard  to  its  application  to  soils  vi'hich  have  produced  grass 
for  several  years,  and  according  to  the  manner  in  which  it  has  been  practiced  from  the  earliest 
ages  in  several  countries. 

But  I  must  here  speak  of  this  practice  in  relation  to  its  application  to  unculti- 
vated land,  and  shoAv  in  what  manner  it  must  be  employed  on  them,  less  com- 
pletely it  is  true,  but  also  at  less  expense  ;  and  lay  down  some  instructions  as  to 
the  most  economical  mode  of  putting  it  in  practice  on  soils  of  this  description. 

First  of  all,  recourse  is  had  to  the  operation  described  in  a  previous. page  under  the  designa- 
tion of  half  plowing,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  the  furrow-slices  of  the  the  turf;  that  is  to  sa^',  a 
slice  is  lifted  up  and  turned  over  upon  another  by  the  side  of  it  which  has  not  been  touched  by 
the  plow.  This  operation  may  be  performed  with  any  plow  which  has  a  broad,  sharp  share,  pro- 
vided it  be  held  in  a  somewhat  inclined  position,  so  that  on  the  side  on  which  the  yet  unturned 
earth  is  situated  the  share  may  enter  rather  more  deeply,  and  on  that  next  the  mould-board  the 
divided  fun'ow-slice  maj'  be  very  thin,  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  the  lower  angle  of  the  plowshare 
may  merely  graze  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  plowshare  is  made  rather  wider  than  usual, 
and  very  sharp,  and  its  base  formed  with  a  more  obtuse  angle  than  would  be  given  to  it  if  it  were 
intended  for  ordinai-y  plowing.  The  furrow-slice  detached  from  the  soil  should  not  at  must  be 
more  than  two  inches  in  thickness  on  tlie  side  next  to  the  untouched  earth,  while  it  sliould  be  ex- 
tremely thin  on  the  oppof?ite  one. 

When  the  soil  thus  prepared  has  remained  for  some  time  in  this  state,  a  strong  harrow  should 
be  pas.sed  over  it  in  a  contrai"j'  direction  to  the  plowing,  in  order  to  tear  in  pieces  and  break  up 
those  slices  raised  by  the  plow  :  small  harrows,  having  the  teeth  pointed  and  curved  in  front,  may 
subsequently  be  made  use  ef,  to  detach  the  roots  and  fibres  of  plants  from  the  earth  bv  ^\-hich 
they  are  still  surrounded.  When  the  surface  has,  by  these  means,  again  become  level,  those 
strips  of  turf  which  were  left  untouched  during  the  fir.st  operation  must,  in  their  turn,  be  raised 
and  tunied  over  in  a  similar  manner,  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  large  and  small  harrows. 
The  ground  is  thus  covered  with  the  roots  and  fibres  of  the  plants  of  ■which  the  turf  was  com- 
posed. In  dry  weather,  for  it  will  readily  be  conceived  that  such  is  the  proper  period  for  the 
performance  of  these  operations,  all  these  plants  and  their  roots  are  collected,  first  into  .«mall,  and 
subsequently  into  large  heaps,  for  the  purpose  of  being  burned  on  the  ground.  A  period  is  chosen 
for  setting  fire  to  these  heaps  when  the  weather  is  warm  and  there  is  a  little  wind  :  straw,  peat, 
or  dry  leaves,  are  made  use  of  for  the  purpose  of  producing  ignition.  It  is  highly  essential  that 
the  burning  should  be  so  managed  that  the  heaps  may  consume  gradually  and  without  flame.  To 
effect  this  they  are  pressed  down,  and,  when  lighted,  covered,  as  occasion  seems  to  require,  vs'ith 
earth.  After  they  are  totally  consumed,  the  ashes  are  spread  over  the  surface,  and  buried  by 
plowing  the  ground  as  superficially  as  possible.  Any  kind  of  produce  required  by  the  course 
of  the  rotation  may  then  be  sown.  If,  during  the  clearing  of  old  forest  land,  a  number  of  twigs 
and  boughs  should  be  left  which  cannot  be  used  as  fire-wood,  and  of  which  it  is  desirable  to  find 
some  means  of  getting  rid,  they  may  be  used  to  form  the  basis  of  the  heaps  which  are  to  be  con- 
sumed; and,  by  so  doing,  the  burning  -will  be  accelerated  and  facilitated,  and  a  greater  quantity 
of  ashes  produced.  The  turf  may,  however,  be  completely  consumed  without  the  aid  of  any  ex- 
traneous fuel. 

Comparative  experiments,  conducted  on  the  most  extensive  scale  both  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  have  proved  that  burning  is  preferable  to  all  other  methods 
of  clearing  uncultivated  lands,  especially  when  they  are  of  an  argillaceous  or 
marly  nature.* 

*  This  well-known  operation  of  AgriculUire,  once  much  more  extensively  practiced  in  this  country  than 
at  present,  consists  in  paring  off  the  turf  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches,  generally  by  a  breast-plow  worked 
by  a  laborer,  or  by  a  turf-paring  plow  drawn  by  a  horse  ;  allowing  it  to  be  dry,  and  then  burning  it  in  heaps. 
It  is  commonly  best  performed  in  the  months  of  April  and  May.  It  is  a  practice  now  rarely  adopted  on 
sandy  or  calcareous  soils  ;  it  is  productive  of  good  results  on  peat,  and  some  kind  of  clay  soU,  but  even  there 
it  is  verj'  doubtful  whether  it  is  the  best  mode  of  treating  the  land 

The  practice  is  certainly  as  old  as  the  days  of  Virgil,  who  mentions  it  in  the  first  book  of  the  Georgics. 
Endless  have  been  the  theories  brouglit  forward  to  account  for  its  operation.  Dr.  Home  thought  it  dis- 
pelled "  a  sour  juice"  from  the  land.  f'Prin.  of  Agr."]  Dr.  Darwin  thought  it  produced  "  a  nitrous  salt"' 
in  the  ashes.  "Many  such  obscure  causes,"  says  Davy,  "have  been  referred  to  for  the  purpose  of  explain- 
ing the  eti'ects  of  panng  and  burning ;  but  I  believe  they  may  be  referred  entirely  to  the  diminution  of  the 
coherence  and  tenacity" of  clays,  and  to  the  destruction  of  inert  and  useless  vegetable  matter,  and  its  conver- 
sion into  a  manure.  All  soils  that  contain  too  much  dead  vegetable  fibre,  and  which  consequently  lose 
li-om  one-rhird  to  one-half  of  their  weight  by  incineration,  and  all  such  as  contain  their  earthy  constituents 
in  an  impalpable  state  of  division,  .such  as  the  stifi' clays  and  maris,  are  improved  by  burning;  but  in  coarse 
sands,  or  rich  soils,  containing  a  gi'eat  mixture  of  the  earths,  in  all  cases  in  which  the  texture  is  already  suf- 
ficientlv  loose,  or  the  organizable  matter  sufficiently  soluble,  the  process  of  toirification  cannot  be  useful. 
"  All  piire.  silicious  sands."  adds  Davy,  "  must  be  injured  by  it ;  "  and  here  practice  is  found  to  accord  with 
theoi-}-.  Arthur  Young  found  '•  burning  injured  sand  ;"  and  an  intelligent  fanner  in  Mount's  Bay  told  me 
that  ho  had  pared  and  burned  a  small  field,  several  j^ears  ago,  which  he  had  not  been  able  to  bring  again 
into  good  condition.      I  examined  the  spot;    the  grass  was  vei-y  poor  and  scanty,  and  the  soil  a  silicious'^ 

The  process  of  paring  and  burnina:,  therefore,  seems  to  be  most  adapted  for  peaty  or  clay  lands  ;  for,  as 
Davy  continues,  ""The  process  of  burnins  renders  the  soil  less  compact,  less  tenacious  and  retentive  of 
moisture  ;  and,  whgn  properly  appUed,  may  convert  a  matter  that  was  stiff,  damp,  and  m  consequence  cold, 
into  one  powdery,  dj-y,  aud  warm,  and  much  more  proper  as  a  bed  for  vegetable  life." 

(848) 


CLEARING   LAND. 


321 


Frequently,  when  the  surface  of  newly  cleared  land  is  uneven,  it  is  necessary, 
m  the  first  place,  to  smooth  and  level  it,  in  order  to  facilitate  its  cultivation  and 
render  its  surface  homogeneous,  or,  in  other  words,  more  uniform  in  quality. 
Phis  operation  is  attended  with  great  labor  and  expense,  and  locality  can  alone 
determine  the  most  advantageous  mode  of  conducting  it.  When  the  inequalities 
of  the  surface  are  very  close  together,  they  mayj  in  general,  be  reduced  by  throw- 
ing the  earth  from  the  tops  of  the  ridges  or  elevations  into  the  hollows  with 
spades  or  some  other  similar  implement  of  manual  labor.  For  this  purpose,  men 
are  stationed  at  certain  distances  proportionate  to  their  strength,  and  employed 
in  throwing  the  earth  which  they  have  either  raised  or  received  from  those  next 
above  them,  and  thus  passing  it  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  portions  of  the 
Ifiud  which  is  to  be  leveled.  Should  the  distance  be  somewhat  considerable,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  make  use  of  hand-barrows  ;  if  it  becomes  still  more  so,  re- 
course must  be  had  to  wagons,  or,  what  is  still  better,  to  dung  carts  Avith  two 
wheels,  or  shooting  carts. 

In  land  which  has  been  thus  leveled,  it  too  often  happens  that  the  elevated 
fipofs  are  deprived  of  the  whole  of  their  vegetable  soil,  which  becomes  accumula- 
ted in  the  bottom  of  the  hollows ;  this  evil  is  most  inevitable,  and  cannot  be  re- 
medied without  great  labor  and  difficulty.  Should  it  not  be  possible  to  avoid  this 
defect  by  throwing  back  the  higher  stratum  of  the  soil,  it  will  be  necessary  to  com- 
pensate the  elevated  portions  by  bestowing  on  them  a  larger  quantity  of  manure 
and  more  careful  tillage. 

The  removal  of  large  stones  often  increases  the  difficulty  of  clearing  an  uncul- 
tivated soil  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  yet  they  must  be  removed  at  least  as  far 
below  the  surface  of  the  soil  as  the  plow  penetrates  in  its  course,  otherwise  it  is 
wholly  impossible  to  till  the  ground  properly  ;  should  it  be  attempted  without 
this  preliminary  preparation,  a  great  deal  of  time  will  be  lost  in  plowing,  and  the 
work  is  sure  to  be  badly  and  unevenly  executed  ;  besides,  the  implements  made 
use  of  are  very  liable  to  be  broken. 

When  such  stones  can  be  made  use  of  in  the  construction  of  high  roads,  en- 
closures round  the  estate,  or  in  the  building  of  walls  and  houses,  it  is  by  no  means 
uncommon  for  their  value  amply  to  compensate  for  the  expenses  incurred  in  ex- 
tracting and  removing  them.  If  they  cannot  be  used  in  this  manner,  the  expense 
attending  their  extraction  and  removal  may  be  diminished  by  sinking  them  in  the 
ground  to  a  depth  at  which  they  will  not  interfere  with  any  of  the  operations  of 
Agriculture.  For  this  purpose,  a  trench  deeper  than  the  stone  itself  is  dug  all 
round  it,  and  it  is  laid  in  the  hollow  thus  formed.  The  width  and  depth  of  this 
hollow  must  be  greater  than  the  breadth  and  depth  of  stone,  and  its  shape  must 
be  so  contrived  that  the  stone  when  turned  over  may  not  present  either  of  its  an- 
gles or  edges  to  the  ground.  It  is  said  that  stones  which  were  once  buried  to  a 
proper  depth  in  the  ground  have  subsequently  been  observed  to  make  their  ap- 

Davy  examined  three  specimens  of  the  ashes  from  different  lands  that  had  undergone  paring  and  bum-  ' 
ing.  '•  The  great  objection,"  he  adds,  "  to  this  operation  is  that  it  destro3's  vegetable  and  animal  matter,  or  ' 
the  manure  in  the  soil ;  but  in  cases  in  which  the  texture  of  its  earthy  ingredients  is  permanently  improved, 
there  is  more  than  a  compensation  for  this  temporary  disadvantage.  And  in  some  soils  vifhere  there  is  an 
excess  of  inert  vegetable  matter,  the  destniction  of  it  must  be  beneficial  ;  and  the  carbonaceous  matter  re- 
maining in  the  ashes  may  be  more  useful  to  the  crop  than  the  vegetable  fibre  from  which  it  was  produced.-' 
CAgr.  Chem.  p.  344.) 

Liebig  thinks  that  all  the  benefit  of  burning  the  soil  is  attributable  to  its  thus  obtaining  increased  powers 
forthe  absorption  of  ammonia.  He  says,  "  Soils  which  contain  oxides  of  iron  and  bumed  clay,  must  absorb 
ammonia,  which  is  favored  by  their  porous  condition  ;  they  farther  prevent  the  escape  of  the  ammonia 
once  absorbed  by  their  chemical  properties.  The  ammonia  absorbed  by  the  clay,  or  femiginous  oxides,  is 
separated  by  every  shower  of  rain,  and  conveyed  into  solution  to  the  soil.  Powdered  charcoal  possesses  a 
similar  action,  but  surpasses  all  other  substances  in  the  power  which  it  possesses  of  condensing  ammonia 
within  its  pores,  particularly  when  it  has  been  previously  heated  to  redness.  Charcoal  absorbs  ninety  times 
jlume  of  ammoniacal  gas,  which  may  be  again  separated  by  simply  moistening  it  with  water." — (.Or- 
ganic Chem.  p.  90.) 

_  And  it  is  evident,  frpm  the  experiments  which  Liebig  gives  at  p.  207,  that  charcoal  powder  is  a  vejy  fer- 
tihzing  application  to  some  plants.  The  practice,  however,  of  paring  and  burning  is  e%'ldently  one  whose 
advantages  the  farmer  and  the  chemist  admit  with  reluctance.  And  it  is  veiy  probable  that  by  other  means, 
such  as  the  use  of  lime,  &c.,  most  Boils  may  be  cultivated  with  more  advantage  to  the  fai-mer  by  the  avoid- 
ance of  this  expensive  and  destructive  process.  "My  practice,"  remarks  Mr.  Pearson,  "in  the  use  of  turf 
for  various  purposes,  convinces  me  that  all  lands  must  be  injured  by  paring  and  burning,  save  those  lands, 
which  are  few  and  far  between,  that  possess  too  much  inert  vegetable  matter  ;  or,  in  other  words,  lands  that 
grow  their  crops  to  such  a  state  of  luxuriance,  as  to  prevent  the  desired  intentof  the  cultivator.  Thoselands 
which  possess  too  much  inert  vegetable  matter  might  also  be  improved  by  having  part  of  their  subsoils 
bumed ;  but  not  by  burning  the  turf  even  here,  for  that  is  the  only  thing  that  can  be  commended  on  the 
spot  that  will  cause  fermentation  in  the  soil  when  it  is  plowed  in."— (Quart.  Jour.  Agr..  vol.  x.  p.  552.) 

[Johnson's  Farmer's  Encvclovadia. 
(849) «S  ^     ^ 


322  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


pearance  oa  the  surface,  and  it  has  been  found  requisite  to  bury  them  anew. 
There  is  no  doubt  with  regard  to  the  lact,  but  it  may  referred  to  a  cause  alto- 
gether different  from  the  actual  rising  of  the  stone  ;  the  real  state  of  the  case  is, 
that  a  portion  of  the  earth  by  which  the  stone  was  originally  covered  may  have 
been  carried  away  by  heavy  rains  or  by  the  action  of  the  water ;  or  the  progress 
of  cultivation  may  have  insensibly  spread  this  earth  over  a  greater  extent  of  sur- 
face ;  or  lastly,  and  as  is  the  case  in  my  land,  the  stones  may  have  been  buried  to 
such  a  depth  only  as  would  prevent  their  being  reached  when  the  land  is  superfi- 
cially plowed,  as  it  is  used  to  be,  but  altogether  insufficient  for  that  purpose  when 
the  plowing  is  carried  to  the  depth  to  which  I  have  lately  carried  it.  It  is,  there- 
fore, necessary  to  dig  a  much  deeper  trench  for  such  stones  than  at  first  appears  to 
be  requisite  ;  and  the  more  so,  as  they  may  otherwise  prove  injurious  to  the  fer- 
tility of  the  land  in  those  places  where  they  approach  the  surface. 

If  it  should  be  deemed  expedient  to  carry  the  stones  off' the  land,  it  will  be  ne- 
cessary to  procure  a  cart  adapted  for  that  purpose,  unless  the  carrying  take  place 
during  the  winter,  when  it  can  be  performed  by  means  of  sledges. 

Very  large  stones  must  be  blasted,  especially  if  they  are  to  be  made  use  of  for 
the  purpose  of  building.     The  most  useful  mode  of  conducting  this  operation  con- 
sists in  the  use  of  gunpowder  ;  but   the  execution  of  it  should  be   entrusted  to 
those  only  who  have  had  experience  in  such  matters,  and  who  possess  the  pro- 
per instruments  for  the  purpose.     Many  imprudent   individuals  have  paid  with 
their  lives,  or  their  health,  the   forfeit  of  their  want  of  caution  or  skill  in  this 
operation  ;  besides,  the  price  of  gunpowder  causes  it  to  be  attended  with  no  tri- 
fling expense.     There  is  also  another  method  of  proceeding  which  possesses  all 
the  advantages  of  the  last  mentioned  one  without  its  disadvantages.     This  con- 
sists in  heating  the  stone  to  a  high  degree,  by  means  of  a  very  fierce  fire  applied 
to  one  part  of  it  only,  and  thus  expanding  it  considerably.     When  the  stone  has 
been  thus  made  intensely  hot,  water  is  poured  upon  it  to  make  it  crack,  the  eff"ect 
being  accelerated  by  powerful  blows  given  with  very  heavy  hammers  ;    this 
latter  expedient  is  not,  however,  absolutely  necessary.     A  third  method  consists 
in  piercing  the  stone  in  the  direction  of  its  veins,  and  introducmg  into  the  hole  a 
\i  cleft  cjdinder  of  iron,  and  then  driving  a  wedge  of  the  same  metal  in  between 
(   the  two  halves  of  the  cylinder.     This  mode  of  proceeding  soon  causes  the  stone 
i  to  split ;  and  although   it  takes  longer  time,  and  requires  more  labor  than  the  ) 
}  others,  it   has  a  decided  advantage  over  them  in  furnishing  building  stones  of 
(  much  greater  beautyand  with  flatter  surfaces.     Finally,  a  quantity  of  water  may, 
{  during  the  winter  season,  be  introduced  into  a  hole  made  in  the  stone  to  a  suflii- 
}  cient  depth  ;  the  aperture  being  then  closed  with  some  stopper  closely  driven  in- 
to it.     The  water  contained  in  this   hole  expanding  as  it  freezes,  exerts  a  force 
sufficient  to  break  in  pieces  the  strongest  stones. 

Quick-lime  thoroughly  calcined  is  the  most  efficacious  manure  for  newly  clear- 
ed land,  especially  if  the  upper  stratum  of  the  soil  contain  a  considerable  quanti- 
ty of  undecomposed  vegetable  substances.     On  land  of  this  description,  it  is  scarce- 
ly possible  to  apply  lime  in  too  large  quantities.     Many  agriculturists  have  found 
I  it  highly  advantageous  to  use  as  much  as  five  winspel  per  acre,  when  the  price 
^   has  been  moderate.     If  this  substance  is  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  ground 
}  previously  to  the  plowing,  and  the  tillage  repeated  several  times  during  the  sum- 
^   mer,  in  order  to  effect  a  coTnpJete  admixture  of  the  liine  with  the  soil,  the  former 
^  soon  decomposes  all  the  vegetable  matters  and  converts  them  into  very  fertile 
>  humus.     It  likewise  absorbs  the  acidity  of  the  soil,  and  that  tannin  which  is  so 
I   injurious  to  vegetation  ;  kills  worms  and  insects,  w^hich  sometimes  multiply  in 
\  land  of  this  description  to  such  an  extent  as  totally  to  destroy  the  first  crops  sown 
upon  it  after  it  has  been  cleared.     When  newly  cleared  ground,  rich  in  vegeta- 
ble matter,  has  been  thus  manured,  the  most  exhausting  crops,  even  rape,  may 
be  grown  upon  it. 

it  must,  however,  be  understood  that  lime  is  productive  of  but  little  eff'ect  up- 
on a  poor  soil  which  contains  only  a  small  proportion  of  vegetable  matter. 

The  soil  of  furze  lands  is  not  always  sterile  :  its  lower  stratum  often  consists 
of  a  fertile  clay,  which  amply  repays  the  expense  of  clearing.  Such  soils  also 
contain  humus,  but  it  is  of  a  particular  kind,  and  by  no  means  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  anything  but  furze. 

A  year  before  the  time  appointed  for  breaking  up  a  soil  of  this  description,  the 

(850) 


CLEARING  LAND.  323 

furze  should  be  set  on  fire  during  dry  weather,  after  having  been  previously  al- 
lowed to  shoot  up  in  all  its  luxuriance.  In  order  to  prevent  the  fire  from  extend- 
ing beyond  that  portion  of  ground  which  is  to  be  broken  up  and  brought  into  cul- 
,  tivation,  an  event  which  might  be  attended  with  considerable  danger  and  dam- 
age by  extending  the  tire  to  neighboring  forests  or  plantations,  care  is  taken  to 
surround  the  space  on  which  the  furze  is  to  be  burned  with  a  wide,  shallow 
trench.  The  fire  does  not  kill  the  furze  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  plants  put  forth 
an  abundance  of  new  shoots  on  the  following  spring.  These  young  sprouts  of  the 
furze  are  so  grateful  to  sheep,  that  in  some  places  the  plant  is  set  on  fire  solely 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  them.  The  ground  is  then  well  stocked  with  sheep, 
care  being  taken  to  select  for  that  purpose  a  breed  which  will  accommodate  them- 
selves to,  and  thrive  on,  the  young  furze.  During  the  ensuing  winter  the  soil  is 
'  broken  up,  and  on  the  following  summer  plowed,  two  or  three  times  ;  and,  if  pos- 
sible, sheep  are  penned  upon  it.  This  mode  of  proceeding,  and  the  manure  re- 
sulting from  the  sheep-fold,  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  decom- 
posing the  humus  of  furze,  sheep  dung  containing  a  considerable  quantity  of  am- 
monia. 

Very  little  benefit  is  derived  from  the  use  of  lime  alone  when  applied  to  clear- 
ed furze  land  :  the  ashes  of  wood,  and  even  of  turf,  are  much  more  efficacious. 
Argillaceous  marl  combined  with  animal  manure  is  productive  of  considerable  ef- 
fect upon  such  land. 

On  a  clearing  of  this  nature,  it  is  best  to  begm  by  sowing  buckwheat ;  which, 
of  all  useful  crops,  is  the  one  that  accommodates  itself  best  to  such  soils,  and 
contributes  most  materially  to  change  their  nature.  This  kind  of  grain  is  often 
sown  upon  a  second  or  third  plowing,  without  any  farther  fallowing  ;  it  is  very 
vigorous  and  luxuriant  in  its  growth,  especially  when  assisted  with  a  little  stable 
manure.  It  can  be  most  advantageously  used  either  as  green  meat  or  hay,  and 
will  thus  become  the  means  of  producing  the  manure  requisite  for  the  ameliora- 
tion of  the  newly  cleared  furze  land.  After  buckwheat,  rye  will  usually  be 
found  to  succeed  best  upon  such  soils  ;  but  after  one  crop  of  it  has  been  grown, 
the  land  must  be  left  for  some  years  in  a  state  of  repose  or  pasturage,  if  we  would 
increase  instead  of  exhaust  its  fertility  ;  and  in  order  to  lay  the  foundation  of  the 
pasturage,  Dutch  clover  should  be  sown  in  the  spring  among  the  rye.  Whenev- 
er attempts  are  made  to  obtain  from  land  of  this  nature  all  the  crops  it  is  capa- 
ble of  yielding  at  once,  it  sinks  into  a  more  complete  state  of  barrenness  than  that 
from  which  it  was  rescued  by  the  operation  of  clearing. 

To  endeavor  to  clear  and  bring  into  cultivation  a  soil  which  consists  entirely  of 
sand,  is  a  more  hopeless  undertaking  than  that  of  building  upon  the  sands. — 
There  are  but  two  cases  in  which  such  an  operation  can  be  performed  with  any 
degree  of  profit. 

[a).  "When  the  laiid  is  situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  towns  where  it  fetches  such  a  high  price 
wlien  cultivated,  that  it  is  w^orth  while  to  endeavor  to  form  a  new  stratum  of  vegetable  mould  up- 
on it,  by  carrying  to  it  and  mixing  with  it  a  quantity  of  clay,  mortar,  rubbish  from  old  buildings, 
and  other  kinds  of  matters  conducive  to  vegetation,  which  may  be  had  in  abundance  in  the  adja- 
cent town. 

J(h).  Or  when  it  is  situated  -where  adequate  artificial  irrigation  may  be  given  to  the  sand,  so  that 
the  land  may  be  converted  into  meadows,  or  appropriated  to  the  production  of  useful  vegetables. 
,    Where  this  cannot  be  done,  it  is  often  not  only  disadvantageous,  but  exceedingly  dangerous,  to 
'     turn  up  a  dry,  sandy  soil  covered  only  with  a  light  stratum  of  turf,  and  containing  not  more  than 
I     five  parts  in  a  hundred  of  clay  ;  especially  when  it  is  situated  on  an  elevated  spot,  or  in  an  open 
J    plain.    It  has  not  unfrequently  happened  that  when  a  piece  of  land  of  this  nature  has  been  plow- 
ed up  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  from  it  a  few  scanty  crops,  -whole  tracts  of  fertile  fields  have  been 
laid  waste  by  being  smothered  in  a  cloud  of  this  sand  raised  by  the  wind. 

Should  it  be  deemed  desirable  to  bring  a  less  barren  sandy  soil  into  cultivation, 
the  first  and  mogt  important  step  to  be  taken  is  to  surround  and  even  intersect  it 
with  hedges,  so  that  the  wind  may  carry  away  less  of  its  moisture,  that  effect 
which  is  designated  "  the  chilling  of  the  soil"  prevented,  and  the  vegetation  pro- 
tected.    As  sandy  soils  are  incapable  of  maintaining  anything  like  fertility,  un- 
less frequently  suffered  to  lie    fallow  or  converted   into  pasturage,  at  least  so 
long  as  their  nature  remains  unchanged,  it  is  so  much  the  more  convenient  to  di- 
i  vide  them  into  enclosures  and  protect  them  with  hedges,  as  by  this  means  it  be- 
I  comes  easier  to  keep  cattle  on  them,  and  the  animals,  when' placed  there,  are 
I  more  sheltered  from  the  wind,  a  circumstance  which  tends  greatly  to  their  ad- 


324  THAERS   PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

vantage.  It  is  likewise  of  great  importance  thiat  such  tracts  of  sand  should 
be  protected  from  the  north  and  north-east  "winds  by  plantations  of  lofty- 
trees. 

It  is  often  absolutely  necessary  to  fix  and  consolidate  the  surface  of  a  sandy 
soil  by  forming  a  layer  of  turf  upon  it,  no  matter  how  poor  its  produce  may  be, 
V  for  the  sake  of  protecting  the  neighboring  fields  from  the  devastations  caused  by 
/  the  Avhirhvinds  of  sand.     It  is  often  exceedingly  difficult  to  produce  a  growth  of 
grass.     Various  species  of  plants  which  vegetate  in  sand  have  been  proposed  for 
the  purpose,  as  sand  Lyme  grass  [elymus  arenarius),  sand  sedge  [carex  arena- 
\'  ria),  couch  grass  {t7-icticu>n  repens),  creeping  bent  grass  [agrostis  stolonifera). 
These  plants,  however,  seldom  become  perfectly  established  on  the  soil  until  the 
land  is  protected  by  hedges,  because  the  shifting  of  the  sand,  when  constantly 
agitated  by  the  wind,  prevents  the  seeds  from  germinating,  or,  at  all  events,  hin- 
ders the  germs  from  taking  root  in  it,  unless  they  have  been  sown  during  calm 
and  damp  weather. 

When  the  sand  is  entirely  naked  and  liable  to  to  be  agitated  by  every  breath 
of  wind,  the  only  means  of  avoiding  the  evils  likely  to  ensue  is  to  enclose  it  by 
means  of  hurdles  placed  at  intervals,  and  in  sufficient  numbers  to  prevent  the 
wind  from  acting  upon  or  raising  it.  This  kind  of  fence  should  not  be  placed  at 
those  spots  where  the  motion  of  the  sand  is  to  be  arrested,  but  where  it  begins  to 
assume  a  movable  character.  Indeed,  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  oppose  any  bar- 
rier to  its  progress,  if  the  cloud  advancing  behind  is  not  also  stopped :  whole 
forests  and  lofty  trees  have  been  known  to  be  buried  in  this  manner,  even  to  the 
very  summits  of  the  highest  boughs.  But  if  the  motion  of  the  sand  be  first  ar- 
rested on  that  side  from  which  the  wind  begins  to  blow,  and  to  lay  hold  of  it,  and 
that  part  protected  from  the  force  of  the  wind,  then  the  attempt  to  put  a  stop  to 
the  accumulation  has  some  chance  of  being  attended  with  success. 

These  hurdles  or  fences  are  usually  formed  of  the  branches  of  the  fir  tree,  and 
those  are  chosen  for  the  purpose  which  still  have  their  cones  on,  in  order  that  the 
land  may  thus  be  planted  with  these  trees,  and  they  are  placed  at  intervals  of 
twenty  or  thirty  paces  apart.  As  soon  as  the  motion  of  the  sand  is  somewhat 
checked,  hedges  are  planted  extending  from  north  to  south,  arid  their  distance 
from  one  another  is  regulated  by  circumstances.  If  the  sand  is  not  very  light,  or 
the  wind  very  impetuous,  these'  hedges  may  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  planta- 
tions of  pine  trees  formed  at  once,  so  that  the  ground  may  be  covered  with  trees 
and  converted  into  forest  land,  which  is  by  far  the  best  mode  of  turning  soils  of 
this  description  to  account.  It  would  be  useless  to  plant  land  of  a  sandy  nature 
with  fir  trees  without  having  previously  taken  the  precautions  above  mentioned, 
unless  indeed  it  had  been  covered  with  grass,  in  which  case  it  may  be  successfully 
planted.  A  soil  of  this  kind  must  not,  therefore,  by  any  means  be  completely 
broken  up,  if  it  is  to  be  planted  with  trees  ;  it  should  not  only  be  plowed  in  alter- 
nate strips  in  the  manner  already  described 

If  a  sandy  soil  is  to  be  made  to  bear  useful  grasses,  it  must  not  be  very  light, 
'  but  must  contain  at  least  eight  parts  in  a  hundred  of  clay.  When  such  is  the 
'  case,  the  grasses  which  will  be  found  best  adapted  for  the  formation  of  the  turf 
I  are  sheep's  fescue  grass  (festuca  ovina),  red  fescue  grass  {festuca  rubra),  hard 
fescue  grass  {festuca  duriuscula),  decumbent  fescue  grass  (festuca  decumhens), 
sweet  scented  vernal  grass  [anthoxatum  odoratum),  common  cat's  tail  grass 
(pAZewmpraiense),  knot-stalked  cat's  tail  grass  [phleum  arenarium),  soft  broom 
grass  {bromus  mollis),  h3.rr en  broom  grass  {bromus  sterilis),  soft  holcus  (/ioZcj<s 
mollis),  meadow  holcus  {holcus  lanatus),  meadow  oat  grass  [avena  pratensis), 
cat's  tail  canary  grass  {philaris  phleoides),  and  rye  grass  [lolium  perenne).  Should 
the  soil  contain  some  slight  portion  of  humus,  there  may  be  added  to  these, 
black  medick  or  nonesuch  {medicago  lupulina),  bird's-foot  trefoil  [lotiis  cornicula- 
tus),  common  bird's-foot  [ornithopus  perpusillus),  wild  ihvme  {thymus  syrfillum), 
common  marjoram  {origanum  vulgare),  common  burnet  {poterium  sanguisorba), 
and  Dutch  clover  (trefoJium  repens).  If,  at  the  end  of  a  certain  number  of  years 
a  stratum  of  turf  of  sufficient  thickness  has  been  formed,  and  the  land  has  been 
used  as  a  pasturage  for  sheep,  it  may  with  certain  precautions  be  make  to  yield 
two  crops  of  corn  ;  but  the  exhaustion  which  will  result  from  such  a  course  of 
proceeding  must  be  compensated  by  manuring  the  land  with  dung.  The  first- 
plants  sown  on  it  should  be  buckwheat  and  spurry,  but  they  should  be  sown  so 

(852) 


AND  ENCLOSURES. 


late  in  the  season  that  instead  of  ripening  they  may  be  killed  by  the  frost  and  rot 
upon  the  ground. 

Should  there  be  a  quantity  of  marl  or  argillaceous  mould  within  a  convenient 
\    distance  of  a  soil  composed  entirely  of  sand,  this  latter  may  be  permanently  im- 
!  proved,  and  its  nature  to  a  certain    extent  changed  by  carrying  to  it  a  portion  of 
this  marl  or  mould. 

The  clearing  of  marshes  is  an  operation  of  greater  importance  than  that  of  sandy 

soils  ;  and  one  which  is  not  unfrequently  productive  of  great  benefit ;  but  as  the 

[   drying  or  drainage  of  such  places  constitutes  the  chief  and  most  important  part 

I    of  such  undertakings,  I  shall  defer  treating  of  this  subject  until  we  come  to  speak 

of  draining  generally,  and  the  various  matters  relating  to  it. 

In  most  cases  great  advantages  result  from  lands  being  enclosed  at  the  same 
time  that  they  are  cleared  ;  and  besides,  hedges  are  often  indispensably  necessary 
for  the  protection  of  lands  newly  brought  into  cultivation.  For  this  reason, 
therefore,  I  shall  here  state  all  I  have  to  observe  in  regard  to  fences,  &c. 

HEDGES,  FENCES,  AND  ENCLOSURES. 

Great  diversity  of  opinion  exists  with  respect  to  the  comparative  and  advanta- 
ges and  disadvantages  of  hedges  around  arable  land.  However  zealous  the  ad- 
vocates of  hedges  may  be,  there  are,  on  the  other  hand,  many  agriculturists  who, 
not  satisfied  with  discouraging  the  formation  of  them,  even  go  so  far  as  to  recom- 
mend the  destruction  of  those  already  existing. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  disadvantages  which  are  attributed  to  hedges: 

1.  They  take  up  a  great  deal  of  room,  and  occupy  ground,  the  loss  of  which  is  much  to  be  re- 
gretted when  the  soil  is  of  a  good  quality. 

2.  They  prevent  the  land  frons  drying,  and,  consequently,  retard  the  seed  time. 

3.  They  cause  the  formation  of  large  heaps  of  snow,  which  are  a  long  time  ere  they  melt  and 
disperse,  and  thus  they  prevent  the  plow  from  being  used  at  so  early  a  period  as  it  otherwise 
might.     They  likewise  frequently  overshadow  and  stiHe  those  plants  which  grow  near  them. 

4.  They  are  complete  nurseries  for  weeds.  It  is  impossible  to  destroy  the  noxious  plants  which 
grow  in  them  and,  consequently,  these  latter  extend  then-  roots  and  propagate  their  seeds  over  the 

.   whole  of  the  neighboring  ground. 

',       5.  They  likewise  afford  refuge  to  insects,  vermin,  and  various  mischievous  creatures,  and  espe- 
cially to  sparrows  and  mice. 

6.  They  impede  the  cultivation  of  the  fields,  and  especially  the  operations  of  the  plow,  by  pre- 
venting it  from  being  driven  to  the  very  edge  of  the  land,  and  increasing  the  number  of  turns 
which  it  is  compelled  to  make  in  plowing  a  given  space,  which  certainly  is  a  manifest  dis- 
advantage. 

7.  They  interrupt  the  communication  between  the  fields,  and  often  render  it  necessary  to  take 
a  loug  circuit  in  order  to  get  from  one  enclosure  to  another  which  is  close  by  its  side. 

8.  When  they  have  ditches  by  their  sides,  the  latter  cannot  always  be  made  in  the  direction 
most  favorable  to  drainage  ;  so  that  the  water  flows  back  into  them,  sAvells  over  on  to  the  land, 
interferes  with  the  cultivation,  and  injures  the  crops.  It  is  very  seldom  that  enclosed  laud  can 
be  divided  in  such  a  manner  as  to  admit  of  the  ditches  which  surround  it  serving  at  the  same  time 
ior  the  purpose  of  drainage. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  reasons  about  to  be  enumerated  are  advanced  in  favor 
of  enclosures,  and  especially  of  quickset  hedges  : 

1.  The  experience  of  all  ages  has  tended  to  prove  that  fields  surrounded  with  hedges  are  al- 
ways much  more  fertile  than  those  which  are  left  unclosed.  These  fences  are  productive  of  bene- 
ficial eifects  in  various  ways,  and  especially  as,  by  obstructing  the  course  of  the  wind,  they  keep 
the  land  at  a  higher  temperature.  In  the  cultivation  of  gardens,  .the  advantages  of  having  the 
ground  protected  by  hedges  or  walls  from  the  power  and  effect  of  the  wind  are  generally  recognized. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  plants  growing  in  gardens  are  always  inferior  in  vigor  and  beauty 
in  those  parts  where  the  fence  is  broken.  The  column  of  air  heated  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  during 
the  day,  protects  the  ground  and  the  crops  from  the  cold  and  chills  of  night.  Besides,  the  lowest 
stratum  of  air  contains  the  greatest  quantity  of  those  nutritious  matters  which  are  so  essential  to 
the  support  of  plants :  it  is,  therefore,  advantageous  to  enclose  this  column,  and  prevent  it  as 
much  as  possible  from  being  blown  away  by  the  action  of  the  wind. 

•2.  Whatever  may  be  the  use  of  fences  in  protecting  vegetation,  the  favorable  influence  which 
they  exert  upon  th?  health  of  cattle  is  still  more  evident  and  considerable.  The  more  completely 
animals  are  sheltered  from  the  wind,  the  better  do  they  thrive  while  at  pasturage.  On  this  point, 
the  experience  and  opinion  of  English  agriculturists  remove  all  shadow  of  doubt;  and,  couse- 
,  quently,  a  much  higher  rent  is  paid  in  England  for  pastures  surrounded  with  hedges,  than  for 
those  which  are  unenclosed,  and  the  more  so  in  proportion  as  the  enclosures  are  of  smaller  dimen- 
sions— that  is  to  say,  in  proportion  as  the  number  of  fences  is  greater.  According  to  some  agri- 
culturists, a  field  of  fifty  acres,  divided  into  five  enclosures,  will  fatten  as  many  cattle  as  sixty  acres 
of  land  all  in  one  piece.* 

*  And  because,  while  the  cattle  are  feeding  in  one  enclosure,  the  grass  shoots  up  again  undisturbed  in 
the  others,  without  being  trampled  upon  by  the  feet  of  the  animals,  as  it  would  be  if  the  several  spaces  of 
gro  ind  were  not  separated  by  any  enclosures. 
(353) 


326  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

3.  The  preservation  of  moisture  by  means  of  fences  is  rather  advantageous  than  injurious.  Diy 
and  elevated  land  is  greatly  improved  by  being  enclosed  ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  value 
of  a  sandy  soil  becomes  so  much  increased  when  enclosed  and  subdivided  by  good  quickset 
hedges. 

4.  The  portion  of  ground  occupied  by  the  hedges,  and  thus  withdrawn  from  cultivation,  is  am- 
ply compensated  by  the  wood  which  the  hedges  furnish,  especially  in  countries  where  fuel  is 
dear :  the  more  fertile  the  soil,  the  greater  is  the  quantity  of  wood  which  the  hedges  produce,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  the  smaller  is  the  extent  of  forest  land  existing  in  the  district ;  so  that,  were  it 
not  for  the  amount  of  wood  derived  from  the  hedges,  there  would  be  an  absolute  scarcity  of  fuel. 

The  Other  disadvantages  of  which  hedges  and  enclosures  are  said  to  be  pro- 
ductive, are  not  of  the  slightest  importance,  and  may  easily  be  remedied,  provided 
that  care  is  taken  to  keep  the  fences  in  good  condition,  and  prevent  them  from 

\   becoming  infested  with  weeds. 

*       From  these  contradictory  opinions  the  following  results  must  be  deduced  : 

1.  A  great  number  of  hedges  may  be  injurious  to  a  soil  which  is  naturally  damp  and  moist,  by 
preventing  it  from  drying  quickly.     On  land  of  this  nature  the  hedges  ought  alwaj-s  to  be  rb-   . ' 
moved,  excepting  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  ditches.     While,  on  the  other  hand,  hedges  are  ex-    ' 
ceedingly  useful  in  dry  situations,  and  on  light  sandy  soils;  and  their  utility  in  such  places  in- 
creases in  proportion  with  their  number.     On  land  of  this  description,  the  advantages  resulting 
from  hedges  greatly  overbalance  the  defects  with  -which,  in  some  respects,  they  are  chargeable. 

2.  If  land  be  constantly  kept  in  a  state  of  cultivation,  and  used  as  arable  land,  and  sown  every 
year,  then  the  utility  of  hedges  is  not  so  great,  and  may  even  be  counterbalanced  by  the  impedi- 
ments and  loss  of  time  which  they  occasion  in  the  various  operations  of  tillage,  and  especially  in 
plowing.  But  if  the  land  be  devoted,  at  alternate  inteivals,  to  the  pasturage  of  cattle,  or  convert- 
ed into  permanent  artificial  meadows,  then  the  advantages  of  hedges  preponderate  over  their  dis- 
advantages, because  they  greatly  facilitate  the  keeping  of  cattle,  and  provide  a  beneficial  protec- 
tion for  them.  This  last  consideration  is  an  inducement  to  choose  that  period  for  the  cutting  down 
of  hedges  in  which  the  land  is  devoted  to  the  first  crop  of  corn,  so  that  they  may  shoot  up  afresh 
by  the  time  it  is  again  converted  into  pasturage.  In  order  that  this  may  be  effected,  the  course  of 
the  rotation  must  extend  through  several  j-ears,  as  ten  or  twelve  for  example. 

The  same  considerations  Avill  determine  the  propriety  of  giving  greater  or  less 
extent  to  the  enclosures.  If  the  soil  be  moist,  and  intended  principally  for  the 
growth  of  corn,  the  enclosures  should  be  tolerably  large  ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary, 
the  land  be  dry,  and  intended  chiefly  for  the  maintenance  of  cattle,  it  will  be 
found  advantageous  to  divide  it  into  smaller  parts. 

There  are  two  principal  kinds  of  fences — dead  fences  and  quick  fences  ;  the 
!  latter  of  which  are  generally  designated  hedges. 

Fences  of  the  former  class  are  attended  with  a  disadvantage  from  which  those 
appertaining  to  the  latter  are  free,  viz.  that  they  gradually  become  deteriorated 
from  the  time  of  their  erection  ;  whereas  the  latter,  provided  proper  care  and  at- 
tention be  bestowed  upon  them,  become  better  and  better  every  day. 

The  following  are  the  dead  fences  in  most  common  use  : 

1.  Walls. — This  description  of  fence  can  only  be  used  in  those  places  where  there  is  an  abund- 
ance of  stone  adapted  for  the  formation  of  it. 

It  is  only  around  yards  and  gardens  that  walls  are  built  with  mortar ;  those  which  surround 
fields  are  seldom  or  never  constructed  in  this  manner. 

"We  often  see  estates  surrounded  with  dry  walls,  built  entirely  with  the  stones  collected  on  the 
estate  itself,  or  in  the  neighborhood,  and  joined  together  w^ith  moss  or  turf.  If  we  would  have 
these  walls  at  all  durable,  they  must  be  partly  composed  of  large,  flat  stones,  by  means  of  which 
some  degree  of  uniformity  may  be  given  to  their  external  sides.  If  any  stones  can  be  found  of 
sufficient  size  to  pass  through  the  whole  thickness  of  the  wall,  the  sohdity  of  the  latter  will  be  in- 
creased :  round  stones  may  be  used  for  the  inside  of  the  wall  and  for  filling  up  the  empty  .spaces. 
'  Should  the  number  of  flat  stones  be  small,  the  wall  must  not  be  built  very  high  :  it  may  then  be 
covered  with  turf,  and  gooseberry  or  other  bushes  which  grow  very  well  in  such  situations,  plant- 
ed on  it.  The  roots  of  these  bushes  penetrate  into  the  earth  which  is  placed  between  the  stones, 
and,  consequently,  tend  to  increase  the  solidity  of  the  wall ;  and,  what  is  of  still  more  consequence,  i ' 
they  likewise  increase  its  hight,  and  oppose  an  obstacle  to  the  intrusion  of  men  and  animals. 

Stones  are  sometimes  used  to  form  low  walls  or  parapets,  broad  at  the  base,  but  narrow-  or  ' 
rounded  at  the  top.     In  these  the  stones  are  mixed  with  earth  or  turf,  and  covered  with  the  same 
material :  such  bushes  as  will  grow  there  are  planted  on  the  top  to  form  a  hedge. 

The  chief  advantage  of  walls  and  fences  of  this  description  is  that  they  occupy  hut  little  space, 
and  allow  of  the  ground  being  plowed  up  to  their  very  bases.  Even  if  they  are  not  very  durable, 
it  is  at  all  events,  easy  to  keep  them  up  and  repair  them  when  the  requisite  materials  are  to  be 
found  on  the  spot.  It  is,  therefore,  exceedingly  desirable  that  they  should  be  erected  in  all  places 
where,  in  order  to  give  value  to  the  land,  it  is  necessary  to  clear  the  fields  of  stones,  and  where 
there  is  no  means  of  making  a  better  use  of  such  .stones. 

Sometimes  it  is  considered  suSicient  to  mark  out  the  boundaries  of  the  fields  by  lines  of  stones 
sufficiently  high  to  stop  the  teams ;  and  occasionally  a  hedge  is  planted  behind  these  border  mark.s, 
for  the  purpo.se  of  protecting  them.  Sometimes,  too,  these  stones  are  u.sed  to  foi-m  a  path  for  foot- 
passengers  when  the  road  is  full  of  water,  in  order  that  they  may  not  trample  upon  the  ground  in 
w^hich  the  seed  is  sown. 
(854) 


HEDGES,  FENCES,  AND  ENCLOSURES. 


Those  walls  of  earth,  either  in  a  soft  or  hardened  state,  -which  are  found  in  some  conntries,  but 

which  are  more  frequeutlj'  used  for  the  purpose  of  enclosing  yards  and  gardens  than  arable  land, 

last  but  a  very  short  time  and  require  frequent  renewal.     Sometimes  it  is  not  thought  inconvenient 

to  renew  tliem,  because  the  clay  of  which  they  are  constructed  acquires  considerable  fertility  by 

being  exposed  to  the  influences  of  the  atmosphere,  and  greatly  em-iches  those  soils  on  which  it  is 

'   placed,  especially  when  these  -walls  have  been  erected  in  villages,  or  in  the  neighborhood  of  dung- 

- '   heaps,  and  the  clay  has  consequently  become  impregnated  with  nutritious  matters.     But  the  clay 

I   used  for  this  purpose  must  be  procurable  in  the  immediate  vicinity  ;  for  the  carriage  of  it  from  any 

considerable  distance  would  be  attended  with  an  expense  which,  from  the  perishable  nature  of 

the  \\'alls,  would  soon  become  enormous. 

Fences  of  dead  wood. — These  fences  are  sometimes  constructed  by  means  of  posts  fixed  in  the 
ground,  and  thus  made  to  form  palings  of  various  kinds.  Pieces  of  folit  wood,  the  points  of  which 
are  fastened  to  a  cross-piece  either  by  nails  or  joints,  or  which  are  attached  to  one  another  by 
I  means  of  sticks  woven  among  them  like  hurdles,  form  a  kind  of  fence  which  consumes  more  wood 
'  than  any  other,  and  yet  possesses  but  little  durability.  Posts  driven  into  the  ground  to  sustain 
rods  or  laths  extending  from  one  to  another,  and  fitting  into  holes  or  mortices  made  for  the  pur- 
pose, form  a  fence  which  is  capable  of  preventing  the  egress  of  lai-ge  cattle,  but  which  will  not 
keep  in  smaller  animals,  unless  the  cross-pieces  are  very  numerous  and  placed  very  closely  togeth- 
er— in  which  case  the  posts  will  be  cousiderablj'  weakened  by  the  closeness  of  the  holes  bored  in 
them.  On  this  account,  some  persons  merely  place  tlie  posts  side  by  side,  and  connect  tliem  to- 
gether with  rough  pieces  or  branches  of  wood. 

I  shall  not  enter  into  a  description  of  the  other  varieties  of  lath  fences,  or  of 
the  more  complicated  forms  of  paling,  because,  on  account  of  the  expense  of 
erecting  them  and  keeping  them  in  repair,  they  can  scarcely  be  made  use  of  ex- 
cepting for  the  purpose  of  enclosing  gardens  ;  still  less  shall  I  stop  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  those  which  are  made  of  boards  joined  or  nailed  to  each  other. 

Fences  are  sometimes  made  of  pieces  of  wood  twisted  together,  where  plenty 
of  branches  can  be  obtained.     This  forms  a  solid  and  durable  fence,  especially 
when  the  separate  pieces  which  support  it  consist  of  wood  which  takes  root  and 
continues  to  vegetate  for  some  time.     Fences  of  this  kind  are  constructed  in  va- 
rious ways.     All  those  formed  of  dry  wood,  though  still  often  met  with  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  Germany,  will  soon  be* proscribed,  because  the  scarcity  of  wood,  or, 
at  all  events,  the  great  economy  which  is  introduced  into  the  use  of  it,  will  not 
allow  the  continuance  of  such  a  practice.     In  villages,  where  fences  of  this  sort 
are  usually  found,  they  have  the  great  disadvantage  of  communicating  fire  from    | 
one  cottage  to  another  with  almost  incredible  rapidity  ;  so  thai  when  a  fire  breaks  ]> 
out,  if  these  fences  are  not  quickly  pulled  down,  a  whole  village  becomes,  in  a  / 
few  moments,  a  prey  to  the  devouring  element  '' 


Mounds,  or  ramparts,  or  hanks  of  earth. — These  are  usually  defended  on  both 
sides  by  ditches,  from  which  the  earth  of  which  they  are  formed  Vv'as  dug. —  / 
They  are  usually  covered  with  a  hedge  planted  on  the  top  ;  or,  if  the  land  be  well   ' 
drained,  it  may  be  planted  on  the  sides  or  on  the  edges  of  the  ditches. 

The  most  solid  banks  of  this  description  are  formed  of  turfs  placed  one  upon 
the  other  ;  and  on  sandy  soils  they  can  scarcely  be  made  m  any  other  way.  But 
as  it  seldom  happens  that  it  is  possible  to  obtain  the  turf  for  the  formation  of 
these  banks  from  an}''  extraneous  source,  it  is  necessary  that  land  which  is  to  be 
thus  surrounded  should  not  only  be  covered  with  a  stratum  of  turf,  but  be  contin- 
ued in  that  state  for  several  years,  in  order  that  the  stratum  may  have  acquired 
sufficient  consistence  for  the  purpose.  This  kind  of  fence  is  generally  adopted 
where  tbe  object  of  enclosing  land  is  to  bring  old  pastures  into  cultivation  and  to 
prevent  ingress. 

These  banks  certainly  take  up  a  great  deal  of  room  ;  their  breadth,  including 
that  of  the  ditches,  amounting  to  sixteen  or  eighteen  feet :  the  inner  ditch  may, 
however,  be  gradually  diminished  in  breadth. 

The  following  are  the  principal  operations  relating  to  the  formation  of  these  banks.  The  lines 
which  determine  their  width  are  traced  by  means  of  a  cord  and  a  spade  ;  the  space  usually  allow- 
ed is  eight  feet  The  space  assigned  to  the  ditches  is  marked  out  in  a  similar  manner ;  the  proper 
width  for  them  at  tjie  top  being  four  or  five  feet.  The  surface  of  the  ground  on  which  it  is  intend- 
ed the  bank  should  stand  is  then  broken  up,  and  the  upper  layer  of  the  turf,  for  the  space  of  about 
a  square  foot,  removed  to  the  depth  occupied  by  the  roots  of  the  plants ;  and  the  mould  which  ad- 
heres loc^cly  ^o  it  shaken  off".  About  half  a  foot  of  turf  is  left  undisturbed  at  the  edge  of  the  base 
of  the  b  ,uk  ;  and  i  pou  .nis  b  irder  on  Ijth  s'Jes  c.  the  oanl?  the  '.rst  r.jw  c.  turf  slices,  is  p'aced, 
the  sunace  on  which  the  grass  grows  being  turned  downward ;  the  pieces  are  laid  perfectly  level 
and  close  together,  and  somewhat,  although  very  little,  farther  back  than  the  edge  of  the  bank,  so 
that  they  may  begin  the  slope.  The  space  between  the  two  rows  is  tilled  up  with  earth  taken 
from  the  ditches:  care  is  taken  to  keep  the  earth  within  the  space  well  pressed  down,  and  in  a 
level  with  the  layer  of  turf.  A  second  row  of  turfs  is  then  placed  on  the  first  one,  and  fhe  pieces 
composing  the  latter  are  carefully  disposed  so  as  to  cover  the  joinings  of  the  former;  the  arrange- 


328  thaer's  principles   of  agriculture. 

mentof  them  being  similar  to  that  of  tiles  upon  a  roof.  The  second  row,  as  well  as  the  following 
ones,  oua:hteach  to  be  a  little  way  farther  back  than  the  edge  of  the  one  which  preceded  it,  in  or- 
der that  the  slope  may  be  regularly  continued.  The  best  mode  of  regulating  tliis  slope  is  to  pro 
'  I  vide  the  workmen  with  gauges  made  of  laths  united  together,  and  constructed  m  such  a  manner  as 
to  determine  both  the  size  and  form  of  the  bank.  These  may  be  placed  at  certain  intervals,  and 
lines  stretched  from  one  to  another.  When  the  bight  of  the  hank,  measured  from  its  base,  is  to  ; 
be  about  three  feet  and  a  half,  the  breadth  of  the  ridge  may  be  three  feet ;  the  slope  of  the  sides 
1  being  such  as  to  reduce  the  eight  feet  of  the  base  to  this  width  of  three  feet  at  the  summit.  In  ar- 
ranging the  turfs,  care  must  be  taken  to  yjlace  that  edge  which  is  most  evenly  cut  outward  ;  this 
edge  should  likewise  be  cut  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the  surface,  so  that  it  may  naturally  tend 
[  to  form  the  slope.  Where  such  is  not  the  ca.se,  when  the  bank  is  finished  all  the  irregularities 
must  be  cut  away,  so  as  to  form  an  even  surface.  Each  row  of  turfs  should  be  carefully  beaten 
down,  and  flattened  on  that  which  precedes  it,  but  not  so  violently  as  to  break  it.  It  has  already- 
been  observed  that  the  space  between  the  two  rows  must  be  filled  up  with  earth  and  well  beaten, 
so  as  always  to  form  an  even  surface. 

This  operation  is  usually  commenced  in  the  autumn,  and  continued  until  the  bank  has  attained 
the  hight  of  a  foot  and  a  half  or  two  feet;  it  is  then  left  in  that  state  during  the  whole  winter,  in 
order  that  the  earth  may  have  time  to  sink  down  and  become  compact.  The  operation  is  finished 
as  early  as  possible  in  the  following  spring,  before  the  weather  becomes  very  dry.  in  order  that 
the  turf  may  have  time  to  recommence  vegetation.  Those  slices  of  turf  which  have  been  cut 
may,  without  incurring  injuiy,  be  suiFered  to  remain  in  that  state  during  the  whole  of  the  winter  ; 
they  must  not,  however,  be  piled  one  on  the  other,  but  spread  over  the  ground  in  their  natural  po- 
sition. , 

If  the  turfs  cut  from  the  bottom  of  the  bank  and  the  surface  of  the  ditches  be  not  sufficient  to  '! 
form  the  mound — a  point  about  which  no  general  rule  can  be  laid  down,  .since  it  depends  on  the  i 
greater  or  less  thickness  of  the  turfs — it  will  become  necessary  either  to  take  up  the  surface  of  a  '\ 
large  portion  of  the  gi'ound,  or  to  obtain  turfs  from  elsewhere.  The  latter  course  mustlikewi.se  be 
resorted  to  when  banks  are  to  be  formed  in  places  where  grass  does  not  grow.  When  the  proper 
inclination  is  given  to  each  side  of  the  bank,  the  earth  taken  out  of  the  ditches  will  be  exactly  suf-  . 
ficient  to  fill  up  the  empty  space  between  the  turfs.  ' 

When  the  soil  is  very  argillaceous,  and  possesses  a  considerable  degree  of  tenacity,  the  use  of 
turf  in  forming  the  bank  may  be  dispensed  with.  In  such  a  case  it  w^ill  be  sufficient  to  cover  the 
surface  only  with  turf,  after  the  bank  has  been  formed  of  the  earth  taken  from  the  ditches.  Should 
the  soil  be  naturally  humid,  this  latter  mode  of  procee4Jng  is  more  to  be  depended  on  than  any 
other,  because  the  turfs  obtained  from  such  a  soil  beiug  naturally  spongy,  and  full  of  moisture  and 
mo.ss,  soon  decompose  and  fall  to  pieces  when  laid  one  upon  the  other.  Where  mei'ely  sufficient 
turf -is  required  to  form  this  covering,  the  quantity  raised  from  the  surface  of  the  ditches  will  in 
general  suffice ;  and,  in  this  case,  the  grass  bearing  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  bank  need  not  be  dis- 
turbed, but  may  at  once  be  covered  with  the  earth  taken  from  the  ditches,  and  the  bank  constract-  , 
ed  of  the  fonn  already  described.  But  then  greater  care  must  be  taken  in  cutting  the  turfs  with  ,' 
which  the  bank  is  to  be  covered,  and  especially  when  they  are  thick.  They  must  be  cut  in  a  di- 
rection oblique  to  their  surface,  so  that,  when  placed  upon  the  slope,  they  may  fit  into  each  other 
exactly,  and  the  lower  edge  of  each  turf  may  adjust  itself  above  the  upper  edge  of  that  which  lies 
below  it.  It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  this  covering  up  of  the  bank  must  be  commenced 
from  the  bottom;  it  is  likewise  necessary,  not  only  that  the  first  row  of  turfs  should  be  of  the  same 
width  throughout,  but  also  that  all  the  individual  pieces  of  which  it  is  composed  should  be  of  one 
uniform  breadth.  When  this  first  vow  is  finished,  another  is  placed  upon  it,  the  turfs  being  ad- 
justed to  each  other  with  all  possible  nicety,  and  so  as  to  join  evenly  together,  with  the  lower  edge 
of  one  row  slightly  overlapping  the  upper  edge  of  the  one  beneath  it.  Before  the  turfs  are  put  on, 
the  earth  should  be  well  beaten,  so  that  it  may  present  an  even  surface,  and  that  no  hollows  may 
be  formed  in  it. 

A  hedge  should  then  be  planted  either  on  the  top  or  at  the  side  of  the  bank,  and  in  a  manner 
which  we  shall  presently  describe.  ( 

In  moist  situations,  ditches  without  banks  are  preferable  for  the  formation  uf  ( 
enclosures  :  we  shall  treat  more  at  large  of  the  manner  in  which  these  should  be  i 
formed  when  we  come  to  consider  the  subject  of  drying  and  draining  soils.  ) 

The  planting  of  quickset  hedges  is  effected  in  yarious  ways ;  sometimes  on  t 
raised  banks,  at  others  on  level  ground.  These  hedges  are  composed  of  various  \ 
plants  ;  sometimes  of  one  species  only,  at  others  of  several  muigled  together.  ; 
Ttxe  following  are  the  plants  generally  selected  for  this  purpose,  and  best  adapted  c 
for  it  : 

White  or  hawthorn  fcralegus  oxyacardlia),  dog  or  wild  rose  (rosa  caninis),  hazel-nut  tree 
(corylus  avillana),  elder  tree  (aambvca  nigra),  hornbeam  (carpinus  betulus J, -gooseberry  bu.9h 
(ribes  grossularia),  black-thorn  fpriinus  spinosa),  common  birch  ibetula  alba),  narrow  leaved 
English  elm  (ulmux  campestris),  willows  and  osiers  fsalix),  acacia  (robinia  psendaeacia), 
brooms*  fgenistce),  common  privet*  {lignstmm  vidga.re). 

The  common  bai'berry  [barberis  vulgaris)  was  fijrmerly  often  used  for  this  purpose,  but  its  Use 
I  now  quite   abandoned ;  indeed,  it  has  been  discovered  that  this  plant  is  very  injurious  to  the 
com  growing  in  its  neighborhoood,  and  that  its  pernicious  influence  will  extend  to  a  period  of 
fifty  paces. 

The  author  adds,  that  in  the  north  of  Germany  that  part  of  these  plants  which  is  above  ground  is  often 
destroyed  by  the  frost,  but  that  they  put  Ibrth  fresh  shoots. 
(8-56) 


r 


HEDGES,  FENCES,  AND    ENCLOSURES.  329 


Among  this  number  of  plants,  care  must  be  taken  to  select  those  which   are 

best  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  land  ;  the  species  which  grow  wild  upon  the 

soil  are,  undoubtedly,  those  which  it  is  best  capable  of  nourishmg,  and  which 

may,  therefore,  with  the  greatest  degree  of  probability  be  expected  to  thrive  upon 
it.  Nevertheless,  when  a  soil  is  well  prepared,  plants  with  which  it  does  not 
at  first  seem  to  agree,  may  often,  by  dint  of  care  and  culture,  be  made  to  grow 

upon  it.  Wherever  there  is  any  doubt  with  regard  to  the  subject,  it  is  prudent 
to  mix  such  stranger  plants  with  others  which  are  indigenous  to  the  soil,  and  may 
fill  their  places  should  they  happen  to  fail. 

■  Of  all  the  plants  used  for  the  formation  of  hedges,  7vhtte-tho>-n  or  hawthorn  is  the  one  best  i 
adapted  to  the  purpose.  It  forms  an  almost  impenetrable  fence,  gi-ows  very  compactly,  and  does  i' 
not  tln-ow  out  hew  ramifications  from  its  roots  into  the  surrounding-  soil ;  neither  dues  it  choke  the 
plants  in  its  vicinity,  nor  spread  out  its  braucho?  to  any  very  great  extent ;  and  it  may  be  managed 
60  as  seldom  to  require  cutting,  and  then  not  :o  any  great  extent  at  a  time  :  all  animals  avoid  it 
oa  a^cjiut  Ji'  us  t  lo.-as  It  dje,  not  harbor  birds  or  insects,  and  when  once  fah-ly  hxed  in  the 
soil,  allows  but  few  weeds  to  spring  up  around  it.  But  it  requires  a  good  soil  containing  plenty 
of  clay,  or  else  garden  mould;  and  will  not  thrive  either  where  the  ground  is  excessively  dry,  or 
where  it  contains  any  great  quantity  of  moisture.  '         '  > 

This  plant  is  sometimes  found  growing  spontaneously  in  copses,  but  such  an  occurrence  is  by 
no  means  usual ;  the  artificial  planting  of  it  in  nurseries  possesses  great  advantages  over  any  other 
means  which  can  be  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  it.  Young  hawthorns  thus  reared 
succeed  much  better  than  those  taken  out  of  lorest-s,  and  which  have  consequently  grown  up  in 
the  shade  ;  the  same  may  indeed  be  observed  with  regard  to  all  shrubs  used  in  the'lormatiou  of 
hedges.  This  circumstance  should  induce  agriculturists  to  establish  nurseries,  from  which  they 
may  obtain  the  plants  required  for  the  construction  of  their  hedges.  It  is  true  that  tliese  nurseries 
,  require  great  care  and  attention,  but  where  this  can  be  devoted  to  them  it  will  generally  be. found 
that  the  young  plants  reared  there  are  not  only  much  better,  but  costless  in  the  end  than  wild  ones 
taken  out  of  the  woods  would  have  done. 

Whitethorn  is,  of  all  shrubs,  the  one  which  there  is  the  greatest  difficulty  in  rearing;  but  in  the 
'   end  it  well  repays  the  care  requisite  to  ensure  its  success. 

The  st;ed  of  this  ptant,  which  is  enclosed  in  a  red  fruit,  is  gathered  in  the  autumn,  and  imme- 
diatety  sown  in  rows  in  a  good  soil  whieh  is  light  and  not  too  rich,  or  else  it  is  placed  in  pots 
filled  with  good  mould,  and  kept  during  the  winter  in  a  humid  state  and  in  a  warm  temperature. 
It  is  said  diat  watering  with  pork-brine  facilitates  the  germination  of  this  seed.  ' , 

When  the  seed  of  the  hawthorn,  after  having  been  thus  prepared,  is  put  into  the  ground  at  the  ' 
commencement  of  spring,  it  sometimes  shoots  up  and  forms  young  plants  in  the  fir.st  year ;  where- 
as if  this  course  of  proceeding  be  not  adopted,  it  does  not  spring  up  until  the  second,  and  some- 
times even  until  the  third  year.  In  order  to  protect  the  seed  when  placed  in  the  ground  from  the  at- 
tacks of  insects,  mice,  and  other  vermin,  the  earth  surrounding  it  is  mixed  witli  broken  glass,  or 
other  sub.stauces  of  a  .similar  nature,  and  it  is  then  covered  lightly  with  earth.  The  nursery  must 
be  carefully  kept  clear  of  weeds  ;  and,  in  or-dar  to  effect  this,  the  rows  in  which  the  seed  is  sown 
should  be  kept  quite  distinct,  so  that  the  space  between  them  may  be  dug  up  widi  the  spade. 

In  the  second  ye;-ir  after  germination  ttie  young  plants  should  be  transplanted.  The  taproot 
must  then  be  pruned,  as  well  as  those  roots  which  extend  in  a  horizontal  du-ection,  so  that  the 
young  plants  may  put  forth  as  much  foliage  as  possible  round  their  stems.* 

Tiie  hawthorns  are  placed  close  together,  but  in  rows  sufficiently  distant  from  each  other  to  ad- 
mit of  their  enjoying  the  influence  of  the  sun  and  air.  The  more  frequently  the  space  between 
these  is  tilled  and  weeded,  the  better  do  the  plants  thrive.  In  gardens  this  cultivation  should  be 
performed  with  the  spade  or  hand-hoe,  but  in  large  plantations  in  the  open  country  it  may  be  per- 
formed by  means  of  a  plow  or  horse-hoe.  In  the  first  year  the  implements  of  cultivation  should 
be  made  to  appro.ich  as  near  as  possible  to  the  rows,  in  order  that  the  horizontal  roots  of  the  plants 
may  be  thus  cut  off;  but  in  the  .second  year  the  cultivation  should  not  be  brought  so  near  them  ; 
finally,  it  is  not  judicious  to  heap  the  earth  in  any  considerable  (juantities  again.st  the  plants.  The 
young  hawthorns  should  be  suffered  to  remain  in  the  bed  for  three  .or  four  years,  in  order  that 
they  may  attain  the  condition  most  favorable  to  their  final  transplantation.t 

Some  persons  have  advi.sed  that  a  poor  .soil  should  be  selected  for  these  nurseries,  in  order  that 
'   the  plants  may  not  become  habituated  to  a  great  degree  of  fertility.      Other   agriculturists 
maintain  an  opposite  opinion,  and  prefer  plants  which  have  acquu-ed  vigor  from  gi'owing  on  good 
grounds. 

When  the  time  comes  for  transplanting  the  hawthorns  to  the  place  in  which  they  are  to  foi-m  a 
hedge,  the  soil  must  be  well  prepared  to  receive  diem.  If  they  are  to  be  planted  on  a  bank  form- 
ed in  the  manner  already  described,  their  removal  may  be  effected  as  soon  as  the  bank  is  finished. 
The  best  of  the  soil,  or  that  which  is  immediately  over  the  turf  and  which  becomes  detached  from 
it,  should  be  preserved,  in  order  that  it  may  be  placed  at  the  top  of  the  bank  and  piled  round  the 
roots  of  the  plants.    But  if  the  hedge  is  to  be  planted  on  a  flat  surface,  the  best  way  is  to  dig  up  a 

*  I  cannot  believe  that  it  is  advantageous  to  cut  away  the  tap  root  of  bushes,  the  lateral  roots  of  which 
ought  not  to  spread  out  much.  [French  Trans. 

f  lu  March,  18-2G,  I  caused  a  quantity  of  hawthorn  seed  to  be  sown  in  one  of  my  nurseries  at  Mossa-lom- 
borda,  whioli  seed  I  had  taken  care  to  bring  into  a  germinating  state,  by  putring  it  in  mould  at  the  com- 
,  mencemcnt  of  the  autumn  of  1825,  and  keeping  it  during  the  whole  winter  in  a  moist  state,  and  at  a  high 
temperature.  This  .sowing  furnished  me.  ic  the  autumn  of  1826,  or  in  that  which  followed  the  spring  in 
which  it  took  place,  with  27,000  plants;  all  of  which  were  transplanted  to  the  places  where  they  were  re- 
quired, either  in  that  autMinn  or  in  the  t'oUo  wing  spring  laud  succeeded  perfectly  well.  Some  of  these  plants 
had  in  the  year  1829  attained  a  hight  of  i-33  metres.  [French  Trans. 

(8.57) 


330  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

strip  of  land  about  six  feet  wide  and  two  feet  deep.     In  places  where  the  expense  of  such  an  op- 
eration would  be  too  great  to  admit  of  its  being  executed  on  a  large  scale,  it  will  be  sufficient  to    [ 
till  this  strip  of  ground  several  times  with  a  plow  during  the  summer,  carrying  the  first  operation    ,' 
to  the  utmost  possible  deptli ;  by  this  means  the  soil  will  be  thoroughly  loosened  and  cleared  of 
weeds. 

The  little  trench  in  which  the  young  plants  are  to  be  placed  must  be  opened  before  winter  , 
coraes  on  ;  this  trench  is  usually  made  about  a  foot  in  depth.  The  soil  will  thus  become  loosened 
and  improved,  partly  by  the  effect  of  frost,  partly  by  the  influence  which  the  atmosphere  exerts 
upon  it  in  the  winter.  The  young  trees  should  be  planted  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring,  even 
if  a  continuance  of  cold  weather  and  frost  is  expected,  and  should  be  put  in  the  ground  imme-  | 
diately  after  their  removal  from  the  bed ;  but  at  this  transplantation  their  roots  should  not  be 
prmied,  but  merely  a  little  cut  off  their  branches.  Care  must  be  taken  to  place  those  plants  wliich 
are  possessed  of  equal  vigor  as  much  as  possible  together ;  while  those  which  are  more  weakly 
should  be  left  in  the  bed,  or  else  planted  togetlier  in  one  portion  of  the  hedge,  so  that  special  care 
may  be  devoted  to  them.  The  practice  of  mixing  strong  and  weakly  plants  together,  though  liigh- 
ly  recommended  by  some  authors,  is  undoubtedly  a  bad  one,  for  it  causes  the  weak  plants  to  be 
impoverished  and  choked  up  by  the  stronger  ones. 

Should  there  be  at  hand  a  little  black  garden-mould  or  well  prepared  compost,  it  may,  with' 
great  advantage  to  the  plants,  be  put  into  the  trench  above  the  roots;  and  the  poor  soil  taken  from 
the  bottom  may  then,  without  risk,  be  placed  above  the  mould,  to  prevent  the  weeds  whose  germs 
are  contained  in  the  soil  from  springing  up.  The  plants  are  placed  in  a  row  at  intervals  of  from 
six  to  twelve  inches.  If  they  are  vigorous  and  healthy,  thej'  need  not  be  placed  nearer  to  each 
other  than  twelve  inches.  Sometimes  two  rows  of  hawthorns  are  planted  for  the  sake  of  obtain- 
ing a  very  strong  hedge,  but  in  this  case  there  must  be  a  distance  of  at  least  two  feet  between  the 
rows.  Most  cultivators  plant  the  young  hawthorns  in  an  inclined  position,  and  almost  lying  on 
the  ground,  so  that  they  touch  and  cross  one  another.  This  is  done  witli  the  view  of  making  them 
grow  in  this  oblique  direction,  and  interlace  spontaneously ;  but  the  result  does  not  always  corres- 
pond with  the  intention :  the  new  shoots  invariably  grow  in  a  direction  nearer  to  the  vertical 
than  otherwise  ;  and,  what  is  more,  the  stems  and  branches  rub  against  and  injure  one  another.  I 
have  always  found  it  much  more  advantageous  to  plant  the  hawthorn  in  the  ordinary  vertical  di- 
rection ;  it  is  only  the  lateral  shoots  which  can  be  made  to  interlace. 

This  interlacing  of  the  branches  is  much  accelerated  by  twisting  the  young  shoots  one  over. the 
otlier,  and  fastening  them  with  rushes  or  small  osiers ;  but  this  operation  is  a  verj-  troublesome 
one,  and  is  therefore  seldom  practiced,  excepting  in  gardens  or  grounds  of  but  small  extent.  It 
may,  in  fact,  be  altogether  dispensed  with,  since  the  branches  of  hawthorn  gradually  become  nat- 
urally interlaced,  provided  only  that  the  hedge  be  properly  attended  to,  and  its  growth  not  too 
much  checked  by  the  bushes  being  cut  down  close  to  the  stem. 

In  order  that  the  hedge  may  be  well  clothed  v\'ith  branches  near  the  ground,  it  is  advisable 
that,  within  a  year  after  the  hawthorns  have  been  removed  to  their  place  of  destination,  they 
should  be  cut  down  within  two  inches  of  the  ground.  They  then  throw  out  a  proportionately 
greater  number  of  lateral  shoots  from  the  stump,  which  shoots  must  be  allowed  to  grow  freely, 
and  not  too  much  shortened.  When  pruned  with  the  knife  or  scissors,  according  to  the  method 
practiced  by  gardener.s,  it  is  sufficient  to  cut  away  the  shoots  which  rise  in  a  too  vertical  direction, 
and  suffer  the  lateral  branches  to  gi-ow.  Not  even  for  the  sake  of  thickening  the  hedge  at  the 
bottom,  must  the  principal  branches  be  cut  down  too  low,  or  pruned  too  frequently,  even  when 
they  have  a  tendency  to  rise  straight  up  in  the  air;  for  when  that  is  done,  a  new  tuft  of  shoots  is 
put  forth,  and  a  sort  of  crown  formed  at  the  place  where  these  prunings  have  taken  place,  and 
the  upper  part  of  the  bushes  becomes  too  heavy  in  proportion  to  the  stem;  which  disposition  of 
the  parts  produces  an  effect  precisely  opposite  to  that  which  was  intended,  for  the  lower  brandies 
are  thus  weakened,  and  the  bottom  of  the  hedge  becomes  more  and  more  naked.  Hence,  then,  it 
is  evident  that,  during  the  iirst  few  years,  the  top  of  the  hawthorns  should  be  only  moderately 
pruned,  and  the  lateral  branches  suffered  to  grow  to  their  utmost  extent.  It  afterward  becomes 
necessary  to  cut  them,  but  this  must  not  be  done  in  the  manner  practiced  in  gardens,  the  hedges 
of  which  are  trained  to  form  a  sort  of  perpendicular  wall,  and  are  not  so  thick  at  the  lower  as  at  i 
the  upper  part;  on  the  contrary,  the  hedges  of  which  we  are  speaking  mu.st  be  left  as  bushy  as  i 
possible  at  the  lower  part,  and  that  thickness  gradually  diminished  toward  the  top.  By  a  careful  < 
adherence  to  this  plan,  they  may  be  made  to  retain  their  fonn,  kept  thick  and  well  clothed  to  the 
very  bottom,  and  rendered  impenetrable.  Subsequently,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  prune  these  hedges 
once  in  five  or  ten  years;  occasionally  cutting  away  those  shoots  which  grow  too  vigorou.^ly  at 
the  top,  as  may  appear  necessary.  A  hedge  of  this  kind  may  be  suffered  to  gi-ow  to  the  bight  of 
three  feet  and  a  half,  without  ceasing  to  be  well  clothed  with  leaves  and  braiiches ;  at  that  hight  it 
forms  an  excellent  fence,  and  its  goodness  is  increased  in  proportion  as  it  is  wider  near  tlie  ground 
A  hedge  of  this  description  lasts  a  very  long  time  ;  some  may  be  found  which  have  lived  for  up- 
ward of  a  century,  and  are  still  in  good  condition. 

Hedges  of  black-thorn  and  dog-rose  are  seldom  formed  by  artificial  planting ;  but,  for  the  mosi 
part,  grow  naturally,,  springing  up  from  the  shoots  which  proceed  in  abundance  from  the  roots  of 
these  plants.  Shrubs  of  tliis  kind  may  always  be  transplanted  to  any  place,  for  they  easily  take 
root  and  are  very  hardy.  They  are  seld(.m  pruned,  but  allowed  to  grow  freely ;  the  only  difficul- 
ty connected  with  them  is  to  keep  them  witliin  proper  bounds,  for  they  have  a  great  tendency  to 
extend  themselves  and  take  possession  of  the  soil  which  surrounds  them,  by  means  of  the  numer-  . 
ous  offshoots  which  their  roots  send  up.  In  the  formation  of  hedges,  these  shrubs  are  seldom  used  , 
by  themselves,  hut  mixed  with  various  others.  ^ 

Hazel-nut  hedges  are  usually  formed  by  sowing  the  nuts  in  rows,  on  the  spot  from  which  the 

plants  they  are  intended  to  produce  are  required  to  grow.     Such  hedges  thrive  remarkably  well 

upon  newly  formed  banks,  because  the  soil  of  such  places  is,  in  a  measure,  well  tilled,  and  also 

because  the  turfs  which  they  contain  protect  the  plants  from  the  effects  of  drouth  by  their  decom- 

(858) 


position  ;  and,  moreover,  wiien  planted  thus  liigh,  they  are  more  out  of  the  reach  of  weeds  than 
when  in  the  open  fields.     The  land  must  first  be  prepared  for  the  reception  of  these  plants,  as  well 
as  for  that  of  hawthorns,  by  careful  tillage  with  the  spade  or  plow,  and  then  the  furrow  formed  in    » 
which  the  nuts  are  to  be  sown.     This  furrow  should  be  made  as  early  as  possible,  in  order  that   y 
the  surrounding  soil  may  have  time  to  become  aerated.     In  the  autumn,  the  earth  taken  out  of  the 
furrow  should  be  mixed  with  mud  from  the  bottom  of  ditches,  or  dry  leaves. 

The  nuts  intended  for  sowing  should  be  perfectly  ripe.     The  best  plan  is  to  select  for  this  pur- 
pose only  such  as  fall  spontaneously  in  the  autumn,  when  the  branches  which  bear  them  are  shak- 
'    en.     These  should  be  kept  during  the  winter  in  dry  sand.     In  the  spring  they  must  be  placed  in 
the  furrow  prepared  for  their  reception,  and  sown  in  rows  at  intervals  of  four  inches.     I  have 
found  that  it  is  injudicious  to  place  them  in  the  ground  before  the  commencement  of  winter,  be- 
,   cause  they  then  run  a  great  risk  of  being  eaten  by  mice.     Generally  speaking,  the  i)lants  make 
'   their  appearance  in  May,  and  by  the  end  of  the  summer  have  attained  a  bight  of  somewhat  more 
^     than  a  foot.    When  thej-  are  too  crowded,  the  alternate  ones  should  be  pulled  up,  and  transplant- 
/   ed  to  places  where  there  is  room  for  them. 

/       Hedges  of  hazel-nut  trees  only  require  attention  during  the  first  year  of  their  growth  ;  they  must, 
/   for  that  period,  be  kept  *rupulously  clear  of  weeds.     Subsequently,  they  should  be  cut  down 
close  to  the  ground  every  nine  or  ten  years,  and  may  by  this  means  be  made  to  furnish  plenty  o 
wood,  which  is  of  great  use  in  cooperage,  and  they  soon  shoot  up  afresh  with  renewed  vigor. 

i/o-;-?iieam  trees  are  reared  in  nurseries  established  for  the  purpose.  This  tree  u.sed  to  be  in 
great  request  for  the  formation  of  hedges  in  gardens,  and,  indeed,  when  well  pruned,  it  consti- 
tutes a  veiy  compact  green  fence  ;  but  without  such  treatment,  the  lower  part  of  it  soon  becomes 
naked,  and  it  has  a  tendency  to  shoot  up  to  a  great  hight ;  in  this  case,  especiallj'  if  it  be  planted  in 
double  rows,  it  forms  a  fence  like  one  composed  of  stakes,  and  not  a  hedge,  properly  so  called. 

The  same  may  be  observed  with  regard  to  the  narrow-leaved  elm,  the  birch,  and  the  elder  tree, 
unless  their  branches  ai-e  occasionally  lopped  so  as  to  make  them  put  forth  new  shoots,  or  unless 
they  are  subjected  to  the  treatment  which  we  shall  presently  describe. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  acacia,  and  the  prickles  with  which  its  branches  are  armed,  seem  to 
render  it  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  formation  of  hedges;  and  many  authors  consider  it  to  be  well 
calculated  for  the  purpose  :  nevertheless,  I  have  never  succeeded  in  forming  a  compact  hedge 
I  with  this  tree.  In  fact,  the  acacia  puts  forth  such  vigorous  shoots  that  they  soon  become  woody, 
I  and  camiot  easily  be  restrained  withiu  the  dimensions  of  a  hedge.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  be  3I- 
I  lowed  to  grow  upward,  the  lower  part  soonbecomes  bare,  and  thus  the  fence  is  spoiled.  It  is 
I   possible,  however,  that  I  may  not  have  adopted  the  proper  mode  of  managing  it. 

In  hedges  consisting  of  shrubs  of  various  kinds,  the  acacia  may  produce  a  very  good  effect  by 
means  of  its  prickles ;  but  these  latter  tend  greatly  to  increase  the  difficulty  of  cutting  and 
pruning  the  hedges,  and  bending  and  interlacing  the  branches,  in  order  to  render  the  fence  com- 

\   ^^^''■• 

Hedges  of  prickly  broom,  may  easily  be  raised  from  the  seed,  by  sowing  it  in  the  spot  on  which 
it  is  intended  that  the  plants  should  groNv;  they  form  a  tolerably  compact  fence,  and  possess  but 
one  bad  quality,  which  is,  that  during  severe  winters  they  are  almost  invariably  killed  by  frost. 

Privet  hedges  do  not  form  good  fences. 

The  various  species  oi osiers  cannot  be  said  to  form  a  very  compact  hedge  ;  nevertheless,  a  ve- 
ry useful  kind  of  enclosure  or  fence,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  cattle  fi-om  straying,  may  be  con- 
structed of  them.  They  are  frequently  employed  with  advantage  for  the  purpose  of  protecting 
newly  formed  banks  of  mounds  of  earth  from  the  attacks  of  cattle  ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  are  plant- 
ed between  the  foot  of  the  bank  and  the  edge  of  the  ditch  ;  or  else  on  the  slope  of  the  former, 
when  it  is  intended  that  a  hedge  should  be  raised  on  its  summit.  In  this  case,  osier  twigs  of  about 
two  years  old  are  taken  cut  into  slips  of  from  a  foot  to  a  foot  and  a-half  in  length,  and  planted,  at 
intervals  of  two  feet,  so  deeply  in  the  ground  as  not  to  rise  above  three  or  four  inches  above  the 
surface  of  the  soil.  After  the  first  year  these  slips  put  forth  shoots,  which  may  be  attached  to  each 
other.  "V\''hen  the  hedge  on  the  bank  is  sufficiently  advanced  in  growth  to  no  longer  need  de- 
fence, the  osiers  may  be  taken  away. 

In  veiy  dry  places,  the  kind  of  osier  best  adapted  for  this  purpose  is  the  brittle  osier ;  but  in 
moist,  damp  situations,  where  there  is  no  other  means  of  forming  a  hedge,  that  species  of  osier 
should  be  chosen  which  is  best  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  then  the  mode  of  proceeding 
just  described  had  recourse  to. 

Fields  are  frequently  enclosed  with  hedges  formed  of  several  of  the  different 
kinds  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  which  we  have  just  been  speaking  mixed  together, 
and  planted  either  on  an  even  surface  or  on  an  embankment ;  but  in  these  cases 
the  hawthorn  is  seldom  or  never  used.  Sometimes  the  hedge  is  formed  solely  of 
oaks  and  beech  trees,  and  it  is  then  managed  in  the  following  manner,  which  the 
Germans  call  the  knick  method  of  proceeding. 

When  the  trees  of  which  the  hedge  is  to  be  composed  have  taken  root,  they 
a  e  cut  down  within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  nothing  left 
standing  but  a  stem  of  about  four  feet  high,  to  serve  as  a  stake.  These  are  left 
at  intervals  of  four  feet  apart.  Should  there  be  any  space  which  cannot  be  filled 
up  by  one  of  these  stakes,  a  branch  of  osier  may  be  planted  there.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  to  keep  the  row  as  even  as  possible,  and  about  every  twelve  feet  a 
tree  must  be  left  untouched.  The  ditches  should  then  be  formed,  and  the  earth 
taken  from  the  bottom  of  them  thrown  against  the  hedge.  This  must  always  be 
done  whenever  the  ditches  are  cleaned  out  or  repaired ;  for  it  would  be  highly 


332 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


injudicious  to  make  any  other  use  of  such  earth  which  belongs  to  the  he(Jges  and 
serves  to  manure  it. 

When  the  trees  which  have  been  left  unpruned  have  grown  up,  two  notches 
are  made  in  the  stem  ;  the  first  very  near  the  ground,  and  the  second  higher  up. 
These  ought  to  be  of  such  a  depth  as  to  leave  only  the  bark  and  a  little  wood  re- 
maining on  one  side.  This  tree  is  then  bent  on  the  opposite  side  to  that  in  which 
the  notches  were  cut,  and  interlaced  with  or  tied  to  the  stakes  of  which  we  have 
before  spoken.  The  trees  thus  trained  continue  to  vegetate,  and  in  time  produce 
a  strong,  compact  hedge.  This  mode  of  proceeding  is  principally  adopted  Avith 
regard  to  hedges  chiefly  composed  of  hazel  and  birch  trees.  I  have  seen  close, 
compact  hedges  thus  formed  on  the  most  sandy  soils  ;  but  this  practice  is  seldom 
adopted  upon  places  and  in  situations  more  favorable  to  vegetation,  because  the 
rain  water  which  drops  from  the  places  Avhere  the  stems  are  tied  or  interlaced, 
injures  the  young  shoots  and  prevents  the  hedge  from  becoming  covered  with 
foliage. 

On  very  fertile  land  it  has  often  been  found  advisable  to  cut  down  hedges  of 
this  kind  close  to  the  ground  every  tenth  or  twelfth  year,  and  then  to  suffer  them 
to  shoot  up  again  at  will.  This  practice  is  to  be  recommended  not  only  because 
a  larger  quantity  of  wood  is  thus  obtained,  but  also  because,  on  land  which  is 
submitted  to  a  rotation  in  Avhich  several  years  are  devoted  to  pasturage,  the 
hedges  may  be  dispensed  with  during  the  period  that  the  soil  is  tilled,  and  the 
crops  thrive  better  when  it  is  cut  down, 

if  the  farmer  wishes  to  form  a  live  hedge  upon  an  even  piece  of  ground,  with- 
out ditches  or  embankment,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  it  should  be  protected 
against  the  injuries  liable  to  be  done  to  it  by  cattle,  as  well  as  from  those  which 
may  arise  from  the  carelessness  or  wantonness  of  persons  employed  in  or  passing 
through  the  field,  by  a  fence  of  some  kind,  which  need  not  be  constructed  with 
more  strength  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  it  to  afford  protection  to  the 
young  hedge,  until  it  is  capable  of  taking  care  of  itself  Whatever  may  be  the 
nature  of  this  temporary  fence,  it  should  be  placed  at  some  distance  from  the 
hedge — as,  for  instance,  three,  or  even  four  feet  ;  for,  if  it  were  nearer,  it  would 
deprive  the  young  shrubs  or  trees  of  the  air  and  light  absolutely  indispensable  to 
their  vegetation  ;  and,  when  removed,  that  portion  of  the  green  hedge  which  had 
been  shadowed  by  it  Avould  be  so  much  affected  by  the  suddenly  increased  amount 
of  air  and  light  thrown  upon  it,  that  the  weaker  plants  would  he  liable  to  become 
diseased.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fence  be  too  far  off  and  too  open,  it  does  not 
protect  the  shoots  of  the  young  hedge  from  the  attacks  of  cattle  ;  and,  consequent- 
ly, the  vegetation  of  the  plants  is  retarded,  and  their  growth  stunted.  JNeither 
should  a  fool-path  be  allowed  to  be  established  by  the  side  of  a  young  hedge,  be- 
cause the  pressure  of  the  feet  of  passengers,  and  the  friction  caused  by  their  pass- 
age to  and  fro,  is  calculated  to  mjure  it  materially,  especially  if  it  be  composed  of 
hawthorn. 

The  formation  of  enclosures  and  the  judicious  distribution  of  land,  which  may 
be  effected  by  means  of  good  and  compact  live  hedges,  contributes  essentially  to 
increase  the  value  of  property,  by  enabling  the  agriculturist  to  raise  various  kinds 
of  products  from  it,  and  pasture  various  kinds  of  cattle  on  it  at  once.  Robberies 
and  damage  occur  less  frequently  on  enclosed  than  they  do  on  open  fields.  Be- 
sides, in  my  opinion,  a  province  which  is  intersected  with  ditches  and  embank- 
ments of  earth  planted  with  compact  edges,  presents  almost  invincible  obstacles  to 
all  hostile  invasions,  especially  if  it  is  properly  defended  by  a  well  disciplined 
troop  of  light  infantry.  The  enemy's  cavalry  and  artillery  would  make  little  or 
no  progress  over  it.  The  whole  country  would  become  a  continuous  fortress  ;  and 
if,  as  might  easily  be  managed,  these  ditches  and  embankments  were  constructed 
With  some  regard  to  military  tactics,  the  country  might  thus  be  far  better  defend- 
ed than  it  could  be  by  means  of  fortifications  ;  and  it  would  be  much  less  expense 
to  Government  thus  to  make  the  whole  country  one  uninterrupted  fortress,  than 
it  now  does  to  establish  those  fortifications  around  towns  and  villages  which  are 
so  detrimental  to  the  agricultural  interesL 


The    ascertaining 
from    prejudicial    excess 

(860) 


THE  DRAINING  OF    LAND. 

and  adopting  the  best    possible   means   of   freeing   land 


of  moisture,    may  be  ranked  among  the  most  import- 


DRAINING  LAND.  333 


ant  branches  of  agricultural  science.  The  draining  of  land  and  rendering  it 
healthy  must  precede  all  other  improvements,  as  without  in  the  first  instance 
fully  accomplishing  this  object,  the  farmer  will  :iind  all  his  future  exertions  of  lit- 
tle avail.  A  proper  degree  of  drainage  tends  to  protect  the  crops  from  the  inju- 
I  ries  which  are  to  result  from  excess  of  moisture,  and  contributes  materially  lo  en- 
^  sure  their  success.  This  operation  alone  has  often  been  sufficient  to  render  ex- 
tensive sterile  plains  exceedingly  fertile.  But  the  art  of  draining  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  and  complicated  of  all  those  appertaining  to  agricultural  science.  It 
would  be  useless  and  impossible  to  attempt  to  point  out  all  the  different  circum- 
stances under  which  this  operation  has  to  be  performed,  and  the  modifications 
which  must  be  introduced  into  it,  since  each  one  has  its  own  peculiarities,  and 
requires  to  be  treated  accordingly.  It  will  be  sufficient  if  we  endeavor  to  give 
our  readers  a  clear  notion  of  the  laws  by  v/hich  the  motion  of  water  is  governed, 
'  and  the  manner  in  which  it  affects  solid  bodies  ;  or,  in  a  word,  the  various  causes 
I  which  tend  to  produce  excessive  humidity,  that  my  readers  may  be  enabled  to  i 
<  distinguish  them  at  a  glance,  and  determine  at  once,  in  each  particular  case,  the 
cause  by  which  it  is  produced.  This  being  ascertained,  the  most  efficacious 
means  of  remedying  the  evil,  and  those  best  adapted  to  the  situation  and  locality, 
'  will  present  themselves.  It  may  be  supposed  that  any  remarks  on  this  subject 
ought  to  prefaced  by  a  dissertation  on  the  theory  of  hydraulics,  hydrostatics,  and 
the  mathematical  principles  on  which  this  portion  of  the  sciences  depends.  But 
as  it  is  simply  my  intention  to  enter  into  such  considerations  as  every  agricultur- 
ist may  be  supposed  to  be  acquainted  with,  I  shall  content  myself  with  des- 
cribing what  may  be  understood-and  performed  without  reference  to  these  branch- 
es of  science  ;  or,  in  other  Avords,  those  operations  which  come  withm  the  sphere 
of  action  of  every  practical  agriculturist  ;  and  under  this  class,  the  drainage  of 
extensive  plains,  the  means  of  protecting  them  from  excess  of  moisture  by  large 
dykes  or  conduits,  and  the  formation  of  canals,  &c.,  cannot  be  comprehended. 
'  Undertakings  like  these  come  within  the  province  of,  and  ought  to  be  confided  only 
to  skillful  engineers,  who  have  made  such  matters  their  principal  study  ;  and 
even  such  men  are  frequently  liable  to  commit  errors,  and  show  by  theifonanner  of 
proceeding  that  there  is  much  regarding  this  branch  of  science  yet  to  be  learned. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  water,  by  reason  of  the  want  of  adherence  between 
its  parts — a  circumstance  Avhich  constitutes  its  fluidity — has  a  tendency  to  oc- 
cupy with  each  of  its  molecules  the  lowest  spot  which  it  can  find  ;  and  thus 
to  seek  a  level,  or  foi'm  an  horizontal  surface.  This  fluid  does  not  act  mere- 
ly on  its  base  with  a  power  proportionate  to  its  weight,  but  its  action  likewise 
extends  to  the  sides  :  its  pressure  is  prolonged  so  long  as  the  adherence  of  its 
particles  remains  unbroken.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  v/hen  water  is  in- 
troduced into  two  tubs,  the  inferior  extremities  of  which  communicate  with  each 
other,  its  water  assumes  a  horizontal  position  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  rises  to  an  equal 
hight  in  each  tube,  or,  in  other  words,  finds  a  level.  An  alteration  of  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  tubes  will  not  prevent  this.  Even  when  one  is  larger  than  the  other, 
the  water  rises  to  the  same  hight  in  each  ;  because,  in  general,  the  atmospheric 
pressure  is  not  at  all  impeded  by  friction.  But  when  one  of  the  tubes  is  very 
much  smaller  than  the  other,  the  water  will  rise  higher  in  it  than  in  the  larger 
one  which  is  united  to  it,  on  account  of  the  force  of  attraction  which  solid  bodies  \ 
exercise  on  fluids,  according  to  the  well-known  laws  of  capillary  attraction. 
Loose  earth  acts  in  the  same  manner  as  the  capillary  tubes.  In  order  to  become 
convinced  of  this  fact,  it  is  only  necessary  to  place  a  pot  full  of  earth,  in  the  bot- 
tom of  which  several  holes  have  been  bored,  in  a  vessel  containing  water,  and  it 
will  soon  become  apparent  that  the  water  has  arisen  in  the  earth  to  an  elevation 
considerably  above  the  level  of  the  water. 

Soils  are  generally  formed  of  layers  of  earth  and  of  stone,  some  of  which  are 
porous,  and  permit  the  water  to  pass  through  and  unite  with  them  ;  while  others 
are  impermeable.  Mould,  turf,  sand,  gravel,  pulverulent  lime  or  chalk,  all  stones 
having  a  porous  tissue,  schists  and  rocks  containing  fissures,  are  permeable 
bodies;  while  dense  rocks,  various  kinds  of  fossils,  tenacious  clay,  &c.,  are  imper-  ] 
meable  bodies,  which  oppose  an  obstacle  to  the  passage  of  water,  and  retain  it. 
When  these  latter  become  indurated  and  compact,  and  are  saturated  with  water 
on  their  surface,  they  do  not  suffer  it  to  percolate  or  escape,  but  resist  it  the  same 
as  metal  or  hard  wood.     Mixed  soils  absorb  and  allow  the  passage  of  water  in 

(861) 


proportion  to  their  combinations  and  their  degree  of  porosity.  All  the  fluid  which 
we  find  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  occasioned  by  these  alternating  and  inter- 
rupted strata,  by  those  various  stratifications,  and  the  furrows  and  canals  which 
penetrate  our  soil  to  unknown  depths.  If  the  permeable  layers  were  uninter- 
rupted, the  water  would  gradually  sink  nearer  to  the  center  of  the  globe  ;  and  ! 
thus  rivers  and  even  the  sea  itself  would  finally  disappear.     If,  on  the  other  hand,  * 

/  the  whole  surface  of  our  earth  were  formed  of  one  uniform  impermeable  layer, 
all  moisture  would  flow  to  the  sea  directly  it  had  fallen  from  the  atmosphere,  and 
there  would  be  neither  springs,  rivers,  or  fountains.  But  impermeable 
strata  are  intermingled  with  others  that  are  permeable,  in  the  same  way  that 
the  human  body  is  intersected  with  veins.  There  are  but  few  places  where  ' 
water  may  not  be  found,  although  it  frequently  exists  at  a  great  depth  below  the 
surface. 

In  permeable  bodies  the  water  penetrates  as  deeply,  and  extends  itself  at  the 
sides  as  far  as  possible  ;  that  is  to  say,  until  it  encounters  some  impermeable  stra-  ; 
tum  which  impedes  its  progress.     Thus,  a  permeable  soil  which  rests  upon  an   ' 

'  impermeable  layer,  and  is  Surrounded  on  all  sides  to  a  certain  hight  by  a  stratum 
which  will  not  admit  the  passage  of  moisture,  must  inevitably  form  a  reservoir  of 
water,  and  have  all  its  pores  thoroughly  saturated  with  that  fluid;  it  continues 
to  absorb  water  until  this  is  the  case,  and  then  the  fluid  regurgitates  back  to  the 
surface,  renders  the  adjacent  land  moist ;  and  in  wet  seasons,  -when  a  larger 
quantity  of  rain  falls  than  the  reservoir  is  capable  of  containing  in  addition  to  the 
moisture  already  assembled  there,  it  necessarily  overflows  and  the  water  spreads 
itself  over  the  surrounding  land.  If  the  boundaries  of  this  porous  earth  are  of  an 
equal  hight  all  round,  and  the  bottom  perfectly  horizontal,  the  superabundant 
moisture  rises  equally  on  all  sides ;  but  as  this  is  seldom  the  case,  it  generally 
runs  oiT  on  that  side  on  which  the  boundaries  are  lowest.  Sometimes  the  outlet 
through  which  it  passes  is  very  narrow,  and  may  be  compared  to  a  small  piece 
broken  out  of  a  basin,  or  to  the  opening  through  which  a  brook  emanates  from  a 
lake.  By  means  of  this  outlet,  the  reservoir  throws  off  its  superabundant  mois- 
ture ;  at  least,  so  long  as  the  quantity  of  fluid  produced  by  rain  or  other  causes, 
and  the  continuous  amount  of  pressure,  be  not  so  great  as  to  render  it  insufficient 
for  the  purpose  ;  whenever  the  latter  is  the  case,  the  water  rises  much  higher 
than  it  would  otherwise  do,  and  floods  all  the  lower  ground  in  its  neighborhood. 
The  result  is  always  the  same  whether  these  reservoirs  exist  on  the  surface  of 
the  soil  and  present  themselves  to  our  view  under  the  form  of  ponds,  lakes,  fee, 
or  whether  they  are  situated  at  a  greater  depth,  and  covered  by  a  tolerably  thick  ; 
layer  of  earth.  It  is  likewise  immaterial  whether  they  or  their  openings  are  / 
formed  by  empty  spaces  containing  nothing  but  water,  or  are  filled  with  earth 
and  porous  stones  which  receive  the  fluid  into  their  pores  and  clefts,  and  suffer  it 
to  pass  through.  The  only  diff'erence  is  that  the  latter  imbibe  a  smaller  quantity 
of  Avater,  and  do  not  suffer  it  to  flow  so  freely,  and  that  this  water  does  not  become 
mingled  with  anything,  but  merely  occupies  the  vacant  space.     The  effect  of 

firessure,  however,  and  the  addition  from  above  of  more  moisture,  will  eventual- 
y  of  necessity  cause  the  reservoir  to  overflow.  Thus,  when  a  reservoir  situated  in 
an  elevated  position  communicates  with  one  lower  down  by  means  of  an  open 
passage,  or,  what  amounts  to  the  same,  by  means  of  a  layer  of  permeable  earth, 
the  latter  will  receive  the  pressure  and  the  superabundant  moisture  of  the  former 
until  such  time  as  the  wator  in  both  forms  a  level,  or,  in  other  words,  a  horizon- 
tal line  similar  to  that  which  it  takes  up  two  in  tubes  placed  vertically,  the  lower 
ends  of  which  communicate  with  one  another. 

Although  these  facts  are  universally  known,  I  deerh  it  right  to  recapitulate 
them  here  in  order  to  be  able  to  make  myself  understood  in  the  succeeding  para- 
graphs without  running  the  risk  of  being  too  prolix. 

I  must  now  go  on  to  speak  of  those  considerations  and  precautions  by  which 
we  must  be  governed  in  all  our  endeavors  to  drain  land  and  free  it  from  its  super- 
abundant moisture. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  find  a  level,  that  is  say,  to  ascertain  the  hight 
of  the  point  at  which  that  water  which  we  wish  to  get  rid  of  is  situated  ;  also, 
that  of  the  place  to  which  we  would  convey  it,  and  of  all  the  intermediate  points 
through  which  it  must  pass.  The  art  of  leveling  and  the  use  of  the  draining  au- 
ger will  be  found  applicable  to  this  operation. 

1860) 


DRAINING  LAND.  335 


Drains,  ditches,  or  gutters  are  usually  formed  for  the  express  purpose  of  carrying 
off  any  superabundance  of  moisture  which  may  exist  in  the  land. 

These  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  they 
are  formed : 

1.  Drains,  ditches,  or  gutters,  to  collect  water. 

2.  Gutters  or  trenches  which  are  intended  for  the  purpose  of  draining  land,  and  rendering  it 
healthy  by  freeing  it  from  moisture. 

The  former,  by  means  of  which  the  water  is  collected  which  flows  from  eleva- 
ted spots,  and  preveated  from  overflowing  the  plains  beneath,  ought  to  intersect 
the  declivity  of  land.  In  general,  they  should  be  perfectly  horizontal  at  their 
base,  and  should  have  what  is  called  a  dead  level.  It  is,  however,  necessary 
that  the  horizontal  line  which  forms  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  should  be  a  little 
deeper  than  the  layer  of  earth  on  which  the  moisture  which  we  wish  to  carry  off 
rests  or  flows. 

Drains  or  gutters  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  water,  whether  intended  at 
once  to  get  rid  of  the  moisture  which  rises  in  the  ground,  or  as  canals  to  carry  off 
the  water  collected  by  ditches  of  the  first  class,  ought  to  receive  an  inclination 
toward  the  bottom  of  the  declivity,  and  to  have  some  slope.     But  in  the  greater  / 
number  of  cases  ihis  slope  must  be  very  gradual,  an  inch  in  twenty  perches    is 
admitted  to  be  the  general  average.     It  is  often  imperatively  necessary  to  avoid    • 
giving  a  greater  degree  of  inclination  to  them,  lest  the  bottom  should  be  injured  by  / 
the  too  rapid  course  of  the  water  ;  and  it  is  sometimes  even  necessary  that  their 
strength  should  be  increased,  in  order  that  the  slope  may  be  rendered  more  gentle. 

When  such  a  drain  or  gutter  is  to  be  dug,  the  first  thing  to  be  determined  is 

i    its  depth,  and  the  width  of  the  lowest  part  of  it,  or  that  on  which  the  water  rests. 

The  depth  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  to  which  it  is  to  be  hollowed  must  be  de^ 


[■  termined  in  different  places  by  leveling,  and  its  breadth  be  made  proportionate  to 
'  the  quantity  of  water  which  may  be  expected  to  pass  through  it.  As  these  ditch- 
es must  sometimes  be  horizontal,  and  at  others  receive  a  gentle  slope,  according 
as  the  surface  through  which  they  have  to  pass  rises  or  inclines,  they  are  made 
deeper  or  more  shallow  according  to  the  undulations  of  the  soil.  The  width  of 
the  top  of  the  ditch  must  be  regulated  by  that  of  its  base,  and  by  its  depth,  in  or- 
der that  the  sides  may  always  have  a  proper  talus.  When  the  land  is  of  a  firm 
and  solid  nature,  the  following  is  the  proportion  usually  adopted  :  the  summit  or 
top  of  the  ditch  is  made  half  as  wide  again,  in  proportion  to  its  hight,  as  the  bot- 
tom. Thus,  if  it  is  three  feet  deep,  and  two  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  it  ought  to 
measure  3  +  3  +  2  =  8  at  the  top.  If  the  surface  through  which  it  passes  rises 
a  foot,  the  width  of  the  top  of  the  ditch  must  be  increased  to  ten  feet,  and  if  it 
rises  two  feet  to  twelve  feet,  in  order  that  the  sides  may  maintain  an  uniform  de- 
gree of  inclination  or  slope,  and  form  with  the  base  an  obtuse  angle  of  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-five  degrees.  In  sandy  or  marly  soils,  which  possess  but  little 
solidity  and  adherence,  this  inclination  is  frequently  not  sufficient,  and  the  top  of 
the  ditch  has  to  be  made  one-half  or  one-third  wider  ;  it  is  not  uncommon  for  it 
to  be  necessary  to  give  a  perfectly  rounded  form  to  drains  or  ditches,  the  profile 
of  which  is  similar  to  that  of  an  inverted  bow,  and  in  this  case  grass  is  suffered 
to  grow  on  them,  so  that  they  furnish  fodder  for  cattle. 

The  digging  and  forming  of  these  ditches  or  gutters  is  usually  performed  as 

task  work,  and  the  price  regulated  by  the  cubic  measure  of  earth  removed  ;  but 

the  operation  is  rendered  more  or  less  difficult  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  on  which 

it  has  to  be  performed.     When  the  ground  is  lignt  and  sandy,  the  digging  up  of 

',    a  surface  of  one  hundred  and  forty-four  Rhenish  feet  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  will 

not  generally  cost  more  than  three  groschen  ;  but,  if  the  soil  is  very  argillaceous 

and  tenacious,  the  expense  v/ill  be  increased  to  double  that  sura  :  on  average  soils 

'  it  will  be  proportionate  to  the  degree  of  their  tenacity.     The  expense  of  the  ope- 

\  ration  depends,  however,  in  a  great  measure  on  the  depth  to  which  it  has  to  be 

i  carried  ;  for,  as  the  extraction  of  the  earth  becomes  more  and  more  difficult   in 

I  proportion  to  the  depth  from  which  it  has  to  be  raised,  so  must  the  wages  of  the 

\  workmen  be  increased  in  exact  ratio  with  the  depth  to  which  they  have  to  dig, 

>  otherwise  they  will  gain  nothing  by  the  job. 

}  While  digging  these  ditches,  it  is  highly  requisite  that  care  should  be  taken 
(  to  throw  the  earth  sufficiently  far,  not  only  to  prevent  it  from  bearing  an  undue 
I  degree  of  pressure  on  the  edges,  but  likewise  to  prevent  it  from  being  in  the  way, 

,  (863) 


THAER  S   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE, 


:  336 

and  having  to  be  removed  again  should  it  be  necessary,  as  it  frequently  is,  to  en- 
I    large  and  widen  the  drain. 

!|  I  must  here  observe  that  it  is  not  sufficient  to  trace  out  and  dig  a  ditch  or  gut- 
(  ter,  but  it  must  also  be  kept  clear  and  in  good  repair  ;  consequently,  in  forming 
J  an  estimate  of  the  expenses  attending  it,  those  of  keeping  it  in  order  as  Avell  as 
I  establishing  it  must  be  calculated  ;  and  these  -will  be  found  to  vary  in  different 
localities,  and  under  different  circumstances. 

I  shall  proceed  to  speak  of  aqueducts  and  subterraneous  drains  by  and  bye. — 
'  Previously  to  undertaking  any  operations  for  the  purpose  of  freeing  a  soil  from 
its  superabundant  humidity,  we  must,  in  the  first  place,  endeavor  to  ascertain 
precisely  from  what  cause  this  humidity  arises,  in  order  to  be  enabled  at  once  to 
adopt  the  most  efficacious  means  of  remedying  the  evil,  and  those  best  adapted 
to  the  locality. 

The  causes  generally  productive  of  superabundant  moisture  may  be  classed  un- 
der the  four  following  heads  ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  evil  may  arise — 

[a).  From  rain  water  or  other  moisture  deposited  by  the  atmosphere  on  a  spot 
where,  from  the  retentive  nature  of  the  materials  of  which  the  surface  is  compo- 
sed and  the  strata  on  which  it  rests,  this  fluid  cannot  penetrate  deeper  or  flow  on- 
ward. 

[h).  From  ivater  which  flows  from  higher  grounds,  and  which  is  retained  on 
the  surface  of  the  soil  by  inequalities  or  elevations,  which  force  it  to  remain  in 
that  place  until  it  evaporates. 

(c).  From  water  ivhich  flows  from  elevated  regions,  and  descends  for  a  consid- 
erable distance  among  the  porous  substances  between  the  difl'erent  strata  of  clay 
before  it  shoivs  itself,  or  breaJcs  out  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  beneath  which 
it  of  ten  forms  actual  springs  ivhich  have  no  means  of  escaping. 

[d).  From  luater-courses,  ivhich  occasionally  or  permanently  cover  the  sur- 
rounding land  with  water,  either  by  overflowing  it,  or  gradually  trickling  over 
and  saturating  it  ;  or  which,  by  the  elevation  of  their  bed  and  of  their  general 
surface,  prevent  that  moisture  which  descends  from  the  hights,  and  is  collected 
on  the  plains,  from  draining  away  and  escaping.  ) 

(a).  The  moisture  -which  falls  immediately  from  the  atmosphere  becomes  injurious  when  de- 
posited in  too  large  quantities,  or  in  places  whence  it  cannot  escape. 

If  the  layer  of  vegetable  earth  is  composed  of  clay  or  lime,  oris  of  a  highly  tenacious  nature,  its 
surface  only  is  plowed  ;  and  that  very  superficially,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  which  there  is  in 
tilling  soils  of  this  nature.  The  under  layer  thus  becomes  formed  uito  a  hard  crust,  ■which  retains 
all  that  exists  beneath  it,  and  prevents  the  passage  of  any  from  above  ;  consequently,  the  surface 
becomes  thoroughly  saturated,  and  during  heavy  rains,  or  excess  of  moisture  from  any  other 
cause,  is  transformed  into  a  paste,  in  which  state  it  is  exceedingly  injurious  to  plants,  and  speed- 
ily causes  their  roots  to  rot,  and  themselves,  consequently,  to  perish. 

These  are  not  the  cases  in  which  under  or  covered  drains  are  likely  to  prove  beneficial ;  for,  as 
these  latter  are  covered  over  with  earth  at  least  nine  or  ten  inches  thick,  the  water  cannot  pene- 
trate through  this  hard  layer  into  them.     Wherever  proper  attention  has  not  been  paid  to  this 
point,  under  drains  have  been  found  altogether  useless ;  or,  at  any  rate,  their  utility  has  lasted  but   i ' 
for  a  very  .short  period  ;  for  the  earth  with  which  they  were  covered,  although  loose  and  porous  at   i  \ 
first,  is  not  long  in  becoming  hardened,  indurated,  and  forming  an  impermeable  mass  above  them.    / 

In  order  to  ensure  to  a  field  those  advantages  which  subterraneous  or  under  drains  are  capable  \ 
of  communicating,  it  must,  previously  to  their  formation,  be  plowed  deeply,  and  several  ameliora-  ', 
tions  of  dung  bestowed  upon  it,  in  order  thoroughly  to  loosen  the  soil  and  render  it  permeable,  at  ' 
least  to  a  depth  equal  to  that  which  is  to  cover  the  drains.  ^ 

In  most  cases,  open  drains  or  gutters  are  in  general  preferable  to  subterranean  ones.     Some-   \ 
times  recourse  is  had  to  these  open  trenches  for  the  purpose  of  draining  an  even  soil,  and  then    \ 
they  are  made  in  that  direction  in  which  the  declivity  of  the  land  is  most  perceptible  ;  or,  in  other   , 
words,  in  that  which  is  most  likely  to  carry  off  the  water  soonest  and  best.    At  other  times,  the    i 
land  is  divided  into  beds,  slightly  raised,  elevated,  and  separated  fi-om  one  another  by  deep  fur-    i\ 
rows,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  oiF  die  watei-,  which  latter  are  carefully  k'^-it  clear  and  open. — 
Besides  thi.s.  when  occasion  requires  it,  these  furrows  are  connected  with  trai.  verse  drains,  \^•hich 
intersect  the  beds  or  ridges,  prevent  the  water  from  stagnating,  and  carry  it  o^'^to  ditches,  broolts, 
or  ponds,  where  it  can  do  no  harm.    When  the  fields  are  left  flat,  it  is  highlj    mportant  that  tiie 
drainage  furrows  should  receive  such  a  distribution,  direction,  and  slope,  as  win  best  render  them 
Useful.     It  is  by  no  means  beneficial  to  make  too  many  of  them:  first,  because  more  labor  will  be 
)   thus  occasioned  ;  secondly,  because  they  would  occupy  too  much  space  ;  and,  thirdly,  because 
\ '    when  they  do  not  contain  water  enough  to  enable  it  fiilly  to  clear  its  way,  they  are  injurious  ra- 
'   ther  than  beneficial ;  and,  lastly,  because  they  create  inequalities  in  the  soil.     When  these  drains 
or  gutters  proceed  from  lo^v  ground,  and  have  to  be  carried  across  elevated  spots,  they  produce 
an  effect  diametrically  opposite  to  that  which  is  expected  o-f  them,  and  only  serve  as  conduits  to 
convey  stagnant  water  back  to  the  very  places  they  were  intended  to  drain.    In  such  cases  as 
these,"the  best  way  is  to  dig  a  trench  about  the  elevated  places  which  surround  the  low  land,  and 


DRAINING  LAND.  337 


thus  intercept  that  moisture  which  would  otherwise  run  down  on  to  the  latter,  and  carry  it  off  be- 
fore it  proceeds  beyond  its  proper  limits.  Too  sudden  and  abrupt  a  declivity  is  as  much  to  be 
avoided  as  a  want  of  sufficient  slope  ;  because,  in  the  former  case,  when  heavy  rains  fall,  the  wa- 
ter is  apt  to  rush  down  with  such  rapidity  as  to  carry  away  the  soil  with  it,  and  thus  create  em- 
bankments at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  Under  circumstances  of  this  nature,  a  circuitous  direction  should 
be  given  to  the  drains,  in  order  to  render  the  slope  more  gentle,  and  sutFer  the  water  to  drain 
away  without  doing  any  mischief  In  general,  in  proportion  as  there  is  difficulty  in  draining  a 
field,  and  as  its  tillage  requires  tact,  skill,  and  science,  in  like  proportion  do_  wc  find  ab.surd  and 
ill-conducted  operations.  Many  agriculturists  think  to  show  their  skill  and  industry  by  intersect- 
ing their  land  in  every  direction  with  drains  or  gutters,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  oft"  moisture, 
until  it  almost  resembles  the  model  of  a  seat  of  war,  suiTounded  by  numerous  fortifications  in  a 
slate  of  progress  ;  but  this  excess  of  drainage  is  not  only  useless,  but  is  productive  of  serious  evils. 

A  plow  is  frequently  made  use  offer  the  purpose  of  forming  these  furrows  or  drains  ;  and  one 
having  two  mould-boards  is  usually  selected  for  the  purpose,  which,  as  it  completes  the  fun-ow  at 
once,  admits  of  one  being  made  as  it  passes  up  the  field  and  another  as  it  returns.     There  ai'e  plows 
constructed  expressly  for  this  purpose.     The  foremost  part  of  the  share  of  these  instruments  is    , 
made  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  while  the  hinder  part  has  a  quadrangular  shape  ;  they  are  provided     i 
^vith  two  raised  mould-boards,  one  on  each  side.     These  plows  form  a  rectangular  furrow,  and  the 
two  mould  boards  raise  the  earth  extracted  trom  beneath,  and  spread  it  on  the  edges  at  either  side, 
60  that  it  shall  not  fall  back  again  into  the  furrow.     But  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  the 
drainage  furrows  of  some  considerable  depth,  these  implements  encounter  great  resistance,  re- 
quire gi'eat  draught  power;  and  as  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  which  they  trace  is  always  parallel   . 
with  the  surface  of  the  soil,  they  become  useless  when  they  have  to  traverse  an  undulating  or  rugged    ' 
surface,  because  the  course  of  the  water  would  be  impeded  if  the  elevations  left  by  the  plow  in    < 
the  furrow  were   not  got  rid  of  with  a  spade.     Our  plow,  with  two  movable  mould-boards,  is 
best  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  forming  these  drains.     This  instrument  is  more  manageable,  and 
can  be  made  to  penetrate  deeper  into  the  soil  at  will.     At  first,  the  mould-boards  are  only  opened 
a  little  way,  but  subsequently,  when  the  plow  is  introducHd  into  the  soil  a  second  time,  at  those 
places  where  the  elevations  of  the  ground  exist,  the  instrument  is  made  to  penetrate  farther,  in  or- 
der that  by  a  uniform  slope  being  given  to  the  bottom  of  the  drainage  furrow,  the  water  may  be     ' 
properly  carried  off.     This  instrument  forms  an  angular  furrow  at  the  bottom  ;  while  its  sides,  hav- 
ing a  due  degree  of  inclination  given  to  them  at  first,  seldom  require  to  be  touched  by  the  spade. 
No  time  must,  however,  be  lost  iu  leveling  the  earth  thrown  up  by  the  mould-board  on  the   edges 
of  the  fuiTow,  especially  if  the  fun-ov/  has  been  fonned  subsequently  to  the  sowings,  otherwise 
there  will  be  danger  of  the  seed  being  smothered  under  these  heaps  of  earth.     This  operation  can 
easily  be  pe'-iormed  by  means  of  a  rake. 

Many  agnculiurists  prefer  having  these  furrows  formed  by  spade  labor. 

In  whatever  manner  they  may  be  made,  the.y  must  be  careiuily  attended  to,  and  occasionally  [ 
repaired  and  cleaned  out,  especially  at  those  periods  when  heavy  falls  of  snow  melt,  because  it  is  / 
impossible  to  foresee  the  causes  which  may  tend  to  obstruct,  choke,  or  fill  them  with  sand. 

It  cannot,  however,  be  denied,  that  too  great  a  number  of  these  drains  or  gutters  are  apt  to  leave    ' 
slight  inequalities  in  the  land  which  can  never  be  entirely  got  rid  of     When  the  soil  is  of  a  tena-    ' 
cious  nature,  these  inequalities  are  injurious,  and  in  some  places  even  tend  to  impede  the  opera-    ' 
tion  of  sowing.     This  consideration  leads  me  to  give  the  preference  to  the  fonnation  of  large  and     I 
slightly  elevated  beds  and  ridges  on  flat  even  soils  which  possess  but  little  slope,  particularly  if  ' 
such  a  direction  can  be  given  to  these  ridges  as  will  cause  the  water  to  drain  off  easilj'  through    i 
the  furrows  or  trenches  by  which  they  are  separated     But  I  should  not  advise  that,  on  a  width  of 
from  two  to  three  perches,  the  center  of  these  ridges  should  be  raised  more  than  six  or  eight  inch- 
es higher  than  the  sides  of  the  trenches.     Great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  earth  from 
being  heaped  up  at  the  sides  ;  and  in  plowing  the  ridges,  the  curve  or  elevation  must  be  extend-    ' 
ed  iu  an  almost  insensible  manner  over  the  whole  of  the  ridge.    As  in  this  case  the  trenches  will    ' 
always  be  formed  in  the  same  spot,  especially  when  the  ground  is  prepared  ^or  autumnal  corn, 
their  direction  must  be  carefully  determined  so  that  it  may  accord  with  the  declivity ;  and  all    | 
things  so  arranged  that  no  hollow  shall  remain  on  the  ridges ;  at  any  rate,  none  below  the  level  of 
the  trenches.     The  latter  must  be  carefully  finished  off.  and  always  kept  clear  and  open,  so  that 
the  water  may  pass  freely  through  them.    They  should  be  brought  into  comniunication  with  each 
other  by  means  of  cross  open  drains.     But  in  order  to  render  these  drains  perfectly  efficient,  a  ca- 
nal or  ditch  for  the  reception  of  the  water  which  they  collect,  and  to\sard  which  they  should  all 
slope,  is  absolutely  requisite  at  the  bottom  of  the  enclosure.     Where  this  advantage  is  unattaina- 
ble, a  ditch  or  main  drain  must  be  dug  in  the  lowest  and  dampest  part  of  the  field,  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  ^vater,  and  thus  a  portion  of  the  ground  sacrificed  in  order  to  save  the  rest. 

It  very  often  happens,  that  although  the  layer  of  vegetable  mould  is  sufficiently  loose  and  porous  i ' 
readily  to  allow  moisture  to  sink  into  and  filtrate  through  it,  there  is  beneath  it  an  impermeable,  re- 
tentive layer  of  claj',  which  prevents  the  water  from  passing.  When  the  layer  of  vegetable  ear.h 
is  thick,  it  is  better  capable  of  bearing  heavy  rains,  because  there  is  then  more  room  for  the  wa- 
ter, and,  consequently,  it  does  not  flow  back  to  the  surface  so  soon  ;  but  when  the  quantity  of  vi^a- 
ter  becomes  so  great  as  to  render  it  impossible  for  it  to  be  contained  in  the  interstices  of  the  soil 
which  constitutes  the  vegetable  layer,  the  land  suffers  from  excess  of  moisture  for  a  considerable 
period.  This  superabundance  of  humidity  is  longer  in  evaporating  in  proportion  to  the  thickness 
of  the  layer  of  earth  which  is  saturated  with  it. 

We  spoke  of  the  means  of  deepening  the  layer  of  vegetable  soil  while  treating  of  the  subject  of 
plowing. 

The  thicker  tliis  cultivated  layer  of  the  soil,  the  deeper  must  be  the  drains  or  furrows  made  for 

the  purpose  of  carrying  off  the  humidity  ;  for  in  order  that  they  may  produce  the  desired  effect, 

I   they  must  be  hollowed  out  to  the  impermeable  layer.     If  care  has  not  been  taken  to  make  them 

/   B>jfficiently  deep  to  reach  this  level,  the  water,  instead  of  being  carried  off,  sinks  through  the  per- 

(  (865) 23 


338  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

meable  earth  at  the  bottom  ;  therefore,  even  though  constructed  in  the  direction  of  the  declivity 
tliey  will  be  productive  of  little  or  no  etiect,  since  at  most  they  would  only  can-y  ofl  the  overflow- 
ings of  the  water,  while  the  remainder  will  sink  into  the  permeable  soil  beneath,  and  render  the 
bottom  of  the  soil  prejudicially  wet. 

These  trenches  mu.st,  therefore,  be  horizontal,  and  intersect  the  declivity,  in  order  to  cut  off  the 
water  and  conduct  it  into  the  drain  which  is  to  carry  it  off.     Should  the  sides  and  bottom  of  them 
not  be  made  sufficiently  compact  to  prevent  the  water  from  filtering  through,  it  will  penetrate  into    \ 
the  soil,  and,  according  to  the  laws  of  gravity,  extend  itself  over  a  fre.sh  portion  of  the  field  untU 
taken  up  by  some  other  drain  or  furrow. 

Such  deep  trenches  are  attended  with  great  inconveniences.  They  are  destroyed  by  each 
plowing ;  and,  cou.sequently,  when  the  land  can  only  be  preserved  from  exce,ssive  humidity  by 
their  means,  require  to  be  as  often  reconstructed.  It  must  be  confessed  that  this  is  seldom  done 
on  account  of  the  labor  that  would  be  thereby  entailed,  and  the  great  expense  arising  from  the 
performance  of  the  operation,  and  from  that  of  spreading  over  the  ground  the  quantity  of  earth 
which  has  been  thrown  up  while  tbrming  the  trench.  Besides,  there  will  always  remain  per- 
ceptible hollows  in  those  places  where  the  drains  previously  existed ;    and  if  the  new  ones  are 

'  not  ti-aced  exactly  in  the  same  spot  occupied  by  the  other.s,  these  hollows  will  become  recepta- 
cles tor  standing  water,  which  will  essentially  injure  the  crops.  This  will  invariably  occur  after 
the  melting  of  heavy  falls  of  snow.  When  the  snow  melts  rapidly,  or  heavy  storms  of  rain  tall, 
whatever  care  may  have  been  bestowed  on  the  formation  of  these  deep  drainage  furrows,  the 
water  will  frequently  overiiow  and  carry  away  with  it  portions  of  the  surrounding  soil ;  there- 
fore, in  cases  where  drains  are  absolutely  indispensable,  it  will  be  best  to  form  subterranean  or 

^    covered  drains  ;    and  it  not  unfrequently  happen.s,  that  the  expenses  attendant  on  their  formation 

!i  are  amply  repaid  in  the  course  of  one  or  two  years  after  their  construction  in  a  cold,  wet  soil.  If 
these  drains  are  properly  arranged,  the.  field  may  be  left  perfectly  flat,  and  plowed  alternately  in 
all  directions,  and  at  almost  all  times  and  .seasons,  without  sufl'eriug  from  excess  of  humidity. 

There  are  two  points  which  must  be  attended  to  in  the  making  of  under-drains.  If  the  land 
has  any  degree  of  declivity,  they  must,  in  order  to  be  productive  of  the  required  effect,  be  made 
in  a  contrary  direction  to  it,  and  intersect  or  cross  the  slope,  otherwise  they  will  not  be  able  to 
collect  all  the  water  which  is  contained  in  the  soil.  When  formed  in  this  transverse  direction,  a 
slight  degree  of  inchnation  toward  the  ditch  which  is  to  receive  and  carry  off  the  water,  must  be 
given  to  them ;  but  thi.s  must  never  go  beyond  an  inch  in  ten  perches.  It  is,  of  course,  under- 
stood, that  it  must  be  guided  by  the  horizontal  basis  of  the  soil,  and  not  by  the  surface,  which  is 
often  unequal. 

The  best  way  of  managing  these  subterraneous  drains,  is  to  make  them  open  into  a  ditch  or  con- 

I  ducting  drain  which  is  to  can-y  off  the  water  to  some  river  or  lake,  and  to  surround  the  opening 
with  stones  to  prevent  it  fi-om  falling  in  or  breaking.      Sometimes  two,  three,  or  more  drains  are 

'  made  to  meet  tog^etber,  and  emit  their  contents  through  one  opening  ;  but  this  is  a  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding by  no  means  to  be  recommended,  because  one  or  the  other  will  very  frequently  be 
choked  up,  and  it  will  then  be  difficult  to  discover  which  one  is  at  fault. 

\  _  These  drains  or  gutters  are  made  of  various  depth.  If  an  impermeable  stratum  is  found  exist- 
ing beneath  a  layer  of  porous  earth,  it  is  necessary  to  dig  on  until  we  come  to  the  latter,  and  there 
form  the  canal  along  which  the  water  is  intended  to  pass.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  layer  of  ar- 
gillaceous earth  is  not  very  thick,  it  will  be  sulficient  tor  the  drain  to  be  covered  by  a  foot  of  earth, 
or  even  by  ten  inches,  when  the  soil  at  the  surface  is  moderately  tenacious  ;  but  in  cases  of  this 
nature  the  plowings  must  never  be  carried  beyond  a  depth  of  six  inches.  In  light,  loose,  sandy 
soils,  the  drains  must  be  covered  with  at  least  eighteen,  if  not  twenty-four  inches  of  earth.  This 
thickness  i.s,  however,  subject  to  modification.  If  the  drain  has  to  be  carried  through  a  rising 
ground,  a  depth  of  from  nine  to  ten  inches  is  sufficient  for  that  portion  of  it  which  is  intended  to 
contain  the  water.  It  may  be  made  as  wide,  or  a  little  wider  than  it  is  deep  ;  but  this  will  de- 
pend, in  a  great  measure,  on  the  nature  of  the  materials  with  which  it  is  to  be  filled  up.  If  rough 
stones  gathered  from  the  fields  are  to  be  made  use  of  for  the  purpose,  its  width  at  the  top  should 
be  sixteen,  and  at  the  bottom  only  ten  inches  ;  but  when  it  is  to  be  filled  up  with  branches,  nine 
inches  will  suffice  for  the^ width  at  top,  and  two  or  three  at  bottom. 

In  digging  drains,  then-  opening  at  the  surface  of  the  soil  should  be  made  large  enough  to  ena- 
ble every  part  of  the  operation  to  be  conveniently  carried  on. 

In  large  undertakings,  it  is  customary  to  make  use  of  a  plow  for  the  purpose  of  commencing  \ 
the  opening  of  a  drain.  Two  furrow-slices  are  thrown  off  by  this  instrument,  the  one  to  the  right  \ 
and  the  other  to  the  left,  and  a  strip  of  earth  of  about  fifteen  inches  wide  left  betwe^i  the  furrows.  S 
This  strip  is  subsequently  divided  with  a  strong  plow,'  having  a  double  mould-board.  The  first  ) 
time  this  instrument  passes  through  the  soil,  it  is  made  to  penetrate  to  the  depth  of  about  a  fool  ;  ) 
and  the  second  time  it  is  so  an-anged  as  to  turn  up  the  soil  to  at  least  sLk  or  eight  inches  lower  ) 
down.  The  earth  is  immediately  removed  from  the  sides,  lest  it  should  fall  back  again  into  the  ? 
ditch  during  the  operation.  The  excavation  is  tlien  continued  with  manual  implements.  A  com-  / 
mon  spade  is  first  made  use  of  which  is  a  little  narrower  at  the  bottom  than  it  is  at  the  top  ;  and,  ( 
subsequently,  another  is  had  recourse  to,  the  upper  part  of  which  is  scarcely  so  wide  as  the  lower  •. 
part  of  the  former  one,  and  its  extremity  not  more  than  three  inches  wide.  By  digging  success-  ( 
ively  with  these  two  in.struments,  and  exercising  a  little  care  and  skill,  the  drain  will  speedily  ( 
become  properly  shaped;  the  walls  must  then  be  united,  and  all  the  loose  earth  which  has  fallen  ^ 
to  the  bottom  removed  thence  with  a  curved  shovel.  That  part  of  the  drain  through  which  the  > 
water  is  to  pass  must  then  be  lined  with  stones  or  with  branches,  according  as  one  or  the  other  S 
can  be  procured  with  the  least  trouble  and  expense.  If  the  stones  can  be  obtained  li-om  a  neigh-  ) 
boring  field,  they  are  to  be  prefen-ed.  The  large  and  small  ones  are  mixed  together ;  b-t  in  > 
placing  them  in  the  drain,  care  must  be  taken  to  pile  the  largest  and  flattest  along  the  sides.  } 
WTien  branches  are  made  use  of,  they  are  sometimes  tied  up  in  bundles  ;  but  it  is  much  better  to  •' 
lay  them  in  one  by  one,  the  largest  being  placed  at  the  bottom,  and  the  smaller  ones  above.  ! 

(866)  _) 


Experience  has  proved  that  light,  aquatic  -wood  is  better  adapted  for  this  purpose,  and  more 
durable  than  hard  wood  ;  thus  the  branches  of  aiders,  willows  and  poplars  are  preferable  to  those 
■of  tirs,  the  juniper  and  other  resinous  trees.  It  is,  however,  highly  essential  that  the  branches 
made  use  of  shall  have  been  fresh  cut,  or,  in  other  words,  green  and  full  of  sap. 

It  is  generally  found  that  drains  lined  with  branches  remain  open  longer  and  are  more  durable 
than  those  in  which  stones  have  been  made  use  of;  even  after  the  wood  has  rotted,  the  drain 
retains  its  form  if  the  soil  be  of  an  argillaceous  nature. 

The  stones  or  branches  with  which  the  drain  is  filled  must  be  covered  up  with  straw,  furze, 
ruslies,  or  similar  material,  in  order  to  prevent  the  earth  from  sinking  in  between  the  interstices ; 
[  I  or  tliey  may  be  simply  covered  with  the  turfs  raised  from  the  surface  of  the  ditch,  turned  bottom 
upward,  and  pressed  down  with  the  feet  to  render  them  solid. 

When  the  trench  comes  to  be  covered  up,  care  must  be  taken  neither  to  put  very  loose  earth 

above  it,  which  might  sink  in  and  fill  up  the  interstices  through  which  it  is  intended  the  water 

should  pass,  nor  yet  tenacious  clay,  which  would  soon  adhere  so  firmly  together  as  altogether  to 

prevent  the  tiltration  of  water  tlirough  it     The  soil  immediately  over  the  trench  ought  to  be  left  a 

I    little  higher  than  any  of  the  otlier  parts,  because  it  invariably  sinks  down  and  diminishes. 

When  the  soil  is  of  a  highly  argillaceous  nature  the  drains  are  seldom  made  vei-y  wide,  and  are 
filled  up  witli  straw  twisted  into  the  form  of  .ropes  ;  sometimes  they  are  left  empty  and  simply 
covered  with  turfs :  the  clay  soon  gets  so  firm  and  hard  that  a  crust  is  formed  all  round  the  drain, 
and  the  lower  part  remains  open  long  after  the  straw  has  rotted  away. 

In  some  places,  instruments  termed  mole-plows  are  introduced  into  the  soil,  the  effect  produced 
by  which  is  highly  satisfactory. 

In  loose,  sandy,  and  peaty  soils,  bricks  made  for  the  express  purpose,  and  other  inventions  of 
art,  are  employed  in  sustaining  the  walls  of  drains,  and  sometimes  the  gutters  are  left  entirely 
open.*  Trenches  for  the  purpose  of  draining  land  must  be  placed  nearer  together  or  at  a  greater 
distance  from  one  another,  according  to  the  degree  of  humidity  of  the  field  or  meadow  ^vhich 
they  are  intended  to  dry.  The  usual  intervening  space  is  from  three  to  four  perches.  When  the 
soil  is  of  a  highly  argillaceous  nature,  and  covered  only  with  a  very  thin  layer  of  vegetable 
mould,  they  must  be  brought  nearer  together. 

Whenever  the  requisite  materials  for  filling  up  the  drains  are  procurable  on  the  estate,  the  ex- 
penses of  the  operation  of  draining  are  trifling  in  comparison  to  the  advantage  the  soil  derives 
from  it.  In  England  this  operation  is  vei-y  frequently  undertaken  by  farmers  who  only  hold  their 
land  on  short  leases,  and  yet  they  find  that  the  outlay  is  amply  repaid  by  the  increase  of  fertility 
produced,  and  the  consequent  increase  in  the  produce  of  the  soil.  This  operation  cost  one  of  my 
friends  who  was  advised  by  me  to  undertake  it,  and  whom  I  directed  how  to  proceed,  one  rix- 
dollar  and  sixteen  gi-oschen  per  acre,  and  the  next  year  the  produce  of  his  wheat  crop  was  in- 
creased two  bushels  and  a  half. 

One  necessary  precaution  which  must  never  be  lost  sight  of,  is  that  of  not  allowing  heavily 
laden  wagons  to  traverse  the  ground  thus  drained  in  the  direction  of  the  drains.t 

(b).  The  second  cause  of  excessive  humidity  is  genei-ally  to  be  met  with  in  valleys  sun-ounded  by 
hills,  from  which  the  water  runs  down  and  sinks  into  the  land,  or  unites  and  settles  on  the  sur- 
face in  the  form  of  ponds  or  stagnant  marshes,  without  finding  any  outlet,  and  is,  consequently, 
obliged  to  remain  there  until  evaporated.  When  the  soil  of  such  valleys  is  not  of  a  porous  nature, 
and  no  drains  have  been  formed  in  it,  they  of  necessity  become  marshy,  saturated  with  water,  and 
often  transfonned  into  lakes  or  bogs.  It  is  in  general  exceedingly  difficult  effectually  to  remedy 
matters  when  they  have  come  to  this  state ;  but  when  taken  in  time  there  are  many  cases  on 
record  proving  the  immense  advantages  resulting  fi-om  drainage,  and  in  which  the  benefits  de- 
rived have  amply  repaid  the  expenses :  and  this  has  been  especially  the  case  where  it  has  only 
been  requisite  to  choose  the  lowest  part  of  the  rising  gi-ound  by  which  the  valley  is  surrounded  ; 
or  if  there  be  such,  some  place  hollowed  out  by  the  moisture,  and  there  form  a  ditch  of  sufficient 
depth  to  carry  off  the  water  to  the  lowest  spot,  and  thence  to  some  river  or  lake.  Previously  to 
commencing  such  an  operation,  it  is  best  carefully  to  calculate  the  expenses  and  outlay  which  it 
will  occasion  ;  and  after  comparing  these  w^ith  the  advantages  which  may  be  derived  from  it,  to 
decide  accordingly. 

Sometimes  it  is  impossible  to  carry  ofi^  the  water  to  the  lowest  part  of  the  valley,  because  there 
is  not  sufficient  declivity  there  to  admit  of  a  course  being  formed  for  it.  When  once  it  has  been 
clearly  ascertained  that  these  waters  flow  from  the  rising  grounds,  it  may,  in  some  cases,  be  ad- 
visable to  intersect  the  declivity  by  a  canal,  or  canals,  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  them.  This 
canal  ought  to  be  situated  at  such  a  bight  as  will  admit  of  its  being  emptied  from  below,  or  by 
means  of  outlets  carried  across  the  lowest  part  of  the  rising  grounds  which  enclose  the  valley:  by 
this  means  a  great  portion,  if  not  the  wliole,  of  the  moisture  will  be  got  rid  of  There  is  also  a 
I  third  means  of  remedying  this  evil,  and  it  may  be  had  recourse  to  when  a  layer  of  gravel  or  per- 
'  jneable  sand  exists  beneath  a  thin  bed  of  impenetrable  soil.  In  this  case  one  or  more  ditches 
'  may  be  dug  through  the  impermeable  layer,  or  wells  sunk,  or  holes  bored  in  the  ground  with  a 
I  large  drainmg  auger,  through  which  the  water  may  filtrate  into  the  porous  stratum  :  this  mode  of 
proceeding  has  oft^n  been  found  sufficient  to  drain  marshes,  fens,  and  even  lakes,  and  render  the 
spots  formerly  occupied  by  them  fertile  land.  But  prior  to  the  undertaking  of  such  operations 
the  chances  of  success  should  be  carefully  calculated ;  and  we  must  ascertain  whether  or  not 
when  the  water  has  reached  this  sandy  or  porous  stratum  it  will  be  able  to  force  a  passage  for 
itself;  or  whether  the  sand  may  not  already  be  so  completely  saturated  with  moisture  as  to  be 
unable  to  contain  more,  as  is  very  frequently  the  case  when  the  layer  of  it  communicates  with  tile 

*  See  a  work  by  this  author,  entitled  "  Anleitung  zur  Englischtn  Landwirthschaft,"  vol.  ii.  part  1,  page  50 ; 
and  also  Count  Podeivera  tranglation  of  "  Johnston  uber  Anstrocknung  nach  Blkington." — Berlin,  1789. 

t  The  Germaii  farmer  evidently  fell  into  the  error,  too  common  in  England,  that  of  placing  their  tmder- 
drain  not  eufficiently  deep  in  the  eoil. 
(867) 


340  THAER  &  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

surrounding  hights.  Under  such  circumstances  the  addition  of  fresh  moisture  will  only  tend  to 
cause  the  water  to  rise  up  through  the  newly  formed  aperture,  and  flood  the  land  which  -we  de- 
sire to  drain. 

These  evils  may  in  some  degree  be  remedied  in  fields  exposed  to  them  by  intersecting  the 
grotmd  witli  numerous  ditches,  and  raising  its  surface  by  the  addition  of  the  earth  taken  from 
these,  or  by  supplies  of  sand  brought  from  some  of  the  neighboring  hights.  The  great  fertility  of 
the  soil  of  valleys  will  often  amply  repay  the  outlay  required  for  such  an  amelioration. 

(c).  In  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases,  springs  are  formed  in  the  following  manner: — The 
moisture  of  the  atmosphere  being  condensed  in  much  larger  quantities  on  the  summits  of  moun- 
tains and  in  elevated  situations,  the  water  thus  formed  as  well  as  that  which  falls  in  rain,  sinks  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  of  gravity  perpendicularly  through  the  supei-ficial  porous  earth  until  its  de- 
scent is  retarded  or  totally  obstructed  by  an  impenetrable  substance ;  it  then  becomes  dammed 
up,  and  is  ultimately  forced  to  filtrate  slowly  over  this  layer,  or  open  for  itself  an  outlet  at  the  spot 
where  this  bed  rises  to  the  sui-face  of  the  soil.  Should  it  not  find  any  channel  here,  it  gushes 
forth  in  the  form  of  a  spring  ;  if  there  is  sufficient  slope,  it  hollows  a  bed  for  itself  and  descends 
over  the  lower  gi'onnd  in  the  form  of  a  brook,  without,  however,  making  the  adjacent  soil  damp. 
But  when  a  quantity  of  porous  earth  is  collected  at  the  place  where  the  impenetrable  bed  finishes 
on  the  declivity  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  hill,  the  water  sinks  into  it,  renders  a  large  extent  of 
ground  damp  and  marshy ;  and  being  forced  onward  by  the  pressure  which  it  receives  from 
above,  opens  for  itself  passages,  reappears  on  the  surface,  and  forms  bogs  and  fens,  or  trickles 
over  the  surface. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of  humidity  and  of  the  formation  of  marshes  or  bogs. 

On  land  of  such  a  nature,  recourse  is  frequently  had  to  means  which,  although  very  expensive, 
are  altogether  fruitless,  or  at  any  rate  productive  of  but  little  effect.  A  number  of  drains  are  dug^ 
which  only  dry  the  land  close  to  their  edges;  and,  even  when  the  most  favorable  direction  is 
given  to  them,"will,  if  not  hollowed  out  to  the  impeiTueable  layer,  suffer  the  water  to  sink  through 
them  into  the  earth  beneath,  and  thus  become  entirely  useless.  It  is  impossible  that  drains  can 
ever  be  efficacious  unless  the  bottom  of  them  rests  upon  an  impenetrable  stratnm  ;  where  such  is 
not  to  be  easily  met  with,  they  must  be  carried  to  a  very  great  depth.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  ut- 
most importance  that  we  should  be  enabled  at  once  to  distinguish  the  causes  of  the  various  kinds 
of  humidity  tliat  are  met  with  ;  and  if  proper  attention  is  paid  to  the  position  of  the  divers  strata 
of  earth  which  give  rise  to  the  springs  which  we  wish  to  get  rid  of,  we  shall  find  these  causes  re- 
duced to  a  very  small  number. 

On  the  slope,  or  at  the  foot  of  hills,  the  water  does  not  usually  flow  directly  over  the  horizontal 
or  inclined  layer  of  impermeable  soil  which  prevents  it  from  sinking  into  the  ground.  At  the 
lower  part  of  all  hills,  even  such  as  are  chiefly  composed  of  stones  and  gravel,  a  primary  layer  of 
argillaceous  earth  is  found  ;  which,  in  general,  gi-adually  becomes  thinner  as  it  approaches  the 
summit  of  the  hill,  and  tliicker  toward  the  foot.  In  all  probability,  among  other  causes,  this  layer 
owes  its  formation  principally  to  the  particles  of  clay  which  the  vi^ater  has  washed  away  from  tlie 
higher  ground,  which  it  carries  with  it,  and  gradually  deposits  during  its  progress.  The  base  of 
hills  and  mountains  is  generally  found  to  be  .surrounded  by  a  bed  of  argillaceous  clay  of  greater  i 
or  less  depth.  Thus  ^ve  see  that  the  water  which  sinks  into  the  porous  earth  becomes  enclosed  S 
between  the  impermeable  layer  and  this  primary  sti'atum  of  clay,  and  a  reservoir  is  formed  which  ■ 
encloses  more  or  less  fluid,  according  to  the  quantity  which  falls  fi-om  the  atmosphere.  This  fluid 
escapes  at  the  termination  of  the  upper  impermeable  stratum,  or  else  forces  its  way  out  wherever 
it  is  thinnest  In  such  cases  as  the.se,  it  does  not  present  itself  on  the  surface  at  once,  because  in 
general  there  is  a  bed  of  earth  of  that  spongy,  marshy  nature,  which  is  produced  by  excessive 
moisture,  collected  above  the  upper  impenetrable  layer.  The  water  which  escapes  from  be- 
neath this  latter  saturates  the  porous  bed,  and  renders  a  greater  or  less  extent  of  ground  wet  and 
swampy,  and  thus  forms  bogs  or  fens. 

The  spring,  properly  speaking,  or  the  place  where  the  water  gushes  out  from  the  clayey  layer, 
is  often  higher  up  than  the  spot  where  the  moisture  begins  to  show  itself  on  the  surface  of  the  soil ; 
for  when  the  bed  of  porous  earth  is  tolerably  large  and  the  declivity  rapid,  the  water  sinks  through, 
flows  over  the  impermeable  stratum,  and  does  not  show  itself  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  at  all, 
at  least  during  dry  weather.  Indeed,  it  seldom  betrays  itself  until  it  reaches  the  bottomof  the  hill 
where  the  declivity  ceases,  unless  it  encounters  elevations  in  the  stratum  of  clay  which  impede  its 
progress  and  force  it  up  to  the  surface,  or  unless  the  bed  of  porous  earth  becomes  vei-j-  thin. —  ( 
These  circumstances  will  occasionally  cau.se  the  land  to  become  wet,  and  to  be  injured  by  excess  ^ 
of  moisture,  even  near  the  summits  of  mountains.  \ 

When,  in  digging  a  drain,  the  workmen  come  to  the  upper  clay  stratum,  they  should  either  f 
make  hollows  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  with  a  spade,  or  else  bore  holes  in  it  with  a  boring  au-  ' 
ger,  which  shall  perforate  the  bed  of  clay  and  penetrate  into  the  sandy  or  gravelly  reservoir,  so  as  ' 
to  give  free  vent  to  the  water,  which  then  gushes  out  through  these  holes  with  considerable  impel-  |- 
uosity,  and  flowing  along  the  drain,  runs  off  into  the  connecting  ditches  prepared  for  its  reception,  I 
and  thence  into  some  neighboring  river  or  brook.  It  will  be  understood  that,  in  order thoronghly  > 
to  produce  this  effect,  the  bottom  of  the  drain  must  be  higher  than  the  level  of  the  country  below.  > 
Elkington  made  this  discovery  quite  accidentally.  He  was  standing  upright  in  a  ditch  which  he  ) 
had  caused  to  be  dug  for  the  purpose  of  draining  the  surrounding  land,  and  which  had  turned  out  f 
,  totally  inefBcacious,  and  in  his  vexation  he  struck  the  ground  with  an  iron  bar  which  he  happened  < 
to  have  in  his  hand ;  this  pierced  through  the  layer  of  clay,  which  had  previously  been  rendered  C 
thin  by  the  excavation  of  the  ditch ;  in  an  instant  water  gushed  through  the  hole  thus  made  wiih  < 
such  force  and  rapidity  as  to  compel  him  to  retreat  precipitately  from  the  ditch.  When  he  saw  ) 
the  effect  produced,  he  made  other  holes  with  a  boring  auger,  and  by  this  means  soon  dried  all  S 
the  surrounding  land.  Subsequently,  he  effected  the  drainage  of  a  number  of  spots  where  the  i 
performance  of  the  operation  with  any  degree  of  success  had  long  been  deemed  hopeless,  and  thus  3 
acquired  great  celebrity.    In  digging  drains,  cases  of  this  description  very  frequently  present   ) 

(8*58) ■,^,^,^,.^^.! ^.^.^^^^.^.^.^.^ 


DRAINING    LAND.  341 


diemselves ;  there  are  few  workmen  accustomed  to  this  kind  of  labor  who  have  not  more  than 
once  seen  the  water  rise  thus  from  a  bed  of  clay  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench. 

By  means  of  these  drains,  and  of  holes  thus  bored  in  the  bottom  of  them  with  boring  augers,  an  out- 
let may  be  made  even  in  the  lowest  situations  for  the  water  collected  in  the  beds  of  gravel,  sand, 
or  stones,  which  exist  in  the  inferior  part  of  the  soil ;  and   as  almost  all  the  reservoirs  of  water 
#   communicate  with  eacii  other  by  means  of  the  porous  beds  and  veins  contained  in  the  ground,  the 
whole  of  the  moist  land  will  thus  be  freed  from  its  superabundant  moisture. 

By  means  of  a  drain  thus  pierced  with  holes  at  the  bottom,  all  the  laud  above  the  level  for  a  con- 
siderable extent  may  thus  be  freed  from  moisture  ;  that  is,  supposing  the  reservoir  containing  the 
water  is  reached :  and  thus  all  those  springs  whicli  show  themselves  on  the  hights  will  be  got 
rid  of,  provided  that  they  communicate  with  one  another  by  means  of  those  veins  or  beds  of  po- 
rous earth  I  have  already  spoken  of,  as  is  usually  the  case.  I  have  known  instances  in  which, 
when  this  operation  has  been  performed  on  one  side  of  a  hill,  its  effects  have  extended  to  the  oth- 
er, and  drained  it  so  completely  as  to  cause  a  scarcity  of  water,  while  the  drain  has  been  so  full  as 
to  contain  water  enough  to  turn  a  mill.  Sometimes  the  water  thus  obtained  may  be  employed 
with  advantage  in  the  irrigation  of  the  same  ground,  which,  having  been  thus  freed  from  its  super- 
abundant moisture,  may  be  transformed  into  watered  meadows  of  good  quality. 

The  holes  formed  by  the  auger  do  not  easily  become  closed  up  ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  en- 
larged by  the  action  of  the  -water,  and  thus  become  artificial  springs.  A  greater  or  less  number  of 
them  must  be  bored,  according  to  the  quantity  of  water  which  will  have  to  pass  through.  It  is, 
however,  as  well  to  surround  them  with  masonry,  in  order  that,  if  the  sides  of  the  ditch  should  fall 
in,  they  may  not  be  stopped  up.  This  operation,  it  must  be  remembered,  will  not  eifect  the  drain- 
age of  any  land  below  the  level  of  the  ditch. 

I  trust  that  I  have  been  enabled  to  ^ive  a  clear  insight  into  the  course  which 
must  be  pursued,  both  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  water  of  these  springs, 
and  draining  the  land  which  they  render  wet.  The  principle  of  action  is  in  it- 
self very  simple,  but  in  order  to  put  it  in  practice,  a  perfect  acquaintance  with 
all  the  circumstances  of  the  locality,  and  a  careful  survey  of  the  country,  are  re- 
quisite, as  well  as  thorough  and  distinct  notions  of  the  various  strata  of  which 
the  soil  is  composed  ;  and  this  not  merely  with  regard  to  its  surface,  but  extend- 
ing also  to  its  utmost  depths.  The  nature  and  position  of  the  different  strata  are 
sometimes  accidentally  discovered  by  noticing  places  in  the  vicinity  of  drains 
where  the  earth  has  fallen  down  ;  but  this  point  can  be  much  better  ascertained 
with  the  assistance  of  the  boring  auger.* 

{d).  In  order  to  prevent  the  overflowing  of  water-courses  and  rivers  beyond  their  proper  beds, 
and  to  diminish  these  beds  when  they  are  too  large,  recourse  is  had  to  the  construction  of  dams 
and  hanks. 

Notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  those  talented  theoretical  and  practical  men  who  have  turned 
their  attention  to  the  difficult  and  complicated  art  of  constructing  such  banks  or  dams  as  shall  be 
firm  and  durable,  both  the  principles  and  application  of  this  branch  of  science  are  yet,  if  not  in 
their  infancy,  at  least  very  undetermined.  The  forming  and  maintaining  of  high  and  extensive 
banks,  as  well  as  all  matters  relating  to  their  execution  and  direction,  is  seldom  undertaken  by 
private  individuals,  but  is  usually  a  public  concern,  and  is  coufided  to  the,  superintendence  of  skill- 
ful engineers,  and  men  who  are  experienced  in  operations  of  this  nature.  Nevertheless,  it  may 
be  interesting  to  agriculturists  -who  reside  near  such  places  to  acquire  some  degree  of  fundamcM- 
tal  knowledge  with  regard  to  this  subject,  and  read  some  of  the  works  that  treat  of  it.t 

By  means  of  banks  or  dams  land  is  protected  from  the  effects  which  might  i-esult  from  an  ex- 
cessive swelling  of  rivers,  or  from  their  subsequent  overflowing,  and  land  rendered  capable  of  re- 
ceiving cultivation  -which  had  previously  been  covered  with  water. 

The  means  of  constructing  banks  which  are  perfectly  solid  and  durable  is  now  -well  known. — 
But  time  alone  and  the  most  frightful  calamities  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  principles,  without 
which  the  requisite  degree  of  solidity  could  not  be  given  them.  Hou.ses  may  now  be  built  close 
by  these  dams  or  banks,  without  any  fear  or  danger  of  their  suffering  from  those  accidents  which 
are  so  frequent  in  our  climate,  and  under  our  temperature  ;  and  which,  in  the  vicinity  of  imper- 
fectly formed  banks,  render  constant  and  unremitted  attention  necessary  whenever  the  water  rises 
above  its  usual  level.  But  even  now,  in  the  present  advanced  state  of  the  science,  these  banks  or 
dams  are  only  capable  of  ensuring  protection  from  those  inundations  which  may  be  caused  by  the 
reflux  of  the  sea  and  the  action  of  the  waves,  the  force  and  volume  of  which  theory  and  practice 
enable  us  to  calculate  :  but  they  are  incapable  of  securing  land  from  floods  caused  by  excessive  ' 
swelling  of  the  river,  arising  from  the  thawing  masses  of  ice,  because  in  this  case  it  is  impossible 
to  calculate  the  volume  or  force  of  the  power  which  the  banks  -will  have  to  contend  against.  In 
the  latter  case  there  is  doubtless  much  to  be  feared ;  but  when  a  large  piece  of  land  is  left  be- 
tween the  bank  and  the  course  of  the  river,  and  the  current  or  course  of  the  latter  is  made  perfect- 
ly straight,  or  suffered  to  wind  a  little,  these  dispositions  will  afford  more  safety  than  the  strongest 
or  highest  banks. 

*  There  is  in  Gei-mauy  a  translation  of  Johnston's  work  by  the  Count  de  Podeivels.  entitled  "  A  Treatise 
I  on  the  draining  of  marshes  and  cold,  wet  lands,  according  to  the  method  discovered  by  Elkington."  It  was 
, '  published  at  Berlin  in  1799.  In  this  work  the  subject  which  I  have  been  endeavoring  to  explain,  is  entered 
I  into  at  great  length,  but  in  a  very  incomplete  and  confused  manner.  But  with  the  assistance  of  what  I  have 
1     said  above,  a  clear  notion  may  be  formed  of  all  the  cases  mentioned  there. 

t  "  Huni-ich's  Praktische  Aiileimng  zum  Deich,  Siel,  und  Schleusenbau."     Bremmen,  2  Theile,  1770,  3782. 
"  Kinchmann's  Anleitung  zum  Deich,  Schleusen,  und  Staatbaukunst."     Hanover,  1786.    "  Riedel's  Anleitung 
zur  Strom  und  Dcichbaukunde.'     Berlin,  1800. 
(869) 


Unfortunately,  in  the  formation  of  banlis  or  dams,  it  too  often  happen 
formed  in  a  great  horry,  and  sufBcient  care  is  not  taken  to  see  that  the  earth  is  made  fii-m  and 
solid ;  or  the  extent  of  space  allowed  for  the  passage  of  the  water  is  too  much  confined,  in  order 
that  more  ground  may  be  left  for  cultivation.  Prom  this  carelessness  and  false  economy,  acci- 
dents and  losses  arise  which  greatly  overbalance  the  value  of  the  saving  which  is  aimed  at. 

Even  when  these  banks  or  dams  are  capable  of  preserving  the  land  from  being  inundated  or 
flooded,  the  soil  is  not  freed  by  them  from  its  superabuiidant  moisture.  The  water  which  de- 
scends from  the  high  ground  to  mingle  with  the  water  of  the  river  must  have  some  means  of  es- 
cape, and  be  prevented  from  remaining  on  the  surface,  or  sinking  into  and  saturating  the  ground. 
The  means  which  may  be  adopted  to  prevent  this  are  many  and  various ;  and  we  must  be  guided 
in  our  selection  of  them  by  the  circumstances  of  the  locality.  Sometimes  it  maj-  be  carried  off 
into  the  river  by  means  of  canals  cut  in  as  direct  a  line  as  possible,  from  which  the  water  passes 
under  the  banks  through  sluices  which  open  to  give  it  passage. 

These  sluices  are  in  general  furnished  with  a  kind  of  door,  which  the  water  in  the  river  closes 
as  it  rises,  and  which  is  afterward  opened  by  the  water  in  the  canal  when  the  former  falls  again. 

By  this  means,  damp,  moist  lands  which  are  situated  pretty  high,  may  in  general  be  easily 
freed  from  their  superabundant  humidity  ;  but  not  so  land  which  is  beneath  the  level  of  tlie  bed 
of  the  river. 

In  cases  of  this  nature,  various  imperfect  modes  of  proceeding  are  re.sorted  to  ;  for  example,  the 
land  is  surrounded  with  drains  and  dykes  for  the  purpose  of  can-ying  oif  the  water  which  falls 
from  the  higher  ground,  and  these  are  connected  with  canals  which  are  raised  above  the  level  of 
the  soil  and  convey  it  to  the  neighboring  river. 

Occasionally,  however,  when  the  water  cannot  be  kept  sufficiently  elevated,  pumps  or  drawing 
machines  are  employed  to  raise  it  from  the  bottom  of  these  dykes  or  trenches.  But  it  mu.st  be 
borne  in  mind  that  ditches  of  this  kind  can  only  prove  beneficial  where  the  soil  is  of  an  argilla- 
ceous nature,  and  is  tolerably  solid.     In  light,  porous  land  they  would  be  perfect'y  u.seless. 

We  can  only  reckon  with  some  degree  of  certainty  on  success  when,  by  means  of  a  drain  of 
sufficient  dimensions  we  can  cut  off  the  water  which  descends  from  the  hill  in  some  spo*^  above 
the  level  of  the  river,  and  high  enough  to  enable  us  to  direct  this  water  into  the  stream  which  is 
to  carry  it  off.  If  a  drain  of  this  kind  has  sufficient  declivity,  there  is  not  a  doubt  of  its  proving 
beneficial ;  but  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  mounds  of  sand  are  formed  in  its  bed  which  ob- 
struct the  passage  ot  the  water,  destroy  the  declivitj',  and,  consequently,  cause  it  to  overflow,  and 
thus  transform  land  which  was  completely  drained,  into  a  bog. 

It  now  and  then  happens  that  a  third  mode  of  proceeding  may  be  adopted,  namely,  that  of  con- 
structing dykes  formed  of  solid  earth  all  round  the  land,  and  emptying  out  the  water  from  them 
with  machines  for  drawing  or  pumping  up  water. 

There  are  various  kinds  of  these  machines  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  them  are  woj'ked  by  means 
of  sails  similar  to  those  of  a  windmill.      The  inhabitants  of  Holland  have  surpassed   those  of  all 
other  countries  in  inventions  of  this  nature.      The  most  essential  quality  of  this  kind  of  machine 
consists  in  its  requiring  no  other  agent  than  vi'ind  to  put  it  in  motion,  and  being  constructed  in 
such  a  manner  as  not  easily  to  admit  of  its  being  injured  or  put  out  of  order;  should  such  not  be 
the  case,  it  will  be  liable  to  become  unfit  for  use  at  the  very  moment  when  most  required.      On 
this  account  those  which  require  great  motive  power  are  very  complicated,  and,  containing  a 
great  deal  of  iron-work,   are   always  exceedingly  troublesome.      The   "  dratuing-u-heel,"  the   i 
"  throwing-wheel,"  and   •'  Archimedes'  screw,"  are,  when  well  constructed,  fully  capable  of  ef    i ' 
fecting  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  designed  ;   but  the  "  hydraulic  ram,,"  a  newly-invented 
instrument,  is  only  adapted  to  particular  situations.     The  "  Mo iitgolfier  "  machine,  which  has  lat-   ' 
terly  so  greatly  attracted  the  attention  of  mathematicians  and  natural  philosophers,  is  wholly  inef-    ' 
ficacious.     Latterly,  steam-engines  have  been  made  use  of  for  this  purpose  with  great  success ; 
but  it  must  be  adnaitted  that  they  are  very  expen.sive. 

It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  use  of  several  of  these  instru- 
ments at  once,  in  order  to  raise  the  water  to  the  requisite  hight. 

The  same  means  which  are  resorted  to  in  low  situations,  protected  by  banks  or  dam.s,  for  col- 
lecting and  carrying  off  the  water  which  falls  from  the  hight,  may,  with  very  trifling  modifica- 
tions, also  be  used  to  get  rid  of  that  which  oozes  or  ti-ansudes  through  the  earth,  as  standing  wa- 
ter or  fens.  This  moisture  is  occasioned  by  the  water  situated  in  the  hights,  which  filters  through 
the  porous  layers  and  veins  of  soil,  and  collects  on  the  low,  flat  land.  When  rivers  overflow, 
the  moisture  thus  produced  in  the  land  is  not  easily  got  rid  of,  even  after  the  flood  has  subsided  ; 
on  the  contrary,  it  appears  as  if  it  was  then  only  that  the  ground  becomes  thoroughly  saturated. 
It  often  happens  that  the  water  does  not  ebb  back  to  the  surface  until  the  ri\'er  has  resumed  its 
usual  position.  This  is  one  reason  why  these  waters  may  not  only  be  got  rid  of  by  means  of  ca- 
nals which  pass  under  the  bank  or  dams,  and  have  gates  or  sluices  -which  open  when  the  river  is 
low  from  the  effect  of  the  pressure  of  the  water  in  the  canal,  but  also  by  dykes  dug  in  an  oblique 
direction  relatively  to  the  course  of  the  river,  in  order  that  they  may  unite  with  the  latter  at  the 
spot  where  the  water  in  them  has  attained  an  equal  level,  or  is  a  little  higher  than  that  iu  the 
canal. 

When  excessive  moisture  is  occasioned  not  by  standing  or  subterraneous  water,  but  by  the 
overflowing  and  oozing  out  of  rivei-s,  which,  on  account  of  their  serpentine  course,  have  not  suffi- 
cient declivity,  the  best  thing  that  can  he  done  is  to  alter  and  improve  the  direction  of  the  bed  of 
the  river,  and  remove  all  those  obstacles  which  impede  the  passage  of  the  water.  The  straighter 
its  course,  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  current;  and  the  mo»-e  rapid  the  current,  the  less  considera- 
ble will  be  the  volume  of  water  resting  on  any  portion  of  the  bed  at  once.  The  fewer  obstacles 
it  encounters,  the  more  gently  will  it  flow  onward ;  and  the  more  gently  it  flows,  the  less  damage 
it  is  likely  to  do^  The  alteration  may  be  effected  in  two  ways.  In  the  first  ofthe.se,  the  wind- 
ings of  the  river  are  cut  through  and  its  bed  altered  ;  and  thus  it  is  frequently  materially  short- 
ened, rendered  more  sloping,  and  consequently  flows  much  more  rapidly  and  gently.  In  this 
(■870) 


manner  a  considerable  extent  of  fertile  soil  admirably  adapted  for  wheat  or  meadow  land  is  often 
gained,  and  its  produce  soon  repays  the  expense  and  outlay  required  by  this  operation.  Should 
this  mode  of  proceeding:  not  appear  advisable,  a  portion  of  the  -water  in  the  river  may  be  carried 
otf  without  altering:  the  former  bed ;  but  by  digging  a  canal  in  the  vicinity,  which,  from  being 
straighter,  has  a  greater  degree  of  declivity.  There  is  no  necessity  for  making  this  canal  very 
large  at  first,  for  the  action  of  the  water  gradually  tends  to  increase  the  size  of  it,  until  at  length  it 
becomes  capable  of  containing  and  carrying  oifall  the  water  in  the  river,  and  thus  renders  the 
previously  existing  bed  entirely  useless.  This  has  been  the  case  in  the  newly  formed  bed  of  the 
Oder,  extending  from  Gustebiuse  to  Niederwutzen. 

Meadows  situated  on  the  borders  of  a  river  or  stream  that  -winds  considerably,  and  the  water 
of  which  rises  above  the  surface  of  the  neighboring  land,  generally  suifer  greatly  from  humidity. 
Tliis  evil  may,  however,  often  be  remedied  by  digging  a  ditch  or  drain  along  the  meadow,  from 
its  upper  to  its  lower  part,  which  drain  is  made  to  open  into  the  river  at  the  point  where  its  bed 
is  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  meadow.  This  drain  will  speedily  carry  off  the  overflowings  of 
the  water,  especially  if  its  operation  is  facilitated  by  the  addition  of  smaller  drains  leading  into 
this  one.  The  earth  which  is  extracted  from  this  drain  will  sometimes  be  suiBcient  to  form  a 
bank  along  the  side  of  the  river,  when  the  distance  to  which  it  must  be  transported  for  tliis  pur- 
pose is  not  too  great. 

In  countries  much  intersected  with  streams  and  rivers,  it  very  frequently  happens  that  the  low 
grounds  in  the  vicinity  of  these  are  so  considerably  below  the  level  of  their  beds  as  to  render  it 
imf>ossible  to  carry  oS  the  superabundant  water  with  -which  such  land  is  saturated  by  means  of 
the  river.  In  cases  of  this  description,  after  having  enclosed  the  highest  parts  of  the  river  with 
banks  or  dams,  the  ground  may  be  drained  by  means  of  pipes  or  tunnels  passing  through  these 
banks  and  under  the  bed  of  the  river  ;  or  else  by  covered  drains  formed  of  mortar  or  masonry, 
through  which  the  water  is  carried  off  to  some  lower  brook.  Crette  de  Paluel,  a  most  distin- 
guished French  agriculturist,  made  trial  of  this  mode  of  proceeding  in  two  different  places.  I 
shall  extract  an  account  of  the  operations  from  the  "  Memoirs  of<he  Agi-icultural  Society  of  Seine," 
vol.  iv.  both  because  they  furnish  examples  of  an  operation  which  occurs  but  seldom,  as  well  as 
because  these  two  cases  are  very  instructive,  on  account  of  the  number,  nature,  and  variety  of  the 
circumstances  relating  to  them. 

'  All  this,"  says  Crett6,  when  speaking  of  a  great  extent  of  drainage  which  he  had  successfully  accom- 
plished, "  have  I  etFected ;  and  any  who  choose  may  come  and  satisfy  themselves  by  seeing  it." 
"There  is,  hovv^ever,  one  rule  from  which  I  never  depart,"  he  says. in  another  place,  viz.  "that  of  conduct- 
ing all  my  operations  and  undeitakings  on  a  liberal  scale,  and  never  suftering  any  false  notions  of  economy 
to  mar  the  whole.  The  soil  amply  repays  the  capital  which  is  bestowed  upon  it,  provided  that  it  is  skill- 
fully and  judiciously  besto-'A'ed  ;  but  those  who  act  parsimoniously,  and  grudge  evei-y  farthing,  can  never  \ 
expect  to  derive  any  great  profits  ;  the  enterprising  alone  will  tind  their  endeavors  crowned  with  success  :  ' 
this  observation  relates  p-articularlj'  to  draining." 

The  Draining  of  various  kinds  of  Marshes. 

We  class  under  the  denomination  of  marshy  all  those  uncultivated  lands  which 
are  of  a  spongy  nature,  and  always  saturated  with  water. 

They  are  divided,  first,  into  green  marshes,  swampy  bogs,  or  meadows :  this 
variety  comprises  those  which  are  covered  with  a  layer  of  turf,  or  of  high  grass, 
which  finds  an  abundant  supply  of  nutriment  in  the  upper  stratum  of  the  soil. 
And  secondly,  into  peat  marshes,  sterile  bogs,  or  furze  land,  on  which  nothing  ! 
but  mosses  and  a  few  other  plants  grow,  as  the  yellow  star  of  Bethlehem  {orrii- 
thogulum  luteum),  marsh  ledum  [ledum  palustre),  sweet  gale  or  myrrica,  com- 
mon and  crop-leaved  heath,  [erica  vulgaris  et  tetralix),  &c. 

Marshes  of  the  first  class,  although  constantly  moist  and  wet,  yield  some  little 
hay,  but  this  is  in  general  far  from  being  nutritious  ;  it  is  unpalatable  to  cattle, 
and  very  often  unwholesome  ;  besides,  it  can  only  be  secured  in  very  dry  seasons  : 
cattle  cannot  be  pastured  on  such  land  without  danger. 

Peat  marshes  yield  scarcely  any  pasturage,  and  no  produce  ;  but  the  peat 
which  may  be  obtained  from  them  is  very  valuable. 

Neither  of  these  varieties  can  be  rendered  fertile  until  the  soil  is  thoroughly 
drained  and  rendered  healthy  ;  and  this  drainage  must  be  effected  by  such  means 
as  the  nature  of  the  circumstances  may  seem  to  mdicate.  Considerable  sums  are 
often  expended  in  this  operation  to  little  or  no  purpose,  on  account,  of  the  cause 
from  which  the  wetness  arises  not  having  been  clearly  ascertained  in  the  first 
place. 

If  the  superabundant  humidity  of  the  soil  is  caused  by  the  stagnation  of  water 
which  falls  from  the  neighboring  hills  and  elevations,  and  settles  in  the  valleys 
and  on  the  low  grounds  where  it  can  find  no  vent,  and  where  an  impermeable 
layer  of  earth  prevents  it  from  penetrating  deeper  into  the  soil,  the  first  thing  to 
be  ascertained  is  whether  or  not  a  canal,  the  bottom  of  which  shall  be  on  a  level 
with  the  marsh,  can  be  dug  on  the  declivity  of  the  neighboring  hill.  If  the  ex- 
penses attendant  on  the  formation  of  such  a  canal  do  not  exceed  the  profits  which 
may  be  expected  to  be  derived  from  the  advantages  resulting  from  the  drying  of 

(871) 


344  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

the  marsh,  it  should  be  immediately  attempted  ;  the  canal  should  be  formed  after 
the  manner  which  we  shall  presently  direct. 

But  where  such  a  mode  of  proceeding  is  impracticable  on  account  of  the  marsh 
being  surrounded  on  every  side  Avith  high  grounds,  recourse  may  be  had  to  an- 
other mode  of  operating,  which  consists  in  finding  an  outlet  for  the  water  through 
one  of  the  inferior  strata  of  the  soil ;  but  this  can  only  be  effected  in  places  whore 
the  marsh  is  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  country,  or  of  the  nearest  river 
or  pond.  It  is  very  seldom  that  marshes  situated  on  plains  can  be  drained  by 
means  of  the  substrata  of  the  soil ;  but  where  it  is  possible  to  have  recourse  to 
this  mode  of  proceeding,  and  where  holes  are  bored  in  the  bottoms  of  the  drains 
intended  to  carry  off  the  water,  these  latter  may  be  filled  up  with  rough  stones 
and  afterward  covered  with  earth,  as  the  water  will  have  room  enough  to  fiow 
between  the  stones.  When  the  marsh  is  once  drained,  other  ditches  may  be  con- 
nected with  these  drains,  which  may  also  be  covered  up  after  having  been  filled 
with  branches. 

If,  as  frequently  happens,  the  dampness  arises  from  springs,  the  essential  point 
is  to  discover  the  level  or  bight  at  which  these  break  out.  Sometimes  they  show 
themselves  at  the  edge  of  the  marsh,  in  a  position  rather  higher  than  that  of  the 
spongy  earth.  When  in  this  position  they  may  be  carried  off  by  a  drain,  or  by 
holes  bored  in  the  soil  with  an  auger,  and  the  marsh  thus  dried  without  the  ne- 
cessity of  cutting  through  its  whole  extent.  By  this  means  the  important  ad- 
vantage of  gathering  the  water  on  the  highest  spot  is  attained,  and  thus  being 
able  to  carry  it  off  with  greater  facility.  In  general,  the  only  way  of  conveying  it 
to  some  brook  or  reservoir  is  by  excavating  a  canal  of  some  size  along  the  bottom 
of  the  marsh.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  springs  rise  ever  so  partially  from  the 
bottom  of  the  marsh,  there  is  nothing  can  be  done  but  to  form  a  large  drain  or 
canal  for  carrying  off  the  water  across  the  marsh ;  which  canal  shall  be  on  a 
I  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  spongy  stratum,  and  formed  in  the  moist  soil  after 
the  manner  which  we  are  about  to  describe,  in  order  that  the  water  contained  in 
it  may  be  conveyed  away  from  the  land  through  a  conduit  of  solid  earth. 

If  the  humidity  of  the  morass  is  occasioned  by  some  reservoir  of  water,  either 
in  the  vicinity  or  at  at  a  little  distance  off,  the  surface  of  which  being  generally 
or  occasionally  above  the  level  of  the  marsh,  communicates  with  it  through  the 
permeable  strata,  or  else  by  means  of  the  veins  of  the  soil,  a  state  of  things  which 
will  occur  even  when  the  morass  is  separated  from  the  water  by  a  high  hill,  the 
first  point  to  be  ascertained  is  whether  or  not  it  is  practicable  to  carry  off  the 
Water  by  means  of  some  spot,  or  through  some  drain  situated  lower  down.  Some- 
times it  is  impossible  to  get  rid  of  the  water,  otherwise  than  by  means  of  an  open 
canal  or  trench  leading  toward  the  place  where  it  rises  from  below  the  surface  : 
this  is  the  case  in  places  where  rivers  overfiow  and  then  return  to  their  former 
bed.  When  these  rivers  are  surcharged,  a  portion  of  the  water  contained  in 
them  being  compressed  by  that  which  is  above  it,  penetrates  into  the  surrounding 
earth,  which  it  slowly  filtrates  through,  and  runs  into  adjacent  land,  or  even  into 
land  at  some  distance  :  it  often  happens  that  the  period  when  the  moisture  of  the 
land  is  most  apparent,  is  exactly  that  at  which  the  river  subsided :  the  water  re- 
mains in  the  spongy  soil,  rendering  it  moist  and  unfertile  ;  until  by  degrees  it  is 
evaporated,  or  rejoins  the  river.  The  evils  resulting  from  these  circum.stances 
may  be  remedied  by  digging  a  ditch,  which  shall,  when  the  river  has  subsided, 
:  carry  the  Avater  either  directly  or  indirectly  back  to  the  river  at  some  lower  point. 
Every  time  there  is  an  overflow,  the  moutli  of  this  ditch  or  canal  should  be  closed 
by  means  of  a  gate  or  sluice,  unless  it  is  the  intention  to  irrigate  some  portion  of 
the  land,  and  it  should  be  opened  again  as  soon  as  the  water  has  subsided.  For 
this  purpose,  as  I  have  before  said,  sluices  are  made  use  of,  which  open  and  close 
of  their  own  accord. 

A  marsh  cannot  be  intersected  with  ditches  until  the  chief  drain  has  been 
formed  in  the  the  solid  ground.  When  the  morass  is  large  and  deep,  this  can 
seldom  be  effected  at  once,  but  must  be  the  work  of  several  years  ;  because  the 
spongy  substance  of  which  the  marsh  is  composed  is  so  full  of  water  as  to  render 
it  impossible  to  make  the  drains  of  the  proper  depth.  In  the  first  place,  the  prm- 
cipal  drain  is  only  excavated  to  the  depth  of  a  feAV  feet,  or  as  far  as  the  moisture 
will  permit.  The  following  year  this  ditch  is  deepened,  and  not  only  extended  in 
a  direct  line,  but  also  made  to  throw  off  ramifications  from  its  sides  in  various  di- 


rections.  On  the  third  year  the  water  will  be  so  much  dissipated,  and  the  surface 
of  the  soil  so  much  dried,  that  the  principal  drain  may  be  excavated  to  the  re- 
quisite depth,  and  both  that  and  the  ramifications  extended.  The  spongy  matter 
which  had  been  swelled  up  by  the  water,  will  then  decrease  in  size  and  sink  down 
until  the  drain  becomes  scarcely  half  so  deep.  This  substance  also  contracts  as  it 
dries,  so  that  the  drain  becomes  wider  and  requires  a  slope  which  it  had  not  be- 
fore, and  which  is  never  given  to  drains  of  this  description. 

Those  marshes  which  contain  a  certain  thickness  of  peat,  may  be  brought  into 
cultivation  either  without  the  peal  being  removed  or  after  that  operation   has 
taken  place.     I  shall  not  enter  into  any  particulars  respecting  the  removal  of  the 
,  peat,*  but  confine  myself  to  what  has  relation  to  draining  and  cultivation,  proper- 
'[  ly  so  called  ;  but  this  cultivation  can  only  be  bestowed  on  turf  pits  which    have 
been  regularly  worked  out.     When  a  marsh  is  no  longer  to  be  maintained  for  the 
sake  of  its  peat,  but  is  to  be  brought  into  cultivation,  it  is  usual  to  leave  a  thick- 
ness of  from  nine  to  twelve  inches  of  peat.     Care  is  always  taken  to  restore  to  the 
soil  all  the  black  earth  which  was  attached  to  the  peat.     Wherever  it  is  possible 
this  black  mould  is  mixed  with  fresh  soil,  procured  from  some  neighboring  spot 
or  from  the  land  itself,  either  from  the  sides  of  the  drains  or  by  digging  in  various 
places  and  excavating  beneath  the  peat.     The  peaty  mould  thus  receives  a  great- 
er degree  of  consistence,  and  is  rendered  capable  of  bearing  all  kinds  of  crops.  If, 
at  the  same  time,  an  amelioration  of  stable  manure  can  be  bestowed  on  the  land, 
or,  what  is  equally  efficacious,  a  plentiful  amelioration  of  lime,  the  soil  becomes 
at    once    excessively  fertile ;    it    must  not,    however,    be    made    to    bear    con-  [ 
[  secutive  crops  of  grain  unless  its  fertility  is   maintained   by  repeated  manur-  i 
ings.      In    Holland    and    in    Friesland,   it    is  well-knoAvn   that    if   we   would  ' 
/  preserve   the  fertility  of  the   soil  we  must  lay  it  down  as  pasture  land  for  a  | 
while,  or  an  abundance  of  manure  must  be  procured  for  it  by  making  it  bear  al- 
ternate crops  of  grain  and  fbdder.     The  immense  produce  yielded  by  land  that 
has  once  been  a  peat  marsh,  causes  all  landed  proprietors  to  lose  no  time  in  bring-  | 
ing  these  portions  of  their  estates  into  cultivation,  as  soon  as  they  have  taken  off 
the  peat ;  and  not,  as  formerly,  to  be  content  with  the  trifling  profit  arising  from 
the  renewal  of  the  peat. 

If  the  operation  of  draining  has  been  properly  performed,  the  land  will  be  as 
well  adapted  for  the  growth  of  corn  as  for  the  meadow  land  ;  and  should  the  lat- 
ter be  preferred,  it  can  in  general  be  well  watered  by  means  of  more  or  less  com- 
plicated arrangements.  But  where  the  drainage  has  been  imperfectly  effected,  it 
will  be  better  to  form  plantations  of  alders  and  willows  upon  it,  as  these  trees 
grow  very  rapidly,  and  yield  a  great  deal  of  fire-wood  ;  which  is  much  more  valu- 
able and  useful  than  the  newly  formed  layer  of  peat  would  be. 

Where  it  is  impossible  to  manure  the  land,  the  plants  of  which  the  peat  was 
formed  will  at  first  continue  to  shoot  up  here  and  there,  but  these  will  gradually 
give  way  to  other  and  better  ones ;  especially  if  the  under  part  of  the  soil  is  tol- 
erably dry,  and  the  land  well  watered  and  irrigated.  ' 

When  marshes,  from  which  the  peat  has  not  been  taken,  are  drained,  or  such   ' 
land  as  is  covered  with  reeds,  rushes,  or  plants  of  a  similar  nature,  they  may  be 
broken  up  with  a  plow  ;  or,  if  not  firm  enough  to  bear  the  pressure  of  the  feet  of 
the  horses,  tilled  with  a  mattock. 

Whea  the  dry  season  comes  on,  the  ground  thus  turned  up  should  be  set  on 
fire,  and  the  combustion  commenced  from  the  side  on  which  the  Avind  blows ; 
thus,  both  the  peat  and  the  roots  of  all  the  plants  will  be  reduced  to  ashes  very 
speedily.  Sontie  persons  advise  the  land  being  burned  without  being  plowed,  but 
the  advantages  attendant  on  such  a  course  of  proceedingare  neither  so  great  nor  so 
certain,  because  the  action  of  the  fire  cannot  be  carried  to  a  sufficient  depth ;  nor 
is  it  so  uniforrh,  and  therefore  the  roots  of  the  plants  are  only  partially,  if  at  all, 
destroyed.  Where  the  marsh  is  excessively  spongy,  and  consists  chiefly  or  sole- 
ly of  vegetable  substances,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  calculate  on  its  being  tho- 
roughly drained.  The  inequality  of  the  effects  of  the  burning  can  never  be  wholly 
remedied  nor  prevented,  nor  the  asperities  thus  formed  avoided,  but  the  latter 
may  easily  be  got  rid  of. 

After  the  operation  of  burning  has  been  performed,  no  time  should  be  lost  in 

*  Because  we  have  a  standard  work  on  this  subject  entitled  "  Eisenles  Handbuch  oder  theoretisch  prak- 
tischer  Unterricht  zur  Nceheren  Kentniss  des  Forstwesens."     Zweite  Auflage.    Berlin,  1812,  A. 
(873) 


346  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

burying  the  ashes  and  mixing  them  with  the  layer  of  earth  immediately  under- 
neath. Formerly  it  was  customary  to  sow  land  thus  prepared  with  buckwheat 
for  several  consecutive  years  ;  this  plant  was  invariably  found  to  succeed,  and 
greatly  loosened  the  peaty  soil  ;  but  now,  potatoes  and  turnips  are  in  general  cul- 
tivated, Avhich  answer  the  same  purpose  and  generally  yield  an  immense  produce, 
and  the  ground  is  subsequently  sown  with  rye  or  oats,  which  thrive  very  avoII, 
and  the  grain  of  which  contains  a  peculiarly  white  flour  :  this  property  is  occa- 
sioned by  the  ashes.  The  spring  turnip  likewise  answers  well  on  this  kind  of 
land.  Barley,  wheat,  and  autumnal  rape  do  not  succeed  at  all  on  such  soils  ;  at 
least  until  they  have  been  ameliorated  by  a  considerable  addition  and  admixture 
of  marly 'or  argillaceous  earth,  or  even  of  pure  .sand.  After  this  has  been  done, 
almost  any  kind  of  crop  may  be  sown  with  success. 

But  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  land  thus  brought  into  cultivation  requires 
regular  ameliorations  of  stable  manure,  without  which  it  soon  begins  to  shoAy 
signs  of  exhaustion,  and  must  be  left  at  rest,  or  only  used  as  pasture  land  ;  the 
produce  of  which  will  be  greater  or  less  according  to  the  degree  of  impoverish- 
ment to  which  the  soil  had  been  reduced  by  previous  cropping.  Sometimes  land 
of  this  nature  is  made  to  bear  a  succession  of  crops  until  it  is  absolutely  incapable 
of  producing  any  thing  more;  when  such  is  the  case,  the  only  way  of  restoring 
its  fertility  is  to  leave  it  at  rest  for  a  considerable  period,  and  bestow  repeated 
plowings  and  ameliorations  on  it  during  that  time.  Some  say  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  burn  it  again,  and  assert  that  its  fertility  is  thus  renewed.  '' 

IRRIGATION. 

Almost  all  agricultural  writers  have  combined  the  relation  of  all  particulars 
relating  to  irrigation  with  instructions  concerning  the  cultivation  of  meadow  land. 
There  is,  however,  a  species  of  irrigation  which  is  not  intended  to  fertilize  mead-  i 
ow  land  :  from  the  remotest  ages  this  operation  has  been  had  recourse  to  for  the 
improvement  of  wheat  land,  and  of  land  devoted  to  the  growth  of  other  crops; 
this  is  especially  the  case  in  warm  climates.  We  shall,  therefore,  now  speak  of 
general  irrigation,  and  leave  the  consideration  of  that  destined  simply  to  benefit 
meadow  land  until  we  come  to  that  division  of  our  subject. 

Irrigation  will  be  found  to  be  connected  in  more  ways  than  one  with  the  sub- 
ject which  we  are  now  upon,  viz.,  draining  ;  because  both  these  operations  must  \ 
be  preceded  by  the  same  research,  and  the  same  inquiries  as  to  the  level  or  hight  ! 
of  th€  water,  as  well  as  because  the  rules  laid  down  for  the  formation  of  drains 
will  be  equally  applicable  to  that  of  irrigating  canals:  and  the  draining  and  dry- 
ing of  land  must,  of  necessity,  precede  its  irrigation,  and  is  intimately  connected 
wfth  it.  In  fact,  one  of  the  most  essential  points  required  in  a  soil  which  we 
wish  to  irrigate  is,  that  there  shall  not  be  the  slightest  trace  of  moisture  in  its  in- 
ferior strata,  but  that  it  shall  be  thoroughly  dry  ;  wherever  such  is  not  the  case, 
irrigation,  so  far  from  proving  beneficial,  will  inevitably  be  productive  of  the  •[ 
worst  possible  effects.  But  there  are  many  cases  in  which  it  is  easy  to  collect 
the  moisture  which  settles  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  there  become  stag- 
nated, and  carry  it  off  to  such  a  position  as  will  enable  us  to  employ  it  with  ad- 
vantage in  the  irrigation  of  those  very  soils  which  it  previously  rendered  damp, 
unhealthy  and  sterile.  Lastly,  irrigation  can  never  prove  really  beneficial,  ex- 
cepting where  we  can  turn  ofif  the  water  from  the  land  and  pleasure,  and  drain  it 
again  immediately  after  it  has  been  watered. 

Irrigation  certainly  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and  important  of  all  the  operations 
that  come  within  the  province  of  an  agriculturist.  It  is  well  known  to  all  per- 
sons that  moisture  is  an  essential  condition  to  vegetation,  and  that  water,  either 
directly  or  by  its  decomposition,  contributes  materially  toward  the  nutrition  of 
plants.  The  difference  which  exists  in  the  fertility  of  various  kinds  of  land  de- 
pends chiefly  upon  their  greater  or  less  disposition  to  retain  moisture.  Sandy  soils, 
which,  on  account  of  the  facility  with  which  water  evaporates  and  escapes  from 
them,  are  regarded  as  almost  if  not  absolutely  sterile,  may  be  rendered  as  fertile 
as  the  richest'' argillaceous  land,  and  equally  capable  of  producing  the  greater  part 
of  our  most  valuable  crops,  and  certainly  of  our  most  useful  vegetables,  if  care  is 
taken  to  preserve  them  in  a  proper  state  of  humidity  ;  that  is,  provided  they  con- 
tain a  sufficient  portion  of  soluble  humus.  Where  this  is  the  case,  a  sandy  soil 
is  often  found  to  be  better  adapted  than  any  other  to  most  of  our  profitable  -crops ; 

(874) 


IRRIGATION,  347 


< 


it  is  peculiarly  favorable  to  such  as  are  liable  to  suffer  from  excess  of  moisture. 
When  the  requisite  arrangements  have  been  made  for  watering  the  soil,  such  a 
degree  of  moisture  or  of  dryness  may  he  communicated  to  it  as  best  agrees  with 
the  nature  of  the  plants  which  it  has  to  bear. 

Almost  all  water  carries  with  it  fertilizing  particles  which  are  exceedingly  ben- 
I  ehcial  to  vegetation.  Water  which  has  stood  for  some  time  on  the  surface  of  a 
i  soil  will  always  contain  nutritive  matters  which  it  has  collected  during  that  pe- 
'  riod,  and  the  quantity  of  them  will  be  proportionate  to  the  richness  of  the  land 
'  over  which  it  has  passed. 

This  nutritious  matter,  which  would  otherwise  be  precipitated  into  the  depths 
of  the  sea  and  lost,  is  retained  by  means  of  irrigation  and  deposited  on  those  soils 
which  are  watered,  where  it  contributes  to  the  maintenance  of  fertility,  and  to  the 
reproduction  of  new  plants.  Water  which  rises  from  the  gromid  usually  carries 
with  it  particles  of  lime  or  gypsum  (sulphate  of  lime)  dissolved  m  carbonic  acid, 
and  consequently  divided  into  impalpable  molecules.  When  the  carbonic  acid 
disengages  itself  in  the  air,  these  two  substances  which  are  so  favorable  to  vege- 
tation become  precipitated  on  the  watered  soil.  It  is  on  this  account  that  the  ef- 
ficacy of  irrigation  is  so  much  greater  on  that  portion  of  the  land  which  lies  near- 
est to  the  spot  where  the  water  rises,  and  where  it  contains  the  greatest  quantity 
of  lime. 

By  means  of  irrigation  we  obtain  and  make  use  of  a  species  of  manure  which 
would  otherwise  be  lost  to  vegetation,  and  which  could  not  be  obtained  in  any 
other  way  ;  and  we  procure  a  crop  which  produces  fresh  manure  without  having 
required  any  in  its  production.  Thus  we,  in  a  manner  of  speaking,  create  in  our 
land  fresh  elements  of  vegetation. 

Irrigation  renders  us  in  a  great  measure  independent  of  temperature  ;  for  by 
means  of  it  we  are  enabled  to  do  without  rain  for  a  considerable  period,  as  is  ev- 
ident from  the  fertility  of  the  watered  lands  in  the  warm,  dry  climate  of  Italy, 
where  it  often  happens  that  not  a  single  drop  of  rain  or  even  dew  falls  for  at  '," 
least  four  months.*  We  are  also  enabled  by  its-  means  greatly  to  dimmish  the 
mischief  done  in  the  spring  by  white  frosts  or  by  frosts  in  general,  because  the 
water,  especially  when  it  rises  from  fresh  springs,  warms  the  soil  by  its  higher 
temperature,  covers  it  with  verdure,  and  renders  the  meadows  luxuriant  at  peri- 
ods-when  land  which  has  not  been  watered  scarcely  shows  any  traces  of  grass  ; 
and  because  the  water,  whatever  may  be  its  properties,  diminishes  the  pernicious 
effects  of  frost  of  all  kinds  on  plants  when  it  is  suffered  to  pass  over  them  in  the 
spring.  By  means  of  irrigation,  we  are  often  enabled  to  produce  an  eminent  de- 
gree of  fertility  in  land,  which  before  yielded  but  a  very  small  amount  of  produce. 
These  are,  I  should  imagine,  sufficient  inducements  to  set  about  the  formation  of 
arrangements  for  watermg  land  wherever  it  is  practicable  so  to  do. 

It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  every  facility  presents  itself  for  undertaking 
this  operation  on  a  most  extensive  scale.  There  are  many  districts,  and  even 
whole  provinces,  in  which  there  is  no  spot,  however  distant  from  or  above  the 
level  of  the  water  it  may  be,  which  cannot  with  proper  management  be  made  to 
participate  in  all  the  advantages  resulting  from  irrigation.  If  all  the  natural  wa- 
ter-courses were  intersected  at  their  highest  point,  and  the  water  retained  in  ca- 
nals formed  at  a  proper  elevation,  it  might  be  made  to  irrigate  countries  where 
at  present  such  a  thing  is  scarcely  dreamed  of. 

But  even  when  large  establishments  for  the  purpose  of  watering  land,  which 
require  the  concurrence  of  several  landed  proprietors  to  perfect  them,  and  which 
must  be  supported  at  public  expense,  cannot  be  formed,  it  very  frequently  hap- 
pens that  a  considerable  extent  may  be  irrigated  where  such  a  thing  has  never 
before  been  attempted.  Hitherto,  when  landed  proprietors  or  agriculturists  have 
determined  upon  irrigating  their  land,  they  have  only  directed  their  attention  to 
the  low  grounds  in  the  vicinity  of  some  river  or  brook,  although  these  are  the 
very  positions  in  which  the  operation  is  productive  of  least  advantage,  and  they 
have  to'ally  overlooked  the  higher  and  rising  grounds  where  it  Avould  have  been 
incalculably  more  beneficial.  It  is  a  fact  which  is  demonstrated  both  mathemat- 
ically and  physically,  although  often  disregarded  or  misconceived,  that  water  which 

The  dews  appear  to  me  to  be  much  more  heavy  and  abundant  at  Romasma  than  they  arc  in  France  and 
Italy ;  and  it  is  to  this  circumstance  I  am  inclined  to  attribute  the  slight  eGeoi  which  drouth  seems  to  exer- 
cise  over  plants  ia  the  former  country  compared  with  those  in  the  latter.  \ French.  Trans. 

(875) 


348  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

flows  on  an  elevated  or  rising  ground,  must,  of  necessity,  extend  itself  both  later- 
ally and  horizontally  when  its  course  is  impeded  and  it  is  prevented  from  de-  ' 
sceuding  to  the  loAver  parts  of  the  country  ;  consequently,  it  can  be  conducted  to  ■ 
all  those  spots  which  are  not  above  the  level  at  which  it  was  arrested,  provided  ' 
that  We  are  enabled  to  prevent  it  from  sinking  into  the  earth. 

In  general,  water  which  descends  from  some  hight  to  a  lower  spot  with  more 
or  less  impetus,  that  is  to  say,  with  greater  or  less  swiftness  and  force,  and 
passes  across  some  country,  hollows  for  itself  a  bed  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  coun- 
try and  there  forms  divers  windings  and  sinuosities.  Every  brook,  therefore, 
flows  hi  a  valley  of  greater  or  less  extent,  surrounded  with  higher  ground,  it 
frequently  happens  that  when  we  consider  these  hights  from  the  bed  of  the  brook 
or  river,  they  appear  so  elevated  that  many  persons  can  scarcely  conceive  how 
the  water  which  flows  along  the  valley  can  by  possibility  be  carried  to  them. 
But  a  careful  leveling  will  prove  that  the  poiat  at  which  the  water  enters  the 
valley  is  much  higher  even  than  these  rising  grounds,  which  at  first  sight  ap- 
pear inaccessible  to  the  water.  If,  then,  we  cut  o3'  the  water  by  means  of  a 
sluice  or  weir  at  the  highest  point,  which  we  will  suppose  to  be  a  hight  of  800 
perches  ;  and  if  above  this  sluice  we  dig  a  canal  which,  taking  the  water  from  ' 
the  bed  of  the  brook,  carries  it  on  at  an  equal  hight  and  with  as  little  slope  as  [ 
possible,  this  water  may  be  made  to  irrigate  all  those  parts  of  the  hill  bordering 
on  the  valley  which  are  a  few  degrees  below  the  point  at  which  the  stream  was 
)  cut  off. 

*       Experience  and  skill  will,  doubtless,  do  much  toward  enabling  us  to  perceive  ' 
at  once  the  best  way  of  turning  to  account  the  water  and  land  at  our  disposal. 
But,  however  well  acquainted  we  may  be  with  the  details  of  the  operation,  we 
must  never  rely  too  entirely  on  these,  but  before  putting  any  plan,  however  fea-    [ 
sible  it  may  appear,  into  operation,  take  levels  in  all  directions  and  from  all  ' 
points  most  carefully,  and  test  each  observation  by  repeating  it  again  and  again. 
We  shall  thus  be  able  to  ascertain  how  far  our  first  estimate  was  correct,  and 
shall  become  convinced  of  the  possibility  of  carryuig  water  to  hights,  where  such 

thing  at  first  sight   appeared  impracticable.      While,  on  the  other  hand,  we    | 
shall  often  find  that  many  places  to  which  we  had  fancied  the  water  might  ea- 
sily be  carried,  are  much  too  high. 

It  is  not  sufficient  to  ascertain  the  hight  of  the  places  to  which  we  intend  con- 
veying the  water,  but  we  must  also  find  out  that  of  all  those  spots  through  which 
it  IS  to  pass.  All  hollows  and  low  places  should  be  as  much  as  possible  avoided  ; 
and,  to  effect  this,  it  is  often  necessary  to  take  considerable  circuits.  Sometimes 
there  is  no  other  means  of  keeping  the  water  up  to  a  proper  hight  but  by  making 
it  pass  over  raised  courses  formed  of  earth,  wood,  or  materials  collected  for  the 
purpose.  Recourse  is  had  to  this  mode  of  proceeding  when  the  spot  from  which 
the  water  is  taken  is  separated  from  that  to  which  it  is  to  be  conducted  by  hol- 
lows. The  chief  thing  to  be  attended  to  here,  is  carefully  to  examine  and  calcu- 
late whether  the  advantages  anticipated  from  carrying  the  water  over  these  hol- 
lows will  be  sufliciently  great  to  repay  the  expense  of  the  conduit,  and  if  there  is 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  argillaceous  earth  in  the  vicinity  to  form  a  solid  canal. 

A  wooden  conduit  or  canal  will  often  be  found  least  expensive  ;  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that  such  an  one  is  much  more  liable  to  decay  and  injury  than  any    > 
other. 

In  some  cases,  when  the  water  has  to  pass  over  a  very  deep  soil  or  to  be  car 
ried  above  another  water-course,  the  best  plan  is  to  form  an  arch  of  stone  or    ' 
brick-work,  and  construct  an  aqueduct  above  it.     But  here,  also,  the  advantages 
resulting  from  such  an  operation  must  be  brought  into  comparison  with  the  ex- 
penses of  it-  i 

When  the  levels  of  the  water-course  have  been  taken,  the  next  thing  to  be 
done  is  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  water  that  can  be  procured,  in  order  that  the 
canal  may  be  made  of  a  suitable  depth  and  dimensions.  To  do  this,  the  quan- 
tity of  water  which  can  be  found  at  each  season  of  the  year  must  be  noticed,  and 
we  must  take  as  an  average  that  which  can  be  collected  at  the  driest  period  ; 
for  it  would  be  perfectly  useless  to  make  a  canal  of  large  dimensions  when  there 
is  not  water  enough  to  fill  it. 

However  small  may  be  the  amount  of  water  which  we  have  at  our  disposal, 
it  is  possible  to  derive  great  benefit  from  it ;  and  to  ensure  this,  we  have  only  to 

(876) 


IRRIGATION.  349 


use  it  as  economically  as  possible,  to  collect  it  as  soon  as  it  has  fulfilled  Us  pur- 
pose, and  use  it  on  some  lower  surface,  re-collect  it  and  difluse  it  over  a  third 
portion  of  land,  and  so  on  ;  but  all  this  requires  careful  and  skillful  arrangement, 
for  each  portion  of  land  must  be  made  sufficiently  sloping  to  admit  of  the  water 
descending  over  ii,  and  being  collected  at  the  bottom  ;  and  yet  this  slope  must  be 
very  gentle,  in  order  that  as  little  of  the  hight  may  be  lost  as  can  be  avoided,  and 
that  the  water  may  be  extended  over  as  large  a  surface  as  possible  before  it  re- 
turns to  its  former  bed,  or  to  the  canal  which  is  to  carry  it  away. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  demonstrate  on  mathematical  principles  the  ex- 
tent of  land  which  can  be  irrigated  by  a  certain  quantity  of  water.  Hypotheii- 
cally  speaking,  this  might  certainly  be  done,  but  the  results  of  theoretical  and 
practical  experience  are  seldom  the  same,  because  it  is  impossible  to  calculate, 
with  any  degree  of  precision,  either  the  sAviftness  or  force  with  which  the  v/ater 
will  flow,  or  the  absorbing  powers  of  the  soil.  A  certain  accuracy  of  the  eye,  > 
which  enables  its  possessors  to  judge  of  this  point  at  a  glance,  and  which  can 
only  be  acquired  by  experience,  will  lead  to  more  accurate  estimates  than  any 
measures  or  calculations.  When  there  is  no  means  of  acquiring  this  experience 
on  the  spot  or  in  its  vicinity,  on  account  of  there  being  no  undertakings  of  a  simi- 
lar nature  formed  there,  the  best  plan  is  either  to  visit  districts  where  they  do 
exist  in  great  numbers,  or  to  obtain  the  advice  and  cooperation  of  persons  who 
are  in  the  habit  of  conducting  such  operations.  It  now  and  then  happens  that  ,; 
the  quantity  of  water,  especially  when  it  flows  from  lakes  or  places  abounding  [ 
in  springs,  may  be  increased  by  enlarging  the  opening  through  which  these  lakes, 
or  this  collection  of  springs,  pour  themselves,  because  by  so  doing  we  diminish 
the  counter  pressure  which  stagnant  water  opposes  to  that  which  seeks  to  unite 
with  it.  In  consequence  of  this  enlargement  of  the  opening  through  which  the 
water  is  emitted,  the  springs  and  their  veins  open  more,  the  water  falls  from  the 
hights  with  greater  impetus,  and  opens  for  itself  a  passage  through  the  obstacles 
it  encounters  with  much  less  difficulty. 

This  observation  relates  particularly  to  those  lakes  which  have  no  apparent 
outlet :    when  one  is  made  for  them  they  fill  much  quicker  than  before,  and  sup- 
ply the  canal  with  a  larger  quantity  of  water  than  could  have  been  anticipated  \ 
before  this  operation  was  performed. 

A  third  point,  which  in  many  cases  is  very  necessary  to  ascertain,  is,  whether 
we  have  undisputed  possession  and  right  over  the  water  and  land  which  we  pro- 
pose operating  on ;  whether  we  can  act  without  being  interfered  with  by  any  of 
our  neighbors  whose  farms  or  estates  lie  above  or  below  us.  Such  interference 
is  but  too  frequent  on  land  in  the  vicinity  of  mills,  for  those  millers  M^hose  estab- 
lishments are  immediately  above  the  place  from  which  the  water  is  derived,  ex- 
claim that  the  stream  will  be  turned  to  flood  their  mill-dams,  while  those  living 
below  fear  lest  they  should  be  deprived  of  that  supply  of  water  which  is  neces- 
sary to  their  trade.  However  futile  and  wholly  without  foundation  these  I'ears 
may  be,  it  is  often  utterly  impossible  to  prove  that  our  arrangements  for  watering 
our  land  are  not  injurious  or  detrimental  to  the  mills  and  property  around,  at 
least  we  shall  find  it  very  difficult  to  do  so  with  sufficient  perspicuity  to  meet  the 
comprehensions  of  those  tribunals  before  which  the  case  is  brought,  for  thev  are 
in  general  composed  of  men  who.  from  prejudice  and  habit,  adhere  strictly  to 
the  letter  and  spirit  of  the  law  and  those  ordinances,  which,  being  made  when 
the  science  of  Agriculture  was  in  its  infancy,  sacrificed  all  general  advantages  to 
secure  the  safety  and  rights  of  mill-owners.  There  will,  therefore,  be  every  dan- 
ger of  our  being  invariably  worsted  in  litigations  on  this  point,  and  compelled  to 
'relinquish  our  projected  plans  of  improvement  and  amelioration  on  account  of  the 
ignorance  or  egotism  of  the  miller.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  other  per- 
sons residing  in  the  neighborhood  think  that  they  have  some  reason  or  right  to 
oppose  the  progress  of  the  operation :  for  example,  those  whose  land  is  situated 
above,  torment  themselves  with  the  idea  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  close  the 
sluices  when  the  water  rises,  and,  consequently,  that  their  property  is  exposed 
to  inundations  ;  and,  however  absurd  this  notion  may  appear,  it  is  one  very  likely 
to  occur  to  ignorant  or  prejudiced  people :  those  who  reside  below,  on  the  other 
hand,  fear  lest  their  supply  of  water  should  be  diminished,  or  that  the  water  will 
come  to  them  loaded  with  mud,  dirty  and  impure.  Whatever  hope  may  be  en- 
tertained that  the  enlightened  spirit  of  the  present  age  will  lead  to  the  formation 

(877) 


'i  find 


350 


THAER  S   PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


of  enactments  more  favorable  to  the  interests  of  Agriculture,  it  behooves  us,  in  the 
present  state  of  things,  to  act  vpith  circumspection  when  about  to  undertake  an 
operation  of  this  nature. 

Lastly,  it  will  be  necessary  to  ascertain  whether  it  will  be  possible  to  form  or 
■  a  vent  through  which  the  water  may  be  imm'ediately  conveyed  away  from 
the  land  which  has  been  irrigated,  otherwise  we  shall  do  more  harm  than  good  ; 
and,  instead  of  ameliorating  the  soil,  shall,  in  all  probability,  render  it  damp  and 
marshy.  In  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases,  however,  this  point  may  be  easi- 
ly accomplished. 

The  various  ditches  or  canals  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation  may  be  classed  un- 
der the  following  heads : 


1.  The  principal  canal  or  head  drain,  is  that  branch  which  furnishes  the  land  we  propose 
,  iiTigatiug  with  water,  and  which  retains  this  water  at  a  proper  hight  The  bottom  of  it  ought  to 
, '  have  very  little  slope,  an  inch  in  twenty  perches  is  quite  sufficient.  Its  width  must  be  determin- 
i'  ed  by  the  volume  of  water  which  will  have  to  pass  through  it;  as  to  its  depth,  that  will  depend 
■ '  upon  the  greater  or  less  elevation  of  the  soil  in  different  places  above  the  horizontal  surface  which 
■  '    forms  the  bottom  of  the  canal,  and  the  slope  given  to  its  sides  must  be  regulated  by  the  depth. 

2.  The  secondary  canals  or  small  mains,  are  those  which  convey  the  water  from  the  principal 
canal  or  main,  or  from  some  other  ditch  toward  the  spots  which  are  to  be  irrigated. 

3.  The  trenches  are  those  which  give  out  the  water  on  to  certain  portions  of  the  land  to  be  irri- 
gated ;  these  are  usually  furnished  with  small  banks  through  which  are  bored 

4.  llie  openiiigs  or  holes  by  means  of  which  the  water  is  distributed.  As  it  w^ould  be  impos- 
sible to  give  that  degree  of  evenness  and  regularity  to  the  edge  of  the  trenches  wliich  would  ad- 
mit of  the  water  escaping  in  an  uniform  proportion  from  every  part  of  their  -whole  length,  we  are 
compelled  to  have  recourse  to  these  openings,  which,  as  they  ■will  have  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the 
watei",  must  be  made  tolerably  strong,  and  sun'ounded  with  thick  turf,  or  lined  with  wood.  They 
are  not  unfreqnently  fonned  of  wooden  rings,  or  of  a  hollow  branch  of  willow  inserted  through  the 
bank  or  side  of  the  trench.  It  is  necessary  to  be  enabled  to  increase  or  diminish  the  quantity  of 
water  which  passes  through  these  openings  at  pleasure,  and  this  may  be  done  by  placing  turfs  so 
as  to  impede  the  passage  of  the  ■^^•ater,  or  small  pieces  of  board  or  wood.  When  the  meadow  is 
not  of  an  uniform  hight,  these  openings  are  made  in  the  upper  parts.  From  them  the  water  pas- 
ses into 

5.  The  furrows.  These  are  either  situated  a  little  behind  the  bank  of  the  trenches,  or  at  right 
angles  with  it.  It  is  by  means  of  these  furrows  that  the  water  is  distributed  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  soil. 

They  should  not  be  too  long.  Twenty-one  perches  ought  to  be  their  utmost  length  :  if  they  are 
made  longer  they  soon  become  choked  by  the  rapid  vegetation  of  the  grass,  and  the  water  never 
reaches  to  the  extremities  ;  the  longer  they  are,  the  wider  should  they  be  made  at  the  mouth  or 
commencement,  because  the  space  which  has  then  to  be  watered  by  them,  viz.  that  comprised  be- 
tween the  irrigating  furrow  and  the  drain,  is  rendered  more  extensive,  and  requires  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  water.  It  is  needless  to  observe,  that  the  openings  that  convey  the  water  into  the  furrows 
must  be  proportionate  in  diameter  to  the  width  of  the  furrow.  The  furrows  are  usually  fonned 
by  means  of  a  spade  slightly  curved,  which  ^ve  call  a  fun-owing  spade,  and  a  species  of  large  turf 
knife  which  is  used  to  cut  the  turf  on  both  sides  of  the  furrow  ;  or  a  plow  is  made  use  of  which 
is  contrived  expressly  for  the  purpose. 

6.  CanaJs  or  drains  for  carrying  off  the  water.  The  size  of  these  should  be  proportionate  to 
that  of  the  irrigation  canals,  and  they  should  always  correspond  with  each  other.  The  water  must 
be  collected  from  every  part  of  the  land  by  drainage  furro-ws,  which  will  conduct  it  to  the  trench 
intended  to  carry  it  off.  It  is  these  means  of  getting  rid  of  the  water  at  once  which  distinguish  ir- 
rigated land  from  that  which  is  damp  and  marshy,  and  without  them  it  is  impossible  to  obtein  that 
increase  of  fertility  and  of  produce  which  may,  under  proper  arrangements,  be  anticipated  from 
this  operation. 

The  canals  intended  for  the  purpose  of  can-ying  off  the  water  are  similar  to  those  which  convoy 
it  to  the  land.  The  principal  canal  or  drain  is  that  which  receives  and  carries  off  all  the  waier 
which  flows  from  the  whole  surface  of  the  imgated  land.  Sometimes  it  is  the  bed  of  that  same 
river  or  brook  from  the  superior  or  upper  part  of  which  the  head  main  or  chief  irrigating  canal  is 
supplied.  The  secondary  canals  are  those  which  take  up  tlie  water  from  a  part  of  the  irrigated 
land,  and  convey  it  either  to  the  principal  canal,  or  to  some  fresh  portion  of  ground  which  is  to  be 
watered  ;  where  the  latter  is  the  case,  this  secondary  drainage  canal  becomes  in  its  turn  a  second- 
ary irrigating  canal.  It  very  frequently  happens  that  canals  of  this  class  fulfil  both  these  pur- 
poses ;  first,  receiving  the  water  which  flows  from  the  upper  parts  of  the  land,  and  then  convey- 
ing it  to  imgate  the  lower  portions. 

It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  the  trenches  for  carrying  off  the  water  are  furnished  with  lit- 
tle banks  to  prevent  the  water  from  escaping  too  rapidly,  and  openings  are  made  through  these 
banks  which  may  be  closed  more  or  lessi  but  this  isofte'ner  done  when  the  land  is  watered  by 
inundation,  than  "when  by  iiTigation. 

7.  The  term  ditches  or  trenches  of  reunion,  is  given  to  those  which  are  intended  to  collect  the 
water  which  flows  from  high  grounds,  and  bring  it  to  a  canal  raised  above  the  level  of  the  soil,  or 
some  large  place,  as  for  example  a  pond  or  reservoir,  in  which  it  is  retained  by  means  of  a  strong 
bank,  in  order  to  be  conveyed  at  a  yet  higher  level  over  ground  which  could  not  otherwise  have 
received  the  benefit  of  the  operation.  When  the  trenches  for  carrying  off  the  water  are  intended 
to  fill  this  second  purpose  as  well,  they  must  be  constructed  with  infinitely  more  care  and  atten- 
tion. 

(8781 


IRRIGATION.  351 


It  is  impossible  for  any  irrigating  establishment  to  be  able  to  do  entirely  with- 
out sluices  of  various  kinds. 

The  construction  of  these  sluices  comes  under  the  province  of  hydraulic  archi- 
I  tecture,  and  therefore  I  shall  refer  my  readers  to  various  works  which  treat  of 
I  this  subject.* 

The  frincipal  sluice  or  weir,  that  by  means  of  which  the  course  of  the  river  is 
impeded,  and  the  water  forced  to  enter  the  head  main,  is  usually  the  largest  and 
most  expensive :  indeed  it  not  unfrequently  constitutes  the  chief  item  of  the  ex- 
pense. Many  persons  have  on  this  account  endeavored  to  do  without  it,  and  to 
substitute  a  dam  in  its  stead  ;  but  there  are  very  few  cases  in  which  the  course 
^  of  the  water  can  be  thus  permanently  cut  off  v/ithout  doing  mischief,  and  still 
"  fewer  in  which  it  is  possible  to  pierce  those  dams  when  required,  and  afterward 
reestablish  them. 

If  the  benefits  attending  irrigation  can  only  be  extended  to  a  small  portion  of 
the  land,  the  expenses  of  extending  the  construction  of  such  a  sluice  when  com- 
pared with  that  limited  extent  of  surface  would  be  very  great ;  but  where  a  large 
portion  of  ground  can  be  irrigated,  the  expense  when  divided  among  this  num- 
ber of  acres  will  be  but  trifling  compared  with  the  advantages  accruing. 

The  other  sluices  required  by  the  head  and  smaller  irrigating  mains  or  canals, 
as  well  as  by  the  drains,  may  be  lighter  and  of  more  simple  construction,  because 
they  will  seldom  have  to  contend  against  the  pressure  of  any  great  volume  of 
water.  The  number  of  sluices  which  must  be  formed,  will  depend  upon  circum- 
stances ;  in  general,  however,  every  portion  of  ground  which  has  its  own  par- 
ticular furrow  for  carrying  off  the  water,  ought  to  have  a  separate  sluice.  These 
sluices  are  sometimes  so  contrived  as  to  cause  the  water  to  floAv  back  to  the  sum- 
mit of  the  ditch  or  canal ;  and,  at  others,  so  as  to  prevent  it  rising  above  a  cer- 
tain hight,  and  so  that  the  superabundance  shall  fall  under  the  sluice.  In  the 
latter  case,  a  dam  may  often  be  substituted  for  the  sluice. 

The  whole  of  the  undertaking  should  be  conducted  on  a  liberal  scale  ;  for  it 
must  never  be  forgotten  that  the  expense  of  repairing  things  or  work  that  has 
been  badly  executed,  or  formed  of  common  materials,  far  exceeds  the  cost  of  good 
and  solid  work  and  materials  in  the  first  place  ;  besides,  the  inconveniences  pro- 
duced by  any  of  the  parts  getting  out  of  order  are  often  great  and  serious. 

In  many  cases,  in  irrigation  as  well  as  in  draining,  recourse  is  obliged  to  be 
had  to  subterranean  conduits  or  pipes,  made  either  of  wood  or  masonry,  in  order 
to  carry  the  water  under  a  dam  or  road,  or  under  another  water-course.  These 
subterranean  canals  are  also  frequently  furnished  with  sluices  or  hatches,  in  order 
that  the  water  may  be  retained  or  suffered  to  flow  on  as  seems  best. 

It  is  often  requisite  to  form  bridges  either  of  wood  or  masonry  over  a  water- 
course. When  these  are  composed  of  brick  work,  the  canal  must  be  carried  on 
by  an  aqueduct ;  and  as  constructions  of  this  nature  are  liable  to  accidents,  and  to 
be  overthrown  or  torn  up  when  the  volume  of  v/ater  becomes  increased,  which 
may  lead  to  serious  inconvenience  and  mischief,  we  must  avoid,  as  far  as  possible, 
having  recourse  to  this  plan.  Dams  or  mounds  of  earth  raised  upon  land  for  the 
purpose  of  bearing  a  canal,  which  is  intended  to  transmit  the  water  from  one 
hight  to  another,  often  cost  large  sums  of  money  ;  and  if  not  constructed  with  the 
utmost  care  and  attention,  are  liable  to  accidents.  It  now  and  then  happens  that, 
by  turning  and  altering, the  course  of  the  canal,  it  is  possible  to  do  without  these 
altogether;  and  such  a  course  is  advisable,  even  though  it  may  appear  to  be 
equally,  if  not  more  expensive. 

There  are  three  ways  of  irrigating  land : 

1.  By  inundation. 

2.  By  irrigation. 

3.  By  causing  the  water  to  flow  bach  in  the  ditches. 

In  some  localities  matters  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  admit  of  each  of  these 
modes  of  proceeding  being  alternately  adopted,  according  as  they  seem  best  cal-  X 
culated  to  attain  the  end  in  view. 

Inundation  requires  that  the  land  which  is  to  be  operated  on  should  be  surround- 
ed, either  naturally  or  artificially,  with  a  small  mound  or  bank  capable  of  retain 
ing  the  water  on  the  inundated  surface. 

*  In  the  "Annalen  dea  Ackerbaues,"  vol.  ii.  p.  529,  will  be  found  a  circumBtantial  description  of  the  sluices 
and  other  contrivances  requisite  for  irriganons  on  a  small  scale.  See  a  very  interesting  paper  entitled  "Ab- 
handlung  neber  eine  Wiesen  bewaesserung." 

(879) 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Sometimes  land  is  inundated  by  impeding  the  natural  course  of  the  river  by 
means  of  a  sluice  or  weir  placed  across  it  immediately  below  the  point  to  be  in- 
undated, by  which  the  water  is  forced  to  flow  back  and  extend  itself  over  a  cer- 
tain surface.  But  this  can  only  be  effected  in  particular  localities,  and  then  in  a 
very  imperfect  manner,  because  we  cannot  then  regulate  the  quantity  of  water, 
'  the  duration  of  the  inundation,  or  obtain  that  immediate  and  perfect  drainage 
which  is  of  so  much  importance.  It  often  happens,  also,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
confine  the  water  within  the  prescribed  bounds,  and  when  rapid  streams  swell 
up  the  impediment  to  their  course  presented  by  the  sluice,  will  occasion  serious 
floods,  and  cause  the  water  to  wash  away  the  soil  and  form  embankments. 

Inundations  which  are  effected  by  means  of  an  irrigation  canal,  which  derives 
its  water  from  the  upper  part  of  some  river,  are  infinitely  preferable  ;  and  espe- 
cially as  it  is  only  by  means  of  them  that  we  can  procure  the  advantages  result- 
ing from  the  watering  of  grounds  which,  though  high,  are  below  the  level  of  the  'i 
water  at  the  spot  where  it  passes  from  the  river  into  the  canal.      It  is  likewise  ,| 
in  this  manner  only  that  we  are  enabled  to  drain  the  whole  extent  of  inundated  \ 
ground  at  once.  / 

Inundation  possesses  some  few  advantages  over  irrigation.  During  the  win-  / 
ter  and  spring,  when  there  is  so  much  water,  and  when  it  is  most  charged  with 
fertilizing  juices  and  particles,  we  can  use  it  thus,  and  retain  it  upon  the  land 
until  it  has  deposited  all  the  thick  mud  and  slime  which  it  bears  with  it.  By 
this  means  the  ground  becomes  thoroughly  impregirated  with  water  ;  and  if  a 
spongy  soil  is  inundated,  and  then  drained  through  its  inferior  stratum,  it  will  be 
found  to  have  acquired  consistence  and  solidity. 

On  the  other  hand,  this  mode  of  watering  land  can  only  be  adopted  in  autumn, 
winter  and  spring,  and  must  not  be  attempted  when  vegetation  and  heat  com-  / 
mence.  After  the  first  crop  of  hay  has  been  gathered,  it  may  soiTietimes  be  had 
recourse  to,  but  only  in  a  very  superficial  manner.  When  I  come  to  speak  of  the  ', 
cultivation  of  meadow  land,  I  shall  enter  more  fully  into  the  subject  of  the  ne- 
cessity of  ensuring  the  means  of  carrying  off"  the  water  and  draining  the  soil  as 
quickly  as  possible.  At  present  I  shall  content  myself  with  repeating  that  the 
furrows  and  canal  for  this  purpose  must  be  carefully  and  systematically  formed, 
must  be  proportionate  in  size  to  the  quantity  of  water  which  is  to  pass  through 
them,  must  have  a  sufficient  slope  from  all  parts  of  the  surface  which  they  are 
intended  to  drain,  in  order  that  the  water  may  flow  off  evenly  :  these  points  are 
'  indispensable  if  we  would  attain  all  the  good  effects  which  may  be  anticipated 
'  from  irrigation. 

But  as  this  mode  of  watering  land  cannot  be  had  recourse  to  in  the  summer, 
when  it  is  necessary  to  prevent  those  soils  which  have  profited  by  it  during  the 
winter  from  becoming  too  dry,  watering  by  irrigation  is,  upon  the  whole,  prefer- 
able ;  especially  for  land  which,  from  its  nature  and  situation,  is  liable  to  suffer   . 
from  drouth.     The  water  deposits  those  fertilizing  substances  which  it  carries  <\ 
with  it  almost  as  much  in  irrigation  as  in  inundation,  particularly  if  the  same 
water  is  made  use  of  several  times  over,  and  each  time  on  a  fresh  portion  of  land;  , 
a  circumstance  which  cannot  take  place  in  any  other  kind  of  watering.     But  the  ' 
chief  advantage  of  irrigation  is,  that  by  its  means  we  can,  at  all  times  and  in  all  [ 
seasons,  bestow  exactly  that  degree  of  humidity  upon  the  soil  which  is  required  > 
by  the  plants  it  bears. 

Land  is  generally  irrigated  in  autumn,  winter,  and  spring,  for  the  purpose  of 
enriching  and  fertilizing  the  soil ;  but  the  operation  may  be  continued  after  ve- 
getation has  commenced,  and  even  when  the  plants  have  risen  to  a  considerable 
hight  above  the  ground,  and  may  be  repeated  as  often  as  the  temperature  of  the 
season  and  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  of  the  plants  may  appear  to  require  it. 
Sometimes  meadows  are  irrigated  during  th-e  night  preceding  the  day  on  which 
they  are  to  be  mown,  in  order  to  make  the  grass  fresher.  The  ground  is  ahvays 
watered  in  nights  succeeding  to  very  hot  days,  and  this  irrigation  is  highly  bene- 
ficial to  the  grass,  making  it  green  and  luxuriant ;  while  that  growing  on  land 
not  submitted  to  this  operation  is  withered  and  dried  up.  Were  it  not  for  this 
operation,  the  agriculturist  would  never  be  able  to  contend  against  all  the  uncer- 
tainty and  extremes  of  temperature  and  climate  ;  whereas,  by  its  means,  he  nul- 
lifies'the  prejudicial  effects  of  cold  nights  and  white  frosts,  as  well  as  of  intense 
/   heat  and  drouth.      As  the  water  is  kept  in  constant  motion  during  the  process  of  i 


IRRIGATION.  353 


,'  irrigation,  there  is  no  fear  of  its  producing  putrefaction,  or  occasioning  those  mi- 
asmas which  arise  from  stagnant  water  during  dry  weather. 

The  grass  Avhich  shoots  up  under  the  influence  of  this  kind  of  humidity  is 
adapted  to  all  kinds  of  cattle,  and  that  which  is  eaten  Avhile  green  on  the  pas- 
ture does  not  injure  the  animals  as  grass  does  which  grows  on  naturally  damp, 
moist  land.  It  is  of  course  understood  that  the  cattle  must  not  be  turned  upon 
land  thus  watered  until  it  has  been  thoroughly  drained.  When  there  is  a  suffi- 
ciency of  Vv^ater  for  the  purpose,  and  every  requisite  care  and  attention  is  paid  to 
the  operation,  even  the  most  sterile  sands  may  be  rendered  fertile,  and  it  often 
happens  that  soils  of  this  nature  prove  to  be  the  best  adapted  for  being  converted 
into  meadow  land. 

In  process  of  time,  irrigation  communicates  fertilizing  particles  even  to  those 
soils  which  are  most  sterile  and  wholly  devoid  of  nutritive  matter,  and  this  effect 
is  produced  more  speedily  in  proi)ortion  as  the  water  contains  a  greater  quantity 
of  these  ameliorating  substances.  AVhere  it  is  tolerably  pure,  and  the  ame- 
lioration is  in  consequence  left  solely  to  Nature,  it  will  be  some  time  before  the 
soil  is  materially  improved. 

The  water,  however,  will  cause  the  growth  of  lichens  and  mosses  on  the  soil  ; 
which,  as  they  putrefy,  gradually  produce  some  of  that  humus  so  necessary  to 
the  nutrition  of  other  plants.  Experience  has  testified  that  Avith  the  assistance 
of  water,  deprived  of  all  foreign  bodies,  we  may,  in  the  space  of  ten  years,  cre- 
ate a  thick  turf  even  on  the  most  barren  sand  ;  and,  by  continuing  the  irrigation, 
eventually  transforrn  it  into  fertile  meadow  land,  which  gradually  becomes  more 
and  more  luxuriant  and  rich.^  But  this  formation  of  turf  and  growth  of  grass  will 
be  materially  accelerated  if  manure  of  some  kind  or  other  be  bestowed  on  the 
land.  Mould,  or  peaty  substances,  which  may  be  obtained  from  the  low  country 
in  the  neighborhood,  will,  even  if  slightly  acid,  prove  beneficial  ;  but  there  can- 
not be  a  doubt  that  the  addition  of  a  little  manure  will  render  them  still  more 
efficacious.  Where  cattle  and  sheep  are  fed  on  land  thus  converted  into  pasture, 
after  it  has  been  well  drained,  it  will  attain  that  state  of  perfection  to  which  we 
wish  to  bring  it  much  sooner  than  if  the  grass  were  mown  as  soon  as  it  became 
high  enough  to  be  cut.  But  with  the  assistance  of  a  plentiful  amelioration  of 
manure,  the  most  sterile  and  arid  sands  may,  in  one  year,  be  transformed  into 
luxuriant  pasturage,  provided  that  they  are  well  watered  and  sown  with  the  seed 
of  plants  adapted  to  that  kind  of  soil. 

Land  which  is  to  be  irrigated  should  be  as  even  as  possible,  and  have  a  gentle 
slope  ;  the  furrows  which  receive  the  water  from  the  trenches  ought  to  pass  over 
the  highest  parts,  in  order  that  the  whole  of  the  surface  may  be  watered.  The 
dramage  furrows  should  be  formed  in  the  lowest  part,  and  be  made  to  correspond 
with  the  irrigation  furrows  :  by  means  of  these  the  soil  is  drained,  and  the  water 
conducted  into  some  ditch  or  canal  intended  to  carry  it  ofi';  and,  as  has  before 
been  stated,  in  many  cases  these  drainage  furrows  serve  as  irrigation  furrows  to 
some  other  portion  of  land  lower  down. 

Sometimes  the  trenches  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation  are  more  or  less  parallel 
with  those  intended  to  carry  off  the  Avater,  while  at  others  they  form  a  greater  or 
/ess  angle.  The  furrows  and  trenches  for  irrigation  ought  to  be  parallel  Avhen 
the  portion  of  land  they  are  intended  to  water  is  perfectly  even,  and  has  an  uni- 
form slope  commencing  from  the  irrigation  furrow. 

I  have  already  stated  that  the  irrigating  furrows  ought  never  to  exceed  twent  - 
perches  in  length  ;  otherwise  they  a.re  liable  to  become  choked  Avith  grass.     It  J 
will  be  understood  that  every  one  of  them  must  have  an  opening  into  the  irriga- 
tion trench  :  too  many  of  these  openings  should  not  be  made  on  the  higher  parts 
of  the  land  when  it  can  be  avoided. 

The  surface  over  which  the  water  is  to  be  extended  should  never  be  too  large  ; 
but  it  is  quite  impossible  to  lay  down  any  rules  for  determining  the  size  of  it. 
When  the  declivity  is  very  great,  the  space  to  be  watered  by  a  single  irrigating 
trench  must  be  narrow  ;  otherwise  the  water  will  holloAv  out  channels  for  itself, 
in  which  it  will  run,  instead  of  spreading  over  the  whole  surface.  Therefore,  at 
the  distance  of  about  every  ten  or  twenty  perches,  the  water  should  be  collected 
by  means  of  a  fresh  trench,  intended  to  spread  it  over  some  surface  lower  down, 
and  this  continued  until  it  can  be  used  no  more. 

Wh«n  the  land  has  little  or  no  natural  slope,  or  is  uneven  and  full  of  hollows  and 


THAER  S   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


falls,  thefurrows are  so  contrived  as  to  form  almost  right  angles  with  the  trenches. 
The  want  of  suflicient  slope  will  prevent  the  water  from  running  oft'  as  freely  as 
it  should  do,  and  render  it  liable  to  settle  on  different  parts  of  the  soil  ;  it  is 
therefore  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  art  in  order  to  raise  the  middle  of  each 
division. 

If  the  surface  which  we  Avish  to  free  from  water  has  natural  elevations,  irriga- 
ting furrows  are  formed  on  its  high:s,  and  drainage  furrows  in  its  hollows;  and 
thus  the  latter  are  sometimes  parallel  with  the  irrigating  trenches,  and  at  others 
at  right  angles  with  them  ;  or  occasionally  even  oblique  or  curved  :  in  fact,  it  is 
necessary  to  modify  their  form  and  direction  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sur- 
face, if  we  would  attain  the  end  in  view.  When  we  wish  to  carry  the  water  to 
the  highest  parts  of  the  land,  it  often  becomes  necessary  to  make  openings 
through  the  bank  of  the  irrigation  trench  higher  up  than  would  otherwise  have 
been  expedient,  and  sometimes  even  to  stop  up  the  lower  openings,  in  order  thus 
to  compel  the  waler  to  tlow  back  in  the  trench.  The  more  even  the  surface 
which  is  to  be  irrigated,  the  less  difliculty  vnll  there  be  in  performing  the  opera- 
tion ;  therefore,  in  forming  a  meadow,  every  endeavor  should  be  made  to  level 
the  soil  as  much  as  possible  ;  and  the  best  means  of  attaining  this  end  is  by  ad- 
ditions of  earth  or  mud  brought  to  the  land  and  deposited  there  by  water,  an 
operation  which  we  shall  presently  have  to  describe  more  fully. 

It  frequently  happens  that  when  we  impede  the  course  of  some  stream  or  brook 
on  the  declivitv  of  a  hill,  or  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  we  are  enabled  by  means 
of  a  canal  to  conduct  the  water  quite  round  this  elevation,  and  retain  it  at  an 
equal  hight  in  all  parts.  Where  this  can  be  effected,  all  that  portion  of  land  be- 
low the  canal  is  within  the  power  of  the  water,  and,  therefore,  may  without  dif- 
ficulty be  irrigated.  In  order  to  be  able  to  use  all  the  water  in  the  brook,  and, 
nevertheless,  irrigate  and  drain  every  part  of  the  meadow  m  succession,  this  latter  ? 
is  best  divided  into  six  parts.  < 

It  frequently  occurs,  and  especially  when  the  soil  which  we  are  about  to  irri-  j 
gate  has  but  little  declivity,  that  it  is  impossible  to  do  without  distinct  furrows  ( 
for  carrying  off  the  water,  which  shall  collect  it  from  the  upper  portion  of  the  | 
meadow  in  order  to  convey  it  lower  down,  otherwise  the  whole  of  the  land  can-  • 
not  be  properly  drained. 

When  the  water  has  to  pass  across  some  low  place  in  order  to  reach  an  ele- 
vated one,  the  canal  must  be  raised  throughout  the  whole  extent,  in  order  that 
the  water  may  be  retained  at  the  level  desired.  If  we  then  wish  to  irrigate  the 
low  grounds,  openings  may  be  made  in  the  banks  of  the  canal ;  but  these  latter 
must  be  neither  broader  nor  deeper  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  admit  of  the 
proper  quantity  of  water  passing  through  them  ;  and  as  this  water  in  falling  may 
do  mischief,  or  cause  dilapidations,  the  openings  we  have  just  mentioned  should 
be  furnished  with  small  sluices,  and  the  water  which  passes  through  them  re- 
ceived into  channels  lined  with  gravel. 

There  are  districts  in  Avhich  a  perfect  system  of  cultivation  is  pursued,  and  this 
mode  of  irrigation  applied  to  the  most  consistent  and  solid  soils  ;  there  the  wa- 
ter is  taken  from  the  trenches  and  thrown  over  wheat  land  with  a  shovel,  and 
thus  the  plants  are  refreshed  when  they  appear  to  require  it :  this  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding is  usually  practiced  in  warm,  dry  climates.  The  laborer  stands  in  the 
tcijier  of  the  trench,  and  thence  throws  the  water  to  the  right  and  left  as  it 
flows  toward  him  ;  all  the  ridges  in  the  vicinity  are  thus  equally  and  quickly 
watered.*  It  often  happens  that  this  kind  of  irrigation  may  be  combined  with 
inundation  ;  but  in  order  to  effect  this,  it  must  be  possible,  by  opening  the  irrv 
gating  canal  and  closing  the  tail-drain,  to  raise  the  water  in  the  trenches  to  i 
sufficient  hight. 

In  watering  land,  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  machines  simi- 
lar to  those  employed  in  draining  land.  Among  others,  drawing-wheels  are  em 
ployed,  which  are  put  in  motion  by  the  current  of  the  water  which  is  to  irrigate 
the  land.  The  water  is  then  usually  conveyed  to  the  irrigating  trench  through 
pipes,  and  thence  emitted  through  openings  into  the  furrows  which  are  to 
extend  it  over  the  surface  of  the  soil.  However  useful  the  inventions  of  this 
ture  which  are  occasionally  met  with  may  be,  the  construction  of  and  keeping  them 

'  .See  Simonde's  "  Aaniculture  of  Tuscany,"  published  at  Geneva, 
(930) 


EARTHING  AND  WARPING.  355 

in  repair  is  far  more  expensive  than  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  irri- 
gations effected  in  the  usual  way ;  especially  as  the  former,  whatever  may  be 
their  magnitude,  will  only  sufhce  for  a  limited  extent  of  surface.  I  am  not  cer- 
tain whether  the  ram  and  other  recent  hydraulic  inventions  have  as  yet  been 
made  use  of  in  irrigation.  In  England  they  have  gone  so  far  as  to  employ  steam- 
engines  lor  this  purpose. 

EARTHING  AND  WARPING. 


In  many  countries,  examples  of  this  operation,  which  is  often  of  such  incalcu- 
lable advantage,  will  be  found.  We  are  informed  by  Bernhard,  that  quantities 
of  earth  are  thrown  into  the  torrents  which  descend  from  the  mountains,  in  order 
that  it  may  be  thus  conveyed  to  the  valleys  and  distributed  over  them,  and  thus 
raise  the  soil,  or  render  it  even.  This  operation  is  very  common  in  Tuscany, 
where,  according  to  Simonde,  the  author  of  the  "  Agriculture  of  Tuscany,"  exten- 

'  sive  marshes   are  thus  filled  up,  consolidated,  and  transformed  into  exceedingly 

/  fertile  land. 

I       But  this  operation  has  not  been  so  extensively  practiced  anywhere  as  in  the  < 
sandy  districts  and  furze  lands  of  the  Duchies  of  Luneburgh  and  Breme,  where, 
during  the  period  at  which  these  countries  were  in  their  most  flourishing  condi- 
tion, it  became  in  a  short  time  so  general,  that  every  peasant  who  had  it  in  his 
power  to  put  it  in  practice,  did  so  without  hesitation,  and  without  being  alarmed 
at  the  preliminary  outlay  which  it  required.     This  operation  was  facilitated  in 
these  districts  by  the  formation   of  companies  of  speculative  individuals,  who  >\ 
journeyed  from  place  to  place,  undertaking  it  for  a  remuneration  proportionate  to 
the  extent  of  the  soil  and  the  difficulty  of  the  operations.     These  men  gradually 
became  so  skillful  from  practice  as  to  require  no  leveling  instruments  save  a  rule  i 
and  a  plummet,  yet  they  were  almost  always  successful  in  their  undertakings 
and  could  estimate,  with  the  utmost  precision,  the  laber  which  each  operaiion 
would  occasion,  and  the  difficulties  which  would  present  themselves  during  its 
progress. 

The  only  person  who  has  hitherto  given  a  description  of  this  operation  is  my 
friend,  J.  F.  Meyer,  in  his  work  entitled  "Ueber  die  anlage  der  Bewaesserung- 
swiesen,  besonders  derjenigen  welche  durch  schwimmen  hervorgebracht  werden" 
("  On  the  formation  of  irrigable  meadows,  and  especially  of  such  as  are  formed 
by  additions  of  earth  conveyed  to  them  and  deposited  by  water").  This  paper 
will  be  found  in  the  •'  Agricultural  Annals  of  Lower  Saxony,"  year  2,  part  3  ;  but 
even  this  is  not  sufficiently  plain  and  concise  to  give  a  clear  idea  of  all  the  details 
of  the  operation. 

Earthing  consists  in  transporting  earth  from  some  elevation  which  overhangs 
a  valley,  to  the  low  and  frequently  marshy  soil  of  the  valley ;  and  effecting  this 
by  causing  the  earth  to  be  conveyed  in  some  stream  emanating  from  a  still  more 
elevated  point ;  in  thus  forming  a  uniform  and  gently  inclined  surface  where  the 
hollows  and  elevations  formerly  stood,  which  can  always  be  properly  irrigated. 
The  more  even  the  surface  thus  formed,  and  the  greater  its  slope,  the  more  thor-  \ 
oughly  and  perfectly  can  it  be  watered  ;  and  no  degree  of  manual  labor  could  pro-  * 
duce  the  effect  of  the  operation  of  earthing. 

The  direction  Avhich  should  be  given  to  this  amelioration,  and  the  depth  to 
which  we  should  penetrate  into  the  elevation,  depends,  firstly,  on  the  slope  which 
we  have  ;  secondly,  on  the  quantity  of  earth  which  will  be  required  to  fill  up 
and  equalize  the  low  ground,  and  form,  both  on  the  surface  from  which  the  earth 
has  been  taken  and  that  to  which   it  is  to  be  conveyed,  an  even  and  slightly  in- 
clined plane — such  an  one  as  will  facilitate  irrigation  and  ensure  its  success.     If 
we  dig  too  far,  there  Avill  not  be  room  enough  for  .the  loosened  earth;  and,  in- 
stead of  its  being  deposited,  it  will  choke  the  canal,  causing  the  water  to  ebb  , 
back  and  destroying  the  slope.    When,  however,  this  operation  has  to  be  extend- 
ed to  a  brook  or  river,  as  is  usually  the  case,  we  can  frequently  get  rid  of  the  su- 
perabundant earth  by  causing  it  to  pass  into  this  river,  and  so  be  carried  off  by  \ 
its  current.     But,  even  where  this  can  be  done,  it  will  be  necessary  to  act  with  - 
great  circumspection,  or  considerable  embankments  will  be  washed  up  at  some  J 
little  distance  below,  and  mill-streams  and  ponds  be  choked.     Whenever  there  \ 
is  the  least  danger  of  this,  not  a  particle  of  earth  should  be  suffered  to  enter  the  < 
bed  ol  the  river  ;  and,  in  order  to  prevent  it  from  doing  so.  a  dam  must  be  thrown  } 


356  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

up  at  the  river  side,  or  else  a  fence  composed  of  stakes  «ind  twisted  branches, 
which  retains  the  earth  while  it  suffers  the  water  to  pass  through.  But  it  will 
often  be  found  to  be  better  to  fill  up  the  original  bed  of  the  river,  and  substitute  a 
canal  cut  in  a  right  line.  In  this  case  a  strong  dam  is  thrown  up  in  the  river,  to 
prevent  the  earth  from  extending  beyond  the  spot  for  which  it  was  destined. 

It  is  also  of  the  utmost  importance  to  ascertain,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  quan- 
tity of  earth  which  will  be  required  to  raise  the  low  ground  sufficiently. 

In  order  to  determine  this  point  with  the  utmost  possible  exactitude,  we  must 
measure  and  calculate  at  every  spot  the  bight  of  the  elevation  we  are  about  to 
level,  and  the  hollows  which  we  wish  to  fill  up,  in  order  to  discover  if  they  are 
proportioned  to  each  other.  But  as  the  hight,  depth,  and  width  change  so  fre- 
quently, it  is  scarcely  possible  to  have  recourse  to  actual  measurements  ;  and, 
therefore,  we  are  forced  to  content  ourselves  with  judging  by  the  eye.  Besides, 
it  is  often  impossible  to  calculate  the  exact  quantity  of  earth  which  will  be  de- 
posited, because  its  component  parts  of  clay  and  mud  will  be  held  in  solution  and 
carried  on  with  the  water,  unless  we  can  arrest  the  course  of  this  fluid  for  a  suf- 
ficient time  to  allow  of  these  matters  being  deposited.  In  an  operation  of  this  na- 
ture performed  upon  a  marly,  argillaceous  soil,  the  quantity  of  mud  carried  away 
by  the  water  was  so  great  that  the  banks  of  the  stream  were  covered  with  it  for 
more  than  a  mile  ;  and  yet  the  declivity  was  very  gentle — the  water  flowed  on  in 
an  equal,  uniform  manner — was  sufficiently  extended  to  prevent  its  being  too 
deep,  and  several  dams  were  formed  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  mud.  It  is, 
therefore,  evident  that  earth  of  this  kind  will  not  fill  up  aitd  equalize  low  ground  i 
so  much  as  it  might  be  expected  to  do.  Again,  if  the  earth  brought  down  by  the  ',' 
water  is  deposited  upon  a  spongy,  marshy  soil,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  the 
ground  contracts  so  much  under  the  pressure  of  the  additional  earth  when  dr)^ 
that  hollows  are  made  even  where,  at  first  sight,  the  soil  appeared  to  be  quite 
even.  Lastly,  in  the  mass  of  earth  which  has  to  be  brought  down  by  the  water, 
a  great  many  large  stones  will  frequently  be  found,  which  must,  of  course,  be  got 
rid  of;  and  these  occasion  a  great  diminution  of  the  quantity  of  earth  on  which 
we  had  calculated.  But  whenever,  during  the  progress  of  the  operation,  we  per- 
ceive that  there  is  not  enough,  or  that  there  is  too  much  earth  to  fill  up  a  certain 
spot,  we  have  a  remedy.  In  the  former  case  we  can  give  an  oblique  and  slightly 
retrograde  direction  to  the  strip  of  ground  on  which  we  are  operating,  and  which 
otherwise  ought  to  run  perpendicular  with  the  canal,  and  thus  pass  the  earth  on 
to  those  places  where  it  is  needed  ;  while  in  the  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
must  give  a  contrary  direction  to  the  water  ;  that  is  to  say,  we  must  give  the  strip 
of  earth  an  oblique  direction,  but  one  which  tends  toward  the  points  which  have 
not  been  filled  up.  If,  then,  the  section  or  profile  of  the  elevation  we  are  about 
to  do  away  with,  and  the  hollows  which  we  intend  filling  up,  are  not  equal,  we 
must,  where  there  is  not  earth  enough,  hollow  the  bed  of  the  canal  farther  into 
the  elevation,  in  order  to  obtain  a  larger  supply  of  earth  ;  and,  where  there  is  a 
superabundance  of  earth,  we  must  change  the  direction  of  the  canal  and  keep  it 
outward,  so  that  there  shall  not  be  so  much  earth  for  the  water  to  take  up.  The 
result  of  this  must  inevitably  be  that  the  canal  will  not  be  straight,  but  run  in  a 
serpentine,  sinuous  direction,  which  should  in  general  be  avoided ;  but  in  this 
case  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  manage  otherwise,  and  we  must  sacrifice  the  advan- 
tages resulting  from  the  canal  being  in  a  direct  line,  in  order  to  attain  the  end 
and  intention  of  the  operation,  viz.,  the  formation  of  a  slightly  inclined  and  per- 
fectly even  surface.  When  the  earth  is  of  a  sandy  nature,  and  inclined  to  divide,  / 
a  superabundance  of  it  is  by  no  means  objectionable.  The  operation  is  certainly  * 
attended  with  more  labor,  but  then  the  extent  of  low  ground  raised  and  filled  up 
is  greater  ;  and  consequently  the  whole  expense  is  proportionably  less  than  it 
would  otherwise  have  been.  If  we  have  sufficient  water  to  carry  the  earth,  and 
an  extent  of  surface  large  enough  to  receive  it,  an  elevation  of  upward  of  twenty 
feet  high  may  be  leveled.  It  is  only  when  the  earth  is  tenacious  and  argilla- 
ceous, and  must  be  raised  by  shovelfuls  and  thrown  into  the  water,  that  the  ope- 
ration becomes  difficult  and  laborious.  When  the  elevation  is  of  a  sandy  nature, 
the  earth  will  detach  itself,  sometimes  even  too  easily,  when  the  water  rushes 
against  it :  and  in  this  case  it  will  be  necessary  to  proceed  with  circumspection. 
The  strip  of  ground  on  which  we  intend  to  operate  ought  to  be  wide  ;  and  we 
should,  as  far  as  possible,  avoid  letting  the  principal  current  of  the  water  pass  too 


EARTHING  AND  WARPING.  357 

near  the  elevation  of  earth  which  it  is  our  object  to  remove.  The  earth  should 
first  be  loosened  from  the  top  and  thrown  into  the  current,  care  being  taken  to 
keep  the  slope  of  the  elevation  on  the  side  next  the  stream  quite  even  and  not  too 
rapid.  The  same  must  be  observed  with  respect  to  the  slope  which  is  behind 
the  canal ;  we  must,  in  throwing  down  the  earth,  take  care  that  it  slides  gently 
and  does  not  obstruct  the  ciiannel.  It  often  eventually  becomes  necessary  to  form 
an  extra  mound  or  bank  to  the  canal  on  the  side  next  the  eminence,  in  order  that 
the  water  which  falls  into  it  after  heavy  rains,  or  the  melting  of  large  falls  of 
snow,  may  not  injure  its  sides.  In  this  case,  outlets  or  tunnels  should  be  careful- 
ly and  solidly  formed,  through  which  this  water  may  drain  off"  and  run  into  the 
canal. 

When  the  elevation  which  we  wish  to  remove,  in  order  to  fill  up  the  low  ground 
and  hollows  beneath,  is  filled  with  the  stumps  of  trees,  it  is  not  necessary  to  pull 
up  these  previous  to  undertaking  the  operation  ;  for  their  roots  being  laid  bare  by 
the   action  of  the  Avater,  soon   become   detached  from  the  soil.     Should  it  be 
deemed  requisite,  they  may  be  dug  round  ;  and,  when  this  has  been  done,  if  the 
current  of  v.rater  is  sufficiently  strong,  the  whole  stump,  roots  and  all,  will  be  car- 
ried down   to  the  land  beneath.     The  same  may  be  observed  Avith  respect  to 
stones  of  a  moderate  size,  if  the  soil  over  which  the  water  extends  itself  is  suffi-    I 
ciently  declivitous.     It  is  only  very  large  stones  that  need  be  rolled  down  or  car-  ; 
ried  to  some  place  where  the  ground  has  already  been  leveled.     The  labor  of  the 
operation  is  doubtless  increased  where  these  exist,  but  not  to  such  an  extent  as 
it  Avould  be  if  we  were  obliged  to  dig  into  the  soil  in  order  to  extract  these  stones, 
for  here  they  are  detached  by  the  action  of  the  water,  without  the  intervention    | 
of  any  manual  labor,  and  left  upon  the  surface  of  the  land  ;  and,  in  by  far  the  * 
greater  number  of  cases,  their  value  amply  repays  the  additional  labor  they  oc- 
casion. 

When  we  come  below  the  level  of  the  eminence  which  we  wish  to  remove, 
we  have  nothing  more  to  do  with  the  earth ;  the  water  deposits  it  much  more 
equally,  and  renders  the  surface  of  the  land  much  more  even  and  uniform,  than 
any  manual  labor  possibly  could  have  done.  Occasionally,  only,  when  the  course 
of  the  stream  is  impeded  or  turned  aside  by  some  obstacle,  or  takes  a  wrong  di- 
rection, this  evil  should  be  remedied  by  hurdles,  which  should  always  be  kept  at 
hand  for  the  purpose. 

The  bed  of  the  river  is  either  prevented  from  being  obstructed,  and  left  free 
and  open  to  carry  off  the  water,  by  placing  hurdles  at  its  edge,  or  a  new  canal  is 
formed  for  the  river  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  ground,  and  this  defended  by  a 
straight  hedge  formed  of  stakes  and  twisted  branches,  in  front  of  which  the  earth 
becomes  amassed,  and  thus  forms  the  bank  of  this  canal.  Its  bed  must  subse- 
quently be  deepened  and  cleared. 

But  in  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases,  and  especially  where  the  water  and 
earth  ought  to  be  thrown  on  one  side  only,  it  will  be  better  to  commence  by  exca- 
vating a  new  drainage  canal  a  little  higher  up  than  the  river,  and  the  bottom  of 
which  shall  be  deeper  than  the  bed  of  the  latter. 

Care  must  always  be  taken  that  the  upper  portion  of  the  piece  of  ground  on 
which  we  operate  shall  be  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  lateral  trench  which 
transmits  the  water  to  it  from  the  head-main  ;  because  otherwise,  in  the  irriga- 
tion which  ought  to  supervene,  we  shall  have  some  difficulty  in  extending  the 
Water  in  one  uniform  sheet  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  soil.  I  have  said  the 
upper  portion,  because  at  the  lower  part  the  earth  is  deposited  by  the  water  in 
such  a, manner  as  to  form  an  even,  slightly  inclined  surface,  highly  favorable  to 
irrigation.  Where  this  point  has  been  attended  to,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  give  an 
equal  depth  to. all  the  openings  made  in  the  edge  or  bank  of  the  lateral  trench  or 
secondary  canal.  It  is  by  means  of  these  openings,  that  the  water  is  distributed 
into  the  furrows  parahel  witn  the  canal,  in  order  to  be  equally  diffused  over  the 
whole  extent  of  surface. 

It  is  only  in  places  where  the  lateral  trench  is  of  a  considerable  length,  and 
where  all  the  meadow  has  to  be  watered  by  one  canal,  although  not  at  once,  but 
in  alternate  portions  or  panes,  that  various  water-falls  or  v^'-eirs  are  formed  ;  and 
not  only  the  water  in  the  trench  lowered,  but  also  the  surface  of  the  land  which  , 
is  to  be  irrigated.     These  walls  are  made  of  the  depth  of  about  half  a  foot  at  each    ! 
division,  and  are  regulated  by  small  sluices  formed  in  the  irrigating  canal.     Whc"  ^ 

(933) 


li 


358  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

one  of  these  sluices  is  closed,  the  water  rises  in  that  part  of  the  canal  situated 
above  it,  and  ebbs  back  and  extends  itself  over  the  land  at  the  side.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  the  sluice  is  opened,  the  water  falls  into  the  next  portion  of  the  canal 
below,  or  the  irrigating  furrow  below,  and  does  not  retain  sufficient  hight  to  ad- 
mit of  its  finding  an  issue  through  any  of  the  lateral  openings  formed  in  the  canal 
for  the  purpose  of  v/atering  ihe  land  at  the  side.  In  this  manner  it  extends  itself 
over  the  second  part  of  the  land,  or  that  which  lies  lower  than  the  first,  and  is  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  second  part  of  the  irrigating  trench.  In  like  manner  the  third, 
fourth,  and  all  the  other  divisions  are  watered  by  turns.  It  will  instantly  be  per- 
ceived how  much  trouble  and  labor  is  thus  saved  by  alternately  irrigating  the 
several  parts  of  the  meadow,  since  all  that  need  be  done  is  to  open  or  close  cer- 
tain sluices  ;  whereas,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  it  would  have  been  neces- 
sary to  open  01  stop  up  the  openings,  one  after  another,  in  the  order  in  which  we 
wished  to  water  or  drain  each  separate  portion  of  the  meadow. 

As  valleys  formed  or  traversed  by  brooks  are  almost  always  hemmed  in  by  two 
elevations,  it  is  frequently  difficult  to  determine  whether,  in  endeavoring  to  fill 
up  the  hollow  and  equalize  the  surface,  we  should  take  the  earth  from  both  sides, 
or  from  one  only.  Locality  and  contingent  circumstances  can  alone  decide  this 
question.  All  we  can  do  is  to  lay  down  a  few  general  rules  for  guidance.  The 
following  are  the  principal  considerations  which  must  determine  our  decision : 

(aj.  Is  there  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  enable  us  to  irrigate  both  sides  consecutively,  even 
during  the  driest  seasons  ? 

{b).  Is  the  ■width  of  the  valley  from  either  side  to  the  middle  of  the  lovs^  ground  sufficiently  great 
to  admit  of  the  ameliorated  surface  repaying  the  expenses  of  the  operation  ? 

(c).  Or  is  the  valley  of  such  an  extent  only  as  will  allow  of  our  being  able  to  extend  the  earth- 
ing over  it  from  one  side  ? 

{d).  Is  the  soil  on  both  sides  equally  proper  for  the  performance  of  this  operation  ?  When  the 
operation  has  to  be  undertaken  from  both  sides  of  the  valley,  two  separate  canals  must  be  directed 
over  the  two  elevations ;  or,  if  only  one  canal  is  fonned,  branches  must  be  made,  each  provided 
w^ith  a  sluice,  in  order  that  the  water  may  be  made  to  flow  from  one  side  or  the  other,  as  seeins 
best.  One  drainage  canal  is  usually  all  that  is  required  for  carrying  off  the  ^vater,  and  this  may 
be  made  to  pass  through  the  middle  or  lowest  part  of  the  valley.  When  the  operation  is  to  be 
performed  from  but  one  side  of  the  valley,  tlie  drainage  canal  is  excavated  on  the  opposite  side, 
and  at  as  great  a  distance  as  possible,  and  so  contrived  as  to  ensure  the  edge  of  it  being  lower 
\    than  the  lowest  part  of  the  land  to  be  operated  on. 

When  an  immense  extent  of  ground  is  to  be  operated  on,  it  is  not  always  requi- 
site or  possible  to  earth  every  part  of  it.  Some  portions  will  be  found  which  nat- 
urally present  that  even  and  inclined  surface  which  is  so  indispensable  to  the  suc- 
cess of  irrigation.  These  will  only  require  to  be  connected  with  the  others  by 
means  of  a  dyke  or  tunnel,  and  also  with  the  drainage  canal,  in  order  that  the 
level  may  be  preserved. 

On  the"  other  hand,  we  sometimes  meet  with  eminences  which  cannot  be  re- 
moved, either  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  soil  of  which  they  are  composed 
rendering  it  a  difficult  task,  or  because  we  should  not  know  what  to  do  with  the 
earth  taken  from  them.  Where  this  is  the  case,  the  canal  must  be  dug  across 
the  elevation,  and  excavated  to  a  proper  depth  ;  or  should  the  elevation  be  too 
high  to  admit  of  this,  it  may  be  conducted  circularly  round  it. 

The  labor  and  expense  attending  this  operation  can  neither  be  calculated  ac- 
cording to  any  general  average,  nor  by  inference  ;  so  much  depends  upon  locality. 
The  formation  of  some  meadows  made  in  this  way  has  not  cost  more  than  five 
rix-dollars  per  acre.  This  variation  is  chiefly  occasioned  by  the  following  cir- 
cumstances:— 

id).  If  the  river  from  which  we  get  the  water  be  of  a  considerable  size  and  width,  the  expense 
attending  the  making  of  the  principal  sluice  will  be  very  great.     This  sluice  is,  however,  equally 
as  necessary  for  ten  'as  for  a  hundred  acres  of  ground  ;  and,  therefore,  it  may  easily  be  conceived    - 
that  the  result  will  be  rather  different  when  the  expense  has  to  be  divided  among  the  latter  num- 
ber, to  what  it  would  have  been  when  divided  among  the  ten  acres. 

(0).  The  same  may  be  observed  with  regard  to  the  principal  canal  or  head-main,  which  fre- 
quently has  to  pass  for  some  distance  over  a  considerable  elevation,  whereby  its  formation  is  ren- 
dered very  expensive. 

(c).  The  quantity  of  water  which  we  have  at  our  disposal,  and  the  rapidity  or  gentleness  of  the 
slope,  have  likewise  considerable  influence  on  the  difference  of  expense.  The  more  wator  or 
slope  we  have,  the  less  laborious  and  expensive  will  be  the  operation. 

'n  general,  at  the  commencement  of  this  operation  of  earthing,  there  is  but  little  slope,  and,    i 
consequently,  more  hands  are  required  to  ensure  the  earth  being  properly  mixed  with  the  water 
and  carried  down  by  it ;   but  as  the  operation  progresses,  the  slope  is  increased  between  the  lat- 
eral canal  which  brings  the  water,  and  that  through  which  it  is  drained  off,  the  bed  of  the  brook 
(934) 


EARTHING  AND   WARPING.  359 

always  havinq:  some  fall ;  thus  the  operation  becomes  less  laborious,  and  the  water  icts  more  by 
its  own  propellent  force  ;  we  can  then  penetrate  farther  into  the  elevation,  and  carry  the  earthmg 
over  a  large  extent  of  ground.     Tlie  first  portion  is  always  the  most  expensive. 

(d).  The  nature  of  the  soil  likewise  makes  a  very  considerable  difference  in  the  expense; 
where  the  noil  is  of  a  sandy  nature,  not  one-third  of  the  manual  labor  need  be  employed  which  is 
requisite  on  argillaceous  land. 

{€].  The  expense  will  also  be  less  per  acre  in  proportion  as  the  hollows  which  we  wish  to  fill 
up  are  large  when  compared  with  the  elevations  that  are  to  be  leveled  ;  for  the  labor  is  confined    [ 
almost  entirely  to  these  latter.     The  earthing,  or  in  other  words,  the  wa.«hing  down  and  dis-    , 
tributing  of  the  earth,  will  always  be  best  effected  by  the  action  of  the  water  alone,  or  at  least    , 
with  very  little  assistance.     This  operation  may  be  extended  from  one  side  over  a  width  of  forty 
perches :    provided  that  there  i.s  the  requisite  degree  of  .slope,  the  earth  will  be  transported  and 
•deposited  perfectly  well  to  that  distance.      If,  therefore,  I  wish  to  do  away  with  an  elevation  of 
ten  perches  in  hight,  and  fill  up  a  hollow  or  valley  of  thirty  perches  of  width  in  one  place,  and  a 
hollow  of  only  six  perches  in  width  in  another,  the  extent  on  which  I  operate  in  the  latter  case 
will  cost  me  very  nearly  double  what  it  would  in  the  former. 

(/).  The  skill  and  activity  of  the  workmen  will  likewise  make  some  difference.  When  these 
men  are  accustomed  to  the  mode  of  doing  the  vs'ork,  and  when  the  head  laborer  or  overseer,  who 
directs  and  superintends  the  whole  operation,  and  especially  every  part  connected  with  the  late- 
ral canal,  and  the  upper  portion  of  the  surface  on  which  the  water  acts  ;  when  this  man  is  clever 
and  understands  what  he  is  about,  the  amount  of  labor  will  be  sensibly  diminished  without  any 
part  being  rendered  heavier,  and  many  errors  avoided,  the  repairing  of  which  would  have  been 
productive  of  both  trouble  and  expense. 

This  last  circumstance  is  of  so  much  importance  that  the  companies  of  men 
who  get  their  living  by  undertaking  this  operation  in  the  Duchies  of  Luneburg 
and  Brene,  execute  it  for  much  less  than  it  could  be  performed  by  laborers  hired 
at  the  lowest  wages,  even  if  the  farmer  superintended  and  assisted  himself.  Af- 
ter taking  a  cursory  survey  of  the  ground,  these  men  state  at  once  how  much 
they  shall  charge  for  the  performance  of  the  operation,  and  how  long  they  shall 
be  about  it,  so  skilled  are  they  in  all  relating  to  this  point.  When  the  agree- 
ment is  made  at  so  much  per  acre,  the  sum  asked  is  generally  from  eight  to 
twenty  rix-doUars  ;  that  is,  supposing  the  soil  to  be  light  and  sandy,  or  at  any 
rate  to  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  sand. 

I  have  undertaken  the  formation  of  a  meadow  of  this  kind  here  under  the  most 
unfavorable  cu'cumstances,  and  with  the  assistance  of  laborers  who  were  previ- 
ously wholly  unacquainted  with  the  operation  ;  up  to  the  present  time  it  has  cost 
me  five  hundred  rix-dollars,  and  twenty-eight  acres  are  actually  completed.    Not  j 
one  of  my  laborers  had  ever  seen  or  heard  of  the  operation  before,  and  I  was    i 
practically  unacquainted  with  all  its  details,  and  was,  therefore,  compelled  to    ' 
study,  practice,  and  often  guess  at  the  proper  Avay  of  setting  to  work. 

For  the  first  few  years  an  establishment  of  this  nature  is  always  requiring  some 
repairs :  either  the  canals  give  way  from  their  banks  and  sides  being  washed 
down  by  floods  arising  from  heavy  rains,  large  thaws,  &;c,  ;  or  else  it  becomes 
necessary  to  enlarge,  or  alter,  or  strengthen  the  openings  into  the  irrigation 
trenches  and  furrows,  or  alterations  are  required  for  the  purpose  of  being  able  to 
effect  the  drainage  of  certain  low,  marshy  spots,  or  filling  up  these  places  with 
earth.  But  afterward,  when  every  part  is  properly  arranged  and  has  acquired 
solidity,  the  expense  of  keeping  in  order  a  meadow  watered  in  this  manner  is  less 
than  that  of  any  other,  on  account  of  that  uniformity  of  surface  which  renders  a 
smaller  number  of  furrows  necessary  ;  and  also  on  account  of  the  gentleness  of 
the  slope :  in  fact,  the  expense  may  be  said  on  an  average  never  to  exceed  six 
>  groschen  per  acre.  I  have  not  included  in  this  calculation  the  principal  sluice, 
)   which  must  be  renewed  every  twenty  years. 

',  A  meadow  thus  formed  is  a  great  v/hile  before  it  yields  a  good  crop  of  grass, 
especially  on  the  upper  part,  if  left  to  the  action  of  Nature  alone,  and  no  attempt 
made  to  assist  her  operations. 

Where  this  is  the  case,  it  must  not  be  irrigated  during  the  few  first  years,  or, 
ai  least,  only  \Vith  the  utmost  circumspection,  otherwise  the  water  will  wash  the 
earth  from  the  naked  soil,  and  form  channels  in  it.  All  we  can  expect  from  such 
dead  ground  is  a  few  plants  which  are  indigenous,  as  perhaps  the  gray  hair-  , 
grass  \aira  canescens).  AVhen  vegetation  does  begin  to  appear,  it  is  usually  in 
the  following  order :  mosses,  lichens,  and  a  few  other  similar  plants  are  first  \ 
form^ed  ;  and  the  more  completely  such  a  meadow  is  covered  with  moss  at  first, 
the  better  will  it  be  for  it  ultimately.  When  the  continuous  irrigations  intended 
to  earth  the  land  have  ceased,  and  the  soil  is  alternately  irrigated  and  drained, 
the  moss  perishes,  resolves  into  mould,  and  thus  serves  to  nourish  the  other 

(935) 


3G0 


THAER  S    PRINCITLES    OF    A(311ICULTURE. 


plants  wliicli  tlien  spring  up.  As  llie  grass  iliickens,  the  moss  disappears,  even 
when  no  means  have  l)een  lalcen  for  encouraging  llie  growtli  ofgrasss,  excepting 
that  oi"  bestowing  l're(|uent  irrigations  on  tlie  meadow  ;  at  least,  as  frecjueyt  as 
they  could  be  without  incurring  the  danger  of  washing  away  or  channeling  the 
ground,  in  general,  about  the  Hl"ih  year  after  the  operation,  a  crop  of  hay  may 
be  obtained  which  is  worth  the  trou!)le  of  getting  in  ;  and  ten  years  afterward 
we  may  anticipate  from  a  sandy  soil  a  crop  yielding  twenty  cjuiiaals  jier  acre. 
Eut  the  growth  and  vegetation  oi"  grass  will  i)e  expedited  by  pasturing  sheep  on 
the  land  as  soon  as  it  is  solid  enough  to  bear  the  pressure  oi  their  feel,  and  be- 
gins to  produce  a  little  grass:  this  plan  is  much  better  than  mowing,  especially 
il'  care  is  taken  that  the  land  shall  be  ibonjuiibly  drained  in  the  Krst  place. 

The  fertility  and  productive  properties  ol'tbe  land  will,  however,  be  called  uilo 
action  much  sooner  and  more  elfeciually  if  some  portion  oi'  manure  can  l)e  be- 
stowed upon  it.  Every  kind  of  feriili/ing  matter  which  is  geneially  bestowed 
on  meadow  land  will  prove  benelicial  here  ;  and  folding  sheep  on  the  ground  lor 
a  short  time  will  be  particularly  advantageous  toil.  I  know  a  case  in  Avhich 
the  folding  of  geese  on  a  meadow  thus  formed  was  jiroductive  of  l)enelit.  Eul 
JNature  in  general  furnishes  us  with  matter,  as  mould,  peat,  and  the  layer  of  turf, 
which  is  found  in  the  hollows.  After  the  drainage  canal  has  been  excavated, 
these  matters  should  be  raised  with  a  spade  from  the  places  where  they  are 
thickest  and  most  plentiful,  and  conveyed  to  the  upper  parts  of  the  ameliorated 
surface,  there  to  be  made  into  heaps,  and,  if  practical)le,  mixed  with  animal 
dung,  lime,  or  ashes.  Ai"ier  the  lapse  of  a  short  time,  these  heaps  will  be  ready 
to  be  spread  over  the  newly  earthed  soil.  Where  this  amelioration  has  been  be- 
stowed, a  tolerably  good  crop  may  be  anticipated,  even  as  early  as  the  second 
year.  There  is  not  Uie  least  doubt  but  that  if  we  sow  land  thus  ameliorated 
with  grass  seeds,  we  shall  expedite  the  period  Avhen  it  will  produce  an  abundant 
crop.  But  great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  selection  of  the  kinds  of  seed  and 
their  proportions.  Those  plants  which  shoot  up  most  vigorously  during  ijie  pe- 
riod in  which  the  meadow  ought  not  to  be  watered,  perish  as  soon  as  the  irriga- 
tions are  recommenced.  On  a  soil  composed  of  marly  clay  I  sowed  red  clover, 
tall  oat-grass  {avcna  clalior),  tall  fescue  grass  {fcsLuca  elatior),  meadow  cats- 
tail  grass  [pklcum  •praLeiisc),  round-headed  cock's-foot  grass  [dacLyle  glomerata), 
meadow  soft  or  woolly  grass  [Iwlcus  lanaLus)  ;  and  on  the  lower  parts  of  the 
ground  meadow  fox-tail  grass  [alopecurus  pralensis).  These  plants  shot  up  and 
throve  wonderfully  during  the  iirst  year,  or  that  succeeding  to  their  being  sown ; 
on  the  second  year  they  were  weaker  and  poorer  ;  and  at  the  end  of  four  years 
they  had  totally  disappeared,  and  given  place  to  others.  The  vegetation  of  those 
parts  which  had  been  left  to  INature  noAv  seemed  to  surpass  that  of  the  places 
Avhere  the  above-mentioned  grasses  Avere  soAvn.  The  most  remarkable  fact  is, 
that  of  all  these  plants  that  Avhich  stood  its  ground  best,  notAvithstanding  the 
plentiful  irrigations  bestoAved  on  the  soil,  Avas  the  red  clover,  which  even  forced 
its  Avay  through  the  moss.  I  should  not,  therefore,  advise  any  one  Avhose  vieAvs 
extend  beyond  the  feAV  first  years  to  soav  their  land  with  such  vigorous  plants, 
but  rather  to  abandon  the  production  of  herbage  on  it  to  the  action  of  Nature, 
unless  they  can  select  such  grasses  as  experience  teaches  us  are  likely  to  produce 
the  most  plentiful  and  luxiTriant  crop  on  land  Avhich  has  thus  been  formed  into 
a  level  surface  by  the  operation  of  earthing.  It  may  seem  inconceivable,  but 
daily  experience  convinces  us  of  the  fact,  that  those  very  plants  spring  up  natu- 
rally on  irrigated  meadoAvs  that  have  not  been  sown  at  all  Avhich  are  best  adapt- 
ed to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  most  likely  to  be  benefited  by  irrigation.  Many 
of  those  grasses  Avhich  Avould  yield  but  a  scanty  crop  of  hay,  if  groAvn  on  land 
that  Avas  never  Avatered,  Avill,  Avhen  springing  up  on  irrigated  nieadoAvs,  yield  a 
luxuriant  crop.  Where  neither  manure  or  mould  is  spread  over  ihc  surface  of 
the  soil,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  it  is  along  time  before  a  perfect  layer  of  grass 
is  formed  ;  but  if  the  soil  is  ameliorated,  it  shoots  up  much  sooner,  and  so  luxu- 
riantly as  to  render  it  inconceivable  Avhence  this  quantity  of  seed  and  germs  can 
have  come. 

It  is,  hoAvever,  essential  to  give  consistency  to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  in  order 
that  it  may  ihroAV  oO"  the  Avater,  and  I  have' found  nothiiig  ansAver  this  purpose 
so  Avell  as'spumj.  When  the  meadoAV  has  been  earthed  in  the  beginning  of  the 
summer,  spurry  should    be   sown   at    the  latter  end  of  the  season  during  Avet 

(UKfi) 


EARTHING  AND  WARPING.  361 

weather,  and  grass  seeds  may  be  intermingled  with  it.  As  soon  as  this  plant 
rises  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  it  gives  a  degree  of  consistence  to  the  soil 
which  renders  it  capable  of  bearing  irrigation.  It  never  comes  to  maturitj',  be- 
cause the  frosts  kill  it,  and  then  it  rots  in  the  ground.  But  when  the  ground  is 
hard  and  solid,  cattle  may  be  pastured  on  the  spurry,  which  not  only  increases 
the  consistence  of  the  soil,  but  also  manures  it,  and  causes  it  on  the  following 
year  to  bear  a  luxuriant  crop  of  herbage,  especially  if  a  little  manure  is  also  spread 
over  it. 

Persons  who  have  never  experimented  on  meadows  of  this  kind,  can  scarcely 
form  an  idea  of  the  wonderful  fertility  which  may  be  produced  even  on  the  poor- 
est sand.  But  we  have  such  undoubted  proofs  of  the  fact,  as  place  it  beyond  all 
shadow  of  uncertainty.  The  more  sandy  or  giav^lly  a  soil  ii=,  the  better  is  it 
adapted  for  being  formed  into  these  kinds  of  meadows,  provided  that  it  is  subse- 
quently practicable  to  irrigate  them  thoroughly.  They  may  be  constantly  and 
frequently  watered  without  any  danger  of  their  becoming  marshy  ;  and  the  wa- 
ter deposits  its  most  fertilizing  particles  on  the  surface,  while  the  residue  sinks 
down  into  the  ground.  As  soon  as  we  stop  the  irrigation,  the  land  dries  ;  and 
when  we  recommence  watering  it,  it  speedily  becomes  impregnated.  All  that  is 
requisite  to  ensure  the  vegetation  of  grass  is  moisture,  warmth,  and  mould ;  the 
nature  of  the  soil  is  a  matter  of  secondary  importance,  provided  that  it  is  plenti- 
fully supplied  with  water.  The  injurious  dryness  of  sand  is  counteracted  where 
the  soil  can  be  irrigated  whenever  it  appears  necessary,  and  the  layer  formed  on 
it  by  the  turf,  and  the  tissue  woven  by  the  roots  of  the  plants  serve  to  give  it 
consistence. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  land  which  has  undergone  the  operation  of  earth-  i 
ing,  especially  when  once  a  layer  of  rich  turf  and  mould  is  formed  on  it,  can  be 
plowed  and  made  to  bear  any  of  those  crops  which  during  dry  weather  are  bene- 
fited by  irrigation  ;  whereas,  if  the  soil  was  of  a  barren,  sandy  nature,  no  durable 
profit  could  be  derived  from  such  a  course  of  proceeding,  because  the  plowing 
would  at  once  destroy  the  turf  or  sward,  and  render  the  land  loose  and  friable. 
I  have  known  persons  who,  seeing  that  irrigation  had  produced  a  great  deal  of 
moss  on  soils  which  had  received  no  manure,  iiave  had  recourse  to  plowing  in 
order  to  destroy  that  moss,  and  deemed  such  a  proceeding  absolutely  necessary. 
But  here  the  moss  is  one  of  Nature's  admirable  provisions  ;  it  disappears  of  its 
own  accord  as  soon  as  the  grass  finds  sufficient  nourishment  for  its  support  in  the 
mould  which  has  been  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  as  soon  as  the  irri- 
gations become  more  moderate.  Besides,  the  best  and  quickest  way  of  destroy- 
ing it  would  certainly  be  to  manure  the  soil,  as  this  would  promote  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  grass  at  the  same  time. 

Earthing  somewhat  resembles  an  operation  occasionally  practiced  in  England, 
and  which  is  termed  warping.  This,  however,  can  only  be  performed  where 
there  is  a  regular  stream  or  water-course  which  washes  up  mud  and  falls  into 
some  larger  river  or  stream,  and  where,  at  the  side  of  the  former,  or  else  at  a 
greater  or  less  distance  from  it,  there  is  a  piece  of  land  below  its  level,  which 
the  water  may  be  made  to  fiood.  By  means  of  a  sluice  opened  for  the  purpose, 
this  muddy  water  is  made  to  overflow  the  land  which  we  intend  to  warp,  and  is 
retained  on  it  until  all  the  mud  is  deposited.  By  means  of  another  sluice  which 
is  afierward  opened,  the  clear  water  is  carried  off.  When  the  ground  has  be- 
come tolerably  dry,  the  muddy  water  is  again  made  to  overflow  it,  and  again  let 
off"  after  leaving  its  deposit,  and  this  mode  of  proceeding  is  continued  throughout 
one  or  two  whole  summers.  I  knew  a  case  in  which  a  layer  of  muddy  earth 
eighteen  inches  thick  was  thus  deposited  over  a  barren,  sandy  soil  in  the  course 
of  a  single  supmer,  by  which  means  all  the  hollows  were  filled  up,  the  asperi- 
ties softened  down,  and  the  soil  rendered  peculiarly  fertile.  JSfot  very  long  ago,  ' 
212  English  acres  of  marshy  land  in  Lincolnshire  were  covered  with  a  layer  of  : 
mud  varying  i.-i  depth  from  eighteen  to  forty-two  inches,  according  to  the  eleva-  < 
tion  or  hollows  on  the  surface  of  the  soil.  This  may  be  compared  with  those 
operations  of  a  similar  nature  performed  in  Tuscany,  of  which  we  have  already 
spoken.* 

*  In  Boiionais  aiid  Romagna  this  operation  is  frequently  had  recourse  to.  I  have  myself  performed  it 
very  successfully  in  the  latter  place,  and  will  endeavor  to  give  such  an  account  of  it  as  wilfgive  a  clear 
idea  of  its  detiiils.  Those  rivers  which  tiow  from  the  western  part  of  the  mountains  and  hills  of  the  Avve- 
(937)  ^"^ 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MEADOW  LAND. 

JBy  the  term  "meadows"  I  mean  to  signify  portions  of  land  covered  with  a  ' 
sward  composed  of  various  plants  or  kinds  of  grasses,  and  which  are  generally  \ 
mown  for  the  purpose  of  bearing  hay  crops.  There  are  two  classes  of  meadows:  ' 
natural  and  artificial.  Some  persons  term  plowed  fields  which  are  sown  with 
clover,  lucerne,  and  sainfoin,  for  one  or  two  years,  artificial  meadows;  but  I  do 
not  consider  that  they  can  be  classed  under  the  head  of  meadows  at  all.  Neither 
do  I  rank  under  this'head  fields  which  are  sown  with  diflferent  grasses,  or  with 
various  kinds  of  plants,  but  which  are  not  intended  to  be  left  in  this  state,  and 
which  are  not  covered  Avith  a  thick  layer  or  sward  of  these  plants — a  circumstance 
which  rarely  occurs  in  dry  places  where  grass  Avhich  is  to  be  mown  has  been 
sown,  or  Avhere  the  crop  actually  has  been  cut  ;  because  such  herbage  perishes 
after  the  lapse  of  a  few  years,  and  gives  place  to  plants  of  an  inferior  kind.  The 
kind  of  ground  most  proper  for  meadow  land  is  that  which  is  naturally  too  damp 
to  admit  of  its  being  plowed.  A  portion  of  land  cannot  be  rendered  fit  for  an  ar- 
tificial meadow,  uafil,  by  some  operation  of  nature  or  art,  that  degree  of  moislure 
which  is  requisite  to  ensure  the  growth  of  the  grasses  has  been  communicated  to 
it,  and  clv.i  be  nuuntuined.  We  have  already  spoken  of  artificial  meadows  when 
treatiufi  of  irrigation. 

jNatural  meadows  are  always  much  more  humid  than  arable  land,  or  are  situa- 
ted in  damper  situations.  They  are  divided  into  the  following  five  principal  va- 
rieties : 

1.  Meadows  situated  on  tlie  banks  of  large  rivers,  which  have  either  been  forme  i  by  earthing, 
','    or,  in  a  great  measure,  by  the  decomposition  of  aquatic  plants  thrown  up   by  the  water.     Some- 
times they  occupy  large  valleys,  and  are  under  the  influence  of  water-courses,  \\hich  from  time  to 
time  inuu'date  and  cover  them  with  a  fertilizing  mud,  or  which  saturate  and  pertbrate  the  sub- 
stratum, and  thus  comnumicate  to  them  the  requisite  degree  of  fertility.  _ 

2.  Those  which  are  on  the  banks  of  smaller  rivers  or  brooks  from  which  they  derive  their  hu- 
midity, and  by  which  they  are  occasionally  watered,  either  through  the  ovei-fiowing  of  the  stream, 
or  by  means  of  artificial  establishments  which  impede  the  current  of  the  water  and  diffuse  it  over 
the  land  in  the  form  of  inundation  or  irrigation. 

These  first  two  varieties  are  known  by  the  name  of  low  meadows,  because  they 
are  only  found  in  valleys  or  low  grounds  near  to  the  beds  of  rivers. 

3.  Meadows  which  are  situated  either  on  eminences,  or  on  the  sloping  sides  or  in  the  hollows 
of  valleys,  and  v>.-hicl)  receive  depositions  of  water  vsfhich  drains  away  from  the  higher  ground  or 
arable  land  above  their  level,  which  water  often  bears  with  it  various  sorts  of  animal  matter  and 
manure.  Exceedingly  fertile  meadows  are  often  found  at  the  foot  of  high  mountains;  these  re- 
ceive a  portion  of  that  abundance  of  water  which  the  mountains  derive  from  the  atmosphere. 

4.  Those  meadows,  the  soil  of  which  contains  springs,  and  in  which  the  water  filtrates  through 
the  soil,  shows  itself  upon  the  surface,  and  fomis  damp  places,  which  render  the  land  unfit  for  be- 

'   ing  plowed. 

5.  Marshy  meadows,  which  are  formed  in  a  similar  manner,  and  are  raised  by  the  decomposi- 

nines  are  nil  of  them  chari;ed  with  more  or  less  mud.  A  canal  which  derived  its  water  from  Paiuerno.  and 
was  sufficiently  above  rlie  town  of  Imola,  had  been  tbrmed  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  supply  of  water 
to  a  row  of  mills.  This  canal  crossed  ray  farm,  and  furnished  the  land  with  water  when  icquired  for  ini- 
gation,  for  the  cultivation  of  rice,  &c. 

After  lieavy  rains,  the  water  which  washed  the  vineyards  and  partially  manured  sides  of  the  hills,  pre- 
cipitated itself  into  this  canal,  carrying  with  it  such  rich  mud,  that  frequently  twelve  ounces  of  water  taken 
from  opposite  my  farm  would  yield  an  ounce  of  mud.  The  canal  belonging  to  (he  mills  was  at  this  point 
raised  ten  or  twelve  feet  above  the  level  of  the  soil  Flood-gates  which  could  be  opened  at  will  supplied 
those  lands  which  had  a  right  to  it  with  the  requisite  quantity  of  water. 

When  I  wished  to  deposit  this  mud  over  a  certain  extent  of  ground,  I  constructed  an  irrigation  canai 
above  the  level  of  the  soil  fur  the  purpose  of  receiving  water  from  the  principal  canal  and  carrying  it  on  to 
those  portions  of  land  which  I  intended  to  wai-p.     Along  the  side  of  this  secondary  canal  I  marked  out  small 

J  squares  of  land  each  about  an  acre  in  extent,  which  communicated  with  this  canal  by  means  of  small 
sluices  or  openings,  and  with  the  drainage  canal  by  other  sluices  or  outlets.  When  I  wished  to  commence 
the  operation,  I  let  the  water  on  to  one  of  these  squares,  and  sulfered  it  to  rise  to  the  hight  of  from  a  foot  to 
a  foot  and  a  half.  If  I  wished  the  deposit  to  be  light  and  friable,  I  did  not  suffer  the  wat(.'r  to  remain  tlicre 
I  loniT,  but  drained  it  off  quickly  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  I  wished  to  obtain  a  more  argillaceous  di'posit, 
I  retained  the  water  tliere  until  it  had  parted  with  all  its  clayey  particles,  which,  being  light,  would  oiher- 
wise  have  been  carried  olf  into  the  drainage  canal.  As  fast  as  one  square  was  drained,  I  let  the  water  on 
to  another,  and  so  on,  until  at'  had  been  submitted  to  the  operation.  When  the  squares  are  of  a  modeiate 
size,  the  rriud  will  be  uniformly  deposited  and  the  surface  rendered  vei-y  even ;  but  when  they  are  veiy 
lar^e,  the  deposit  will  be  amassed  near  the  openings  through  which  the  water  flows  on  to  the  soil,  while 
the°more  distant  parts  will  be  left  almost  bare'.  ]n  order  that  the  water  might  lose  as  little  mud  during  its 
course  as  could  be,  the  secondary  canal  was  made  perfectly  straight  and  even,  and  capable  of  containing  a 
Bufficient  volume  of  water  to  render  the  current  tolerably  "-apid. 

In  this  way  I  was  often  able,  in  the  course  of  one  year,  to  raise  the  layer  of  vegetable  soil  on  a  considera- 
ble extent  of  ground,  from  seven  to  eight  inches  or  more  ;  and  the  part  which  was  thus  added,  being  free    ' , 
from  stones  or  cravel.  formed  a  soil  which,  when  drained  and  slightly  manured,  was  favorable  to  almost 
eveiy  kind  of  pi-oduce,  and  which  could  be  tilled  with  little  labor.    There  are  few  agiicultural  operations 
which  arc  productive  of  such  real  and  permanent  benefit.  [Frmch  T 

(93P) 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MEADOW  LAND.  363 

tion  and  putrefaction  of  aquatic  plants  which  the  soil  had  produced.     These  meadows  are  always 
of  a  spongy  natui-e 

The  soil  of  meadow  land  varies  according  to  its  position  and  situation.  That 
of  meadows  of  the  first  kind  is  either  argillaceous  and  impregnated  with  a  great 
deal  of  humus,  or  is  chiefly  composed  of  humus.  When  this  latter  species  of  soil 
does  not  contain  too  great  a  degree  of  humidity,  and  is  not  of  a  marshy  nature, 
the  humus  contained  in  it  is  usually  mild  and  soluble ;  but  where  the  soil  is  hu- 
mid and  marshy,  the  meadows  assimilate  more  to  those  of  the  fifth  variety  in 
the  nature  of  their  products,  as  well  as  in  the  nature  of  the  soil. 

Meadows  of  the  second  class  are  usually  composed  of  soil  more  inclining  to- 
ward sandy,  and  are  less  rich  in  humus,  at  least  to  a  certain  depth.  But  when 
this  kind  of  land  is  well  furnished  with  plants,  covered  with  grass,  and  properly 
watered,  the  greater  or  less  degree  of  richness  iix  the  earth  below  the  roots  of  the 
plants  is  a  matter  of  comparatively  slight  importance  ;  and,  where  a  proper  de- 
gree of  moisture  can  be  maintained,  a  permeable  sandy  soil  is  often  better  than  a 
compact  argillaceous  one. 

Meadows  of  the  third  class  are  usually  composed  of  a  soil  analogous  to  that  of 
which  the  hills  by  which  they  are  surrounded  are  composed,  and  their  fertility 
is  generally  proportionate  to  that  of  those  hills.  When  water  charged  with  fer- 
tilizing particles  falls  from  the  hills  to  these  ftieadows,  they  frequently  yield  a 
wonderful  amount  of  produce,  especially  if  they  are  well  watered  and  iheir  soil 
is  sufficiently  permeable  to  admit  of  the  moisture  draining  away.  That  celebrated 
meadow  in  Wiltshire,  which  I  had  occasion  to  speak  of  in  the  third  volume  of 
my  "  English  Agriculture,"  and  the  fertility  of  which  would  appear  scarcely  cred- 
ible if  it  were  not  attested  by  eye-witnesses  for  this  century  past,  is  one  of  this 
class.  But  when  this  variety  of  meadows  is  found  situated  between  portions  of 
poor  arable  land,  from  which  it  only  obtains  scanty  emanations  during  wet 
weather,  or  else  receives  such  a  superabundance  of  water  as  renders  them 
marshy,  causes  it  to  produce  aquatic  plants,  and  prevents  it  from  being  tilled  ; 
while  in  dry  weather,  on  the  other  hand,  they  suffer  drouth,  they  are  of  little 
value,  yield  but  a  scanty  produce,  besides  being  in  every  way  inconvenient  from 
being  intermixed  with  arable  land.  These  considerations  have  frequently  deter- 
mined enterprising  farmers  on  turning  off  or  finding  a  drainage  for  the  water — 
on  earthing  the  land  and  drying  it  completely,  and  transforming  it  into  arable 
land.  Where  the  position  of  the  meadows  renders  it  worth  while,  and  Avhere 
their  humidity  is  uniform,  moderate,  and  durable,  it  will  be  highly  beneficial  to 
manure  them,  when  their  subsequent  produce  will  thus  often  be  doubled. 

When,  in  meadows  of  the  fourth  variety,  or  those  which  are  generally  found 
situated  at  the  foot  of  mountains  and  hills,  the  water  flows  over  the  surface  of 
the  soil  without  stagnating  on  any  part,  they  are  often  exceedingly  fertile  and 
covered  with  thick  grass,  the  fibres  of  which  are  fine,  and  the  flavor  swee) ;  this 
is  especially  the  case  when  the  water  is  slightly  calcareous  or  gypseous.  But  if, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  water,  instead  of  extending  over  the  whole  surface,  sinks 
into  the  substratum  and  there  remains,  rank  grass  springs  up,  containing  but  lit- 
tle nourishment,  and  composed  chiefly  of  reeds,  rushes,  and  other  marshy  or  aqua- 
tic plants.  Such  land  may,  however,  be  very  frequently  transformed  into  Aery 
fertile  irrigated  meadow  land,  by  being  perfectly  drained  and  freed  from  all  its 
stagnant  moisture. 

Meadows  of  the  fifth  class  are  not  always  absolutely  unprofitable.     When,  by 
the  accumulation  of  successive  layers  of  dead  plants,  they  are  raised  sufficiently 
to  give  to  the  water  such  a  degree  of  drainage  as  to  prevent  the  land  from  be-    ■ 
coming  too  much  impregnated  with  it,  the  humus  will  become  mild,  and  soluble 
and  fertilizing;  and  an  abundance  of  rich  grass  will  be  produced,  even  though    ! 
the  substratum  of  the  soil  be  so  spongy  and  full  of  water  that  recourse  is  obliged  '■ 
to  be  had  to  extraordinary  modes  of  carrying  the  hay — as,  for  example,  wagons  / 
having  very  broad  wheels.     But  when  the  meadows  are  not  thus  favorably  situ-  •[ 
ated,  and  are  too  damp,  they  produce  anything  but  marshy  plants,  wholly  devoid  [■ 
of  nutriment,  brackish,  and  often  unwholesome — a  kind  of  herbage  which  nothing 
but  scarcity  of  fodder,  or  absolute  necessity,  induces  the  farmers  to  make  use  of. 

Meadows  are  characterized  by  the  denomination  of  acid  or  sour  meadows. — 
The  water  which  collects  in  the  ditches  is  often  covered  with  a  scum  of  various 
shades,  and  it  deposits  a  red-brown  ochreous  matter,  which  usually  contains  phos-    i 

,939;  « 


364  THAERS   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

phate  of  iron.  If  we  dig  deeply,  we  come  to  portions  of  marsli-iron  in  a  more  or 
less  hardened  and  stany  state ;  and,  in  all  probability,  the  ochreous  matter 
brought  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  by  water  arises  from  these.  Marshy  meadows 
on  Avhich  this  kind  of  standing  water  is  found  yield  very  bad  fodder,  especially  if 
we  do  not  endeavor,  by  diggmg  drains,  to  carry  off  this  acid  and  ferruginous  mat- 
ter from  the  surface  of  the  soil.  When  not  rendered  damp  by  this  injurious 
moisture,  they  are  exceedingly  fertile,  and  some  of  the  very  best  we  have. 

Such  meadow  land  may  be  exceedingly  ameliorated  by  being  drained,  especially 
if  we  are  able  to  turn  the  water  again  upon  the  soil  in  the  form  of  an  irrigation, 
if  we  think  fit ;  they  are  likewise  benefited  by  an  addition  of  earth  procured  from 
elsewhere  and  spread  over  them. 

In  meadows  of  the  first  and  second  class,  we  must  always  pay  particular  atten- 
tion to  their  solidity  and  safety  from  inundation  ;  for,  however  "favorable  to  them 
an  influx  of  water  may  be  during  winter,  or  in  the  spring  before  the  commence- 
menl  of  vegetation,  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  injurious  if  it  occurs  when  the 
grass  is  in  full  luxuriance,  or  about  haymaking  time  ;  as  also  is  it  when,  in  the 
spring,  the  water  remains  so  long  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  as  to  destroy  and  pu- 
trefy the  herbage.  But  this  point  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  nature 
of  the  rivers  which  the  meadows  adjoin.  We  have  already  pointed  out  the  means 
of  remedying  this  evil  while  speaking  of  draining. 

The  value  of  meadow  land  depends  partly  on  the  quantity  and  partly  on  the 
quality  of  its  produce.  In  general,  if  the  hunms  contained  in  the  soil  of  which 
they  are  composed  is  mild,  this  quantity  and  quality  will  be  found  to  be  propor- 
teonate.  When  a  meadow  yields  an  abundance  of  hay,  it  is  usually  found  to  be 
composed  of  good  plants  ;  and  in  proportion  as  its  fertility  is  increased,  either 
naturally  or  by  ameliorations  of  manure,  will  the  good  grass  choke  and  destroy 
the  bad.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  in  the  case  of  marshy  meadows  full 
of  acid  humus,  which  frequently  yield  an  immense  crop  of  luxuriant  but  rank, 
unwholesome  grass.  It  too  often  happens  that,  in  very  good  meadow  land,  some  \ 
kinds  of  unwholesome  grasses  become  engendered,  which  deteriorate  the  good-  ^ 
ness  and  value  of  the  hay. 

The  nature  of  the  soil  of  meadow  land  is  not  a  point  of  so  much  importance  as    , 
the  nature  of  the  soil  of  arable  land  would  be.     If  the  meadows  are  only  properly  / 
moist,  and  contain  a  sufBcient  proportion  of  mild,  soluble  humus,  it  is  in  many 
respects  a  matter  of  indifference  whether  the  soil  is  of  an  argillaceous  or  clayey 
nature.     I  mention  the  above  conditions  because,  when  they  are  wanting,  an  ar- 
gillaceous soil  will  always  be  preferable  ;  Avhereas,  when  there  is  too  much  hu- 
midity, a  sandy  soil  will  always  be  most  advantageous.     Where  the  soil  pos- 
sesses a  sufficient  and  suitable  degree  of  humidity,  it  is  not  necessary  that  it 
should  be  impregnated  with  humus  to  any  great  depth,  because  grass  derives  the 
chief  part  of  its  nutriment  from  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  its  roots  rarely 
penetrate  farther  than  to  a  depth  of  four  inches.     In  dry  meadows,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  deep,  fertile  soil  undoubtedly  contributes  most  to  the  abundance  and  lux-    ! 
uriance  of  the  herbage,  by  retaining  moisture  for  a  longer  period. 

The  best  meadow  grasses — those  the  reproduction  of  which  is  most  favored  by    | 
the  fertile  meadow  lands,  and  which,  by  the  rapidity  and  luxuriance  of  their    i 
growth,  afford  the  most  ample  testimony  of  the  goodness  of  the  soil — are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Meadow  fox-tail  grass  (alopeacrus  pratensisj,  sraootli-stalked  meadow  grass  (poa  pretensis), 
rough-stalked  meadow  grass  (poa  trivialisj.  An  abundance  of  these  three  varieties  is  a  certain 
sign  of  great  fertility. 

''Annual  meadow  grass  (poa  annua  J,  reed  meadow  grass  (poa  aquatica).  This  is  the  best  of 
ail  grasses  for  damp  places,  notwithstanding  its  resemblance  to  reeds. 

Tall   fescue   g«-ass  (festuca  elatinr),  floating  fescue  grass   (Jestuca  jiuitans),   rough-headed 


trefoil,  and  especially  the  common  bird's-foot  trefoil  (lotus  cornicnlatusj,  meadow  vetchliug  (la- 
thy ntf-  pratensisj,  tufted  vetch  (vicia  cracca),  black  medick  (medicado  hipuUna),  hop  trefoil 
(trifolinm  procumhens),  yan-ow  (achilea  milk-folium),  common  carraway  (carum  carvij. 

The  last-named  plant  is,  however,  generally  destroyed  in  meadow  land,  be- 
cause pigs  are  so  fond  of  it  that  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  them  from  breaking 
into  and  injuring  the  meadows  where  it  grows. 

(9-40) 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MEADOW  LAND. 


365 


I- 


The  following  do  not  yield  so  large  an  amount  of  produce,  but  must,  neverthe- 
less, be  classed  among  the  good  meadow  grasses  : 

Perennial  ray  grass  flolium  perennej,  common  quaking  grass  (hriza  media),  meadow,  or  i 
woolly  grass  (holcus  lanatus),  sweet-scented  spring  grass  fanthoscantum  odoratumj. 

The  last  two  are  not,  in  my  opinion,  so  good  as  they  are  generally  considered 
to  be. 

Sheep's  fescue  grass  ffestuca  ovina J,  hard  fescue  grass  fj'estuca  dttriuscula),  do"wny  oat  grass 
(rriena  pubescens),  brown  bent  grass  (agrostis  cauina ),  knee-jointed  fox -tail  grass  falopecu 
geniculatusj,  meado-w  oat  grass  (avenapratenau),  bulbous  stalked  cat's-tail  grass  (pJileum  ni 
sum),  blue  flowering  hair-grass  faira  cmruleaj,  soft  brome  grass  (hromin  mollis:). 

These  only  grow  on  marshy  meadows,  of  which  they  often  form  the  chief  pro- 
duce.    Various  kinds  of  clover  must  also  be  ranked  here. 

Common  cow  parsley  fchmrophylnm  sylvestre),  cowslip  (primula  veris),  scabious  fscahioRa), 
barnet  and  small  burnet  saxifrage  fpotenum  sangnisoi-ba'ojflcinalis  et  pimpinella  saxifraga), 
gentian  (gentiana  centaureum),  common  brunella  (hrnnella  vulgaris),  common  marjoram  '(ori- 
ganum vulgare),  wild  thyme  (thymus  serpillum),  rib  gi-ass,  common  and  large  (plantago  lance- 
olata  media  et  major). 

The  plants  generally  indigenous  to  bad  meadow  land,  or  such  as  is  of  a  doubt- 
ful quality,  are  the  following : 

The  various  kinds  of  horse-tail  /'equisetum)  which  do  not  form  good  pasturage  for  cattle,  but 
are  well  adapted  to  horses  and  sheep  when  the  ground  on  which  they  grow  is  dry.  The  best  of 
all  these  is  the  river-horsetail  (eqninetum  fluviatile),  which  is  very  palatable  to  horses,  and  forms 
excellent  food  for  ihem  both  in  a  green  and  a  dry  state. 

The  various  kinds  of  crow-foot.  All  these  grasses  are  in  their  nature  acid  ;  but  some  of  them 
lose  this  property  when  dripd  The  creeping  crow-foot  is  the  sweetest,  and  this  grows  sponta- 
neously in  meadows. 

Yellow  cock's-comb  (rhinantm;  crista-galli).  When  this  plant  is  young  and  in  flower,  it 
forms  a  very  good  sweet  fodder ;  but  at  the  time  when  the  hay  is  usually  mowed  it  has  lost  all  its 
Bucculency,  and  become  so  dry  as  to  resemble  straw  when  mixed  with  the  hay.  This  plant  sheds 
its  seed  very  early  in  the  year,  which  causes  it  to  multiply  with  great  rapidity.  The  best  way  of 
destroying  it  is  to  cause  it  to  be  eaten  off  the  land  by  the  cattle  in  the  spring. 

Common  marsh  marigold  (caltha  valustris)  is  also  agreeable  to  cattle"  when  given  to  them 
while  young,  and  it  decks  the  meadows  with  its  brilliant  yellow  color ;  but  when  it  grows  older 
it  becomes  disagreeable  to  animals. 

The  various  kinds  of  docks  (rumices),  and  especially  of  sorrel,  frequently  occupy  the  gi-eater 
part  of  land  in  high,  dry  meadows.  When  mown  while  young,  they  yield  a  tolerably  abundant 
crop  of  fodder.  Nevertheless,  they  rank  among  some  of  the  worst  meadow  grasses.  The 
different  varieties  of  colt's-foot  {tussilago),  which  with  their  large  leaves  choke  up  plants, 
yield  but  a  scanty  nourishment  to  cattle. 

Spotted  persicaria  (polygonum  pe.rsicaria)  is  eaten  by  cattle  while  young  and  tender,  but  ic 
terioi-ates  from  the  value  and  goodness  of  hay  with  which  it  is  mingled. 

Common  tansy  (tanacetum  vulgare)  is  a  plant  which  has  a  large  root,  possessed  of  great  medi- 
cinal virtues  in  some  diseases  of  horses  and  sheep,  but  which  yields  fodder  of  a  very  disagreeable 
flavor.     It  is  seldom  found  excepting  on  the  higliest  edges  of  meadow  land. 

Common  water-drop  wort  (ananthefstulosa),  is  propagated  very  rapidly  in  damp  situations  ; 
but  cattle  do  not  willingly  eat  it.  The  same  may  be  observed  with  respect  to  hemp  agrimony 
(cupatorium,  cannabinum). 

Com  mint  (mentha  arvensis)  has  a  very  injurious  inflence  on  the  milk  of  cattle  eating  it. 

Lady's  mantle  (alcTiemilla),  both  the  long  and  the  round-leaved  varieties  cover  the  soil  with 
their  leaves,  and  their  juices  are  suspected  to  be  of  an  acid  nature.  The  same  obsei-vation  may  be 
applied  to  the  mouse-ear  (hieracium  pilosella),  which  is  disagreeable  to  cattle,  and  imparts  an 
unpleasant  flavor  to  their  milk. 

Lastly,  all  the  sedges  and  rushes  (carices  et  jwici)  helon^'  to  list  of  bad  meadow  grasses. 
Every  care  should  therefore  be  taken  to  free  the  soil  from  the  above-mentioned  plants,  which 
may  be  effectedby  preventing  them  from  attaning  maturity  and  shedding  their  seeds,  and  by 
manuring  the  soil. 

Similar  objections  may  be  urged  against  the  varieties  of  mosses  and  lichens. 

The  following  plants  are  actually  poisonous,  and,  consequently,  in  most  cases 
are  exceedingly  injurious  to  the  pastures  on  which  they  grow",  rendering  the 
whole  crop  unwholesome  : — 

Common  henbane  (hyoacyamns  niger),  thorn  apple  officinal  (datura  stramonium),  water 
co^K\>a.ne  /'c^luta  aquatica),yva.teThem\ock  (phellandrium  aquuticum),  strong-scented  lettuce 
(lactuca  virosa),  broad-leaved  water  parsnip  (sium.  latifolium),  common  fool's-parsley  (^<S);AMsa 
cynapmm).  spurge  (euphorbia),  the  various  kinds  of  anemone  or  wild-flower  (anemone),  com- 
mon meadow  saffron  (colckicum  autumnale). 

Every  endeavor  should  be  made  to  destroy  and  extirpate  these  plants  ;   and  in 
order  to  effect  this  they  should  be  torn  up  from  the  meadow  whenever  they  ap- 
pear.    The  goodness  of  a  great  number  of  our  meadow  grasses,  and  their  adapta- 
tion as  food  for  various  kinds  of  cattle,  both  in  a  green  and  a  dry  state,  is  a  point    i 
which  merits  the  strictest  examination. 

(941) 


366 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


•  Hasselgreen  has  certainly  furnished  us  with  an  account  of  the  experiments 
made  by  the  pupils  of  Linnajus  with  different  grasses  on  cattle,  sheep,  goats, 
pigs,  and  horses,  with  the  view  of  discovering  how  far  they  were  agreeable  to 
the  palate  and  adapted  for  the  nourishment  of  these  animals.  But  this  account 
contains  so  many  false  statements  that  we  scarcely  dare  give  credence  to  any. 
Among  oiher  things  he  states  that  corn  spurry  {spergula  arvens{s)  is  rejected  by 
cattle  ;  whereas  there  is  no  plant  which  they  eat  with  such  avidity  and  pleasure. 

The  plants  of  the  first  class,  with  many  others — for  1  have  only  mentioned 
those  which  are  most  frequently  met  with  and  are  most  remarkable — form  a 
laver  or  crust  of  turf  or  sward  with  the  tissue  of  their  roots.  This  crust  is  com- 
posed both  of  living  and  dead  roots,  and  of  the  mould  resulting  from  the  decom- 
position of  the  latter.  A  thick  layer  or  sward  of  this  nature  is  not  easily  ob- 
tained from  pasturage  composed  either  of  one  or  many  kinds  of  grass  artificially 
sown.  In  order  to  produce  it,  the  plants  must  not  only  be  such  as  agree  with 
one  another,  but  they  must  likewise  be  sown  in  suitable  reciprocal  proportions  ; 
and  these  proportions,  as  well  as  the  selection  of  plants,  must  be  in  accordance 
with  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  its  properties.  Consequently,  it  often  happens 
that  when  we  sow  grass  seeds,  we  obtain  fields  of  grass,  but  not  meadows  prop- 
erly so  called.  We  obtain  high,  but  not  durable  and  closely  grown  grass,  and 
never  an  actual  sward  or  turf;  and  very  frequently  the  plants  which  have  thus 
been  sown,  totally  disappear  and  give  place  to  others.  Even  when  fields  thus 
sown  with  the  choicest  variety  of  grasses,  after  the  crust  of  their  natural  herb- 
age had  been  broken  up  by  plowing,  have,  during  the  first  few  years,  yielded  a 
product  far  surpassing  that  obtained  from  natural  meadows,  the  soil  of  which 
was  of  a  similar  quality.  This  luxuriance  has  not  lasted  long,  but  has  dimin- 
ished, until  at  length  the  land  yielded  less  than  even  the  poorest  meadow  ground. 

But  if,  when  sowing  grasses  to  form  a  meadow,  we  are  enabled  to  ascertain 
the  exact  and  proper  proportion  of  each  variety,  both  as  regards  each  other  and 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  we  shall  obtain  this  sward  or 
layer  of  turf  much  sooner  than  if  we  left  the  soil  to  the  operation  of  Nature  only. 
But  there  is  very  great  diflTiculty  in  determining  the  ratio  of  this  proportion.  The 
most  important  point  is  to  mingle  a  proper  quantity  of  long  and  short,  of  early 
and  late  grasses,  the  former  of  which  yield  the  first  crop  or  cutting,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  latter,  which  also  yield  a  second  crop  or  after-grass.  Some  farm- 
ers, who  have  ascertained  or  guessed  at  this  proportion,  have  succeeded  in  form- 
ing good  meadow  land ;  while  others,  who  have  been  less  fortunate,  have 
obtained  such  poor  pasturage  that  they  soon  plowed  the  ground  up  in  order  to 
sow  it  with  other  and  more  profitable  crops. 

From  what  I  have  seen,  I  have  been  led  to  consider  that  the  mode  of  proceed- 
ing which  I  am  about  to  describe  is  the  one  best  calculated  to  obtain  a  good  col- 
lection of  grass  seeds.  I  must  not  be  understood  to  confound  meadow  land  with 
those  fields  which  are  sown  with  herbage,  and  which  are  only  mtended  to  re- 
main in  that  state  far  a  limited  period.  Some  spot  is  chosen  in  a  meadow,  the 
soil  of  which  is  similar  to  that  of  the  one  which  we  wish  to  form,  especially  as 
regards  the  proportion  of  humus  contained  in  it,  and  its  degree  of  humidity  ; 
some  spot,  I  say,  is  chosen  which  yields  particularly  fine  herbage  ;  every  care  is 
taken  to  free  it  from  weeds,  and  it  is  reserved  for  the  production  of  seed,  its  fer- 
tility being  maintained  by  ameliorations  of  manure.  The  grass  is  suffered  to 
grow  until  the  seeds  of  the  early  varieties  begin  to  ripen ;  it  is  then  mowed  and 
dried  for  the  purpose  of  being  made  into  hay,  care  being  taken  to  move  it  about 
as  little  as  possible.  Another  portion  is  allowed  to  grow  until  the  seeds  of  the 
later  p-rasses  have  attained  their  maturity,  and  then  it  is  cut  down  and  dried  in 
a  simTlar  manner.  These  two  portions  of  dried  grasses  are  then  mixed  together 
and  threshed  on  the  barn  floor,  and  the  dust  and  seed  swept  up,  end  sown  on  the 
soil  of  the  ground  which  we  are  about  to  form  into  a  meadow.  This  mode  of 
proceeding  appears  to  me  to  be  not  only  the  most  certain  but  the  least  expensive 
wav  of  obtaining  a  proper  mixture  of  good  grass  seed  fit  for  the  formation  of 
durable  meadows',  as,  here  nothing  is  wasted,  because  the  hay  from  which  the 
seed  has  been  threshed,  although  undoubtedly  not  so  good  as  it  would  have  been 
had  its  veo-etation  been  less  prolonged,  may  still  always  be  used.  If  the  soil  of 
the  new  meadow  is  adapted  for  the  production  of  red  clover,  it  will  in  general  be 
advisable  to  mix  some  of  the  seed  of  this  plant  among  that  which  we  arc  about 

(942) 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MEADOW  LAND.  367 

to  sow,  because  it  does  not  fail  until  about  the  second  or  third  year,  at  which 
period  the  other  plants  have  not  acquired  their  luxuriance  ;  but  we  must  always 
make  it  a  rule  to  mow  the  clover  as  it  begins  to  flower,  and  not  allow  it  to  com- 
plete Its  vegetation,  or  it  will  injure  the  other  plants- which  do  not  grow  so  rap- 
idly. When  this  point  is  attended  to,  it  will  retard  the  growth  of  the  other 
plants  but  little,  and  they  will  shoot  up  and  occupy  the  vacant  space  left  as  soon 

it  is  mown. 

Some  close  and  attentive  observers  have  pretended  to  perceive  a  kind  of  rota- 
tion among  the  various  grasses  with  which  meadow  land  is  covered  ;  that  is  to 
say,  they  assert  that  after  a  certain  number  of  years  those  grasses  which  were 
previously  most  numerous  are  no  longer  found,  but  in  their  stead  others,  which, 
in  their  turn,  again  give  place  to  fresh  varieties.  This  may  have  arisen  from 
various  causes  which  escaped  the  notice  of  these  persons  ;  nevertheless,  this  as- 
sertion ought  to  be  farther  inquired  into. 

The  quantity  of  hay  grown  on  any  particular  spot  being  generally  proportion- 
ate to  its  quality,  when  no  bad  or  injurious  weed  is  mixed  with  the  herbage,  we 
can  almost  always  determine  the  value  of  meadow  land  by  reference  to  the  quan- 
tity of  hay  which  it  produces.  It  is  equally  difficult  to  arrange  the  various 
qualities  of  meadcw  land  under  heads  or  classes  as  it  is  to  arrange  arable  land  in 
a  similar  way,  because  there  are  so  many  gradations  or  shades  of  quality  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  define  where  one  class  ends  and  another  begins.  It  is,  how- 
ever, quite  sufficient  for  our  purpose,  and  agreeable  to  our  classification  of  arable 
land  under  six  heads,  to  divide  meadows  into  a  like  number  of  classes,  taking  as 
the  ground  work  of  this  division  chiefly  the  quantity  of  hay  yielded  by  them,  and 
in  the  lower  classes  being  slightly  influenced  by  the  quality  as  well.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  divisions : 

First  clans.  Meadows  •which  yield  at  two  cuttings  2,400  lbs.  of  fodder  or  more  per  acre.  To 
this  class  belong  all  those  -which  can  be  watered  at  proper  times  and  season.s,  either  by  irriga- 
tion or  inundation  with  good  water,  and  the  soil  of  which  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of 
mild  humus. 

Second  class.  Meadows  which  annually  yield  from  1,700  to  2,300  lbs.  of  good  fodder.  To  this 
belong  meadows  of  the  same  kind  as  those  in  class  the  first,  but  the  soil  of  which  contains  less 
humus;  we  may,  however,  frequently  rank  under  this  head  elevated  meadows,  which  receive 
the  fertilizing  moisture  which  drains  from  arable  lands,  and  yield  a  product  varying  from  1,700  to 
2,400  lbs. 

Third  class.  Meadows  which  produce  from  1,200  to  1,600  lbs.  of  fodder,  composed  of  fine 
sweet-flavored  grass.  To  this  class  in  general  belong  meadows  situated  in  valleys  and  on  low 
grounds  which  have  a  proper  degree  of  humidity,  but  which  do  not  enjoy  the  advantages  arising 
from  fertilizing  inundations  or  irrigation. 

Fourth  class.  Meadows  which  produce  an  equal  or  even  a  larger  quantity  of  fodder,  but 
which  is  coarse  and  rank,  and  intermixed  with  weeds  and  unwholesome  grasses.  To  this  class 
belong  all  those  which  suffer  fi-om  excess  of  humiditj-,  and  have  no  drainage,  and,  consequentiy, 
in  which  there  is  an  accumulation  of  standing  water  always  existing  in  the  subsoil,  which,  find- 
ing no  vent,  spreads  itself  and  stagnates  on  the  surface.  Meadows  situated  near  forests,  by  which 
they  are  much  overshadowed,  appertain  to  this  class.  These  frequently  yield  a  great  deal  of 
fodder,  but  it  is  not  nutritious,  nor  has  it  an  agreeable  flavor. 

Fifth  class.  Meadows  which  yield  from  800  to  1,100  lbs.  of  fodder.  To  this  class  belong  those 
which  have  not  suiScient  moisture,  and  are  naturally  prone  to  suffer  from  drouth. 

Stj:th  class.  Meadows  which  produce  less  than  800  lbs.  of  fodder,  and  in  which  the  herbage, 
though  luxuriant,  is  of  an  acid  nature,  and  chiefly  composed  of  plants  of  the  sprot,  junoi,  or  cari- 
ces  kind.     To  this  class  belong  dry  as  well  as  marshy,  acid  meadows. 

In  making  this  classification,  I  have  supposed  the  meadows  to  be  always  care- 
fully attended  to  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  mole-hills  leveled,  the  ditches  cleared  out, 
and  the  land  properly  watered  ;  but  I  have  not  supposed  them  to  be  manured,  for 
even  the  worst  meadow  land  may  be  so  improved  and  benefited  by  manuring 
as  speedily  to  yield  a  crop  almost  equal  to  that  of  meadows  of  the  first  and  second 
class. 

It  has  often  been  asked,  what  is  the  proportion  between  the  value  of  meadow 
and  arable  land  ?  Many  agriculturists  have  exaggerated  the  value  of  the  former 
in  proportion  to  that  of  the  latter,  because,  as  they  justly  observe,  if  it  were  not 
for  meadows  the  fertility  of  arable  land  could  not  "be  maintained.  Others,  on  the 
contrary,  have  depreciated  meadow  land  considerably  below  its  actual  value,  on 
the  plea  that  by  a  judicious  cultivation  of  fodder  plants,  much  more  food  for  live 
stock  can  be  raised  on  arable  than  on  meadow  land. 

The  value  of  raeadoAvs  as  v.'ell  as  that  of  arable  land  results  from  and  is  deter- 


THAER  S   PRINCIPLES   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


mined  by  the  amount  yielded  by  their  produce,  after  the  deduction  of  all  expenses, 
But  the  value  of  fodder  is  much  more  difficult  to  determine  than  that  of  grain,  be^ 
cause  in  general  it  is  less  salable. 

In  places  where  there  are  large  markets  for  fodder  and  a  great  demand,  we  ] 
must  distinguish  between  the  price  at  which  it  would  sell  and  the  value  of  it  < 
when  consumed  at  home.     The  former  depends  upon  locality,  and  is  highest  in  ' 
/  the  neighborhood  of  large  towns,  or  in  places  whence  its  water  carriage  is  easy 
I  and  cheap.     JN'o  general  average  whatever  can  be  given.     The  value  of  that  con- 
sumed on  the  farm  also  varies.     It  is  usually  increased  when  there  is  a  scarcity 
of  provision  for  the  winter  feeding  of  the  stock  and  the  production  of  manure.     In 
',  places  where  the  crops  yield  a  great  deal  of  straw,  and  where  the  soil  is  favor- 
\    able  to  the  groAvth  of  clover,  lucerne,  and  other  kinds  of  herbage  which  consti- 
tute good  fodder  for  cattle,  the  grass  and  hay  of  natural  meadows  may  be  more 
easily  dispensed  with  ;    and  in  places  where  we  are  sure  of  obtaining  from  an 
acre  of  arable  land  much  more  fodder  than  would  have  been  produced   by  an 
'  equal  extent  of  meadow  land,  besides  defraying  the  expenses  of  cultivation,  the 
latter  will  not  be  more  valuable  than  the  former  ;  indeed,  in  the  opinion  of  many 
persons,  it  will  be  of  less  value.      But  where  the  arable  land  is  not  adapted  for  ; 
the  cultivation  of  fodder  plants,  the  value  of  hay,  and  with  it  that  of  meadow 
land,  is  increased.     The  more  need  there  is  of  manure  for  the  fields  the  more 
highly  will  meadow  land  in  general  be  valued,  especially  where  the  soil  is  of  a 
dry,  sandy  nature,  because  the  produce  of  the  arable  land  then  depends  entirely 
upon  the  meadows.      On  the  other   hand,  we  now  and  then,  though  not  often, 
find  countries  in  which  meadow  land  is  so  plentiful,  and  where  there  is  such  an 
excess  of  hay  of  which  there  is  no  means  of  disposing,  that  meadows  are  es- 
timated at  a  much  less  value  than  arable  land. 

As  we  have  before  observed,  the  value  of  fodder  is  always  variable,  and  de- 
pends a  great  deal  on  locality.      Nevertheless,  on  an  average,  in  those  places 
where  there  is  neither  a  scarcity,  a  great  demand,  nor  a  superabundance  of  it, 
100  lbs.  of  hay  may  be  regarded  as  equal  to  one-third  of  a  bushel  of  rye,  Berlin  / 
measure,  provided  that  it  be  good  in  quality  and  nutritious  ;  but  if,  on  the  con-  i 
trary,  it  be  of  a  bad  quality,  it  will  only  be  worth  a  quarter  of  a  bushel  of  rye ;  v 
therefore,  if,  as  is  generally  the  case,  a  bushel  be  valued  at  one  rix-dollar,  the  / 
Talue  of  100  lbs.  of  good  hay  will  be  about  eight  groschen,  and  that  of  100  lbs.  - 
of  bad  hay  about  six  groschen.      At  this  price  it  may  usually  be  profitably  used  ' 
in  the  rearing  of  cattle,  provided  that  the  breed  most  favorable  to  the  locality  is 
chosen.      I  need  not  observe  that  this  value,  when  reduced  to  money,  will  rise 
and  fall  with  the  price  of  grain. 

When  the  value  of  hay  is  once  known,  that  of  meadow  land  may  easily  be  as- 
certained by  reckoning  the  amount  of  hay  which  it  has  produced,  and  deducting 
the  current  expenses.  In  order  to  calculate  the  expenses,  we  must  not  consider 
merely  the  quantity  of  hay,  but  must  compare  this  quantity  with  the  extent  of 
ground  which  has  produced  it.  For  a  good  meadow  will  scarcely  cost  more  for 
mowing  than  a  poorer  one  of  the  same  extent,  for  the  haymakers'  wages  will  be 
much  the  same  in  each  case.  The  cost  of  carrying  the  hay,  loading,  unloading, 
and  forming  the  haycocks,  depends  riiore  on  the  quantity  of  the  produce  than  on 
the  extent  of  the  land.  13esides,  these  expenses  are  considerably  varied  by  the 
distance  at  which  the  meadows  lay  from  the  farm  buildings.  The  expenses  at- 
tending the  getting  in  of  hay  from  meadows  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
farm  buildings  are  often  double  those  of  meadows  situated  nearer  home  ;  there- 
fore no  general  average  can  be  made  on  this  point.  We  may,  however,  consider 
that  the  cost  of  mowing  an  acre  of  meadow  land  twice  will  be  as  follows : 

Rix-dol.     Gros. 

Meadow  land  of  the  first  class 1  12  per  acre. 

"  second 1  10 

third 1  8 

fourth 1  8 

And  the  cost  of  a  sinc;le  cutting  or  mowing  of  meadow  land  of  the 

fifthclass 0  18 

sixth 0  16 

According  to  the  above  data,  if  we  deduct  the  expenses  of  the  crop  from  the 
value  of  the  fodder,  we  shall  find  that  one  acre  of  meadow  land 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MEADOW  LAND.  369 

Rix.  Gros.               

Of  the  first  class,  100  lbs.  being  valued  at  J  rix-dollar,  the  whole  will  make  8  0  net  prod.  6  12 

"       second       100  lbs J 6       16 5  16 

"       third          lOOlbs \ 4       16 "".3  8 

"       fourth         100  lbs | 2         4 0  20 

"       fifth            100  lbs J 2  8.......'..!  14 

•'       sixth          100  lbs 1 2         0 .'.1  12    •' 

I  If  we  endeavor  lo  determine  the  value  of  arable  land  by  estimates  founded  on  ' 
<  the  triennial  rotation  with  a  fallow,  we  shall  find  that  the' value  of  meadow  land 
)  of  the  same  class  will  prove  much  higher  in  proportion.  ,  But  we  must  remem- 
;  ber  that  in  this  estimate  all  the  divers  expenses  of  cultivation  are  placed  to  ara- 
{  b.le  land,  while,  with  the  meadow  land,  nothing  but  that  attending  the  getting 
)  in  of  the  crop  is  reckoned,  and  that  the  arable  land  yields  straw  and  pasturage 
/  as  well  as  other  crops.  From  this  I  should  be  inclined  to  think  that  the  relative 
{  value  of  a  field  and  a  meadow  of  the  same  class  would  be  as  two  to  three,  if,  as 
5  I  have  before  said',  the  circumstances  of  the  locality  are  such  as  not  to  affect  this 
I  proportion.  It  is  on  this  account  that  I  have  been  induced  to  divide  meadows 
■j  into  six  classes  rather  than  into  any  other  number,  although  perfectly  aware  that, 
\  from  the  infinite  variations  of  the  average  produce,  I  ought  to  have  established  a 
I  larger  number  of  gradations. 

■i       I  have  already  stated  that  although  inundations  are  so  beneficial  to  meadows, 
)  and  when  occurring  at  proper  seasons  so  calculated  to  increase  their  value  and 
I  raise  them  to  a  higher  class,  yet  they  render  their  produce  uncertain  ;  it  is,  th«re- 
\  fore,  seldom  that  the  crop  of  hay  from  meadows  exposed  to  spontaneous  inunda- 
)  tions  can  be  depended  upon,  because  these  may  and  frequently  do  occur  at  most 
(   unseasonable  times.     Nevertheless,  this  casualty  has  its  degrees  ;  and  there  are 
)   cases  where  the  occurrence  of  inundations  are  only  to  be  feared  when  there  is  a 
}  superabundance,  or  extra  supply,  of  water  ;  while  there  are  others  in  which  it 
I  occurs  but  once  in  two  years.     This  consideration  makes  a  great  difference  in  the 
)   value  of  meadow  land.     There  are  many  meadows  which  used  regularly  to  yield 
{  a  luxuriant  crop,  but  which  now,  from  the  formation  of  sand  batiks  or  the  raisin o- 
5  of  the  bed  of  the  river,  yield  but  an  uncertain  amount  of  produce. 
)       It  is  even  more  essential  in  meadow  than  in  arable  land  that  the  surface  of  the 
)  ground  should  be  perfectly  level,  especially  when  the  meadows  are  to  be  irri- 
(  gated   either  by  natural  or  artificial   means,  for  without  this  uniformity  there 
)  will  be  danger  of  the  water  remaining  and  stagnating  in  the  hollows,  while  it 
never  reaches  the  higher  spots.     Meadows,  the  surface  of  which  is  not  even, 
bear  a  very  unequal  crop  :  in  dry  seasons  the  lowest  parts  yield  most,  and  in  wet 
seasons  the  highest  parts  ;  consequently,  it  is  not  easy  to  calculate  by  any  gene- 
ral average  the  amount  of  produce  which  maybe  expected  from  them.     Besides, 
where  the  surface  is  very  uneven,  the  hay  cannot  be  mown  without  difficulty. 

I  have  already  stated  that  the  distance  of  the  meadows  from  the  farm  build- 
ings will  cause  a  difference  in  the  expense  of  getting  in  the  crop  ;  besides,  meadow 
J  land  is  always  more  valuable  the  nearer  it  lies  to  the  agricultural  establishment, 
;  on  account  of  its  then  being  more  under  the  eye  of  the  master,  and  consequently 
{  receiving  greater  attention.  When  it  is  thus  situated,  every  thing-  that  happens 
)  to  it,  every  evil,  can  be  at  once  detected,  repaired  and  obviated  ;  whereas,  if  the 
;•  meadow  were  farther  off,  the  mischief  might  become  serious  before  it  could  be 
?  discovered.  It  is  of  peculiar  importance  that  the  meadows  should  be  near  to  the 
{  farm  buildings  in  those  places  where  urine  or  liquid  manures  are  used. 
)  A  clever  man  who  is  called  upon  to  estimate  meadow  lands  will  take  into  con- 
l  sideration  the  possibility  of  procuring  irrigation  for  them  by  means  of  new  ar- 
\  rangements  ;  or,  if  they  are  already  irrigated,  he  will  calculate  the  means  of 
}  improving  the  existing  arrangement,  as  well  as  of  otherwise  ameliorating  the 
)  soil,  and  will  carefully  compare  in  his  own  mind  the  expenses  of  these  impl-ove- 
S  ments,  with  the  benefits  which  may  be  expected  to  accrue  from  them. 
I  It  is  a  very  essential  point  that  no  mole-hills  should  be  suffered  to  exist  on 
\  meadow  land.  These  excrescences  are  chiefly  found  on  dry  meadows,  and  on  the 
\  highest  parts  of  the  land,  as  it  is  there  that  the  moles  retire  when  d'riven  from 
I  the  lower  places  by  moisture.  Irrigated  meadows,  which  can  always  be  main- 
(  tained  in  a  proper  state  of  humidity,  are  in  general  most  exempt  from  mole-hills. 
(  Wherever  the  removal  of  these  evils  is  not  carefully  attended  to,  not  only  will 
)  the  operation  of  mowing  be  rendered  difficult,  and  a  circle  be  left  standing  round 
^  1.945) 'as  " 


370  thaek's  principles  of  agriculture. 

them,  which  cannot  be  cut ;  but  these  mole-liills  will  furnish  a  retreat  for  mice, 
V  ants,  and  other  insects  or  vermin,  and  increase  in  size  to  such  an  extent  that 
eventually  the  meadow  resembles  a  church-yard  instead  of  a  pasture  land.  These 
excrescences  should  therefore  be  cut  down  twice  a  year ;  in  the  spring,  when  the 
'  grass  is  just  beginnmg  to  grow  ;  and  immediately  after  the  first  crop  has  been 
gathered  in.  Where  this  is  carefully  attended  to,  these  hills  will  not  injure  mea- 
dows of  some  age  closely  covered  with  grass,  but  rather  benefit  them,  because 
by  this  means  fresh  earth  Avili  be  brought  to  the  surface  and  extended  over  the 
giafind,  which  is  exceedingly  beneficial  to  the  grass. 

Instruments  of  manual  labor  are  in  general  made  use  of  for  the  purpose  of  lev- 
eling these  excrescences,  as  a  spade,  shovel,  or  fork  ;  and  care  is  taken  that  the 
soil  shall  be  uniformly  distributed  :  sometimes  horse  implements  are  employed, 
among  which  that  harrow,  a  description  of  which  will  be  found  in  my  Beschrei- 
hung  der  Neuesten  Acker  gar  aethe,  heft  ii.  taf.  7,  appears  to  me  to  be  best  adapt- 
ed for  this  purpose.  The  harrow  to  which  I  refer  is  furnished  with  sharp  irons 
in  the  front,  while  its  hinder  part  is  garnished  with  a  quantity  of  interlaced  thorn 
bushes.  It  fulfils  all  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  employed  very  efiectually, 
without  materially  injuring  the  turf;  breaking  down  every  mole-hill  and 
spreading  the  earth  over  the  surface  around  ;  besides,  the  expense  attending  its 
use  is  much  less  than  that  of  performing  this  operation  with  instruments  of 
manual  labor. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  level  and  get  rid  of  old  grass-grown  mole-hills.  If  we  con- 
tent ourselves  with  removing  them,  a  bare  space  is  left  which  does  not  become 
covered  with  grass  for  some  years.  The  best  plan,  therefore,  is  to  cut  through 
the  layer  of  grass  or  sward  by  which  they  are  covered  with  a  spade  in  a  cross 
direction,  hollow  out  the  internal  part  or  mould,  distribute  it  around,  and  then 
lay  the  turf  down  fiat  on  the  places  where  the  hills  stood.  On  meadows  of  con- 
siderable extent,  a  horse  instrument  termed  a  meadow-plane  or  leveler,  or,  as 
some  call  it,  a  Hungarian  plow,  is  made  use  of  for  this  purpose.  It  is  a  kind  of 
sledge,  having  four  cross-pieces,  the  first  and  third  of  which  are  armed  with 
sharp  irons  in  the  form  of  a  rake,  and  the  second  and  fourth  with  teeth  resem- 
bling those  of  a  harrow.  This  instrument  penetrates  into  the  earth,  tears  and 
breaks  almost  all  the  turf  of  the  meadow,  and  levels  it  beautifully  ;  but  it  i 
quires  a  team  of  at  least  six  horses  to  put  it  in  action.  After  it  has  been  made 
use  of,  the  meadow  is  harrowed  in  round  harrowing,  and  then  rolled.  Notwith- 
standing the  cost  of  this  instrument,  this  has  been  proved  to  be  the  least  ex- 
pensive way  of  reestablishing  the  fertility  of  meadows  that  are  much  infested 
with  these  "small  elevations.  The  breaking  up  of  the  layer  of  turf  admits  of 
clover  and  other  plants  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  being  sown.  This 
operation  may  be  considered  as  a  kind  of  serai-cultivation,  and  may  be  effected 
without  altogether  destroying  the  old  sward. 

There  is  a  great  diversity  of  opmion  with  regard  to  the  expediency  of  submit- 
ting meadow  land  to  the  action  of  the  ploAV  for  a  certain  period.  Some  persons 
advocate  this  course  of  proceeding,  and  consider  it  as  in  every  way  beneficial  to 
the  meadow  ;  while  others,  on  the  contrary,  condemn  it  as  injurious  and  preju- 
dicial. 

It  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  distinguish  between  those  cases  in  which 
the  meadow  is  broken  up  for  the  purpose  of  being  ameliorated,  and  those  in 
which  this  operation  is  performed  with  the  view-  of  deriving  a  larger  profit  from 
the  soil  than  it  would  have  yielded  as  meadow  land,  by  sowing  it  with  a  rotation 
of  other  products. 

In  the  latter  case,  a  regular  rotation  is  often  established  on  it,  which  compre- 
hends pasturage  as  well  as  the  cultivation  of  corn  and  products  of  various  kinds; 
for  the  land,  after  having  borne  these  crops,  is  laid  down  to  grass  for  a  certain 
number  of  years,  and  sown  with  clover  and  other  grass  seeds.  But  this  can  only 
be  done  where  the  soil  is  equally  well  adapted  for  meadow  land  and  for  the  pro- 
duction of  corn.  Wherever  it  is  intended  to  reestablish  the  ground  as  meadow 
land,  the  following  rules  must  be  carefully  observed: 

1.  We  must  take  care  to  avoid  exhausting  the  soil  by  making  it  produce  too  many  crops  of  corn, 
but  must,  on  the  contrary,  carefully  husband  its  natural  fertility. 

2.  We  must  not  fail  to  manure  plentifully  for  the  last  crop  which  it  is  to  produce  previous  to  its 
again  being  laid  down  for  meadow  land  ;  and  this  is  the  more  necessary  where  the  soil  has  been 
manured  with  lime  to  prepare  it  for  the  crops  of  grain. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MEADOW  LAND.  371 

3.  While  the  soil  is  tilled,  every  care  must  be  taken  to  eradicate  and  destroy  all  those  weeds 
which  multiply  by  means  of  their  roots,  otherwise  they  will  attain  such  vigor  as  to  extend  them- 
' ,   selves  over  the  whole  of  the  meadow. 

'.  Large  crops  which  may  thus  be  derived  from  meadow  land,  especially  where 
the  soil  is  mild,  rich,  aad  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry,  by  the  cultivation  of  hemp, 
tobacco,  large  cabbages,  &c.  :  these  crops,  I  say,  are  extremely  profitable,  and 
will  be,  even  if  the  meadow  should  afterward  yield  less  herbage.  This,  howev- 
er, will  never  be  the  case,  if,  after  observing  the  three  rules  I  have  just  laid  down, 
a  proper  quantity  of  clover  and  other  grass  seeds  are  sown  ;  but  where  these  pre- 
cautions have  been  neglected,  it  will  too  frequently  occur. 

But  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  proposed  to  break  up  the  meadow  in  order  that 
it  may  produce  new  and  better  grass,  such  a  proceeding  can  only  prove  beneficial 
',  when  the  herbage  is  choked  with  weeds  which  are  thus  to  be  "destroyed :  under 
;  no  other  circumstances  can  I  recommend  it.  Many  agriculturists  break  up  their 
meadows  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  moss,  but  their  object  would  have  been 
much  better  attained  had  they  spread  manure  or  new  earth  over  the  soil.  If 
only  one  single  crop  of  grain — as,  for  example,  oats — is  taken  after  the  texture 
of  the  soil  is  thus  broken  up,  the  soil  will  be  impoverished  unless  manure  is  add- 
ed to  it ;  the  meadow  will  be  in  a  worse  state  than  it  was  before,  and  the  moss 
will  soon  reappear.  Wherever  it  is  possible  to  procure  a  sufficiency  of  manure, 
a  far  better  effect  will  result  from  its  application  than  would  have  been  produced 
by  breaking  up  the  sward.  But  a  single  plowing  is  seldom  sufficient  to  destroy 
the  weeds  which  infest  meadow  land ;  on  the  contrary,  the  loosening  of  the  soi' 
seems  rather  to  favor  their  vegetation. 

In  order  to  destroy  and  completely  eradicate  them,  we  must  make  up  our  minds 
to  bestow  a  thorough  dead  fallow  on  the  ground,  or  else  to  have  recourse  to  an 
operation  which  is  more  prompt  and  efficacious  in  its  effects — namely,  paring  and 
burning  the  layer  of  turf.  I  must,  therefore,  refer  my  readers  to  Avhat  I  have 
,  already  said  respecting  the  manner  in  which  newly  cleared  land  ought  to  be 
treated. 

I  have  already  sufficiently  described  the  manner  in  which  meadows  should  be 
sown  on  which  the  layer  of  turf  has  been  destroyed  by  the  plow  ;  but  my  readers 
have  totally  misunderstood  me  if  they  imagine  that  it  was  my  intention  to  advo- 
cate the  reproduction  of  grass  on  them  being  left  to  the  operation  of  Nature.  I 
have  met  with  cases,  certainly,  in  which  the  meadows  have  thus  succeeded  bet- 
ter than  when  most  carefully  sown  ;  but  we  cannot  always  anticipate  such  good 
results,  as  accident  may  lodge  the  worst  as  well  as  the  best  seeds  in  the  ground. 
It  has  not,  as  yet,  been  positively  determined  which  are  the  best  kinds  of  seed, 
and  those  most  calculated  to  flourish  in  certain  soils. 

For  rich  meadow  land  impregnated  with  humus,  loose  and  moderately  moist, 
nothing  can  be  more  likely  to  answer  and  produce  a  good  crop  of  herbage  than  a 
mixture  of  meadow  fox-tail  grass  {alopecurus  pratensis)  and  rough  and  smooth- 
stalked  meadow  grass  {poa  trivialis  et  pratensis),  either  with  or  without  clover. 
These  seeds  produce  a  luxuriant  and  vigorous  layer  of  grass  ;  their  vegetation  is 
continuous,  and  they  soon  shoot  up  afresh  after  having  been  mown  ;  besides 
which,  their  flavor  is  very  agreeable  to  cattle.  But  they  require  a  soil  possessing 
all  the  aforesaid  qualities,  and,  if  sown  on  land  which  is  deficient  in  them,  pro- 
duce only  scanty  and  patchy  herbage. 

I  cannot  take  upon  myself  to  determine  what  kinds  of  seed  should  be  chosen 
for  the  purpose  of  sowing  meadows  of  an  inferior  quality,  especially  if  these 
meadows  are  intended  to  last  for  any  period  of  time.  When  we  come  to  treat 
of  the  cultivation  of  fodder  plants,  we  shall  have  to  speak  of  some  kinds  of 
grasses  which  are  peculiarly  adapted  for  raised  pasture  land,  or  fields  sit- 
uated on  hills  or  mountains,  and  which  will  not  bear  being  transformed  into 
meadows. 

Some  persons  think  that  a  newly  formed  meadow  should  not  be  mown  at  first, 
but  that  its  herbage  should  be  eaten  oflf  by  cattle.  Others  are  of  a  contrary  opin- 
ion. While  others,  again,  believe  that  the  best  way  of  rendering  a  meadow  lux- 
uriant is  to  suffer  the  grass  to  shoot  up,  flower,  ripen,  and  shed  its  seeds  ;  and, 
subsequently,  to  crush  its  dried  stalks  by  passing  a  roller  over  the  ground. 

All  these  modes  of  proceeding  may  be  advantageous  under  certain  circum- 
stances.    By  cattle  being  pastured  on  the  land,  especially  when  that  circumspec- 

(947) 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


tion  is  exercised  which  we  shall  presently  have  to  recommend,  the  roots  of  the 
plants  become  strengthened,  and  the  plants  themselves  extend  over  the  soil,  * 
forming  a  close,  dense  layer  or  sward.  The  excrements  voided  by  the  cattle  im- 
prove the  soil,  if  proper  attention  is  paid  to  see  that  they  are  spread  about ;  the 
folding  of  cattle  on  meadow  land,  and  the  treading  of  their  feet,  likewise  contrib- 
ute to  favor  the  vegetation  of  grass  on  dry  ground.  "Whenever  a  newly  formed 
meadow  is  well  covered  with  grass,  but  the  plants  appear  to  be  weak,  I  should 
recommend  its  being  used  as  pasture  ground. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  grass  appears  to  be  thick,  and  to  shoot  up  vigorously,    ' 
and  we  can  depend  upon  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  it  will  be  as  well  to  mow  it,  / 
especially  if  this  can  be  done  early  in  the  season,  before  the  plants  have  become 
exhausted  by  their  seed  stems  growing. 

We  can  only  advise  that  the  grass  should  be  suffered  to  grow  untouched  in 

.  those  places  where  that  which  has  been  sown  is  exceedingly  line,  and  distributed 
in  tufts  or  patches,  separated  from  each  other  by  barren  places ;  and  it  is  there- 

*  fore  judged  expedient  to  sow  the  land  afresh  ;  but  this  can  only  be  done  where    [ 
no  weeds  have  sprung  up :  should  such  exist  it  must  be  mown'.     Some  advise 
that  a  few  spots  only  which  are  peculiarly  free  from  weeds  should  be  suffered  to 
run  to  seed,  and  that  they  should  be  separated  by  certain  intervals  of  space,  in 

<[  order  that  the  seed  may  extend  its.elf  over  these  intervening  portions. 

No  weed  propagated  by  its  roots  should  be  suffered  to  grow  in  such  meadows, 
but  always  pulled  up  as  soon  as  it  is  observed.  As  to  weeds  propagated  by  their 
seeds,  they  should  on  no  account  be  suffered  to  reach  maturity. 

That  kind  of  cultivation  which  is  bestowed  on  meadow  land  by  means  of  a 

^  harrow  having  its  teeth  curved  forward,  or,  what  is  still  better,  that  breaking  of 

I  the  texture  and  sward  of  grass  land  which  is  efl'ected  with  instruments  furnished 
with  knives  after  the  form  of  scarifiers,  are  the  most  beneficial  modes  of  treating 
meadow  land.  They  are  peculiarly  to  be  recommended  for  the  purpose  of 
destroying  moss,  notwithstanding  that  they  act  in  a  very  indirect  manner  in  this 
operation.  Moss  grows  in  places  where  no  other  plant  would  be  able  to  find 
nourishment;  it  gives  place  to  other  plants  as  soon  as  they  appear,  perishes,  be- 
comes converted  into  mould,  and  in  that  form  contributes  to  the  nourishment  of 
its  successors.  Aquatic  mosses  disappear  as  soon  as  a  soil  is  drained,  and  dry 
mosses  as  soon  as  the  land  is  watered.  This  production  of  Nature  does  not, 
therefore,  appear  to  be  so  injurious  to  meadow  land  as  to  render  it  necessary  that 
certain  definite  means  should  be  taken  to  eradicate  it,  especially  as  it  yields  to 

J  every  species  of  cultivation  that  tends  to  strengthen  the  layer  of  turf  But  the 
operation  of  which  we  spoke  before  benefits  the  grass  and  invigorates  it  by  giv- 
ing the  atmospheric  air  free  access  to  its  roots,  and  thus  dividing  and  multiply- 
ing the  plants  and  surrounding  their  stems  with  a  layer  of  loose  earth.  It  is, 
therefore,  equally  as  beneficial  on  meadows  where  there  is  no  appearance  of  moss, 

/  especially  if  the  soil  is  tenacious,  as  it  is  on  those  which  are  covered  with  moss, 

'  This  operation  should  be  performed  in  the  spring,  when  vegetation  is  com- 
mencing and  when  the  soil  is  dry.  It  appears  to  be  peculiarly  beneficial  when 
the  soil  is  to  be  manured,  the  manure  producing  a  much  more  sensible  ef!ect 
when  the  turf  has  been  thus  opened  previous  to  its  application.     The  beauty  and 

I  uniformity  of  grass  land  are  very  much  increased  by  the  use  of  the  roll,  but  it  must 
be  confessed  that  the  produce  is  thus  decreased. 

In  some  places  even  more  care  is  bestowed  on  the  cultivation  of  meadows  than 
is  devoted  to  arable  land,  and  it  is  to  the  former  that  the  chief  part  of  the  ma- 
nure is  devoted.      When  we  manure  our  meadows  plentifully,  they  say,  we  are 
quite  sure  of  having  a  sufficiency  of  manure  for  our  arable  land.     In  other  coun- 
tries, on  the  contrary,  the  farmers  never  think  of  manuring  their  meadow  land, 
and  deem  it  absolute  folly  to  deprive  the  arable  land  of  any  portion  of  the  manure 
for  such  a  purpose  ;    because  meadows  always  yield  some  little  produce  even   . 
Avhen  left  totally  to  themselves,  whereas  arable  land  under  such  circumstances    | 
becomes  absolutely  sterile.     Meadows  which  are  irrigated  and  ameliorated  by 
he  overflowing  of  rivers,  the  water  of  which  is  charged  with  fertilizing  parti-  '.[ 
cles  and  matter,  certainly  do  not  require  manure.     Other  meadows  which  do  not 
enjoy  this  natural  advantage  should  receive  some  kind  of  amelioration  to  com- 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MEADOW  LAND.  373 

[    It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  produce  of  a  fertile  meadow  may  be 
.    converted  into  twice  as  much,  or  even  more  than  twice  as  much,  manure  as 
.  the  quantum  which  Avas  applied  to  it;    while  arable  land  bearing  corn  crops 
!    reproduces  considerably  less  manure  than  that  which  it  required  and  consumed. 
I  There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  the  best  way  of  increasing  our  stock  of  disposa- 
ble manure  is  to  apply  it  to  the  meadows,  as  by  so  doing  we  not  only  augment 
!|  the  fertility  of  these  latter,  but  also  obtain  the  means  of  manuring  our  fields 
'[  and  other  places  which  we  were  previously  obliged  to  leave  barren  for  want  of 
;  the  means  of  fertilizing  them.     As  this  fact  is  now  generally  acknowledged  by 
all  clever    scientific  agriculturists,  hoAV  comes  it  that  in  most    countries  the 
meadows  are  seldom  manured?     Because  the  quantity  requisite  for  the  first 
amelioration    is  generally  raised  with    such  diliiculty  ;    for  although  the  ma- 
nure bestowed  on  meadow  land  is  sure  to  be  eventually  multiplied,  yet  this  does 
I  not  take  place  during  the  first  or  second  years,  or,  indeed,  until  after  the  lapse  of 
I  six  or  seven  years,  the  effect  of  the  manure   lasting  through  this  and  even  a 
longer  period.     It  is  a  capital  which,  in  the  time  we  have  mentioned,  is  tripled 
and  often  quadrupled  ;  but  many  persons  are  unable  to  advance  it  without  im- 
/  poverishing  their  arable  land. 

The  same   manures  which   are  bestowed  on  arable    land   may  be   applied  to 
meadows  ;  there  are,  however,  some  which  are  peculiar  to  the  latter. 

Sometimes,  but  not  often,  fresh  stable  manure  is  laid  on  meadows ;  wherever 
this  is  the  case,  it  must  be  carried  to  the  land  and  spread  over  it  before  the  com- 
mencement of  winter  or  early  in  the  spring,  in  order  that  its  soluble  parts  being 
dissolved  by  rain  may  sink  into  the  soil.  This  kind  of  manure  is,  therefore,  only 
applicable  to  dry  meadows,  where  it  may  be  carried  during  those  two  seasons. 
When  the  weather  keeps  dry,  the  undecomposed  straw  may  be  separated  from 
'  the  rest,  gathered  together  with  a  rake,  arid  used  again  as  litter. 
I  But  decomposed  dung,  such  as  has  been  picked  up  in  the  farm-yard  or  on  the 
roads,  is  much  oftener  used  on  meadow  land,  especially  mixed  up  with  earth. 
This  manure,  on  account  of  the  seeds  of  weeds  which  it  contains,  would  be  preju- 
to  arable  land.  The  sweepings  of  houses,  saw-dust,  hair,  woolen  rags,  and  the 
refuse  of  the  farm-yard  and  out-houses,  may  all  be  added  to  it  likewise  the  sweep- 
ings of  granaries,  barns,  and  haylofts  are  set  aside  as  manure  for  meadows,  be- 
cause they  engender  too  many  weeds  to  admit  of  their  being  employed  for  this 
purpose  on  arable  land. 

Besides  these  matters,  urine,  or  liquid  manures  which  flow  from  the  stable,  or 
in  rainy  weather  drain  away  from  the  dung-heaps,  are  set  aside  for  meadow 
land.  The  liquid  manure  procured  from  pig-sties,  and  which  is  collected  in 
reservoirs  formed  for  the  purpose,  is  likewise  used.  This  is  an  exceedingly 
efficacious  kind  of  manure,  and  should  be  applied  to  those  meadows  which  lay 
nearest  to  the  farm  buildings.  Sometimes  a  neighboring  brook,  or  a  canal  formed  | 
on  purpose,  furnishes  the  means  of  the  last-mentioned  species  of  manure,  which 
is  suffered  to  mix  with  the  water,  and  thus  diffused  over  the  land.  Another  spe- 
cies of  manure  which  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  meadow  land,  is  that  obtained  by 
folding  or  penning  sheep  upon  it.  This,  however,  can  only  be  done  on  dry 
meadows,  or  such  as  have  been  thoroughly  drained  during  the  spring  and  au- 
tumn. Four  hundred  sheep  penned  on  an  acre  of  land  for  two  nights  will  ma- 
nure it  completely. 

Mechanical  manures,  or  those  by  the  means  of  which  the  nutritive  substances 
[  contained  in  the  soil  are  dissolved,  as  lime,  gypsum,  marl,  turf,  ashes,  soap-lees, 
&c.  are  exceedingly  beneficial,  especially  on  very  moist  or  very  dry  land.  They 
are  not,  however,  productive  of  so  much  benefit  on  poor,  humid  soils  as  on  oth- 
ers. They  eradicate  moss,  and  expedite  its  decomposition ;  and  it  is  this  which 
renders  them  so  efficacious  on  meadow  land  which  is  covered  with  moss,  when 
applied  after  the  soil  has  been  drained. 

Sometimes  these  alone  are  made  use  of;  but  the  best  way  is  to  cause  amelio- 
rations of  this  nature  to  alternate  with  others  of  manure,  or  else  to  mingle  the 
two  together,  and  thus  form  a  kind  of  compost.  Gypsum,  and  the  residue  of  salt 
works,  form  very  beneficial  manures  for  meadow  land,  and  especially  for  such  as 
is  sown  with  clover,  vetches,  or  trefoil,  as  both  these  substances  tend  to  increase 
the  rapidity  and  luxuriance  of  the  growth  of  these  plants.  We  must  proceed 
with  very  great  circumspection  when  ameliorating  meadows  with  pure  lime. 

(949) 


374  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

■  :  _ . . 

This  substance  should  be  poAvdered  very  fine,  and  spread  lightly  over  the  soil, 
unless  the  meadow  is  covered  with  moss  or  weeds,  in  which  case  it  may  he  used 
more  abundantly  and  in  its  caustic  state,  in  order  that  it  may  destroy  these  inju- 
rious occupiers  of  the  soil. 

An  astonishing  effect  is  often  produced  from  earth  being  carried  to  the  meadow 
and  spread  over  it.     This  effect  is  peculiarly  sensible  when  the  amelioration  of  ' 
earth  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  appropriate  to  the  soil.  ^ 

Marshy  and  spongy  meadows  covered  with  moss,  will  be  improved  by  addition 
of  pure  sand.  It  has  been  remarked  that  sand  washed  up  by  water  upon  meadows 
of  this  kind,  has  often  been  productive  of  considerable  benefit  when  spread  equally  ! 
over  the  surface  of  the  ground  ;  and  thus  Avhat  was  merely  the  result  of  accident, 
has  proved  an  example  worthy  of  imitation.  The  more  spongy  and  wet  the 
meadow  is,  the  greater  quantity  of  sand  will  it  bear;  and  even  where  this  sand 
appears  to  have  choked  and  smothered  the  turf  and  grass,  the  herbage  will,  in 
general,  be  found  to  shoot  up  afresh  in  the  following  year,  and  vegetate  more  lux- 
uriantly than  ever.  This  amelioration  of  sand  has  a  tendency  to  depress  rather 
than  raise  the  soil  of  meadow  land,  because  it  compresses  the  spongy  earth,  sinks 
into  it  by  its  own  gravity,  and  fills  up  all  the  interstices.  Sand  destroys  moss 
and  facilitates  its  decomposition. 

But  when  meadow  land  is  solid  and  consistent,  some  kind  of  fertile  vegetable 
earth  will  be  found  more  beneficial  than  sand.  Indeed,  when  it  can  be  procured, 
such  earth  will  always  improve  meadows,  because  it  gives  to  the  herbage  a  dis- 
position to  put  forth  new  roots  and  shoots,  especially  in  the  weaker  tufts  of  grass, 
and  thus  strengthens  and  multiplies  the  plants. 

H.  F.  Pohl,  in  the  "  Annals  of  Agriculture,"  vol.  vi.  p.  274  ("  Annalendes  Ack- 
erbaues"),  has  termed  this  mode  of  spreading  fresh  earth  over  the  surface  of 
meadows,  "  a  renewing  or  making  young  aj^am  of  meadow  land."  He  has  treat- 
ed on  this  subject  at  considerable  length  in  a  work  entitled  "  Das  Verjungen  der 
Wiesen,"  Leipsig,  1810  ;  which  work  cor  tains  a  number  of  judicious  observa- 
tions on  the  cultivation  of  meadow  land  i.i  general.  Dry  meadow  land  is  pecu- 
liarly benefited  by  an  amelioration  of  earth  taken  from  low  grounds,  even  when 
this  earth  is  naturally  inclined  to  be  acid.  Thus  the  marshy  earth  which  is 
taken  from  the  substrata  of  a  soil  in  which  ditches  and  drains  are  dug,  may  be 
beneficially  employed  in  ameliorating  the  higher  and  dry  ground,  or  even  the  up- 
per parts  of  the  very  same  meadow  from  which  it  was  taken.  The  best  plan  is, 
however,  to  mix  it  with  other  earth,  and  then  spread  it  over  the  meadow.  I^ext 
to  this  kind  of  amelioration,  the  different  kinds  of  marl  will  be  found  to  produce 
the  most  striking  benefits. 

The  period  at  which  it  will  be  most  advantageous  to  carry  manure  to  meadow 
land  must  not  be  determined  without  due  consideration  and  careful  attention  to 
all  local  and  other  circumstances.  Only  those  meadows  Avhich  are  neither  nat- 
urally or  artificially  inundated  should  be  manured  before  the  commencement  of 
winter,  or  the  water  will  wash  away  a  considerable  portion  of  the  fertilizing  par- 
ticles and  juices  contained  in  the  manure.  If,  however,  there  are  any  portions 
of  the  meadow  which,  from  lying  higher  than  the  rest,  are  not  reached  by  the  I 
water,  a  considerable  quantity  of  manure  should  be  bestowed  upon  them  before 
the  winter  comes  on,  either  to  compensate  for  what  they  lose  by  not  coming  with- 
in the  action  of  the  water,  or  in  order  that  the  manure  may  be  spread  over  the 
rest  of  the  ground  as  soon  as  the  water  has  drained  .away. 

An  amelioration  of  strawy  manure,  when  applied  to  dry  meadows  before  the 
commencement  of  winter,  is  often  productive  of  very  beneficial  efiects,  because 
the  particles  of  dung  then  sink  more  completely  into  the  earth  ;  and  this  covering 
protects  the  plants  from  the  pernicious  effects  of  sharp  frosts.  But  many  persons 
believe  that  this  practice  is  not  unattended  by  its  disadvantages  ;  the  long  strawy 
manure  affording  a  retreat  to  mice  and  insects,  and  attracting  them  ;  and  such  a 
warm  covering  rendering  the  grass  plants  too  delicate  in  the  spring,  forcing  their 
vegetation  too  forward,  and  thus  exposing  them  to  the  danger  of  being  cut  off 
and  destroyed  by  the  late  spring  frosts,  which  often  occur  after  the  manure  has 
been  removed.  On  these  grounds,  many  farmers  prefer  to  postpone  the  manuring  ' 
of  their  meadow  land  with  strawy  dung  until  the  beginning  of  spring,  and  then  , 
',  leave  it  on  the  ground  until  the  grass  shoots  up. 

But  there  is  no  doubt  that  decomposed  dung  and  compost  should  be  applied  to 

(950) 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MEADOW  LAND-  375 


meadows  situated  on  rising  grounds  at  the  latter  end  of  autumn,  although  it  acts 
very  beneficially  when  not  spread  over  the  soil  until  spring. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  manure  wet,  moist  meadows,  especially  if  they  are  liable 
to  inundation,  at  the  time  which  we  consider  most  advantageous  ;  and  still  more 
so  in  the  spring,  because  at  that  season  the  land  is  too  damp  and  soft  to  admit  of 
the  manure  being  carried.  The  best  plan,  therefore,  is  to  select  the  period  im- 
mediately following  the  getting  in  of  the  tirst  crop  of  hay.  The  manure  will  then 
have  time  to  become  combined  with  the  soil  before  the  commencement  of  the 
heavy  rains  and  inundations  of  winter,  which  would  otherwise  wash  it  away. — 
In  fact,  general  experience  seems  to  testify  that  manure  is  always  most  advan- 
tageous when  carried  to  the  ground  and  spread  over  it  at  this  season. 

Although  we  have  already  spoken  at  some  length  of  the  establishments  and 
arrangements  appertaining  to  irrigation,  we  have  still  some  farther  observations 
to  maice  as  regards  the  application  of  this  operation  to  meadows  in  particular. — 
We  have  already  pointed  out  the  difference  between  watering  by  inundation,  irri- 
gation, or  by  causing  the  water  to  ebb  back  over  the  surface  of  the  soil.  There 
are  some  few' meadows  which  may  be  watered  by  all  or  any  of  these  three  opera- 
tions, yet  such  are  rarely  met  with  ;  and,  besides,  each  of  these  modes  of  water- 
ing has  its  own  peculiar  rules. 

Land  should  be  watered  by  inundation  in  the  autumn  and  at  the  beginning  of 
spring.  When  the  cattle  have  been  taken  from  the  meadows  in  the  autumn,  all 
the  trenches,  furrov/s,  canals  and  sluices  should  be  carefully  examined,  and,  if 
necessary,  repaired.  Those  which  require  the  most  special  care  and  attention 
are  the  drainage  furrows  and  canals,  because  the  success  of  the  operation  depends 
upon  the  facility  and  promptitude  with  which  the  land  can  be  laid  dry  after  hav- 
ing been  inundated  ;  and,  besides,  autumn  is  the  best  season  for  clearing  and  re- 
pairing ditches,  &c.  The  water  must  be  let  on  to  the  soil  plentifully,  and  suf- 
fered to  rise  as  high  as  it  will,  and  allowed  to  remain  there  sufficiently  long  to 
thoroughly  impregnate  the  ground.  When  there  is  a  great  -leal  of  water,  it  fre- 
quently levels  an  uneven  soil ;  the  waves  or  ebbs  of  its  current,  especially  when 
the  wind  is  high,  washing  down  all  the  elevations  they  meet  with.  When  the 
water  has  been  suff'ered  to  inundate  the  soil  early  in  the  season,  and  very  warm 
weather  supervenes,  we  must  carefully  notice  whether  or  not  there  is  any  sign 
of  putrefaction-  he  existence  of  whicli  will  be  indicated  by  a  kind  of  foam  or 
scum  which  shows  itself  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  As  soon  as  this  can  be  de- 
tected, the  water  must  be  drained  off  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  the  meadow 
thoroughly  dried.  The  inundation  must  not  be  repeated  until  the  meadow  is 
completely  d.  ^,  which  will  not  be  in  less  than  two  or  three  weeks. 

Opinions  are  divided  as  to  whether,  in  case  of  frost  coming  on,  the  water 
should  be  suff'ered  to  remain  on  the  land,  and  there  form  ice  ;  or,  whether  it 
should  be  immediately  drained  off".  The  first  course  has  both  its  advantages  and 
disadvantages.  A  slight  layer  of  ice  formed  near  the  soil  will  do  no  harm.  But 
when  the  surface  of  the  water  is  frozen,  and,  from  the  remainder  being  thus  held 
stagnant,  the  land  is  rendered  wet  and  muddy,  a  degree  of  putrefaction  will,  in 
most  cases,  be  produced  even  during  the  winter,  which  will  injure,  if  not  destroy, 
all  the  best  meadow  grasses.  Therefore,  in  meadows  where  the  water  rises 
much,  it  i^  always  better  to  let  it  off  before  the  commencement  of  winter. 

In  the  sprmg,  as  soon  as  the  cessation  of  cold  weather  admits  of  the  sluices 
rising  and  falling,  meadow  land  should  be  plentifully  inundated,  in  order  that  the 
water  may  deposit  upon  it  all  those  fertilizing  particles  which  it  has  acquired 
during  its  stagnation.  The  inundation  should  be  suffered  to  continue  during  a  '\ 
period  of  from  eight  to  twelve  or  fourteen  days,  according  to  the  temperature  of 
the  weather  ;  we  must,  however,  at  this  period,  even  more  than  in  autumn,  at- 
tentively watch  for  the  slightest  sign  of  putrefaction,  and,  if  we  can  detect  it,  let 
off  the  water  directly.  When  the  meadow  has  become  completely  drained,  an- 
other inundation  of  about  three  days'  duration  may  be  bestowed  upon  it ;  and, 
subsequently,  a  third,  lasting  bu'  one  day.  As  soon  as  the  grass  begins  to  spring 
up,  these  inundations  must  be  '  iscontinued.  After  the  first  crop  of  hay  has  been 
got  in,  however,  especially  wl  en  the  weather  is  dry,  another  inundation  may  be 
bestowed  upon  the  meadow,  which  must  not,  however,  be  prolonged  beyond  a 
period  of  two  days.  But  the  period  at  which  these  operations  should  be  per- 
formed, as  well  as  their  duration,  must  invariably  be  determined  by  attention  to 


376  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

the  nature  of  the  soil  which  is  to  be  operated  on,  and  the  state  of  the  weather  ', 
and  temperature.  The  more  permeable  a  soil  is,  the  more  frequently  may  it  be 
inundated,  and  the  longer  may  the  water  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground.— 
But,  where  the  land  is  of  ai.  argillaceous  and  impermeable  nature,  it  must  not  be 
watered  so  often,  nor  must  the  inundations  be  prolonged  so  much  as  otherwise.  . 
When  the  weather  is  dry,  the  land  may  be  watered  much  more  frequently  than 
it  should  be  in  damp  weather,  and  the  water  may  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
ground  much  longer  in  cold  than  in  warm  weather. 

On  those  meadows  which  are  watered  by  spontaneous  inundation,  care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  the  irrigating  canals,  furrows,  and  trenches,  as  well  as  those 
intended  to  carry  off  the  water,  in  perfect  repair  and  good  order,  so  that  the  wa- 
ter may  not  reixiain  on  the  ground  one  moment  longer  than  is  beneficial. 

Neither  in  inundation  or  irrigation  should  the  water  be  allowed  to  flow  over 
the  land  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  day,  as  it  would  then  be  likely  to  do  a 
great  deal  of  harm.  Toward  evening,  or  early  in  the  morning,  are  the'  periods' 
when  its  action  will  prove  most  beneficial. 

After  a  white  frost,  or  one  of  those  cold  nights  which,  in  the  spring,  almost 
invariably  succeed  very  warm  days,  watering  the  soil  will  be  particularly  advan- 
tageous, as  it  repairs  the  mischief  done  to  the  herbage  by  the  cold. 

In  conducting  irrigation,  the  following  points  must  be  attended  to: 

If  the  meadow  has  been  pastured  during  the  autumn,  and  the  cattle  have  sub-    [ 
sequently  been  taken  up  and  turned  into  the  stalls  or  into  the  straw  yard,  the    , 
first  thing  to  be  done  is  immediately  to  set  to  work  and  repair  those  trenches  and 
furrows  which  have  been  injured  by  the  feet  of  the  cattle,  in  order  that  the  water 
may  flow  equally  over  all  parts  of  the  meadow.     By  means  of  turfs  placed  in  the 
furrows,  and  also  by  raising  the  banks  of  these  latter  with  strips  of  turf,  the  wa-    ' 
ter  may  be  retained  in  some  places,  and  forced  to  extend  itself  in  others.     When 
all  the  repairs  are  made,  water  should  be  let  on  to  the  meadow,  in  order  to  see  if 
it  takes  its  proper  course,  for  the  pressure  of  the  feet  of  cattle  always  deranges  . 
the  irrigating  arrangements  more  or  less. 

An  abundant  and  continuous  irrigation  may  then  be  bestowed  on  the  land,  in 
order  that  the  soil  may  become  saturated  with  water,  rendered  more  compact, 
and  made  to  settle  down.  After  a  lapse  of  from  eight  to  fifteen  days,  the  meadow 
must  be  allowed  to  drain,  in  order  that  it  may  not  be  rendered  too  soft,  and  after- 
ward watered  afresh.  Although  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  irrigate  land  too  much 
in  the  autumn,  it  is  always  best  to  suffer  portions  of  it  to  drain  and  be  watered  ; 
alternately,  even  when  there  is  a  suflSciency  of  water  to  admit  of  the  whole 
meadow  being  continuously  irrigated — a  circumstance,  however,  of  very  rare  oc- 
currence, especially  when  the  meadoAv  is  of  considerable  extent.  Wherever 
there  is  not  this  plenty  of  water,  it  must,  of  necessity,  be  withdrawn  from  one 
part  before  it  can  be  applied  lo  another. 

Should  a  sharp  frost  come  on  during  the  period  of  irrigation,  and  the  meadow 
become  covered  with  ice,  no  harm  will  arise  ;  besides,  water  which  can  flow  on 
without  interruption  seldom  freezes. 

Immediately  after  the  melting  of  the  ice  or  snow,  the  sluices  should  be  open- 
ed in  order  that  the  water  may  drain  off  quickly,  as  otherwise  it  will  be  very 
likely  to  do  mischief.  The  first  sprhig  irrigation  may  last  fifteen  days  or  more  ; 
the  meadow  should  then  be  left  dry  for  at  least  eight  days,  after  which  time  the 
irrigation  may  be  recommenced,  but  the  water  must  not  again  be  allowed  to  re- 
main so  long  on  the  land. 

When  the  herbage  begins  to  appear,  which,  where  there  are  warm  springs  of 
water,  and  where  the  temperature  is  mild,  usually  occurs  early  in  the  season, 
the  meadow  land  should  again  be  laid  thoroughly  dry,  and  all  the  trenches  looked 
to  and  repaired.  Ewes  should  then  be  pastured  on  the  meadow,  as  the  herbage 
yielded  by  it  at  this  season  is  peculiarly  beneficial  to  them,  increasing  their  milk 
far  more  than  any  other  kind  of  nutriment  would.  In  many  counties  of  England  ! 
the  success  of  sheep  breeding  is  believed  to  n  st  essentially  on  the  pasturage  ; 
yielded  by  ir  '         '  .        i      .        ■.  ■        .- t.  j   .i-- 

such  pastura; 
which  there 

The  irrigations  may  then  be  continued,  but  the  water  should  not  be  suffered  to    | 
remain  on  the  ground  more  than  three  or  four  days  at  a  time.     As  the  weather 


ccess  of  sheep  breeding  is  believed  to  n  st  essentially  on  tne  pasturage  ; 

1  by  irrigated  meadow  land,  and  numerou    experiments  have  proved  that  , 

asturage  is  exceedingly  beneficial  to  sheep  ;  it  is  only  those  grass  lands  on  '^. 

there  is  stagnant  or  standing  water  which  are  injurious  and  unwholesome.  ; 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MEADOW  LAND.  377 

becomes  warmer,  however,  their  frequency  must  be  diminished  ;  and,  at  length, 
they  must  only  be  performed  in  tlie  night.  This  will  depend,  in  a  great  measure, 
on  the  nature  of  the  soil ;  wherever  the  land  is  sandy  and  permeable,  and  the 
temperature  inclined  to  be  dry,  the  irrigation  may  be  repeated  every  fourth  night, 
and  this  contmued  until  the  grass  is  ready  to  be  mown.  The  herbage  growing 
on  an  irrigated  meadow  should  always  be  kept  fresh  and  green  by  means  of  wa- 
ter ;  if  it  is  once  suffered  to  flag  and  droop,  the  plants,  from  bemg  accustomed  to 
moisture,  will  suS'er  much  more  than  others  would — their  vegetation  will  cease, 
and  there  will  be  great  difficulty  in  bringing  them  round  again. 

Great  care,  skill  and  attention  are  required  in  the  management  of  irrigatioit^ 
it  must  never  be  repeated  until  the  soil  has  become  perfectly  drained,  neither 
must  it  be  deferred  until  the  plants  have  begun  to  suffer  from  drouth.  In  large 
farms  it  will  always  be  best  to  have  a  man  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  looking 
after  it,  keeping  in  order,  making  the  necessary  repairs  in  the  trenches,  furrows, 
&c.  and  regulating  the  periods  and  continuance  of  each  irrigation. 

Immediately  after  the  first  crop  of  hay  has  been  got  in,  the  irrigation  should 
be  recommenced  ;  the  first  may  be  made  to  last  eight  days,  but  after  that  it  must 
only  be  repeated  in  the  night,  and  when  the  meadow  appears  to  require  it. 

Many  persons  particularly  recommend  that  meadow  land  should  be  carefully 
'  weeded,  and  freed  from  all  useless  and  injurious  plants.  But  where  proper  at- 
I  tention  is  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  weeds  are  of  no  great  consequence, 
and  will  never  attain  any  great  bight ;  indeed,  where  meadows  are  mown  twice 
a  year,  all  the  weeds  that  do  exist  in  them  will  disappear  after  the  second  mow- 
ing. It  is  not  so,  however,  with  meadows  which  are  only  mown  once,  as  there 
the  weeds  have  time  to  attain  their  full  growth,  especially  where  they  happen 
to  be  of  such  kinds  as  cattle  will  not  touch  either  in  the  spring  or  autumn.  Some 
weeds  may  be  completely  destroyed  by  pasturing  cattle  on  the  meadow  during 
the  spring,  as,  for  example,  the  cbck's-comb  (rinanthus  cristagalli),  the  seed  of 
which  would  otherwise  form  and  ripen  before  the  period  for  mowing  the  first 
crop  of  hay  arrived.  Thistles  disappear  when  the  land  on  which  they  grow  is 
mown  twice  in  the  year  ;  and,  when  cut  down  before  they  have  begun  to  flower, 
they  form  very  good  fodder. 

Aquatic  plants  are  destroyed  by  draining  the  soil ;  which  is,  in  fact,  the  only 
way  of  getting  rid  of  them  entirely.  The  tussilago,  or  colt's-foot,  alone,  which 
flowers  very  early  in  the  year,  and  covers  the  soil  with  its  large  leaves,  requires 
to  be  pulled  up  by  the  roots  when  found  growing  on  a  clayey  soil.  After  it  has 
been  pulled  up  several  successive  times,  it  will  be  extirpated,  even  though  some 
portion  of  its  roots  should  be  left  in  the  soil. 

"When  a  meadow  is  mowed,  particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  see  that  the 
grass  along  the  edges  of  the  ditches  and  under  the  hedges  is  carefully  cut  ; 
wherever  this  point  is  not  attended  to,  the  places  thus  left  become  absolute  nurse- 
ries for  weeds  and  poisonous  plants  and  vermin. 

Care  must  also  be  taken  that  no  shoots  or  suckers  from  the  roots  of  trees  shall 
be  allowed  to  shoot  up  near  the  hedge  ;  as  they  sometimes  will  do,  extending 
their  roots  in  all  directions.  If  the  meadow  is  mown  twice  in  the  year,  these 
suckers,  which  otherwise  shoot  up  and  multiply  so  rapidly,  will  be  weakened  and 
destroyed  ;  but  where  it  is  let  alone  a  whole  year,  the  scythe  is  powerless  to  de- 
stroy them,  and  the  only  way  of  extirpating  them  will  be  to  cut  them  down  close 
to  the  ground,  or  even  lower  if  possible.  It  is  not  necessary  to  tear  them  up  roots 
and  all,  which  Avould  be  a  task  of  difficulty  ;  if  the  young  shoots  are  carefully  cut 
off,  the  roots  will  perish  of  themselves. 

Pasturing  cattle  on  meadow  land  has  been  very  generally  condemned  as  disad- 
vantageous and  injurious  ;  and  many  farmers  have  consequently  relinquished  the 
profits  arising  firom  this  important  branch  of  the  rural  economy. 

This  prejudice  has,  doubtless,  arisen  from  the  abuses  which  have  crept  into 
'  the  system,  and  the  injury  which  has  often  been  done  to  the  land  where  others 
besides  the  oAvner  of  it  have  had  the  right  of  pasturing  their  cattle  there  ;  these 
persons  have  been  guided  by  no  lav/s,  have  paid  no  attention  to  times  or  seasons, 
neither  have  they  taken  any  care  to  select  the  kind  or  breed  of  animals  which 
could  be  pastured  on  the  land  with  the  most  advantage.  But  where  the  farmer 
has  used  the  meadow  himself,  and  only  turned  his  cattle  into  it  in  the  spring  and 
fall  of  the  year,  the  practice,  so  far  from  being  injurious,  is  exceedingly  beneti- 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


cial,  especialljf  if  the  quality  of  tiie  hay  is  also  taken  into  consideration  ;  because 
cattle  pastured  on  meadows  during  the  spring  consume  the  early  plants,  which, 
if  they  were  let  alone  and  suffered  to  grow  until  the  proper  period  for  mowing 
arrived,  would  have  become  dry  and  strawy,  and  have  shed  their  seed.  Such 
grasses,  hoAvever,  while  young  and  tender,  are  peculiarly  agreeable  and  benefi- 
cial to  cattle  ;    although  when  suffered   to  grow  and  flower  they  become  dry, 

!    hard,  and  insipid,  and  impede  the  growth  of  other  and  better  herbage. 

'  The  spring  pasturage  ought  almost  invariably  to  be  devoted  to  sheep  grazing, 
provided  that  the  meadows  are  thoroughly  dry  ;  for  marshy  meadows,  the  grass 
of  which  is  defiled  with  mud,  are  always  injurious  to  animals  of  this  kind,  al- 
though perhaps  less  so  in  the  spring  than  they  are  in  the  autumn.  But  wherever 
the  meadows  have  been  thoroughly  drained,  this  early  pasturage  is  very  valua- 
ble, and  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  nourishment  of  ewes,  rendering  their  milk 
very  plentiful  and  nourishing.      These  animals  eat  down  the  grass  in  an  equal 

I   and' uniform  manner,  and  thus  cause  it  to  put  forth  more  roots  ;  and  they  restore 

I  to  the  land,  through  the  medium  of  their  excrements,  as  much  if  not  more  nutri- 
ment than  they  take  from  it.  It  is  also  said  that  they  destroy  or  keep  away  va- 
rious kinds  of  insects.  Their  tread  and  the  pressure  of  their  feet  are  advantage- 
ous rather  than  injurious  to  the  soil ;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  pas- 
turing of  sheep  on  meadow  land  must  be  regulated  by  the  state  of  the  vegetation. 
When  the  spring  is  warm  and  early,  the  animals  should  not  be  suflered  to  remain 
on  the  land  {in  the  western  parts  of  Germany)  after  the  20th  of  April,  and  never 
after  the  beginning  of  May  ;  but  when  the  spring  is  cold  and  the  vegetation  late, 
they  may  be  pastured  on  until  the  10th  of  May. 

It  is  by  no  means  advisable  that  any  kind  of  cattle  should  be  pastured  on 
meadow  land  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  unless  the  soil  is  so  dry  and  firm  that  the 
pressure  of  their  feet  cannot  make  holes  in  the  land,  and  unless  care  is  taken  to 
divide  their  excrements,  and  spread  them  equally  over  the  soil  as  soon  as  they 
are  voided  ;  attention  to  this  point  can  alone  prevent  this  practice  from  being  in- 
jurious to  the  meadows. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  autunanal  pasturage,  or  that  which  follows  the  getting 
in  of  the  second  crop  of  hay,  should  be  devoted  to  horned  cattle,  because  the  au- 
tumnal herbage  is  very  apt  to  produce  cachexy,  or  general  bad  habit  of  body,  and 
gradual  wasting  away  and  loss  of  flesh  ;  besides,  there  is  plentiful  pasturage  else- 
where for  these  animals  in  the  autumn.  The  grass  which  in  some  meadows  shoots 
up  abundantly  and  luxuriantly  at  this  season  is  very  nutritious  and  beneficial  to 
horned  cattle,  and  particularly  adapted  for  the  foddering  of  such  as  are  in  milk. 
At  this  period,  there  is  nothing  to  be  feared  from  the  foot-marks  which  the  ani- 
mals make  in  the  soil,  because,  even  where  the  soil  is  peculiarly  spongy  and 
soft,  these  traces  will  always  be  effaced  in  the  spring.  The  dung  voided  by  the 
animals  is  likewise  very  beneficial,  especially  when  it  is  carefully  divided  and 
spread  over  the  ground,  which  can  easily  be  done,  and  should  be  made  the  duty 
of  the  herdsman. 

In  England,  where  .he  practice  of  pasturing  cattle  on  meadow  land  is  carried 
to  a  very  great  extent,  the  meadows  are  seldom  mown  more  than  once  in  the 
year  ;  sheep  are  sufi'ered  to  graze  upon  them  until  late  in  the  spring,  and  imme- 
diately after  the  hay  is  gathered  in,  cattle  are  turned  on  to  the  ground  to  eat  off 
the  after-o-rass.  The  same  system  will  be  found  to  prevail  inmost  low  countries, 
where  the  breeding  of  cattle  constitutes  the  principal  object  of  the  agricultural 
economy.  Wherever  it  exists  to  any  considerable  extent,  a  certain  quantity  of 
grass  land  is  allowed  to  each  head  of  cattle  for  pasturage,  and  the  production  of 
hay  for  winter  fodder.  For  this  purpose  the  meadow  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
one  of  which  is  pastured,  while  the  other  is  kept  in  reserve  from  the  beginning 
of  spring  until  the  proper  time  for  mowing  it  arrives  ;  and  after  the  hay  has  been 
gathered  in,  the  cattle  are  removed  from  the  other  portion  where  they  had  pre- 
viously been  pastured,  and  turned  on  to  this  newly  mown  part  to  graze  the  after- 
math, while  the  second  part  is  allowed  to  vegetate  in  its  turn  until  it  furnishes  a 
crop  for  fodder. 

All  the  comparative  experiments  that  have  hitherto  been  made  tend  to  prove, 
that  under  this  system  meadow  land  improves  much  more,  and  is  rendered  more 
fertile  than  it  would  be  if  mown  twice  in  the  year.  The  herbage  is  finer  and 
thicker,  and  no  coarse,  hard  stems  or  weeds  are  seen  ;  the  excrements  voided  by 

(954) 


THE   HAY  HARVEST. 


the  animals  manure  the  soil  quite  sufficiently  ;  and  this  mode  of  proceeding  is 
greatly  to  be  recommended  under  certain  circumstances  and  in  certain  localities, 
although  there  may  be,  and  doubtless  are,  places  in  which  it  will  be  most  advan- 
tageous to  take  two  crops  of  fodder  from  the  soil. 

Both  reason  and  experience  convince  us  that  meadow  land  is  much  more  im- 
poverished by  being  mown  than  it  is  where  cattle  are  pastured  on  it.  Where 
two  crops  of  hay  are  exacted  from  the  soil,  the  second  must  always  be  succeeded 
by  a  manuring  ;  whereas,  the  pasturing  of  cattle  on  the  meadow  maintains  it  in 
a  state  of  fertility,  without  any  extraneous  means  being  had  recourse  to. 

It  has  been  found  to  be  so  advantageous  to  use  meadows  as  pasture  land  in- 
stead of  mowing  them,  that  in  some  countries,  and  especially  in  England,  cattle 
are  pastured  on  them  during  the  whole  year.  I  cannot,  however,  recommend 
this   proceeding  being  carried  to  such  an  extent ;    for  among  the  various  grasses 

c   which  are  grown  for  the  purpose  of  being  made  into  hay,  those  which  shoot  up 

I  highest  appear  to  me  to  be  injured  by  being  constantly  eaten  down  by  cattle,  and 
if  long  submitted  to  such  a  system,  eventually  perish  and  disappear.  A  meadow 
which  has  been  pastured,  certainly  produces  very  fine,  thick  herbage,  when  af- 
terward left  to  vegetate  unimpeded  ;  but  the  grass  on  it  is  always  very  short.  If 
the  soil  is  sufficiently  rich  and  fertile  to  ensure  a  plentiful  and  luxuriant  crop  of 
this  short  grass,  it  may  be  advantageous  to  submit  the  meadow  alternately  to 
pasturage  and  to  the  scythe  ;  but,  otherwise,  it  appears  to  me  to  be  exceedingly 
prejudicial  to  meadow  land  to  pasture  cattle  on  it  during  a  whole  year  or  more 
without  interruption. 

'  Meadows  are  divided  into  those  which  yield  one,  two,  or  three  cuttings,  or 
crops  of  hay  ;  and  the  first  is  subdivided  into  early  and  late  meadows.  But  this 
distinction  depends  chiefly  upon  the  manner  in  which  they  are  cultivated,  and 
not  unfrequently  on  the  more  or  less  exclusive  right  which  the  agriculturist  pos- 
sesses over  these  portions  of  land.      For  even  those  meadows  which  are  mown 

!  but  once  a  year  are  capable  of  yielding  two  crops,  if  properly  managed,  and  if 
they  are  the  absolute  property  of  the  farmer.  The  claims  of  "others,  besides  the 
person  who  rents  it,  on  meadow  land,  usually  arise  from  its  having,  at  some  pre- 
vious time,  been  common  land  ;  but  these  claims  are  so  prejudicial  to  the  in- 
terests of  Agriculture,  that  wherever  attempts  have  been  made  to  increase  and 
advance  the  national  welfare,  every  exertion  has  been  used  to  do  away  with 
these  hereditary  claims,  and  release  the  farmer  from  a  tax  which  cramps  his 
energies  and  impedes  improvement. 

THE  HAY  HARVEST. 

The  getting  in  of  the  hay  crop  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  the  agricul- 
tural operations,  and  requires  great  activity  and  industry,  as  well  as  skillful  man- 
agement and  constant  attention. 

The  exact  period  at  which  this  operation  should  be  undertaken  cannot  be  spe- 
cified, although  many  persons  pretend  to  lay  down  rules  with  regard  to  it.  It  is 
influenced  not  only  by  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  situation  of  the  meadow,  and 
the  kinds  of  grass  which  grow  there,  but  also  by  the  state  of  the  temperature, 
and  the  advancement  or  backwardness  of  the  season.  The  best  way  is  to  com- 
mence mowing  as  soon  as  the  chief  part  of  the  herbage  is  just  preparing  to  flower  ; 
for  were  we  to  commence  sooner,  the  quantity  of  hay  obtained  would  not  be  so 
great  ;  and  if  the  operation  is  postponed  until  later,'  the  quality  of  the  hay  will 
be  deteriorated.  Where  it  is  intended  that  the  meadow  should  be  mown  two  or 
three  times  in  the  course  of  the  year,  the  first  crop  should  always  be  got  in  as 
early  in  the  spring  or  summer  as  is  practicable,  in  order  to  allow  more  time  for 
the  vegetation  of  the  other  two  crops  ;  thus  the  second  being  ready  for  cutting 
sooner,  the  third  is  rendered  more  abundant :  in  those  places  where  considerable 
value  is  set  on  the  aftermath,  the  first  crop  of  hay  is  always  mown  very  early  in 
the  year. 

As  the  diflference  in  the  temperature  has  so  great  an  influence  on  vegetation, 
it  will  readily  be  understood  that  the  herbage  is  not  always  ready  to  be  mown  at 
the  same  period.  In  a  warm,  rainy  spring,  the  hay  harvest  will  be  at  least  three 
weeks  earlier  than  it  will  be  in  a  cold,  dry  season.  Sometimes  the  vegetation 
of  the  long  grasses  is  very  forward,  while  that  of  the  short  grasses  is  altogether 
as  backward  ;    so  much  so,  indeed,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  commence 

(935) 


380  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


mowing.  But  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  when  the  short  grasses  are  back- 
ward at  the  time  the  first  crop  is  mown,  they  shoot  up  vigorously  and  luxuriantly 
against  the  period  of  the  second  mowing  ;  this  is  not,  however,  always  the  case, 
for  where  the  weather  is  dry  and  unfavorable,  these  grasses  are  often  even  more 
behind  in  their  vegetation  at  the  second  than  they  were  at  the  first  mowing. 
Whenever  the  tops  of  the  short  grasses  have  suffered  from  frost,  it  will  always 
be  found  beneficial  to  mow  them,  as  they  are  thus  induced  to  put  forth  new 
shoots.  Where  their  vegetation  has  been  retarded  by  drouth,  and  this  state  of 
weather  is  succeeded  by  much  rain,  they  will  shoot  up  very  rapidly  without  any 
thing  being  done  to  them. 

Temperature  has  in  general  a  very  great  influence  on  the  luxuriance  as  well  as 
the  period  of  the  hay  harvest.  However  vague  may  be  the  data  which  we  pos- 
sess respecting  the  indications  of  alterations  of  weather  and  temperature,  and  al- 
though these  data  are  in  general  founded  on  prejudices  and  old  saws,  yet  it  i§ 
well  known  that  in  general  there  is  a  considerable  change  of  temperature  about 
the  21st  of  June,  or  the  period  of  the  summer  solstice.  If  the  former  part  of  the 
summer  has  been  dry,  a  fortnight's  rain,  or  even  more,  may  be  expected.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  early  part  of  the  summer  has  been  wet,  and  the  weather  seems 
inclined  to  clear,  fine  and  favorable  weather  may  be  expected.  It  is  on  this  ac- 
count that  those  who  have  had  their  spring  meadows  mown  early  are  best  off  in 
the  former  case,  even  though  at  the  period  of  the  mowing  the  short  grasses  were 
very  backward,  for  this  herbage  shoots  up  most  luxuriantly  during  the  wet 
weather  which  succeeds  to  the  dry.  But,  wherever  the  mowing  cannot  be  per- 
formed before  the  commencement  of  the  rainy  season,  it  should  be  deferred  until 
there  is  a  reasonable  prospect  of  settled  fine  weather  again.  All  these  contingen- 
cies should  be  carefully  weighed,  and  the  nature  and  position  of  the  meadow 
taken  into  consideration,  before  the  period  best  adapted  for  cutting  down  hay  is 
fixed  upon. 

The  operation  of  mowing  requires  great  attention  and  care  ;  it  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  the  herbage  should  be  cut  down  as  close  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  as  level  as  possible,  without,  however,  touching  the  necks  of  the 
plants  or  injuring  the  sward.  This,  however,  can  only  be  done  on  even  meadows 
which  are  thoroughly  free  from  stones  and  inequalites.  Neither  can  it  be  effect- 
ed whea  long  scythes  are  used,  or  where  the  mower  takes  long  sweeps  or  swaths ; 
for,  although  such  a  mode  of  proceeding  tends  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  the 
work  very  much,  a  more  circumscribed  swath  is  to  be  preferred,  as  it  enables  the 
laborer  to  cut  the  grass  closer  to  the  ground  and  more  equally.  It  makes  a  very 
great  difference  in  the  quantity  of  the  hay  crop,  whether  the  grass  is  cut  close  to  the 
ground  or  not,  tirstly,  because  the  herbage  is  much  thicker  the  nearer  it  comes  to 
the  ground  ;  and  secondly,  because  experience  has  testified  that  it  is  much  more 

%  advantageous  to  the  young  shoots  that   the  grass  should  be  cut  down  close,  than 

>   it  should  be  left  long  and  uneven. 

I       As  it  is  much  easier  to  get  the  laborers  to  mow  in  this  way  when  they  work 

<  by  the  day  than  it  is  when  they  are  at  task  work,  I  cannot  but  consider  the  for- 
)   mer  to  be  most  preferable.     Day  work  has  also  another  advantage,  viz.  that  the 

<  laborers  may  then  be  employed  either  in  mowing  or  haymaking,  according  as 
1   they  can  be  of  most  use. 

/       Where  the  land  is  even,  a  man  can   easily  mow  an  acre  and  a  half  per  day. 

<  Skillful  workmen,  who  mow  by  piece  or  task  work,  generally  get  through  more 
i  than  this,  and  will  sometimes  do  twice  as  much  ;  but  then  it  is  not  so  neatly  and 
}  well  executed. 

I       There  are  various  ways  of  making  the  hay,  which  are  folloAved  according  to 

)   the  kind  of  hay  which  we  wish  to  have  produced,  and  the  state  of  the  weather 

)  at  the  period  of  haymaking. 

c       There  are  two  kinds  of  hay,  green  and  brown  hay. 

The  '/juality  of  green  hay  is  always  improved  by  the  grass  being  spread  about 
and  divided  immediately  after  having  been  mown,  and  thus  exposed  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  sun  and  air  ;  but  it  must  l)e  carefully  protected  from  moisture,  and 
from  dew  and  rain,  by  putting  it  in  heaps.  As  soon  as  the  dew  is  evaporated, 
all  the  grass  which  has  been  mown  in  the  early  part  of  the  morning  should,  if 
the  weather  is  fine,  be  scattered  about,  and  great  care  taken  to  shake  it  free  from 
lumps  and  divide  it  thoroughly.     As  soon  as  this  has  been  done,  the  haymakers 

(956 1 


THE   HAY  HARVEST. 


should  go  back  to  the  spot  where  they  commenced,  and  turn  over  or  move  with 
a  rake  that  portion  which  was  spread  out  first ;  at  noon  this  should  be  repeated 
at  four  o'clock  the  hay  should  be  raked  up  into  semi  or  perfect  circles,  and,  be^ 
fore  sunset,  made  into  grasscocks.  The  business  of  the  second  day  commences 
with  tedding  all  the  grass  mown  early  in  the  morning,  as  soon  as  the  dew  is  off 
the  ground ;  the  grasscocks  should  then  be  shaken  out  into  what  are  called 
straddles  or  plats,  each  of  about  a  perch  and  a  half  or  two  perches  in  breadth  ; 
between  each  of  these  a  vacant  space  should  be  left  to  admit  of  the  hay  being 
turned  toward  either  the  upper  or  the  lower  part  of  the  meadow  when  it  is  moved 
at  nine  o'clock  and  at  noon  ;  toward  evening  it  should  again  be  brought  into  cir- 
cular ridges,  and  before  the  sun  goes  down  again  made  into  grasscocks,  which 
latter  must,  however,  be  three  or  four  times  as  large  as  those  of  the  preceding 
day.  The  same  course  of  proceeding  must  be. continued  throughout  the  third 
day,  and  by  that  time,  if  the  weather  has  been  sunny  and  fine,  this  hay  will  be 
dry  enough  to  be  gathered  together  in  one  large  heap,  preparatory  to  its  being 
carried  off  the  ground.  But  if  any  appearance  of  moisture  is  perceptible  in  the 
heap,  it  must  be  shaken  out  again,  and  the  hay  once  more  spread  over  the  ground, 
though  not  thinly  as  before,  and  suffered  to  remain  until  every  particle  of  moist- 
ure is  evaporated. 

All  the  grass  Avhich  is  mown  after  the  early  part  of  the  morning  should  be  left  \ 
in  the  swaths  or  sweeps  in  which  it  fell  from  the  scythe  until  the  following  day 
and  then  submitted  to  the  process  we  have  just  been  describing.  Every  morning 
the  newly  mown  grass  should  first  be  tedded  and  spread  about ;  then  the  heaps  '. 
shaken  out  into  plats — the  small  ones  first,  and  then  the  larger  ones  ;  and,  after 
this  has  been  done,  the  labor  must  be  divided  among  the  whole  of  the  operation.  . 
Until  some  portion  of  the  hay  has  been  stacked  or  stored  up  in  the  hayloft,  the  | 
amount  of  work  to  be  done  will  increase  every  day,  and  more  hands  will  be  re- 


quired to  accomplish  it  properly. 

Hay  thus  prepared  retains  its  green  hue,  its  aromatic  scent,  and  indeed  nearly  . '; 
all  its  most  useful  properties  ;  it  only  loses  its  aqueous  portion,  and  does  not  ex-  ; 
perience  fermentation.  When  an  extra  number  of  hands  can  be  procured,  and  •', 
the  weather  is  favorable  to  the  performance  of  the  operation,  equally  as  much  is  / 
'  gained  by  the  advantages  arising  from  the  work  being  expeditiously  performed 
as  is  expended  in  the  wages  of  the  additional  laborers  ;  and,  on  the  whole,  the 
expenses  are  but  little  greater  than  they  would  have  been  had  the  operation  been  ; 
performed  in  an  imperfect  and  dilatory  manner.  ' 

Some  farmers  suflfer  the  grass  to  remain  on  the  spot  where  it  was  dropped 
from  the  scythe  for  two  or  three  days  before  they  begin  to  move  it.     There  can- 
not be  a  doubt  but  that  much  labor  is  thus  saved,  because  the  grass,  having  be-   / 
come  faded,  dries  much  more  quickly  ;  but  the  hay  thus  produced  is  never  so 
green. 

When  the  weather  is  rainy,  damp,  or  changeable,  the  hay  cannot  be  so  rapidly 
prepared.  The  chief  point  to  be  aimed  at  in  this  case  is  that  of  keeping  the  cut 
grass  as  much  together  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  water  may  not  wash  away 
its  succulency,  and  yet  to  give  it  sufficient  air  ;  every  moment  of  fine  weather 
must  be  taken  advantage  of  to  move  it  about,  otherwise  there  will  be  danger  of 
its  fermenting.  So  long  as  the  grass  continues  green,  retains  its  succulency,  and, 
in  a  manner  of  speaking,  its  vitality,  so  long  the  humidity  which  falls  from  the 
atmosphere  will  not  do  it  much  harm ;  and  when  rainy  weather  sets  in  imme- 
diately after  the  commencement  of  the  mowing,  or  the  operation  has  been  begun 
during  rain,  but  in  the  anticipation  of  fine  weather  supervening,  in  either  of  these 
cases  the  grass  should  be  left  just  where  it  was  cut,  until  the  weather  is  more 
favorable  ;  should  it,  however,  be  too  much  pressed  down  by  the  moisture,  it 
must  be  gently  raised  with  a  rake,  and  then  it  niay  be  suffered  to  remain  a  long 
time  in  this  state  without  there  being  any  danger  of  its  deterioration,  provided, 
however,  that  there  is  no  stagnant  water  on  the  ground.  Wherever  this  last 
named  evil  exists,  the  whole,  or  as  much  as  possible,  of  the  grass  must  be  re- 
moved to  the  highest  parts  of  the  meadow.  Rain  is  most  injurious  to  hay  when 
it  has  lost  its  vitality  and  is  partly  dry;  it  then  actually  deprives  it  of  its  most 
nutritious  particles.  Hence  it  will  be  evident  that  great  care  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  the  hay  from  being  rained  upon  while  it  is  spread  out  over  the  ground  to 
drv  ;  so  soon  as  there  is  the  least  threatening  of  a  shower,  all  the  grass  should 

(957) 


382  THAERS  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

be  gathered  together  and  the  driest  parts  made  into  heaps.  When  this  precau-  ' 
tionary  measure  has  been  taken,  the  hay  will  bear  a  continuance  of  heavy  rain 
without  suffering  much  deterioration,  especially  if  the  temperature  is  not  very- 
warm.  The  external  part  of  the  heap  alone  loses  color  and  flavor,  the  interior 
portion  remains  green  and  retains  all  its  succulency  ;  and  when  the  weather 
clears,  and  the  hay  can  be  spread  over  the  ground,  one  dry  day  will  frequently 
suffice  to  render  it  fit  to  be  stacked  in  case  more  rain  is  anticipated. 

When  the  wet  weather  continues  for  a  considerable  period  without  intermis- 
sion, air  must  occasionally  be  admitted  into  the  heaps  or  cocks  ;  and  care  must 
be  taken  that  the  hay  does  not  become  heated.  Should  this  misfortune  be  pro- 
duced by  the  warmth  of  the  temperature,  the  best  way  of  managing  this  half- 
dried  grass  is  that  recommended  by  Klapmeyer,  which  we  shall  speak  of  more 
fully  when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  getting  in  of  clover  crops :  it  consists  in  uni- 
ting it  all  in  one  large  haycock,  in  order  that  it  may  be  equally  heated  through- 
out ;  subsequently  shaking  it  out,  and  spreading  it  over  the  ground  ;  and  then, 
when  it  has  become  dried  by  the  air,  collecting  it  afresh.  When  it  has  once  be- 
come overheated,  it  will  not  do  so  again  ;  its  color  and  smell  changes,  but  it  will 
not  turn  mouldy  or  contract  any  disagreeable  flavor,  and  will  always  be  adapted 
for  the  feeding  of  cattle.  It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  this  mode  of  hay- 
making ought  never  to  be  practiced  upon  natural  meadows,  unless  in  cases  of  ab- 
solute necessity. 

There  is  another  way  of  making  green  hay,  which  saves  a  great  deal  of  labor  ; 
this  is  but  little  practiced,  although  highly  to  be  recommended.  I  shall  now  de- 
scribe the  details  of  the  operation. 

As  soon  as  the  grass  is  thoroughly  freed  from  moisture,  it  is  put,  while  ye* 
green,  into  narrow  heaps,  which  are  made  as  high  as  possible  ;  and,  to  pre  (rent, 
these  from  falling  down,  a  small  stake  is  driven  into  the  ground,  around  v/nicL 
the  grass  is  carefully  arranged  with  the  hands.  A  handful  of  grass  is  then  tjikeii 
from  one  of  the  swaths,  and  the  longest  and  strongest  portions  are  chosen  Irom  it 
to  cover  the  top  of  the  heap  or  haycock  with,  care  being  taken  to  turn  the  upper 
or  flowering  part  of  the  grass  downward.  These  pyramidal  heaps  are  then  suf- 
fered to  remain  until  the  grass  of  which  they  are  composed  is  thoroughly  dry, 
which  is  generally  somewhere  between  the  eighth  and  fifteenth  day  ;  on  the  heap 
being  opened,  the  grass  in  the  interior  of  it  will  be  found  to  retain  its  hue  and 
freshness.  I  have  seen  grass  thus  made  into  large  heaps,  during  dry  and  windy 
weather,  which  has  dried  very  rapidly  without  requiring  to  be  moved,  and  has 
been  quite  green.  Temporary  rain  or  showers  will  not  do  it  any  harm,  beyond 
that  of  depriving  the  external  part  of  some  portion  of  its  color  ;  but,  should  the 
wet  weather  continue  for  any  considerable  period  of  time,  there  is  a  possibility 
of  the  hay  becoming  too  much  compressed :  it  will  then  be  necessary  to  open  the 
heaps,  and  shake  and  loosen  the  hay,  in  order  to  prevent  it  from  acquiring  an  un- 
pleasant flavor. 

There  are  some  meadows,  the  greater  part  of  the  herbage  of  which  requires  to 
be  exposed  for  a  short  period  to  both  wind  and  rain,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  its  inju- 
rious properties,  and  render  it  agreeable  and  profitable  to  cattle.  This  is  the 
case  with  all  the  large  and  hard  grasses — not  only  the  reeds  and  rushes,  but  also 
the  blue  hair  grass  (aii-a  cerulea),  a  plant  which  is  so  often  found  on  damp,  low 
ground.  It  has  been  observed  that  cattle  which  are  fed  on  hay  containing  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  this  plant,  lose  their  strength  when  the  hay  has  not  been  ex- 
posed to  the  air  and  warmth  for  a  proper  period.  Such  hay  should  be  left  upon 
the  ground  for  five  or  six  weeks,  in  order  that  it  may  be  repeatedly  wetted  and 
dried  again. 

Broicn  hay  h  made  by  allowing  the  grass  to  remain  for  a  day  or  two,  or,  if  the 
\\  weather  is  unfavorable,  for  even  a  longer  period,  where  it  was  cut ;  afterward, 
V  when  it  is  dry,  it  must  be  shaken  and  turned,  and  subsequently  formed  into  small 
heaps.     When  it  has  remained  thus  for  some  days,  these  heaps  are  united  to- 
gether, so  as  to  form  larger  ones.     These,  also,  are  left  standing  for  some  days  ; 
after  which  period  the  hay  is  collected  and  formed  into  large  cocks.     There  it 
becomes  heated,  perspires,  dries  again,  and  eventually  becomes  like  a  block  of 
peat.     During  this  process,  no  air  should  be  suffered  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
i  hay  ;  and,  instead  of  shaking  and  moving  it,  it  should  be  compressed  as  much  as 
;  possible,  in  order  to  exclude  the  air  ;  for,  wherever  this  is  not  attended  to,  putre- 

)  (9581 


THE    HAY  HARVEST.  383 


faction  and  mildew  will  be  engendered.     This  kind  of  hay,  which  is  seldom 
stored  in  lofts,  but  made  into  cocks  and  ricks,  may,  when  required  for  use,  be  cut 
with  a  knife,  sharp  spade,  or  hatchet.     In  many  countries  the  farmers  are  great- 
ly prejudiced  ia  favor  of  brown  hay,  and  assert  that  it  forms  a  far  better  fodder 
I  for  cattle  than  green  hay  does ;  in  support  of  which  assertion,  they  narrate  vari- 
'  ous  experimental  trials  made  with  the  latter,  all  of  which  have  turned  out  unfa- 
'  vorably.     But,  if  we  come  carefally  to  examine  into  both  sides  of  the  question, 
we  shall  find  that,  in  those  places  where  the  preference  is  given  to  brown  hay, 
'  the  green  hay  is  almost  always  carelessly  or  imperfectly  made  ;  in  which  case 
I  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  former  will  be  preferable.     There  are  many 
',  recorded  experiments  which  satisfactorily  prove  that  good  green  hay  is  decidedly 
[•  the  most  nutritious  and  advantageous,  whether  employed  as  fodder  for  horses, 
/  sheep,  or  milch  cows  ;  oxen  only  which  are  put  up  to  fatten  thrive  best  on  brown  ; 
hay.  ; 

;       Various  instruments  have  been  invented,  with  a  view  to  diminish  the  manual  ' 

labor  of  haymaking  on  extensive  meadows,  and  by  means  of  these  a  great  por- 
!  tion  of  this  operation  may  be  executed  with  the  addition  of  horse  power. 
!'       Bloys  de  Treslong,  in  "The  Acts  of  the  Rotterdam  Society,"  vol.  ii.  p.  88, 
']  describes  a  harrow  which  is  made  use  of  to  turn  the  hay,  and  submit  it  more 
'i  perfectly  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  the  sun's  rays.     This  instrument  is  com- 
/  posed  of  two  pieces  of  wood,  each  nine  feet  long  ;   and  in  each  of  which  there 
'  are  seven  long  teeth,  made  either  of  wood  or  iron.     These  portions  are  united 
together  by  three  cross-pieces  of  about  four  feet  four  inches  long.     A  horse  is 
harnessed  to  the  instrument  on  which  a  man  or  a  boy  mounts,  and  guides  it  up 
and  down  the  meadow,  by  which  means  the  whole  of  the  hay  is  moved  and 
turned  over.    This  invention  is,  however,  only  useful  in  fine,- dry,  windy  weather. 
It  may  easily  be  supposed  that  the  hay  thus  made  is  equally  dry  and  no  way  in- 
ferior to  that  formed  in  the  usual  way,  although  considerably  less  manual  labor 
has  been  expended  on  it.     A  second  laborer  must  always  follow  the  harrow  in 
order  to  raise  it  up  when  the  hay  becomes  collected  between  its  teeth. 

A  horse-rake  may  be  made  use  of  for  the  purpose  of  gathering  the  hay  to- 
gether from  the  sweeps  or  swaths  in  which  it  was  cut,  a  similar  instrument  to 
that  which  is  usually  employed  on  the  stubble  of  cornfields  ;  and  a  haysweep  is 
frequently  used  to  accumulate  the  hay  in  heaps,  to  each  extremity  of  which  is 
attached  a  cord  or  chain,  the  other  end  of  which  is  affixed  to  the  harness  of  a 
pair  of  horses.  On  each  side  of  the  tree  or  piece  of  wood  v/hich  forms  the  sweep, 
a  man  gets  up  who  holds  by  a  cord  affixed  to  the  reins,  and  bends  slightly  for- 
ward. The  horses  are  then  put  in  motion,  and  the  hay  is  gathered  together  in 
front  of  this  machine  so  quickly  and  thoroughly,  that  if  the  meadow  is  tolerably 
even,  only  a  few  stray  bits  are  left  here  and  there  on  the  ground.  When  the  la- 
borers think  that  the  heap  is  sufficiently  large,  they  spring  to  the  ground,  still,  ^ 
however,  holding  by  the  cord ;  and  the  tree  being  no  longer  borne  down  by  their 
weight,  slides  over  the  heap  of  hay.  They  then  remount  and  proceed.  This  - 
operation  cannot  be  well  performed,  unless  the  persons  employed  are  skilled  in  it. 
Mr.  Middleton,  an  Englishman,  has  given  a  description  of  a  similar  but  much 
more  complicated  instrument,  which  account  has  been  translated  into  German  by 
Leonhardi,  and  published  at  Leipsic  in  1787. 

The  carting  and  carrying  of  the  hay  are  operations  which  are  always  executed 
much  better  and  more  promptly  when  the  persons  employed  are  accustomed  to    , 
the  work.     As  the  bulk  of  hay  is  always  very  great  in  proportion  to  its  weight, 
much  nicety  and  skill  are  required  in  making  the  load  such  as  a  team  can  draw    ' 
without  ditficulty.     Therefore,  a  person  skilled  in  loading  hay,  whether  male  or  ^ 
female,  should  always  be  selected  for  the  performance  of  that  work  and  encour- 
aged.    Neither  must  this' operation  be  too  much  hurried,  but  time  allowed  for  ; 
the  hay  to  be  divided  and  spread  out  in  even  layers,  so  as  to  maintain  the  equi- 
librium of  the  whole.     Muqh  more  time  is  actually  gained  by  proceeding  gradu- 
ally and  surely,  than  by  acting  with   precipitancy";    for  it  is  impossible   for  the 
person  employed  in  loading  to  execute  his  share"  of  the  labor  properly,  if  more 
hay  is  presented  to  him  at  once  than  he  can  possibly  arrange. 

in  general,  a  relay  of  wagons  is  required,  and  the  operation  always  progresses 
more  rapidly  when  there  is  a  pair  of  horses  or  oxen  Avhich  can  be  made  to  draw 
the  wagon  "that  is  being  loaded,  from  one  heap  to  another.      The  wagon  ought 


384  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

always  to  be  placed  between  two  heaps  in  order  that  it  may  alternately  receive 
hay  from  either  side,  unless  there  happens  to  be  a  high  wind,  in  which  case  it 
']  must  be  so  placed  that  the  wind  shall  blow  the  hay  toward  it. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  establish  a  due  proportion  between  the  number 
of  laborers  employed  in  loading,  unloading,  and  stacking,  and  the  number  of 
teams  and  wagons.  This  proportion,  however,  must  be  regulated  chiefly  accord- 
ing to  locality,  and,  therefore,  merely  general  rules  can  be  given  for  determining 
it.  Every  thmg  should  be  arranged  so  that  one  part  of  the  operation  shall  not  be 
retarded  by  another ;  that  nobody  shall  be  idle,  and  yet  that  nobody  shall  be  too 
much  hurried. 

The  back  of  the  wagon  must  always  be  carefully  fastened  up  and  finished  off, 
in  order  to  prevent  any  hay  from  being  lost  on  the  road.  '. 

The  hay,  when  properly  made,  is  either  stored  in  boarded  lofts  or  granaries 
situated  over  the  stable,  in  which  the  cattle  are  kept  that  are  to  consume  it ;  or 
else  it  is  formed  into  stacks,  ricks,  or  cocks. 

In  storing  it  up,  care  must  he  taken  that  it  is  spread  out  in  uniform  layers,  and 
piled  together  so  compactly  that  no  vacant  spaces  shall  be  left ;  for  mildew  is 
invariably  engendered  by  such  vacancies,  and  the  moisture  produced  when  the 
hay  becomes  heated  also  collects  there.  Where  this  is  the  case,  the  hay  some- 
times becomes  so  much  heated  as  to  give  out  vapor  ;  and  then,  so  far  from  loosen- 
ing it,  or  lifting  it  up  and  giving  it  air,  we  must,  as  far  as  possible,  endeavor  to 
prevent  the  least  breath  of  air  from  coming  to  it,  and  close  up  the  shutters  and 
all  the  outlets  of  the  loft.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  hay  may  ferment  very 
much  and  turn  brown  ;  but  it  will  not  be  spoiled,  nor  will  there  be  so  much  dan- 
ger of  its  taking  fire.  It  is  only  when  a  free  current  of  air  is  allowed  to  come  to 
it  that  the  inflammable  gas,  which  under  such  circumstances  is  evolved,  will  be 
likely  to  take  fire.  We  must  not,  therefore,  touch  the  hay,  unless  it  is  to  take  it 
quickly  out  of  the  loft  to  cool  and  dry  it  again.  / 

If  the  hayloft  is  thatched  with  a  good  s<traw  roof,  the  hay  must  be  piled  as  \ 
near  to  that  roof  as  possible,  and  pressed  down  so  compactly  that  no  interstices 
shall  be  left  between  the  two.  When  no  portion  of  the  hay  is  in  contact  with 
the  air,  it  goes  through  its  heat  without  receiving  any  damage,  and  every  por- 
tion retains  its  quality  and  nutriment.  Where  the  roof  is  of  slates  or  tiles,  the 
upper  layer  of  the  hay  is  very  apt  to  lose  its  flavor,  and  become  damp  and  mouldy. 

It  is  well  known  that  if  we  would  have  fodder  preserve  its  good  qualities,  and 
not  acquire  a  flavor  and  smell  disagreeable  to  cattle,  we  must  prevent  all  the 
vapors  and  miasma  of  the  stable  from  penetrating  through  the  floor  into  the 
stored  hay  situated  above. 

Arched  floors,  composed  of  boards  covered  with  straw  or  reeds,  are  best  adapt- 
ed for  preserving  the  store  of  fodder  destined  for  the  cattle  beneath. 

When  distributing  the  ditlerent  kinds  of  fodder  in  the  granaries  and  lofts, 
great  care  must  be  taken  to  apportion  to  each  variety  of  animals  the  kind  of  fod- 
der which  will  be  most  agreeable  to  their  palate,  as  well  as  beneficial  for  them ; 
and  to  distribute  the  different  kinds  of  hay  through  each  loft  in  the  order  in 
-  which  they  are  to  be  consumed,  so  that  there  may  be  no  difficulty  in  getting  at 
each  one  as  it  is  wanted. 

But  it  is  far  more  advantageous  to  stack  hay  than  to  keep  it  in  lofts  or  build- 

'   ings  of  any  kind.     When  the  haycocks  or  stacks  are  properly  formed,  the  hay 

will  be  preserved  much  better  and  in  a  more  wholesome  state  than  it  ever  can  be 

'   in  confined  buildings,  because  those  vapors  which  exhale  from  it,  and  which  are 

<\  so  apt  to  engender  mildew  and  an  unpleasant  flavor,  are  carried  off  by  the  air  as 

soon  as  they  reach  the  surface  of  the  stack.     This  is  the  reason  that,  in  England, 

farmers  and  dealers  in  hay  and  straw  always  assert  that  they  can  distinguish 

housed  from  stacked  hay  by  the  smell ;  and  also  that  the  latter  is  so  much  pre- 

'\  ferred,  and  will  always  fetch  a  much  higher  price.     Each  kind  of  hay  should  be 

^  made  into  a  separate  stack,  as  the  farmer  will  thus  be  enabled  to  select  that 

which  he  thinks  proper  for  use  ;  and  will  also  be  better  able  to  keep  the  hay 

from  one  year  to  another.     Hay  and  fodder  stacks  are  sometimes  built  upon  a 

floor  or  ground-work,  formed  for  the  purpose  of  stones  or  boards,  or,  what  is  still 

more  common,  on  a  bed  formed  of  dry  branches  and  straw  ;  but  an  elevated  and 

dry  i-pci  should  always  be  selected  for  the  site  of  a  hayrick.      On  one  of  the 

foundations  just  mentioned,  the  fodder  may  be  spread  out  by  armsful,  and  ar- 

(960) 


THE  HAY  HARVEST.  385 


|)  ranged  in  regular  beds,  one  above  the  other,  each  trodden  down  and  compressed 
^  as  much  as  possible.  From  the  base  up  to  a  certain  hight,  the  stack  should  con- 
\  linue  to  swell  out  and  enlarge  in  circumference,  and  then  gradually  diminish  un- 
\i  til  the  eaves  or  summit  assume  the  form  of  a  roof,  terminating  in  a  point.  Last- 
^  ly,  this  roof  should  be  covered  with  straw,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  hay, 
\  and  carrying  off"  the  water  and  rain  without  its  doing  any  injury  to  tjie  stack. 
)  Haystacks  are  made  in  various  forms  ;  sometimes  ihey  are  round,  at  others 
)  square,  but  their  most  general  form  is  that  of  a  long  square  or  oblong.  This  lat- 
^  ter  is  usually  preferable,  because  the  stacks  which  are  built  in  this  way  may  be 
i  lengthened  at  pleasure,  and  all  the  crops  of  the  year  formed  into  oue  large  stack, 
'  should  such  a  course  of  proceeding  appear  to  be  advisable.  One  of  the  gable  i 
1  ends  should  be  directed  toward  the  north-west,  or  that  point  from  which  most 
;  wind  and  rain  may  be  expected,  in  order  that  the. least  surface  may  be  presented 
}  to  the  action  of  the  elements.  The  surface  of  the  top  must  be  arranged  at  this 
•i  gable  end  in  the  form  of  the  slope  of  a  roof. 

)  "When  a  stack  is  finished,  all  its  roughness  should  not  only  be  taken  off  with  a 
I  rake,  but  the  sides  should  also  be  carefully  and  evenly  cut.  If  any  hollows  or 
\  inequalities  appear — a  circumstance  which  should,  however,  be  as  much  as  pos- 
;  sible  avoided — they  must  be  carefully  filled  up,  in  order  that  no  moisture  may 
(  find  a  way  in.  Lastly,  the  stack  should  be  covered  up  with  straw,  and  a  trench 
{  dug  all  round  it  to  carry  off  the  dripping  of  the  water. 

/       The  long  stacks  have  one  great  advantage  over  all  others,  namely,  that  the 
t   hay  may  be  easily  cut  from  them  when  required  for  trussing  or  for  consumption, 
\  provided  that  it  is  cut  off  perpendicularly,  and  on  the  opposite  side  to  that  quar- 
)  ter  whence  most  wind  and  rain  come.     The  hay  and  fodder  stacks  should  all  be  ]' 
\  placed  in  one  yard  or  enclosure  set  apart  for  the  purpose,  and  surroundad  with    ! 
fences  or  Avails :  it  is  much  easier  to  watch  the  progress  of  the  consumption  of 
the  winter  stores  when  they  are  thus  placed,  than  it  is  when  they  are  laid  up  in  / 
granaries,  and  consequently  the  farmer  is  enabled  to  regulate  the  expenditure  of   ! 
food  according  to  the  stock  in  hand. 

Those  floorings  of  boards  or  planks  intended  to  serve  as  the  basis  of  hay-stacks, 
and  which  are  united  with  a  movable  roof  that  can  be  raised  or  lowered  at  will, 
are  now  scarcely  ever  made  use  of,  being  not  only  expensive  but  very  inconveni- 
ent ;  and  the  hay  being  equally  as  well,  if  not  better,  preserved  when  exposed  to 
the  air.     Those  tunnels  or  tube-like  vacuums  which  it  was  formerly  customary 
^  to  leave  in  the  center  of  every  haystack   that  was  built,  for  the  purpose  of  carry-  ; 
i  ing  off  the  vapor  engendered  in  it,  are  now  quite  abandoned  ;  for  experience  has    '. 
i  proved  that  the  portions  of  hay  nearest  to  them  were  always  the  first  to  spoil. —  ' 
I  Indeed,  fodder  can  never  be  more  effectually  preserved  from  injury  than  when  all 
t  communication  with  the  open  air  is  entirely  cut  off',  and  every  approach  to  a  va-  ) 
(  cuum  avoided.     The  inconvenience  of  these  tunnels,  and  the  difficulty  of  form-  ^ 
I  ing  them,  are  also  arguments  against  them. 

I  The  haystacks  or  ricks,  which  are  formed  in  meadows  at  some  distance  from 
J  the  house,  and  are  usually  placed  upon  a  raised  scaffold  or  frame,  when  these 
)  meadows  are  liable  to  become  covered  with  water  during  the  winter,  are  gene- 
(  rally  very  carelessly  made  ;  nevertheless,  they  turn  out,  on  the  average,  exceed- 
)  ingly  well.     In  countries  where  there  is  a  great  deal  of  meadow  land,  and  where 

>  the  chief  part  of  the  hay  is  made  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  being  sold,  these  I 

<  temporary  ricks  or  stacks  are  very  much  used;  there  will  not,  therefore,  be  any 
(  occasion  for  us  to  enter  into  any  minute  description  of  them.  They  are  to  be  con- 
/  sidered  merely  as  the  means  of  meeting  an  exigency,  and  not  in  the  light  of  per- 

<  manent  stacks. 

I  Those  persons  who  have  tried  the  effect  of  forming  their  hay  stacks  of  alter- 
)  Rate  layers  of  the  stravsT  of  the  spring  corn  which  was  left  from  the  preceding 
I  year,  and  hay,  have  spoken  very  highly  of  the  practice.  They  chiefly  recom- 
)  mend  it  upon  this  ground,  viz. — that  the  fodder  can  be  compressed,  even  when 
I  not  perfectly  dry,  as  the  straw  will  absorb  all  the  humidity  proceeding  from  the 
I  hay.  The  straw  becomes  impregnated  with  the  flavor  of  the  hay,  and  is  thus 
}  rendered  more  agreeable  and  palatable  to  cattle,  and  is,  consequently,  eaten  by  | 
(  them  more  willingly.     This  practice  has  chiefly  been  applied  to  clover  hay  ;  we 

>  shall,  therefore,  recur  to  it  again  when  treating  of  that  crop.     Some  agricultur- 
ists have  recommended  that  the  hay  should   be^ salted  while  being  stacked,  espe- 


386  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

cially  if  it  has  at  all  suflered  from  ilie  effects  of  wet  or  bad  weather,  or  has  con- 
tracted aiiy  unpleasant  Havor  ;  and  they  assure  us  that  by  attention  to  this  salt- 
ing process,  the  hay  will  be  rendered  exceedingly  palatable  to  cattle.  1  iiavenot 
as  yet  heard  ol"any  decisive  experiments  Itaving  been  made  on  this  subject  ;  there 
is,  however,  little  doubt  but  that  the  practice  might  prove  advantageous  where 
salt  is  tolerably  ciieap. 

A  distinction  is  made  between  hay  properly  so  called,  or  the  produce  of  the  ' 
first  crop  of  ijrass,  and  the  afiermath,  or  grass  which  constitutes  the  second  crop  ;   [ 
and  where  the  meadows  are  particularly  fertile,  there  is  also  a  third  class  of  hay, 
or  that  arisinij  from  the  third  crop  of  grass. 

The  manner  of  making  and  preserving  tiie  hay  of  the  second  crop  differs  in  no 
essential  pariicular  irom  the  same  process  when  applied  to  the  (irst,  except  as 
regards  such  moditicatioiis  as  are  rendered  necessary  by  theadvaiiced  stale  of  the 
season,  or  the  difference  in  the  weather  and  temperature.  In  order,  however,  to 
prevent  such  iiay  from  igniting  and  taking  fire  while  in  the  stack,  it  must  be  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  the  swaths  uiion  the  ground  for  a  longer  period  before  being 
moved,  in  order  that  it  may  become  perfectly  dry,  for  the  moisture  is  not  so  ea- 
sily and  rapidly  evaporated  from  the  second  crop  of  grass  as  it  is  from  tlte  first, 
or  that  cut  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  year.  On  this  account  it  is  desirable,  previ- 
ously to  its  being  spread  out  and  turned,  to  suffer  it  to  lie  in  the  swaths  as  the 
mowers  have  left  it  for  several  days,  in  order  that  its  vitality  may  be  completely 
destroyed. 

When  the  second  crop  of  hay  can  be  got  m  thoroughly  dry,  and  has  been  grown 
during  fine,  warm  weather,  it  is  even  more  nutritious  than  the  hay  of  the  first 
crop.  We  shall  speak  of  tlie  use  of  hay  when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  manage- 
ment of  cattle. 


THK  VARIOUS  KlN'Dri  OF  PASTURES. 


In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  already  pointed  out  the  advantages  attendant  on 
the  stall-feeding  of  horses  and  cattle  ;  undeniable,  however,  as  these  are,  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  we  are  compelled  to  pasture  the  cattle,  either  because  the 
circumstances  of  the  establishment  require  it,  or  because  the  nature  and  situation 
of  certain  pasture-grounds  prevent  them  from  being  otherwise  rendered  available. 
But,  wherever  any  considerable  number  of  sheep  are  kept,  pastures  are  quite  in- 
dispensable ;  for,  although  it  has  been  shown,  by  undoubted  experiments,  that 
sheep  may  be  fattened  in  enclosures  on  grass  cut  and  carried  to  them,  yet  the 
general  introduction  of  this  practice  would  be  attended  with  many  inconveniences 
and  difficulties,  Avhich  we  shall  have  occasion  to  allude  to  by  and  by.  , 

Tiie  estimate,  valuation,   and  cultivation  of  pasture  lands,  as  well  as  the    ' 
methods  of  turning  them  to  the  best  advantage,  constitute,  therefore,  an  import- 
ant branch  of  agricultural  science. 

The  several  kinds  of  pasture  ground  are  thus  distinguished  from  one  another: 

(«7).  Lauds  devoted  alternately  to  pasture  and  tillage.  Those  portions  of  the  arable  land  which 
are  chiefly  devoted  to  the  produce  of  corn,  but  which,  nevertheless,  are  from  time  to  time  laid 
down  as  grass  land.     To  this  class  belong — 

1.  Pasturage  on  the  unemployed  portions  of  land  subjected  to  the  system  of  alternate  tillage 
and  pasturage,  and  that  on  land  which  bears  a  crop  of  com  once  in  three,  six,  or  nine  years  only. 
.     2.  Pasturage  on  fallow  ground. 

3.  Pasturage  on  stubble  fields. 

{//).  Spring  and  autumn  pasturage  on  meadow  land. 

((•).  Extra  pasture  lands;  those,  the  soil  of  which  is  at  the  same  time  mainly  devoted  to  a  dif- 
ferent use.  the  pasturage  of  cattle  not  being  the  chief  produce  derived  from  them. 

[d).  Permanent  pasture  lands  :  or  those  which  are  constantly  and  exclusively  devoted  to  the 
growth  of  herbage,  and  the  pasturing  of  cattle. 

These  pastures  are  in  general  private  property,  or  at  any  rate  under  the  sole 
control  of  the  lessee  ;    but  at  times  various  individuals  possess  rights  over  them    ' 
which  totally  nullify  tiie  value  of  the  land  to  the  farmer.     We  shall  first  con-    ! 
sider  pasture  grounds  as  private  property,  and,  subsequently,  as  under  the  control    > 
of  various  individuals. 

It  is  customary  to  value  pasture  ground  by  calculating  the  number  of  cows 
which  can  !)e  fed  upon  it  during  summer  ;  the  number  of  head  of  other  kinds  of 
cattle  which  such  land  is  capable  of  sustaining  may  subsequently  be  determined 
by  calculations  deduced  from  the  first  estimate.  Three  acres  of  ground  are  usu- 
ally allowed  to  be  the  extent  required  for  the  support  of  a  cow.  / 

(9(>2) 


THE  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  PASTURES.  387 

A  horse  requires  four  acres  and  a  half;  a  draught  ox  three  acres  and  two- 
thirds  ;  a  colt  two  acres  and  a  quarter  ;  a  sheep  three-tenths  of  an  acre  ;  a  pig 
three-tenths  of  an  acre  ;  a  goose  one-tenth  of  an  acre. 

These  proportions  are,  however,  liable  to  variations  arising  from  the  breed  or 
size,  or  peculiar  properties  of  the  different  kinds  of  animals,  and  also  upon  the 
amount  of  nourishment  which  certain  varieties  require  ;  in  places  where  sheep 
are  scantily  and  badly  fed  it  is  usual  to  reckon  fourteen  of  these  animals  as 
equivalent  to  a  cow  when  calculating  pasture  ground  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
in  those  situations  where  the  farmer  attaches  great  importance  to  the  nature  and 
breeding  of  his  sheep,  he  only  allows  eight  to  each  cow. 

But  before  we  proceed  farther,  it  will  be  as  well  to  understand  exactly  what 
is  the  extent  of  pasture  ground  which  should  be  allowed  for  each  coav.  A  cow 
belonging  to  one  of  the  large  breeds  of  cattle,  such  as  are  found  in  the  low  coun- 
tries, requires  four  times  as  much  pasturage,  if  not  more,  than  would  suffice  for 
the  keep  of  a  cow  belonging  to  one  of  the  smaller  breeds,  such,  for  example,  as 
those  which  are  found  in  hilly  countries,  where  the  soil  is  poor.  Neither  of  these 
extremes  must,  however,  be  taken  as  the  basis  of  our  calculation  ;  we  must  se- 
lect one  which  is  of  a  moderate  size,  and  adapted  for  grazing  on  portions  of  land 
laid  down  to  grass  on  a  farm  conducted  under  the  system  of  alternate  tillage  and 
pasturage.  A  cow  of  this  description  will  weigh  about  450  lbs.  while  alive,  and 
yield  250  lbs.  of  butcher's  meat  when  dead.  If  allowed  sufficient  pasturage,  she  i 
will  annually  jdeld  about  80  lbs.  of  butter.  The  extent  of  pasture  ground  on 
such  a  managed  farm  as  we  have  just  been  speaking  of,  which  a  cow  of  this  des- 
cription will  require,  has  been  calculated  with  the  utmost  accuracy ;  and  from 
that  calculation  may  be  deduced  the  proportionate  extent  of  other  kinds  of  pastures 
i    which  will  be  required  for  the  same  purpose. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  luxuriance  of  the  pasturage 
which  will  be  yielded  by  a  field  or  portion  of  arable  land  laid  down  to  grass,  in  a 
farm  subjected  to  the  system  of  alternate  tillage  and  pasturage,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  take  into  account  the  following  circumstances  : 

1.  The  fertility  or  richness  of  the  soil,  which  is  proportionate  ■with  the  luxuriance  of  the  corn 
crops  which  it  yields. 

2.  Grasses  do  not,  however,  shoot  up  and  flourish  most  where  the  crops  of  grain  have  been 
most  luxuriant,  for,  although  there  may  not  be  a  shade  of  difference  in  the  soil  of  two  fields,  one 
may,  from  situation,  from  being  more  wet  than  the  other,  or  from  various  other  circumstances,  be 
less  adapted  for  the  production  of  herbage.  The  difference,  however,  is  not  actually  so  great  as 
it  appeai-s  to  be,  the  fine  and  scanty  grass  being  often  more  nutritious  than  the  abundant  and 
coarser  herbage. 

3.  The  fertility  of  pasture  gi-ound  depends  in  a  great  measure  upon  the  number  of  corn  ci-ops 
which  it  has  been  made  to  yield  since  it  was  manured,  for  every  one  of  these  tends  to  diminish 
the  richness  of  the  soil  and  its  disposition  to  produce  herbage, 

4.  A  good  deal  likewise  depends  upon  the  time  which  has  elapsed  since  that  portion  of  laud 
'   was  previously  left  at  rest.     If  seeds  have  been  sown  upon  it,  the  grasses  and  herbage  seldom 

spread  or  shoot  up  very  much  during  the  first  year ;  indeed,  the  plants  which  have  been  sown, 
which  are  in  general  Dutch  clover,  pimpernel,  and  ray-grass,  scarcely  make  their  appearance 
above  ground  during  the  first  year.  On  ordinary  soils,  the  pasturage  is  most  luxuriant  in  the  sec- 
ond and  third  years  of  rest.  During  the  fourth  and  fifth  years  it  usually  diminishes  in  quantity  ; 
this  is  frequently  occasioned  by  the  growth  of  mo.ss  and  weeds.  This  decrease  depends,  however, 
very  much  upon  the  condition  of  the  land  ;  for,  on  a  rich  soil  which  is  in  good  condition  and  con- 
sequently favorable  to  the  reproduction  of  herbage,  this  decrease  is  not  perceptible  ;  on  the  con- 
trary, it  has  been  asserted  that  the  quantity  of  pasturage  goes  on  increasing — an  effect  which  may, 
in  a  great  measure,  be  attributed  to  the  quantity  of  dung  deposited  upon  the  soil  by  the  greater 
number  of  cattle  which  it  supplies  with  food. 

At  page  74,  I  have  given  the  table  in  which  Meyer  states  the  extent 
of  ground  required  for  the  keep  of  a  cow  at  grass  during  the  whole  summer. 

If  six  acres  of  pasturage  or  more  are  required  for  the  keep  of  a  cow  during  the 
summer,  it  is  evidently  by  no  means  advisable  to  graze  horned  cattle  ;  a  soil  of 
this  description  can  only,  therefore,  be  advantageously  employed  as  pasturage  for 
sheep. 

In  the  rotation  Avhich  includes  alternate  tillage  and  pasturage,  the  pasturage  of 
(  those  portions  laid  down  to  grass  or  rest  constitutes  a  very  essential  item  in  the 
)  revenue,  nor  indeed  can  it  be  dispensed  with,  if  we  would  maintain  the  harmony 
f  of  the  Avhole  ;  therefore  every  meatis  which  should  present  itself  of  increasing  ' 
\  the  fertility  of  the  pasture  ground  must  be  adopted  ;  even  at  the  seed  time  these 
)  important  portions  of  the  farm  must  not  be  neglected.  In  the  old  system  of  al- 
•  teraate  tillage  and  pasturage,  especially  as  it  exists  in  Holstein,  where  this  svs- 


388  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

tem  is  carried  on  in  all  its  primitive  simplicity,  the  agriculturists  did  not  like  to 
till  their  ground  or  bestow  a  dead  fallow  upon  it,  because  these  operations  tended 
to  destroy  the  roots  of  the  grass  plants  ;  and  consequently,  the  land  did  not  become    ' 
so  quickly  clothed  with  verdure  when  left  in  repose.     The  value  of  the  pastures  ' 
was  seldom  lost  sight  of  by  them,  and  autumnal  corn  was  usually  the  last  crop 
sown  previously  to  the  field  being  laid  down  to  grass,  because  herbage  shoots  up 
more  abundantly  among  this  description  of  crop  ;  or,  if  oats  were  sown,  the  land 
was  only  plowed  once  for  their  reception,  and  that  very  superficially.     It  cannot 
be  denied  that  this  mode  of  proceeding  was  exceedingly  proper,  if  the  chief  ob- 
ject which  the  farmer  had  in  view  was  to  favor  the  growth  and  increase  of  grass, 
and  he  was  unable  to  discover  any  other  means  of  attaining  his  end.  It  was  a  consid- 
erable period  before  any  other  means  of  raising  fodder  was  generally  adopted,  for  it 
was  believed  that  the  nutritious  properties  of  natural  herbage  could  not  be  adequate-   . 
ly  replaced  by  any  plants  artificially  sown.     This  prejudice,  however,  no  longer    ' 
exists  among  intelligent  and  enlightened  agriculturists,  and  it  is  now  the  general    \ 
opinion  that  the  herbage  of  a  field  sown  with  judiciously  selected  gTasses,  equals,    , 
if  not  surpasses,  any  natural  pasture  which  can  be  met  with.  ' 

Dutch  clover  is  usually  selected  for  the  purpose  of  sowing  land  destined  for 
pasture.  The  preference  is  given  to  this  plant  on  account  of  the  smallness  of  its 
seed  ;  its  tendency  to  propagate  its  plants  by  shoots  or  offsets  from  the  roots; 
the  facility  with  Avhich  its  seed  may  be  gathered,  and  the  consequent  low  price 
at  which  it  can  be  obtained.     Two  pounds  of  Dutch  clover-seed  are  quite  suffi- 

I  cient  to  sow  an  acre  of  ground,  if  evenly  scattered  over  it.  Purple  clover  is,  bow- 
ever,  frequently  mixed  with  it,  partly  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  a  larger  crop  of 
hay,  and  partly  because  Dutch  clover  only  thrives  on  soils  which  are  in  tolerable 
condition. 

Ray-grass  {lolium  perenne)  also  answers  very  well  when  sown  in  conjuncfon 
with  Dutch  clover,  as  likewise  does  sheep's  fescue-grass  {fcstuca  ovina).  Both 
of  these  grasses  form  very  thick  and  luxuriant  pasture,  and  thrive  well  on  high 
and  hilly  ground  ;  there  is  little  or  no  difficulty  in  gathering  their  seed,  and,  con- 
sequently, it  is  not  expensive.  From  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  must  be  allowed 
per  acre,  in  addition  to  the  seed  of  the  Dutch  clover.  Some  farmers  state  that 
they  have  sown  woolly,  soft  grass  {ho-Icus  lanatus)  for  the  formation  of  pasture, 
and  with  very  good  effect.  The  seed  of  this  grass  is  also  easily  gathered  ;  it  is 
true  that  there  is  some  difl^iculty  in  getting  it  out  of  the  pod  or  husk,  but  this 

-    trouble  need  not  be  taken  where  the  seed  is  intended  for  home  consumption,  and 

''  not  for  sale.  When  sown  in  the  husk,  a  bushel  per  acre  must  be  allowed. — 
This  grass  always  grows  in  tufts,  and  is  particularly  conspicuous  toward  autumn, 

I   at  which  season  its  radical  leaves  spread  out  vigorously.     In  my  opinion,  howev- 

',   er,  nothing  but  necessity  induces  cattle  to  eat  it,  and  they  leave  it  untouched  r 
whenever  they  can  find  any  other  kind  of  herbage.     Besides,  it  is  so  easily  de 

'   stroyed  by  frost  that  no  dependence  can  be  placed  upon  it. 

The  pimpernel  burnet  (poterium  sanguisorba)  is  an  excellent  plant  for  the  for 
mation  of  pasture,  although  as  yet  it  is  but  little  known  among  us  ;  it  will  thrive  •', 

i|  upon  very  poor  soils,  where  Dutch  clover  will  not  grow  at  all ;  it  cannot,  how-  '>^ 
ever,  be  denied  that  it  yields  a  far  more  luxuriant  herbage  when  sown  on  rich  ( 
land.  It  retains  its  verdure  even  in  the  depth  of  winter,  and  in  the  beginning  of  \ 
spring  shoots  forth  with  the  utmost  vigor.  It  is  particularly  adapted  for  sheep,  ) 
and  these  animals  always  eat  it  with  avidity  ;  it  is  agreeable  to  their  palate,  from  ( 
its  aromatic  and  slightly  astringent  properties.  The  seed  of  this  plant  may  easily  v 
be  collected  from  any  portion  of  the  field  set  apart  for  the  purpose  ;  it  must,  how-  ) 
ever,  all  be  carefully  gathered  with  the  hand.  On  hilly  and  chalky  fields,  wherL-  ( 
the  layer  of  vegetable  mould  is  very  superficial,  quaking  grass  {iriza  media)  will  j 
be  found  well  adapted  for  the  production  of  pasturage  ;  sainfoin  may  be  sown,  in 
conjunction  with  this,  with  good  eff'ect  on  such  land. 

We  shall  again  recur  to  this  subject  before  the  conclusion  of  the  work.  ' 
We  may,  to  a  certain  extent  at  least,  include  in  the  sanpe  class  the  pasturage 
on  outer  fields  or  crop  divisions,  during  those  years  in  which  they  are  laid  down 
to  rest.  My  readers  will  remember  that,  when  treating  of  the  cultivation  of 
grain,  the  above-mentioned  term  was  applied  to  fields  or  divisions  of  land  remote 
from  the  farm  buildings,  and  more  or  less  impoverished,  and  which,  from  want 
of  manure,  yield  only  one  crop  of  grain  in  three,  six,  nine,  or  even  tAvelve  years,  J 

(flG4)  ■  J 


THE  VARIOUS   KINDS   OF  PASTURES.  389 


It  will  be  scarcely  necessary  for  us  to  observe  that  the  pasturage  derived  from 
land  which  is  continually  impoverished  by  crops  of  grain,  and  which  receives  no 
compensation,  in  the  shape  of  manure  or  otherwise,  for  the  exhaustion  they  un- 
dergo, cannot  be  placed  in  competition  with  that  derived  from  corn-fields  which 
have  been  properly  manured,  and  then  laid  down  to  grass;  the  former  are  cov- 
ered with  small,  weak,  shriveled  plants,  and  very  often  with  nothing  but  goat's 
beard  {aira  canesccns),  knawel  [scleranthus  annuus),  some  of  the  smaller  fescue 
grasses,  and  sweet-scented  vernal  grass  {anthoxantum  odoratum)  ;  the  latter  of 
which  cattle  will  not  touch  when  it  is  in  an  advanced  stage  of  vegetation.  Pas- 
tures of  this  nature  are,  therefore,  rather  to  be  regarded  as  places  to  which  the 
animals  may  be  turned  for  exercise  than  as  actual  pasture  grounds  for  either  sheep 
or  swine ;  for,  far  from  nourishing,  they  only  impoverish  these  animals.  The 
produce  of  such  land  can  only  be  depended  on  when  certain  portions  of  it  are  low 
and  damp,  and,  consequently,  unfit  for  the  production  of  corn  ;  these  spots  become 
covered  with  coarse  grass,  and  hmiger  compels  the  animals  to  browse  on  them  ; 
but  as  it  frequently  happens  that,  in  such  situations,  the  grass  is  dirtied  with 
mud,  the  animals  feeding  on  it  are  liable  to  be  attacked  with  dangerous,  if  not 
fatal  diseases. 

If,  on  land  subjected  to  the  triennial  rotation  with  fallowing,  and  which  is  only 
manured  once  in  nine  years,  the  eighth  trop  division,  or  field  intended  for  the 
production  of  the  spring  corn,  being  no  longer  in  a  state  to  be  sown  with  advan- 
tage, is  laid  down  to  grass,  it  may  be  safely  reckoned  on  as  pasture  ground,  since 
the  soil  will  contain  a  tolerably  large  share  of  nutritious  principles. 

The  pasturage  derived  from  fallow  fields,  which,  in  the  triennial  rotation  with 
fallowing,  received  the  tillage  bestowed  previous  to  the  sowing  of  the  autumnal 
corn,  is  more  or  less  luxuriant  and  abundant  according  to  the  degree  in  which  the 
soil  is  impoverished,  or  the  amount  of  manure  Virhich  it  contained  at  the  period 
when  It  was  plowed.  The  period  for  beginning  to  break  up  the  falloAv  is,  or  ought 
to  be,  about  the  time  of  the  feast  of  St.  John ;  but  some  agriculturists  find  them- 
selves compelled  to  postpone  the  plowing  until  later,  in  order  to  avail  themselves 
of  the  pasturage  for  a  few  weeks  longer.  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  the  farmer 
is  obliged  to  make  any  alteration  on  account  of  the  rights  which  others  hold  over 
his  land. 

After  it  has  been  plowed,  there  is  no  longer  any  pasturage  left  for  horned  cat- 
tle, although  sheep  may  still  find  a  scanty  picking  over  it  even  after  the  second 
and  third  plowings  ;  but  the  operations  of  plowing  and  harrowing  follow  each 
other  too  closely  to  allow  of  this  source  of  nourishment  proving  of  any  impor- 
tance. No  dependence  can,  therefore,  be  placed  upon  the  pasturage  thus  obtain- 
ed, at  least  for  more  than  six  or  seven  weeks  ;  and  at  the  season  when  this  is  i' 
available,  vegetation  is  most  luxuriant. 

If  the  soil  is  in  good  condition,  and  well  adapted  for  the  production  of  herbage, 
this  kind  of  pasturage  may  be  estimated  at  about  one-third  of  the  value  of  the 
fields  laid  down  to  grass  in  the  system  of  alternate  tillage  and  pasturage,  during 
their  first  year  of  repose  ;  but  where  the  soil  is  impoverished,  the  land  must  not 
be  estimated  so  highly,  for  lands  which  are  frequently  submitted  to  the  action  of 
the  plow  produce  less  herbage  than  those  which  are  laid  down  to  grass  for  seve- 
ral successive  years. 

The  pasturage  on  stubble  fields,  Avhich  commences  immediately  after  the  har- 
vest has  been  got  in,  is  more  valuable  on  moist  and  badly  tilled  soils  than  it  is 
upon  those  which  are  warm  and  well  cultivated,  and  carefully  freed  from  weeds  ; 
for  the  quantity  of  grass  which  grows  upon  the  latter  is  but  small.  The  princi- 
pal advantage  derived  from  them  arises  from  the  corn  which  falls  upon  them 
during  the  harvest :  this  corn  is  greedily  eaten  by  pigs,  sheep,  and  geese ;  which  . 
animals  are,  for  this  reason,  the  first  that  are  turned  upon  the  stubble  fields.  But  \ 
/  this  very  circumstance  renders  the  pasturage  derived  from  stubble  fields  little 
'  adapted  for  horned  cattle ;  it  is  only  that  derived  from  those  parts  which  the 
other  animals  have  left  untouched,  and  where,  in  consequence,  the  grain  which 
has  fallen  on  the  ground  has  germinated  and  produced  young  plants,  which  fur- 
nishes good  pasturage  to  the  larger  cattle. 

Among  the  various  kinds  of  pasturage  yielded  by  arable  land,  we  must  not  for- 
get to  include  that  arising  from  the  autumnal  grain,  both  in  the  autumn  season, 
as  well  as  in  the  winter  and  spring. 

\  (965) 


390  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

This  pasturage  can  only  be  derived  in  the  autumn  where  the  crops  have  been 
soven  in  good  time,  and  have  shot  up  with  unusual  vigor.  It  is  more  adapted  for 
horned  cattle  than  for  sheep;  indeed  some  persons  assert  that  it  is  injurious  to 
sheep  on  account  of  its  richness.  This  pasturage  is,  however,  it  must  be  remem-  ' 
bered,  only  available  on  fields  which  are  well  drained,  and  even  then  only  in  dry 
weather.      Under  opposite  circumstances,  it  is  frequently  productive  of  great 

'    mischief.  i 

It  is,  on  the  contrary,  most  adapted  for  sheep  during  the  winter  and  sprin^ 
seasons.  There  are  various  opinions  relative  to  the  advantages  which  sheep  de- 
rive from  it,  and  also  as  to  the  propriety  of  deriving  all  possible  benefit  from  it, 

I  or  abandoning  it  altogether.      While  some  farmers  rely  chiefly. upon  it  for  the 
winter  pasturing  of  their  cattle,  others  think  that   the  pasturage  thus  obtained, 
besides  being  very  uncertain  in  its  amount,  only  serves  to  make  the  sheep  dainty, 
and  causes  them  to  reject  the  dry  fodder  which  is  afterward  given  to  them  in  the 
stable ;  and,  consequently,  this  variety  in  their  food  does  more  harm  than  good. 
In  my  opinion,  it  is  those  farmers  whose  chief  object  is  to  save  their  winter  prov-  ' 
ender,  who  assign  the  greatest  value  to  this  kind  of  pasturage  ;  while  those  Avho  ^ 
are  fully  aware  of  the  advantages  resulting  from  an  abundant  supply  of  dry  fod-  ' 
der  for  sheep,  either  do  not  make  anv  use  of  it,  or  attach  a  very  trifling  value 
to  it. 

V       We  shall  have  occasion  to  recur  to  this  question  when  we  come  to  treat  of  the 

/  management  of  sheep.     Still  greater  uncertainty  exists  with  regard  to  the  ques- 

I  lion  whether  or  not  this  mode  of  feeding  is  injurious  to  the  plants.  Some  agri- 
'i  culturists  maintain  that  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  injurious  ;  while  others  are  of 
['  opinion  that  when  adopted  with  proper  caution,  it  is  productive  of  good  rather 

I I  than  harm.  There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  this  mode  of  feeding  cattle  may  be 
',  rendered  exceedingly  injurious  to   the  corn.      Several  comparative  experiments, 

'  conducted  with  the  greatest  care  and  attention,  have  tended  to  prove  that  the 
I  crop  may  be  diminished  to  less  than  one-half  the  value  of  the  seed  ;  and  even 
farther,  if  this  system  be  carried  out  to  the  fullest  extent,  and  the  land  left  to  the 
mercy  of  shepherds  and  herdsmen,  whose  only  object  is  to  obtain  as  much  food 
<[  as  possible  for  the  animals  under  their  care.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  these  same 
experiments  have  proved  that  good  rather  than  evil  results  from  this  mode  of 
feeding,  when  it  is  conducted  with  proper  care  and  attention,  and  the  following 
regulations  are  observed. 

This  kind  of  pasturage  should  only  be  made  use  of  from  the  period  of  the  com- 
mencement of  the  severely  cold  weather  until  the  end  of  February  ;  and  not  then 
unless  the  ground  is  frozen  hard.  Whenever  the  sun  shines  warmly,  it  should 
be  no  longer  used  excepting  in  the  early  part  of  the  morning,  or  so  long  as  the 
surface  of  the  ground  remains  unsoftened  by  the  sun's  rays,  otherwise  the  feet  of 
the  animals  will  sink  into  the  soil  and  damage  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

The  soil  must  also  be  perfectly  free  from  ice  and  snow  ;  for  when  it  is  at  all 
covered,  the  animals  keep  scraping  with  their  feet  in  order  to  discover  the  plants, 
and  thus  injure  them  and  pull  them  up  by  the  roots  ;  neither  must  the  sheep  be 
left  upon  the  corn-fields  when  they  are  covered  with  rime  or  hoar  frost. 

This  kind  of  pasturage  must  never  be  attempted  until  the  ground  is  well  covered 
I  with  the  young  plants  ;  and  on  no  account  when  they  are  only  just  beginning 
I    to  show  themselves. 

I  Neither  must  it  be  resorted  to  at  a  more  advanced  season  of  the  spring,  or 
'  when  vegetation  has  commenced,  unless  with  very  great  circumspection,  or  in 
!'  places  where  there  is  reason  to  fear  that  the  crop  will  be  too  luxuriant,  and  that 
the  grain,  or  the  wheat  especially,  will  be  laid.  In  these  cases,  the  animals  may 
be  suffered  to  graze  upon  the  land  to  a  later  period  of  the  spring,  provided  that 
the  weather  is  dry.  But  this  late  pasturage  must  be  used  with  great  circum- 
spection ;  and  every  point  relating  both  to  soil  and  temperature  must  be  care- 
fully taken  into  consideration.  If  all  these  points  are  attended  to  as  they  ought 
to  be,  it  may  be  safely  presumed  that  the  dung  of  the  sheep  will  restore  to  the 
soil  quite  as  much  nutritive  matter  as  they  take  from  it  while  grazing  on  the 
corn. 

But  where  other  persons  besides  the  farmer  hold  a  right  over  the  land  M'-hich 
entitles  them  to  pasture  their  cattle  upon  it,  the  practice  becomes  highly  injuri- 
ous both  to  the  land  and  to  the  crop  ;  for  the  corn  must  then  be  abandoned  to  the 

(966) 


r 


THE   VARIOUS   KIiNDS   OF   PASTURES.  391 


land  and  to  the  crop  ;  for  the  corn  must  then  be  abandoned  to  the  shepherds  to 
do  as  they  please  with  it,  and  they  care  nothing  at  all  about  the  interests  of  the 
proprietor. 

When  treating  of  the  cultivation  of  meadow  land  in  general,  I  spoke  of  pas^  i 
turage  upon  meadows.  In  the  spring  this  pasturage  is  very  beneficial  to  and 
well  adapted  for  sheep,  while  in  the  autumn  it  is  more  suitable  for  cattle.  When 
the  farmer  himself  uses  the  land  for  this  purpose,  so  far  from  its  being  injurious 
to  the  meadow  to  employ  it  as  pasture  ground,  the  practice  tends  greatly  to  im- 
prove it.  ,| 

If  other  persons  have  a  right  over  this  pasturage,  that  is,  if  it  be  held  in  vas- 
salage, the  point  of  the  greatest  importance  is  to  determine  how  late  in  the  spring 
the  animals  may  be  left  on  the  land,  and  how  early  in  the  autumn  they  may  re- 
turn to  it  again.  These  periods  are  usually  fixed  by  custom  or  old  documents. 
A  diiference  in  the  duration  of  the  right  of  spring  pasturage,  be  it  ever  so  little 
either  one  way  or  the  other,  makes  a  considerable  diiference  in  the  value  of  the 
land  to  the  person  who  rents  it,  as  to  him  who  holds  the  right  of  pasturag-e  ;  and 
it  IS  this  which  gives  so  much  importance  to  the  question,  whether  the  right  of 
pasturage  should  be  continued  until  the  1st  of  May,  old  or  new  style  ;  for  during  , 
the  twelve  intervening  days  between  these  two  epochs,  the  cattle  which  feed 
upon  the  land  will,  if  the  weather  be  warm,  find  an  abundance  of  food  ;  but  they 
impede  the  growth  and  development  of  the  plants,  and  consequently  have  an  in- 
jurious effect  upon  the  quantity  of  hay  yielded  by  the  meadow.  I  have  already 
I  stated  the  extent  of  time  in  which,  during  the  spring,  cattle  may  be  pastured  on 
I    meadow  land  with  advantage  to  themselves  and  the  herbage. 

Under  the  head  of  accessory  pasture  lands,  we  must  first  consider  pasturage  on 
wood-land.  The  value  of  this  will  depend  not  only  upon  the  nature  and  situa- 
tion of  the  soil,  but  also  upon  the  kind,  number  and  magnitude  of  the  trees  with 
which  it  is  covered. 

The  more  completely  the  ground  is  covered  with  wood,  the  scantier  and  poorer    ' 
will  be  the  herbage  it  produces  ;  consequently,  the  pasturage  will  be  less  valua-    J 
ble,  both  on  account  of  there  not  being  room  enough  for  the  cattle  to  graze,  and 
also  because  the  herbage  which  grows  in  the  shade  is  not  so  rich  or  nutritious  as 
grass  growing  in  other  situations.      Even  where  the  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  the 
grass  shoots  up  luxuriantly  under  the  trees,  it  has  so  little  flavor  and  is  so  little  \ 
agreeable  to  cattle  that  those  animals  which  are  accustomed  to  be  well  fed  never 
touch  it  until  compelled  to  do  so  by  hunger.  '. 

Pasturage  on  forest  land  is  generally  productive  of  more  harm  to  the  forest  than 
good  to  the  cattle.  Many  very  valuable  forests  have  been  kept  in  a  most  mis-  ' 
arable  state  of  vegetation  by  being  subjected  to  this  system  ;  the  young  shoots 
and  branches  being  destroyed  and  the  old  trees  considerably  damaged.  Nor  is 
this  pasturage  productive  of  benefit  to  the  cattle  ;  so  far  from  it,  it  often  engen- 
ders disease. 

Instances  may  indeed  be  found  in  which  the  trees  are  sufficiently  advanced  in 
their  growth  to  prevent  the  pasturage  of  cattle  there  from  injuring  them,  and 
therefore  the  farmer  may  avail  himself  of  this  pasture  with  advantage,  the  more 
especially  as  the  trees  afford  an  agreeable  shelter  to  the  animals  during  very  hot 
weather.  But  these  cases  occur  but  seldom,  and  it  rarely  or  never  happens 
that  the  trees  remain  uninjured  when  others  besides  the  owner  of  the  land 
hold  a  right  of  pasturage  over  it.  With  regard  to  the  influence  which  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  wood  have  upon  herbage,  it  may  be  observed  that  the  grass 
growing  under  pine  trees  is  dry  and  scanty ;  that  under  firs  and  larches  more 
valuable.  Very  good  grass  usually  springs  up  under  the  shade  of  oak  trees ; 
the  same  may  be  observed  with  regard  to  the  herbage  found  under  beech  and 
birch  trees,  where  they  do  not  grow  too  close  together.  The  most  luxuriant  and 
abundant  pasturage  is  usually  found  under  alders,  but  these  trees  grow  only  in 
low  and  damp  places,  and  the  herbage  growing  in  such  situations  is  always  un- 
wholesome, and  prejudicial  to  the  growth  of  trees:  all  plantations  of  alders 
should,  therefore,  be  thick  and  close  enough  to  prevent  cattle  from  entering 
them. 

To  forest  pasturage  appertains  the  fattening  of  pigs  upon  acorns  and  beech- 
mast.     This  fattening  of  swine  is  designated  complete,  three-quarter,  half;  and  ' 
quarter  fattening.     The  opinion  generally  entertained  is  that  each  of  these  prO' 

(967) 


392  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


portions  is  realized  once  in  six  years,  and  that  three  times  tl\e  j<roduce  is  a  mere 
nothing. 

In  countries  where  Agriculture  and  cultivation  generally  are  in  a  state  of  im- 
provement, it  is  seldom,  excepting  under  peculiar  circumstances,  which  we  shall 
immediately  proceed  to  enumerate,  that  on  farms  of  any  size  we  meet  with  per- 
manent pastures,  or,  in  other  Avords,  land  exclusively  devoted  to  the  growth  of 
herbage. 
\  The  first  exception  is  in  places  where  the  land  produces  such  a  plentiful  sup- 
ply of  herbage  as  to  make  it  valuable  on  that  account,  especially  as  the  state  of 
the  locality,  or  the  circumstances  of  the  farm  tOAvhich  such  land  apj)ertains,  pre- 
sents no  more  eligible  means  of  turning  the  land  to  account. 

The  second  is  in  places  in  which  the  raising  of  corn,  and  even  the  use  of  the 
soil  as  meadow  land,  is  subject  to  many  casualties  in  consequence  of  the  frequen- 
cy and  danger  of  floods  and  inundations  during  the  summer  season. 
'  The  third  exception  is  found  on  mountains  and  rapid  declivities,  where  the  na- 
ture and  situation  of  the  land  and  the  cliinate  would  render  it  vain  to  endeavor  to  . 
obtain  any  other  kind  of  produce  from  it.  c 

With  the  exception  of  these  cases,  almost  all  the  land  in  cultivated  countries 
which  is  held  by  individuals  is  subjected  to  the  ploAV,  and  devoted  either  entirely 
or  at  alternate  periods  to  the  growth  of  various  kinds  of  grass.  It  is  only  in 
places  where  a  cotnmunity  of  possession,  or  a  right  of  service,  presents  obstacles 
to  its  being  oiherv/ise  used,  that  good  land  which  is  worth  the  trouble  of  culiiva- 
tion  is  still  exclusively  devoted  to  the  production  of  herbage.  And,  in  such 
cases,  the  pasturage  obtained  from  the  land  is  of  very  little  value  ;  for,  generally 
speaking,  none  of  the  persons  possessing  a  right  over  it  concern  themselves  at  all 
about  improving  or  cultivating  it. 

The  first  of  these  three  exceptions  consists  for  the  most  part  of  pastures  Avhicli, 
on  acjpount  of  the  nutritious  quality  of  the  grass  which  it  yields,  is  devoted  to 
the  fattening  of  cattle  ;  for  this  reason  such  portions  are  designated  fattening 
pastures,  although  they  are  often  merely  used  for  the  grazing  of  milch  cows  an'd 
horses.  The  farmers  who  hold  these  pastures  are  perfectly  aAvare  that  if  the 
•  land  was  ploAved  up,  and  devoted  to  the  production  of  the  more  valuable  kinds  of 
grain,  it  would  yield  a  much  larger  return  ;  but  such  pastures,  as  well  as  the  nu- 
tritious matters  which  are  contained  in  the  soil,  are  usually  regarded  as  heir- 
looms, which  the  farmer  has  received  from  his  forefathers,  and  which  he  must 
transmit,  as  a  sacred  inheritance,  to  his  descendants  ;  and  the  man  who  dares 
to  break  one  up,  and  appropriate  to  himself  the  advantages  resulting  from  their 
tillage  and  cultivation,  is  looked  upon  as  one  who  wantonly  dissipates  his  own 
revenue,  and  robs  his  heirs.  An  extraordinary  amount  of  fertility  is  attributed  to 
these  old  pasture  grounds  :  and  it  is  thought  that  if  they  Avere  to  be  broken  up, 
and  converted  for  awhile  into  arable  land,  they  Avould  never  regain  their  pristine 
fertility,  even  though  they  should  appear  to  bear  as  luxuriant  a  crop  of  grass  as 
before.  It  is  allowed  that  they  Avill  again  put  forth  high  and  strong  grass,  but  it 
is  thought  that  they  never  afterAvard  yield  that  thick,  fine  herbage  Avhich  they 
bore  in  their  primitive  state. 

I  shall  not  pretend  to  decide  hoAV  far  this  opinion  is  or  is  not  Avell  founded,  but 
I  find  that  it  is  maintained  by  a  number  of  talented  and  unprejudiced  agricultur- 
ists. But  I  think  that  Avhere  it  has  been  deemed  impossible  to  restore  a  thick, 
fine  layer  of  grass,  the  failure  has  been  attributable  mainly  to  bad  management: 
either  "the  soil  has  been  exhausted  by  bemg  required  to  yield  too  great  a  number 
of  crops,  or  else  the  attempt  to  restore  it  to  the  state  of  grass  land  has  been  badly 
conducted  ;  perhaps  the  reproduction  of  grass  has  been  left  to  Kature  only,  in 
which  case  it  Avill  not  be  restored  for  a  considerable  period  ;  or,  again,  the  kinds 
of  grass  soAvn  may  not  have  been  adapted  for  the  production  of  thick,  fine,  close 
herbage,  the  reproduction  of  Avhich  is  the  object  in  vieAv. 

In  many  countries,  the  fattening  pastures  have  been  subjected  to  an  alternate 
rotation  adapted  to  their  nature  :  the  advantages  thus  derived  from  them  have 
been  very  considerable ;  and,  during  the  years  devoted  to  rest  and  pasturage,  the 
produce  yielded  by  them  has  supported'a  greater  number  of  cattle  than  they 
were  before  capable  of  maintaining  in  tAvo  or  three  times  that  length  of  time. 

To  the  second  kind  of  pastures  belong  chiefly  those  situated  near, streams  or 
rivers  which  are  apt  to  sAvell  and  overflow  their  banks,  or  behind  dykes  or  dams 

(9C8) 


THE  VARIOUS  KliNDS  OF  PASTURES.  393 


constructed  for  the  purpose  of  retaining  these  water-courses  in  due  bounds. — 
These  pastures,  from  being  fertilized  by  inundations,  are  usually  very  rich  and 
'    luxuriant.     Their  produce,  and  especially  the  pasturage  to  be  derived  from  them,    | 
!    cannot  always  be  depended  upon  ;  but  in  valleys,  the  arable  land  of  which  is  sit- 
uated on  the  elevated  grounds,  they  are,  and  with  justice,  regarded  as  the  basis 
I  of  the  Avhole  establishment.     Pastures  situated  on  the  sea-coast  are  still  more 
'  valuable,  salted  herbage  and  salt  marshes  being  regarded  as  so  exceedingly  ben- 
eficial to  cattle. 

The  third  kind,  or  moimtain  pastures,  usually  yield  a  very  abundant  crop  of 
aromatic  herbajje,  Avhich  possesses  properties  favorable  to  the  secretion  of  milk. 
They  are,  therefore,  peculiarly  adapted  for  milch  cows,  Avhich,  during  the  sum- 
mer, are  left  to  graze  upon  them  both  night  and  day,  and  frequently  at  a  consid- 
erable distance  from  the  dwelling  of  the  farmer ;  and  it  is  not  until  the  approach 
of  winter  that  these  animals  are  taken  up  into  the  stalls.  To  this  class  belong 
the  celebrated  pastures  situated  on  the  Swiss  Alps,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Tyrol. 

Other  high  grounds  of  difficult  access,  which  cannot  be  reached  by  the  plow 
or  by  wagons,  and  producing  thick  but  not  strong  grass,  may  be  advantageously 
devoted  to  the  feeding  of  sheep.  In  order  to  preserve  to  such  pastures  ail  their 
fertility,  they  should  be  suffered  to  retain  all  the  dung  deposited  over  them  by  the 
animals  during  the  night.  With  the  assistance  of  this  amelioration,  the  pastur- 
age will  continue  to  improve  ;  but,  without  it,  it  gradually  becomes  impoverished 
and  covered  with  moss. 

It  is  seldom  that  we  now  find  land,  in  the  occupation  of  one  individual  only, 
which  is  constantly  devoted  to  pasture,  when,  from  its  nature  and  situation,  it  is 
capable  of  being  converted  into  arable  land  that  Avill  yield  a  fair  amount  of  pro- 
duce ;  for  it  has  long  been  the  opinion  of  most  persons  that  land  of  this  kind 
yields  a  greater  proht  when  it  has  been  constantly  subjected  to  tillage,  or  Avhen 
the  action  of  the  ploAV  has  been  njade  to  alternate  with  rest  in  the  state  of  grass 
land.  All  the  permanent  pastures  Avhich  Ave  noAV  meet  Avith  are  commons,  or 
lands  subject  to  certain  privileges  or  liabilities  Avhich  preclude  the  use  of  them 
for  any  other  purpose.  These  common  pastures  are,  for  the  most  part,  in  a 
Avretched  condition,  because  every  one  is  desirous  of  getting  all  he  can  out  of 
them,  and  no  one  thinks  of  contributing  to  their  cultivation  or  improvement. — 
Wlien  they  are  easy  of  access,  and  particularly  Avhen  situated  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  houses,  they  are  used  to  excess  at  all  times  and  seasons,  and  all  kinds  of 
cattle  are  turned  on  to  them  Avithout  any  regard  to  proper  order  or  succession. — 
Under  such  management,  they  afford  little  more  than  exercise  ground  for  the  an- 
imals, yield  a  scanty  crop  of  herbage,  and  soon  become  completely  impoverished. 
It  has  long  been  a  recognized  fact  that  little  or  no  advantage  is  to  be  derived 
from  such  land,  and,  consequently,  the  propriety  of  dividing  it  has  been  seen  and 
acknoAvledged.  In  some  cases,  those  Avho  held  a  right  over  the  land  have  taken 
possession  of  it  and  tilled  it,  Avith  the  consent  of  all  the  other  parties.  Some- 
times the  landlord,  and  at  others  the  lord  of  the  manor,  has  taken  upon  himself 
the  right  of  dividing  this  common  ground  among  ncAV  tenants  ;  and  thus,  during 
the  last  few  centuries,  the  extent  of  common  pasture  land  has  become  very  much 
diminished.  But,  hoAvever  advantageous  this  may  appear  to  be  to  Agriculture 
in  general,  it  is  nevertheless  certain  that  the  diminution  of  pasture  ground  for 
cattle  has  been  injurious  to  the  cultivation  of  land,  Avhen  the  system  or  rotation 
under  Avhich  the  land  is  managed  has  not  been  altered  to  suit  the  change  caused 
by  this  circumstance.  It  cannot  be  denied  that,  in  former  times,  the  generality 
of  farms  and  agricultural  establishments  Avere  better  able  to  maintain  themselves 
than  they  are  at  present. 

Recent  experiments  made  to  test  the  success  of  the  division  of  common  pas- 
tures have  tended  to  support  this  theory,  so  far,  at  least,  as  regards  those  cases 
in  Avhich,  Avhen  the  division  Avas  made,  no  new  measures  were  taken  as  regard- 
ed the  rotation  by  Avhich  the  cultivation  of  the  arable  land  was  regulated.  Each 
individual  broke  up  the  portion  which  fell  to  him  in  the  division,  and  obtained 
from  it  as  many  crops  as  he  could  before  it  became  exhausted.  An  increase  of 
arable  land  demanded  an  increased  supply  of  manure  to  ameliorate  it :  instead 
of  Avliich  the  supply  Avas  decreased,  in  consequence  of  there  being  no  means  of 
making  up  for  the  portion  of  pasturage  thus  lost.  The  fertility  of  the  arable  land, 
and  the  ciuantiiv  of  produce  yielded  by  it,  therefore  diminished  in  proportion  as 
I'j.';:)) 


THAERS   PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


this  land  was  increased  in  extent.  Consequently,  it  behooves  us  to  pause  before 
we  determine  on  dividing  common  pasture  land  into  separate  portions,  without 
combining  this  division  with  that  ol' the  whole  of  the  land,  the  suppression  of  all 
the  liabilities  by  which  the  property  is  restricted,  and  the  establishment  of  a 
new  system  of  rotation,  viz.  either  alternate  tillage  and  fasturage  or  the  stall- 
feeding  of  cattle.  Where,  this  cannot  be  done,  it  is  undoubtedly  far  better  for 
the  welfare  of  the  community  that  the  common  pasture  grounds  should  be  re- 
tained, measures  being,  however,  taken  to  improve  their  cultivation  and  to  ei>- 
sure  from  them  the  greatest  regular  amount  of  produce  that  they  can  be  made 
to  yield. 

The  following  are  the  principal  regulations  which  must  be  attended  to  in  the  ' 
I  management  of  pasture  land: — 

,'  They  must  be  entirely  freed  from  stagnant  water  which  may  exist  in  any  part 
of  them,  rendering  them  marshy  ;  for  marshy  and  damp  ground  is  very  injurious, 
to  cattle  of  all  sorts,  and  especially  to  sheep.  The  ditches  and  trenches — both 
those  which  are  intended  to  be  permanent  and  those  which  are  only  temporary — 
should  always  be  kept  open  and  in  good  repair. 

If  it  be  the  object  of  the  farmer  to  obtain  the  utmost  possible  amount  of  pro- 
duce from  their  pastures,  he  must  take  care  to  destroy  all  the  mole-hills. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  eradicate  all  the  weeds,  both  those  which  are  hurtful 
and  poisonous,  and  those  which  take  up  a  great  deal  of  room,  and  prevent  the 
growth  of  other  and  more  useful  plants.  Thistles  in  particular  multiply  with 
great  rapidity  in  rich  pastures,  for  cattle  will  not  touch  them,  and,  consequently, 
their  seed  ripens  and  takes  root.  The  cattle  not  only  abstain  from  touching  the 
thistles,  but  even  abstain  from  eating  the  grass  which  grows  around  them.  Pas- 
ture grounds  may,  therefore,  frequently  be  seen  completely  covered  with  these 
noxious  plants,  and  thus  reduced  to  a  comparatively  useless  state.  This  evil  is, 
however,  easily  remedied ;  all  that  is  requisite  to  be  done  is  to  cut  down  the 
thistles  occasionally  with  a  scythe,  especially  during  the  flowering  season.  When 
this  is  done  several  times  following,  these  weeds  will  eventually  disappear  ;  be- 
sides, cattle  will  eat  them  after  they  have  been  laid  on  the  ground  and  withered. 
In  this  manner  the  milk-thistle,  henbane,  and  other  noxious  plants,  may  be 
eradicated.  Finally,  it  is  very  advantageous  to  pastures  to  spread  the  dung  void- 
ed by  the  cattle  equally  over  them.  If  the  dung  be  left  undivided  as  it  falls 
from  the  animals,  the  plants  which  it  covers  are  at  first  completely  stifled  ;  but  , 
in  the  following  year  tufts  of  strong,  coarse  grass  shoot  up,  which  the  cattle 
never  touch,  unless  absolutely  compelled  to  do  so  by  hunger.  But  where  the 
dung  is  properly  divided  and  spread  about,  it  produces  a  uniformly  good  effect  on 
the  vegetation,  and  that  flavor  which  is  so  distasteful  to  cattle  is  scarcely  per- 
ceptible. Shepherds  are  sometimes  alloAved  to  collect  the  dung  voided  by  the 
cattle,  and  sell  it ;  but  by  this  means  pasture  is  deprived  of  a  great  portion  of  the 
nutrition  which  properly  belongs  to  it,  and,  consequently,  becomes  impoverished. 

In  using  pasture  ground,  it  is,  moreover,  necessary  not  to  crov/d  them  with  a 
greater  number  of  cattle  than  it  can  properly  and  advantageously  support.    When 
too  great  a  number  of  cattle  are  turned  upon  the  pasture,  vegetation  is  checked  ; 
[   the  plants  have  not  time  to  attain  their  full  growth  ;  the  cattle  bite  off  the  tops 
/   of  them,  and  then  tear  them  up  by  the  roots.     On  the  other  hand,  it  is  equally 
injurious  to  a  pasture  for  too  small  a  number  of  cattle  to  be  turned  on  it  to  graze. 
The  effect  of  this  is  not  only  to  diminish  the  utility  of  the  pasture  and  the  return 
that  it  yields,  but  tends  to  impoverish  it.     Under  such  circumstances,  the  herbage 
shoots  up  in  great  luxuriance,  and  many  plants  appear  which  the  cattle  will  not 
eat  after  they  have  attained  any  hight.     These  plants  become  strong  and  multi- 
ply ;  while  the  finer  kinds  of  herbage,  those  best  adapted  for  pasturage,  disap- 
I   pear.     Besides,  if  the  pasture  be  not  supplied  with  a  proper  number  of  cattle,  it 
does  not  receive  as  much  manure  as  it  ought  to  have.*  i 

For  the  same  reason,  the  cattle  must  not  be  turned  into  the  pastures  too  early  ; 
in  the  year,  or  kept  there  too  late.  ' 

It  is  certainly  advantageous  to  pastures  to  remove  the  cattle  from  them  now 

•  When  the  pasture  is  large  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  cattle  which  graze  upon  it,  and  is  not  divided 
into  separate  parts  by  fences,  the  animals  wander  all  over  it,  and  destroy  more  herbage  with  their  feet  than     , 
they  consume.     By  this  means  the  vegetation  is  alwaj-s  checked.     This  inconvenience  does  not  exist  to  so 
great  an  extent  whore  the  number  of  cattle  is  properly  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  pasture,  or  where  - 
is  divided  so  that  as  soon  as  they  have  grazed  off  one  part  they  may  be  removed  to  another. 
(970) 


THE  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  PASTURES.  395 

and  then,  in  order  that  the  grass  may  have  time  to  recover  itself.  It  is  for  this 
reason,  that  in  the  best  conducted  agricultural  establishments,  and  those  in  which 
pasturage  on  the  arable  land  forms  a  constituent,  if  not  an  impoi*?int  part  of  the 
rotation,  the  pasture  ground  is  divided  into  separate  parts.  Under  such  an  ar- 
rangement, the  animals  which  require  the  most  succulent  and  nourishing  food 
are  first  turned  on  to  each  separate  division  ;  and,  after  they  are  removed,  the 
other  kinds  which  need  a  smaller  quantity  of  nutriment  are  turned  on  to  it.  By 
'  this  means  the  whole  of  the  grass  is  eaten  off  close  to  the  ground,  and  thus  those 
plants  which  the  cattle  are  least  partial  to  are  not  able  to  grow.  The  herbage 
is  then  left  to  recover  itself  for  a  sufficient  time,  and  afterward  the  first  herd  is 
again  allowed  to  feed  upon  it. 

The  succession,  association,  or  separation  of  the  various  kinds  of  cattle  upon 
'    pasture  land,  is  in  a  great  measure  regulated  by  local  circumstances. 
]•       In  the  spring,  the  best  pasturage  is  often  given  to  the  ewes,  because  these  ani- 
/  mals  stand  in  most  need  of  it   to  increase  their  supply  of  milk,  and  give  them 
strength  to  nurse  their  lambs.     If  the  winter  stall-feeding  of  the  large  cattle  can 
be  prolonged  until  late  in  the  spring,  it  will  be  rather  advantageous  than  other- 
wise.     For  experience  shows  that  herbage  always  grows  most  thickly  when 
sheep  have  been  suffered  to  graze  upon  it  early  in  the  spring ;  but  they  rnustnot 
i|  be  left  too  long  upon  the  pasture,  and  at  least  three  weeks  must  be  allowed  to 
elapse  before  the  larger  cattle  are  turned  on  to  it.     By  such  mode  of  treatment, 
the  grass  will  have  time  to  recover  itself;  and  the  smell  of  the  dung  which  the 
sheep  have  left  on  the  ground — a  smell  exceedingly  unpleasant  to  cattle — will 
have  time  to  become  dissipated.      If,  in  the  after  part  of  the  season,  sheep  and 
cattle  are  alternately  turned  upon  the  pastures,  the  same  interval  of  time,  viz. 
three  weeks,  must  always  be  left  between  the  occupation  of  the  pasture  by  the 
',  one  and  the  other. 

It  is  not  only  upon  badly  managed  /"^stures  in  which  poverty  and  disorder  are 
/  apparent,  that  sheep  and  horses  are  seen  grazing  by  the  side  of  cattle,  but  the 
I  same  may  frequently  be  observed  on  rich  fattening  pastures.  It  is  a  generally  re- 
ceived opinion,  that  the  grass  which  is  too  coarse  and  hard  for  cattle,  and  espe- 
cially that  which  springs  up  in  places  where  the  dung  has  formerly  fallen,  can- 
not be  consumed  with  greater  advantage  than  by  mixing  horses  with  large  cat- 
tle ;  while  the  very  fine  herbage,  which  the  cattle  cannot  lay  hold  of  with  their 
teeth,  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  sheep.  As  it  is  always  deemed  advisable  that  the 
grass  should  be  eaten  off  close  and  uniformly,  it  is  necessary  thus  to  mix  the  kinds 
of  animals  on  it ;  and  where  this  has  been  done  with  due  care,  after  a  certain  time 
the  herbage  shoots  up  a^ain  with  increased  luxuriance  and  thickness. 

Some  farmers,  however,  do  not  approve  of  the  practice  of  turning  horses  on  to 
the  pastures  before  the  cattle  are  removed,  but  let  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  suc- 
ceed each  other,  and  then  leave  the  pasture  alone  to  recruit  itself. 

The  division  of  pasture  land  into  separate  portions,  whether  these  portions  are 
close  together  or  situated  at  considerable  distances  from  each  other,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  successively  turning  the  different  kinds  of  cattle  on  to  these  divisions,  and 
then  leaving  the  herbage  to  recover  itself,  is  a  system  which  possesses  decided  ad- 
I  vantages  over  the  practice  of  suffering  the  cattle  to  wander  over  the  whole  ex- 
tent of  pasture  ground.     Cattle  which  are  always  confined  in  small  spaces,  do  not 
'  spoil  so  great  a  portion  of  the  herbage  with  their  feet  as  if  they  had  more  space 
•  ]  to  graze  over.    The  grass  is,  consequently,  uniformly  eaten  off  from  the  whole  of 
,  the  ground,  and  then  left  to  recover  itself.     But  where  the  cattle  are  allowed  to 
'  roam  over  a  large  extent  of  pasturage,  some  parts  remam  untouched,  and  there 
I  the  grass  grows  old  and  hard  ;  while  from  others  the  herbage  is  cropped  so  close 
that  it  can  scarcely  shoot  up  again.     Cattle  are  more  quiet  in  confined  pastures, 
and  quietness  is  highly  advantageous  to  them. 

In  many  countries,  where  pasturage  forms  part  of  the  system  or  rotation,  the 
pasture  ground  is  divided  into  small  enclosures,  each  of  which  receives  a  number 
of  animals  proportionate  to  its  size  ;  care  being  taken  that  the  animals  placed  to- 
gether shall  be  of  about  the  same  size  and  strength,  and  such  as  are  accustomed 
to  be  together. 

Great  value  is,  consequently,  set  upon  small  enclosures  bounded  by  hedges,  be- 
cause considerable  importance  is  attached  to  the  shelter  which  these  hedges  af- 
for(3  to  the  animals  from  wind,  from  excessive  heat,  from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and 

(971) 


396  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


likewise  to  the  greater  degree  of  quiet  which  cattle  enjoy  in  a  space  thus  en- 
closed. 

Good  watering  places  are  essential  requisites  m  all  pastures.     The  ponds  or 
reservoirs,  in  which  the  drainage  from  springs  and  ditches  is  collected,  afford  but 
a  poor  resource  to  the  cattle.     Therefore,  where  there  are  no  natural  watering 
places,  artificial  ones  must  be  constructed.     These  should  be  dug  in  situations 
where  the  water  is  disposed  to  collect,  and  to  which  that  contained  in  the  ditches 
can  be  conducted.     They  should  never  be  placed  close  to  the  ditches,  nor  should 
these  latter  be  enlarged  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  them  near  to  the  reservoir ; 
for  the  edges  of  the  ditches  would,  in  that  case,  be  spoiled  and  broken  by  the  feet  < 
of  the  cattle,  and  they,  themselves,  choked  with  mud.     The  best  way  is,  to  con-  V 
duct  the  water  into  the  pond  or  reservoir  through  a  ditch  or  trench  intended  for  ! 
that  purpose.     These  ponds,  or  watering  places,  should  be  at  least  seven  feet  deep  ' 
in  the  center,  and  should  slope  gradually  from  the  brink  to  this  depth.     Their 
circumference  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  cattle  for  whose  use  ihey 
are  intended  :  the  mean  diameter  is  usually  about  sixty  feet.  | 

When  the  soil  is  of  a  plastic  nature,  and  especially  if  it  be  at  all  argillaceous, 
these  ponds  will  retain  the  waier  very  well  ;  but  if  the  soil  is  sandy,  or  contains 
beds  of  sand,  which  may  admit  of  the  water  leaking  out,  it  will  not  be  sufficient 
to  coat  the  reservoir  with  clay,  as  this  is  liable  to  crack  ;  but  the  bottom  must  be 
covered  with  mortar  made  from  lime,  in  the  following  manner  : — The  surface  hav- 
ing been  well  smoothed  and  beaten,  must  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  recently 
slaked  lime,  two  or  three  inches  deep,  sifted  and  moistened  with  water,  until  it 
becomes  of  the  consistence  of  cream ;  on  this  must  be  laid  a  stratum  of  clay  about 
six  inches  thick.  This  clay  should  then  be  beaten  until  it  becomes  as  firm  and 
hard  as  a  paved  floor. 


Section  V. 

THE   REPRODUCTION   OF  ANIMAL   AND  VEGETABLE 
SUBSTANCES. 

Reproduction  and  manufacture  are  usually  considered  as  somewhat  synonymous  terms ;  but 

■we  aie  of  opiuion  that,  whether  viewed  in  a  physical  light,  or  with  relation  to  general  economy 

and  art,  these  two  things  are  so  completely  opposed  to  each  other  that  the  principles  which  are 

',    applicable  to  the  one  are  altogether  foreign  to  tlie  other:  and,  consequently,  the  agriculturist,  the 

'i   manufacturer,  aud  the  political  economist,  must  each  be  guided  in  their  various  operations  by  to-    \ 

tally  opposite  rules  and  maxims. 

There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  these  two  things  are  of  entirely  opposite  natures,  and  that  each 
of  them  has  certain  peculiarities  which  appertain  solely  to  it ;  but  these  peculiarities  are  not  so 
widely  different  as  some  persons  have  pretended.  In  fact,  those  differences  which  have  most  fre- 
quently beeu  pointed  out  will  be  found,  when  we  come  to  inquire  into  their  fundamental  princi- 
ples, to  have  but  little  foundation.  It  will  not,  therefore,  be  foreign  to  our  present  purpose  here 
to  say  a  few  words  respecting  the  analogy  of  these  two  modes  of  procuring  matter,  as  well  as  on 
their  differences. 

The  principles  and  rules  vs^hich  have  been  adopted  as  those  best  calculated  to  ensure  success 
in  the  economy  of  manufactures  have  already  been  entered  into  and  explained:  they  may  serve 
as  a  guide  to  the  economy  of  reproduction,  ii',  from  the  resemblance  between  tlie  latter  and  manu- 
facture, there  is  any  po.ssibility  of  the  same  rules  being  applied  to  each  of  them.  Some  have  as- 
serted that  the  essential  difference  between  manufacture  and  repi-oduction  is  that  the  fonuer  gives 
an  unusual  form  to  matter,  whereas  the  latter  produces  fresh  matter  itself 

But  reproduction  is  not  a  creation  or  formation  of  some  substance  made  witliout  matter.  The 
elements  for  the  formation,  growth,  and  accomplishment  or  maturing  of  the  plant  or  animal  ought 
to  exist  first  of  all.  Whoever  wishes  to  ensure  reproduction,  must,  like  the  manufacturer,  pro- 
.  cure  the  elements  to  work  on  ;  in  many  cases  he  must  seek  for  them,  and  even  give  them  an  ar- 
tificial preparation.  Reproduction,  as  also  fabrication,  can  only  be  made  to  take  place  with  the 
'  assistance  of  substances  which  already  exist,  which  become  decomposed  from  their  original  ele- 
ments, and  are  thus  prepared  to  assume  new  forms. 

It  is  said  that  formation  is  brought  about  in  reproduction  simply  by  the  force  of  nature,  while  in 

manufacture  the  effect  is  produced  by  art  and  the  power  of  man.     But  in  this  latter  case  man  acts 

(972) 


only  by  employing  the  force  of  Nature,  without  the  cooperation  of  which  he  can  obtain  but  very   / 
few  of  the  usual  products  of  manufacture.     In  most  cases,  it  is  true  that  he  directs  that  force,  in  a    / 
greater  or  less  degree,  accordiiig  to  his  own  will ;  but  there  are  many  existins;  circumstances  un-   , ' 
der  which  he  is  compelled  to  leave  Nature  to  act  entirely  to  her  own  laws.     This  is  the  case  in  all 
those  manufactories  which  are  compelled  to  have  recourse  to  chemical  processes,  as  color  makers, 
wine  and  brandy  distilleries,  breweries,  &c. ;  operations  in  each  of  which  we  can  only  moderate, 
and  endeavor  to  regulate  the  natural  action  which  substances  have  upon  each  other.* 

Is  it,  then,  to  be  understood  that  Nature  operates  more  powerfully  in  reproduction  than  in 
manufactures  ?  Undoubtedly,  if  Nature  has  only  to  supply  the  wants  and  necessities  of  a  .small 
extent  of  surface.  In  a  thinly  populated  country  Nature  can  often  produce  sufficient,  if  we  take 
into  account  all  the  collective  produce  of  the  soil,  as  vi'ell  as  the  game  found  upon  it,  to  supply 
the  wants  of  the  wandering  and  isolated  hordes  who  seek  their  subsistence  there  ;  but  this  is  only 
the  case  in  those  salubrious  and  fertilizing  climates  where  the  human  species  first  originated. 
After  man  had  been  expelled  from  Paradise,  he  had,  as  the  human  race  spread  and  multiplied 
upon  the  earth,  to  struggle  with  thistles  and  thorns,  and  to  eat  bread  earned  by  the  sweat  of  his 
brov/,  or,  in  other  words,  to  have  recour-se  to  labor  and  art,  in  order  to  satisfy  his  wants:  he  had 
to  procure  from  that  highly  favored  spot  and  its  environs,  not  only  the  most  nourishing  kinds  of 
grain  and  vegetables,  but  also  those  domestic  animals  of  which  he  stood  in  need,  andto  devote 
all  his  care  and  art  to  the  naturalizing  both  of  plant.s  and  animals  in  the  new  locality  which  he 
had  chosen  for  himself  By  degrees,  as  his  necessities  and  his  family  increased,  his  faculties  de- 
veloped, and  art  and  labor  were  rendered  more  requisite  ;  so  that  at  this  period  among  civilized 
people,  the  share  that  labor  and  art  had  in  the  production  of  the  mass  of  natural  products,  when 
compared  with  that  which  may  be  attributed  to  Nature,  is  not  assuredly  less  than  that  ^^•hich  may 
be  attributed  to  them  in  the  preparation  of  manufactured  articles.  This  fact  contradicts  the  asser- 
tion which  attributes  to  art  and  science  a  greater  share  in  manufactures  than  it  has  in  Agriculture. 

By  degrees,  as  reproduction  augments  in  quantity  and  value,  the  man  whose  object  it  is  to  in- 
duce it,  will  have  to  submit  to  the  same  rules  and  laws  as  the  manufacturer.  However  extraor- 
dinary, therefore,  some  persons  may  consider  the  theory  which  leads  me  to  consider  the  soil  as 
the  agriculturi.st's  primitive  matter,  at  any  rate,  if  it  be  wished  to  place  Agriculture  and  manufac- 
tures in  opposition  to  each  other,  I  cannot  renounce  it,  since,  in  my  opinion,  numerous  and  very  ' , 
important  consequences  result  from  this  theory,  not  only  as  regards  the  development  of  industry,  ' 
but  also  of  political  economy. 

We  approach  nearer  to  the  point  of  separation  between  manufacturers  and  reproduction,  when 
■we  say,  that  with  the  assistance  of  science  and  labor  the  former  represents  the  object  under  that 
form  which  has  been  designed  for  it  and  according  to  some  previou.sly  determined  plan ;  while, 
on  the  contrary,  he  who  induces  reproduction  is  subjected  to  those  forms  from  which  Nature  sel- 
dom or  never  varies,  and  although  he  may  choose  between  them,  he  can  never  alter  them.  But 
even  this  is  by  no  means  an  exact  definition,  for  certain  manufacturers  are  equally  subjected  to 
the  forms  prescribed  by  Nature,  as  for  example,  the  manufacture  of  salt,  and,  in  fact,  all  those  in 
which  crystalization  takes  place,  or  where  chemical  processes  are  employed.  In  such  manufac- 
tures the  form  can  only  be  modified,  and  this  not  precisely  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  the 
manufacturer,  but  more  in  accordance  with  the  action  and  processes  of  Natui-e. 

*  As  we  have  in  another  place  had  occasion  to  remark,  "  No  branch  of  chemistry  is  more  interesting;, 
even  to  the  general  reader,  than  that  which  relates  to  the  vegetable  world  ;  for  objects  of  the  highest  inter- 
est here  present  themselves  in  all  directions.  The  finger  of  God  seems  evident  in  everyplant  we  chemically 
examine.  Thus,  their  juices,  which  are  always  so  regular  and  so  unifonn— so  sweet  in  some,  so  bitter  or 
acid  in  others  ;  tasteless  in  many,  yet  saline  in  several— the  order  and  the  regularity  are  alike  incompreheo- 
sible  to  us.  Neither  by  any  contrivance  of  ours  can  this  regulated  order  of  things  be  altered.  For  instance, 
the  wild  sorrel  still  secretes  its  acid,  if  nourished  with  only  sugar  and  water  ;"the  sea-kale,  which  grows 
wild  on  the  sea-shore,  will  yet  secrete  in  its  juices  common  salt,  when  growing  on  our  most  inland  gardens. 
Neither  can  a  plant  be  made  to  ahsorb  one  salt  in  preference  to  another.  If  a  sprig  of  mint  is  placed  m  a 
solution  of  various  salts,  it  will  absorb  some,  but  entirely  reject  others. 

The  power  which  the  plant  thus  exercises  is  to  the  chemist  utterly  unknown.  To  effect  the  same  separa- 
tion of  the  salts  when  dissolved  together  in  water,  the  chemical  analyst  has  to  perform  a  series  of  decom- 
positions, and  other  chemical  operations,  before  the  desired  result  can  be  obtained,  a  process  which  the  sprig 
of  mint  performs  at  once.  The  reader  must  not  suppose  that  this  is  the  effect  of  mere  filtration,  for  the  most 
delicate  filters  are  utterly  useless  in  any  attempt  to  separate  a  salt  from  its  solution.  Then,  again,  certain 
plants  show  a  decided  preferenr-e  for,  and  absorb  only,  particular  salts.'  The  nettle  and  the  sun-flower,  for 
instance,  saltpetre  (nitrate  of  potash),  clover,  gypsum'  (sulphate  of  lime).  And  these  absorbent  powers  of 
the  plant  are  not  confined  to  soluble  substances,  alumina,  raangnnese,  phosphate  of  lime,  &c.  which  are  not 
dissolved  by  water,  abound  in  plants.  And,  moreover,  the  required  substance  seems  always  placed,  by 
some  magical  and  unerring  arrangement,  in  the  very  part  of  the  vegetable  where  its  presence  is  most  need- 
ed. Thus  flint  (silex)  abounds  in  the  straw  of  wheat,  where  its  presence  helps  to  impart  the  requisite  de- 
gi-ee  of  firmness  to  enable  it  to  support  the  loaded  ear  ;  but  it  is  found  in  a  very  diminished  proportion  in 
the  seed,  where  it  is  not  required.  Is  not  this  the  contrivance  of  its  Di^-ine  Author  ?— or  is  all  this  arrange- 
ment also  chance  ?  The  progress  of  chemistry  continually  unfolds  many  a  beautiful  vegetable  phenomenon 
just  as  mystic,  just  as  astonishing  as  any  of  these,  and  the  field  is  not  yet  nearly  exhausted ;  but  still  the  con- 
clusion the  chemist  arrives  at  is  the  same.  The  deeper  he  penetrates,  the  more  numerous  are  the -con- 
trivances he  observes,  and  more  clearly  manifested  become  the  works  of  the  Creator.  Examine  as  another 
instance  of  these  mysteries  merely  a  cubic  inch  of  soil,  composed  at  most  of  only  four  simple  earths,  and  no- 
tice the  discordant  nature  of  the  chemical  ingredients  so  uniformly  and  so  regularly  produced  by  the  dif- 
ferent plants  which  that  soil  produces  with  only  the  aid  of  water,  and  the  atmospheric  gases.  Observe  the 
wheat  producing  its  flour;  the  sorrel  its  oxalic  acid  ;  the  beet  its  sugar;  the  poppy  its  opium.  From  one 
plant  comes  the  fragrance  of  the  rose  ;  from  another  the  odor  of  the  garlic.  Dr.  Thomson  thought  of  these 
things  when  he  observed  ("  System  of  Chem."  vol.  iv.  p.  303  :)  "  Thpr  multiplicity  of  operations  continually 
going  on  in  vegetables  at  the  same  tune,  and  the  variety  of  different  and  even  opposite  substances  fonned 
mit  of  the  same  ingredients,  and  almost  at  the  same  place,  astonish  and  confound  us.  The  order,  too,  and 
the  skill  with  ^vhich  every  thing  is  conducted  are  no  less  surprising.  No  two  operations  clash.  There  is 
no  discord,  no  irregularity,  no  disturbance.  Everj-  object  is  gained,  and  everything  is  ready  for  its  intend- 
ed purpose." 
(973) 


398  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

This  difFerence  is  more  clearly  defined  under  physical  relations,  when  the  agents  employed  by 
reproduction  are  seeds  and  sjerms.  and  when  it  is  entirely  subjected  to  the  force  of  Nature,  and 
the  matter  brought  forth  under  the  form  with  which  Nature  has  endowed  it ;  for  every  product, 
be  it  animal  or  vegetable,  is  derived  from  a  germ,  although  the  auxiliaries  favorable  to  its  develop- 
ment, and  the  elements  required  for  nourishing  it,  fostering  its  growth,  and  bringing  it  to  maturity, 
are  for  the  most  part  furnished  by  art. 

But,  although  the  creation  itself  and  the  form  under  which  it  appears  is  essentially  due  to  the 
germ  contained  in  the  seed,  art  is  not  entirely  without  its  influence  upon  it,  seeing  that  in  many 
cases  it  may  modify  it  by  coupling  together  individuals  of  different  species  or  breeds:  this  obser- 
vation, however,  applies  rather  to  animal  than  vegetable  reproduction. 

VEGETABLE  REPRODUCTION. 

All  the  most  perfect  plants,  the  only  ones  which  we  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to.  owe  their 
existence,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  seed  formed  by  germination. 

That  reproduction  in  which  the  seed  is  the  chief,  if  not  sole  agent,  is  not  only  the  most,  primi- 
tive, but  the  most  ordinary  ;  it  is  that,  therefore,  of  which  I  shall  generally  have  to  speak,  defter- 
ring  any  mention  of  the  other  kinds  of  reproduction  until  I  come  to  speak  of  those  plants  to  which 
it  relates. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  seeds  of  all  kinds  of  plants  should  have  attamed  to  per- 
fect maturity,  and  should  have  been  carefully  and  healthily  preserved. 

Seed  which  has  not  reached  maturity,  may,  it  is  true,  possess  the  power  of  germinating,  but  it 
always  retains  a  disposition  to  disease  and  weakness.  It  is  true  that  disposition  may  be  so  far 
conquered  by  a  coincidence  of  favorable  auspices,  and  by  a  soil  and  temperature,  peculiarly  adapt- 
ed to  the  nature  of  the  plant,  that  imperfect  seeds  do  occasionally  produce  vigorous  and  healthy 
plants;  but  there  is  always  great  danger  of  the  crop's  failing,  and  the  saving  which  the  agi-icul- 
turist  may  have  effected  by  using  such  seed  is  not  commen.surate  with  the  risk.  I  think  it  the 
more  necessaiy  to  lay  particular  stress  upon  this  point,  as  Mr.  Banks,  the  great  English  naturalist, 
has,  in  his  observations  on  the  causes  of  corn  being  laid,  stated  it  to  be  his  opinion  that  the  grain 
of  corn  which  has  been  laid  is  equally  good  for  seed  as  any  other,  since  it  has  not  lost  the  power 
of  iierminating.  This  opinion,  promulgated  by  so  celebrated  a  man,  which  might  have  spread 
itself  extensively  and  produced  the  most  baneful  effects,  was  soon  contradicted  by  the  experience 
of  numerous  agriculturists.  Although  .some  agricultural  authors  may  have  recommended  that  the 
smallest  grain  should  be  selected  for  the  purpose  of  being  sown,  because  then  a  given  measure 
will  contain  a  greater  number  of  seeds,  all  practical  men  who  have  paid  any  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject are  not  the  less  convinced  of  the  advantages  arising  from  sowing  the  largest  and  most  perfect 
grains  ;  and  it  frequently  happens  that  by  strictly  adhering  to  this  plan  they  have  obtained  par- 
ticularly good  and  very  marked  results,  and  a  stronger  and  healthier  race  of  plants  have  been  cre- 
ated, which  a  little  care  has  afterward  been  sufficient  to  preserve.  It  is  this  which  partly  ac- 
counts for  the  advantages  which  are  found  to  arise  from  sowing  the  different  kinds  of  grain  pro- 
cured from  abroad,  where  proper  care  has  been  employed  in  their  selection.  In  choosing  the 
seed,  a  preference  ought  to  be  given  to  that  portion  of  the  grain  which  has  been  grown  upon  a  ' 
soil  favorable  to  it,  and  calculated  to  bring  it  to  perfection  ;  and  it  is  worth  while,  on  more  ac-  ' 
counts  than  one,  to  take  the  trouble  of  gathering  the  seed  from  a  field  suited  to  the  plant,  and  also 
to  pay  all  possible  attention  to  the  harvest  by  weeding  and  isolating  the  plants  during  their  vegeta-  i 
tion  and  hoeing  up  the  earth,  and,  in  short,  sparing  no  care  or  pains  likely  to  be  conducive  to  the 
perfecting  of  the  crop.  By  these  means  we  shall  ensure  the  seed's  becoming  completely  and  uni- 
formly matured.  But  where  it  is  one  of  the  distinctive  properties  or  peculiarities  of  the  plant  for 
the  seed  to  ripen  unequally,  those  ears  or  pods  should  be  set  apart  for  the  pui-pose  of  sowing 
which  are  perfectly  ripe. 

The  next  point  of  importance  is  the  preserving  of  the  seed  or  grain  intended  for  sowing.  _  It 
ought  to  be  carefully  kept  from  damp  :  not  only  the  moisture  inherent  in  it,  but  also  that  portion 
which  it  may  absorb,  should,  if  possible,  be  abstracted  from  it.  In  order  to  effect  this,  it  must  be 
spread  out  to  dry,  and  frequently  turned,  until  the  moisture  is  all  evaporated.^  For  as  soon  as  the 
seed  begins  to  deteriorate,  which  state  is  often  expressed  by  saying  that  it  is  heated,  and  which 
becomes  apparent  in  a  very  unequivocal  manner  from  the  odor  which  such  grain  then  exhales,  its 
success  when  sown  will  be  very  uncertain.  But  such  seed  has  not  lost  the  power  of  gei-minating : 
the  young  plants  which  shoot  from  it  very  frequently  look  fresh  and  green  ;  but  as  they  develop 
'i  themselves,  especially  when  they  begin  to  blossom,  they  become  weak  and  sickly,  and  the  flow- 
'  ers  fail  off' without  fecundation  taking  place,  or,  at  any  rate,  when  little  or  no  grain  is  formed.  I 
have  had  opportunities  of  witnessing  the  truth  of  this  statement  in  a  crop  of  oats  produced  by 
grain  which  had  been  allowed  to  become  heated.  The  effect  will  be  more  or  less  striking  in  pro- 
portion to  the  deterioration  of  the  gi-ain,  but  it  will  in  all  cases  be  perceptible  ;  and,  very  frequently, 
when  we  attribute  the  ill  success  of  the  crops  to  other  causes,  this  is  the  actual  one. 

Many  persons  con.sider  a  frequent  change  or  renewal  of  the  seed  as  an  indispensable  condition 
to  the  production  of  a  fine  crop.  The  necessity  of  this  change  is  insisted  on  both  by  Aeorists  and 
practical  men,  especially  in  extensive  agricultural  undertakings,  where  the  great  object  is  to  pro- 
duce the  lars-est  possible  amount  of  matter.  But,  according  to  my  own  conviction,  the  strength  of 
which  has  been  rather  increased  than  diminished,  in  proportion  as  I  have  acquired  new  data,  the 
advantage  derived  from  the  use  of  seeds  procured  from  foreign  sources  arises  solely  from  this 
cause,  viz.  that  farmers  are  not  in  general  sufficiently  careful  in  the  choice  and  preservation  of  the 
seeds  which  thev  have  gathered  them.selves.  It  may  occasionally  depend  upon  locality,  or  upon 
the  nature  of  the  soil  and  climate  not  being  favorable  to  the  perfect  formation  of  certain  kinds  of  , 
grain;  and.  in  that  case,  recourse  must  be  had  to  seed  procured  elsewhere.     But  it  more  fre-   , 

quently  happens  that  the  amount  of  labor  required  by  the  farm  or  agricultural  undertaking  does 

not  admit  of  the  farmer's  being  able  to  devote  the  necessary  care  and  attention  to  the  gram  mtend-    ^ 
(974)  -_-_-__-^-_-_-_-  -   ^ ..v-^^i 


VEGETABLE  REPRODUCTION.  399 

ed  for  seed ;  hence  it  is  often  injudiciously  selected,  and  suffered  to  experience  fermentation, 
■which  deteriorates  from  its  value  and  healthfulness.  In  all  countries  there  are  some  districts  and 
Bome  particular  farms  which  are  famous  for  producing  certain  kinds  of  grain,  and  where  the 
whole  harvest  is  frequently  sold  for  seed  at  very  high  prices.  In  such  localities  we  generally  find 
that  this  advantage  arises  not  less  from  the  nature  and  properties  of  the  soil  being  favorable  to  the 
production  of  one  particular  kind  of  grain,  than  to  the  infinitely  greater  care  and  attention  which 
is  paid  to  the  crop ;  and  we  shall  also  find,  even  among  the  farmers  themselves,  a  conviction  that 
they  owe  the  reputation  their  seeds  enjoy  as  much  to  the  latter  as  to  the  former  circumstance.  , ' 

In  places  where  one  or  both  of  these  advantages  ai-e  not  attainable,  it  may  undoubtedly  be  ad- 
I  vantageous  to  procure  the  seed  elsewhere,  even  though  this  can  only  be  done  at  great  ex-  ! 
'  pense  ;  but  I  am  by  no  means  an  advocate  for  the  absolute  necessity  of  this  mode  of  proceeding, 
'  for  I  am  convinced  that  if  the  soil  be  in  other  respects  favorable,  any  kind  of  seed  which  is  at  first 
imperfect  will  gradually  improve  in  quality,  and,  with  care  and  attention,  eventually  be  rendered 
'   perfect.  i 

Persons  who  maintain  that  a  renewal  or  change  of  seed  is  absolutely  necessary,  inquire  wheth-    i 
6r  it  ought  to  be  taken  from  a  richer  or  poorer,  a  stronger  or  lighter  soil,  and  from  a  milder  or  cold- 
er climate.     My  reply  is,  procure  it  from  that  place  where  it  is  most  perfect  and  healthy.     This  is 
not  always  where  the  soil  is  richest,  or  the  climate  the  mildest;  as  in  such  places  the  corn  is  often 
too  thick  on  the  ground,  and  consequently  not  sufiiciently  exposed  to  the  influence  of  air  and  light     ' 
to  allow  the  grain  to  acquire  absolute  perfection  ;  besides,  the  seed  or  grain  is  often  too  large,  and     ' 
there  is  more  husk  than  farina  in  its  component  parts,  the  latter  of  which  is  alone  capable  of  afford-     | 
ing  nutriment  to  the  young  plants.     In  those  places,  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  soil  is  so  weak 
that  it  is  incapable  of  furnishing  sufficient  nourishment  to  effect  the  complete  formation  of  the  gi-ain, 
that  grain  will  be  equally  improper  for  the  reproduction  of  other  plants  ;  for  wheat  gi-own  upon  a 
soil  which  only  produces  stunted  grain  will  always  bear  an  imperfect  seed,  and  will  require  to  be 
replaced  by  seed  derived  from  really  good  wheat  land. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that,  in  plants  as  in  animals,  strength  and  weakness,  health  or  disease, 
are  transmitted  not  only  to  the  first  generation,  but  through  several  succeeding  ones  ;  and  that  these 
dispositions  can  only  be  gradually  eradicated  by  the  help  of  other  influences. 

A  change  of  seed  is  never  entirely  successful  unless  managed  with  great  circumspection.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  grain  which  is  to  be  sown  is  perfectly  free  from  the  seeds  of 
weeds,  otherwise  we  shall  incur  the  danger  of  introducing  into  our  fields  some  usele!;s  or  even  in- 
jurious plant  which  had  not  previously  existed  there — as,  for  example,  the  golden  daisy  or  com 
chrysanthemum  fchrysanthemum  segetum). 

If  there  be  no  means  of  separating  the  grain  from  certain  seeds  of  weed.s,  that  may  be  consid- 
ered as  a  motive  for  procuring  the  former  from  some  other  place  where  these  pernicious  seeds  do  \ 
not  exist.  Thus,  in  my  neighborhood,  they  often  change  the  barley  and  oats  grown  on  the  hills 
for  those  raised  on  the  low  lands ;  because,  in  the  latter,  those  kinds  of  grain  are  found  mixed 
with  'field  mustard,  which  weed  does  not  thrive  on  high  lands ;  while,  on  the  higher  grounds,  the 
oats  and  barley  are  found  intermingled  with  wild  horseradish,  which  weed  can  easily  be  extir- 
pated from  the  low  grounds. 

Some  seeds  retain  their  germinating  pow^er  for  a  considerable  period,  provided  only  that  they 
are  carefully  preserved  ;  while  others,  on  the  contrary,  lose  it  quickly,  and  can  hardly  retain  it  for 
the  space  of  a  year.  If  we  come  to  examine  which  are  the  seeds  that  retain  their  vitality  for  the 
greatest  lengtli  of  time,  we  shall  find  it  is  always  the  most  perfect  ones,  and  that  the  imperfect 
and  .sickly  ones  lose  their  power  of  germinating  first.  To  this  fact  is  to  be  principally  attributed 
the  advantage  of  old  seed  over  new  in  several  kinds  of  plants.  Vegetables  and  plants  can  only 
be  j)rocreated  by  perfect  and  healthful  germs,  which  have  not  been  deprived  of  their  necessary 
space  and  nourishment  during  their  growth  by  abortive  plants  which  will  never  come  to  maturit}', 
and  which  come  from  a  crop  free  from  those  diseases  the  germ  of  which  lies  in  the  grain,  as  is  the 
case  with  smut,  mildew,  &c.  But,  if  we  -would  fully  understand  this  point,  we  must  make  our- 
selves perfectly  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  each  particular  kind  of  plant  or  vegetable.  Grain 
which  has  become  perfectly  matured  may  be  preserved  for  a  very  long  time.  Stores  of  grain  are 
known  to  have  been  preserved  from  time  immemorial  in  caves  hewn  in  solid  rocks,  which  have 
been  discovered  by  chance,  and  the  contents  of  which  have  still  proved  to  be  good  for  seed.  This 
could  not,  however,  in  all  probability,  have  been  the  case  had  not  the  grain  been  totally  secluded 
from  the  influence  of  light,  air,  and  moisture.  In  general,  grain  does  not  keep  for  any  great 
length  of  time ;  some  persons,  however,  assert  that  they  have  found  wheat  that  had  been  kept 
five  years,  and  rye  three  years  old,  to  be  fit  for  vegetation.  Wheat  of  only  one  or  two  years  old 
is  almost  universally  preferred,  as  being  less  liable  to  disease.  Most  agriculturists  are  of  a  differ- 
ent opinion  as  regards  rye,  and  prefer  quite  new  grain ;  for,  when  it  is  more  than  a  year  old,  they 
consider  it  necessary  to  sow  it  more  thickly  than  they  would  in  the  fonner  case  ;  and,  consequent- 
ly, an  equal  measure  of  seed  would  sow  a  smaller  extent  of  ground  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter 
case. 

The  seed  of  most  vegetables  keeps  good  for  a  considerable  period.  I  have  not  been  able  to 
perceive  any  deterioration  in  the  seed  of  vetches  when  eight  and  ten  years  old.  AU  kinds  of  seed 
which  yield  oil  keep  for  a  very  many  years,  provided  the  worm  does  not  get  into  them  :  old  lin- 
seed is  far  preferable  to  nevf  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  new  hemp-seed  is  considered  better  than 
old.  According  to  my  own  experience,  clover-seed  keeps  very  well  for  two  years ;  it  deterio- 
rates on  the  third,  and  becomes  quite  feeble  and  incapable  of  producing  plants  on  the  fourth.  I 
have  succeeded  in  raising  good  crops  of  spurry  fspergn'laj  from  .seed  seven  j-ears  old.  The  prop- 
erties of  each  kind  of  seed  employed  in  Agi'iculture  can,  howevei",  only  be  developed  bynew  ex- 
\  periments,  and  bj'  a  collection  and  recapitulation  of  those  which  have  already  been  made.  As 
I  al.nost  all  the  best  kinds  of  seed  keep  at  least  unt.l  the  second  year,  it  is  always  advantageous  to 
have  a  larger  stock  in  hand  than  will  be  required  for  one  year's  consumption,  especially  of  autum- 
nal iarain.  as  by  this  means  the  farmer  is  enabled  to  choose  the  most  favorable  period  for  sowing 


400  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

his  land.  It  must  not,  however,  be  understood,  that  we  mean  to  advocate  the  practice  of  savingc 
the  grain  of  those  years  in  wliich  the  crops  have  not  become  properly  matured  ;  for  then,  as  has 
already  been  stated,  it  is  not  fit  for  seed.  But  if,  when  such  years  occur,  the  farmer  happens  to 
possess  a  store  of  seed  left  from  the  preceding  year,  he  may  consider  himself  very  fortunate. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  grain  should  be  carefully  separated  frorn  all  tho.se  seeds 
of  weeds  which  may  be  mixed  with  it,  as  well  as  from  all  the  imperfect  grains  which  may  exist. 
This  may  be  etFected — 

1.  By  winnowing  the  seed,  or  throwing  it  into  the  air  (as  is  the  practice  in  some  countries,  in 
order  to  separate  the  grain  from  the  husk  and  the  dust) ;  the  grain  ^vhich  has  fallen  farthest  oif  is 
tlien  chosen  for  seed.  This  operation  may  also  be  peribrmed  by  means  of  a  ventilator,  or  a  kind  of 
mill  which  separates  the  heavier  from  the  lighter  grain,  and  from  the  seeds  of  weeds. 

2.  By  means  of  sieves,  of  which  we  must  ha  ve  a  variety,  pierced  through  with  holes  of  all  sizes ; 
the  seed  of  weeds  is  smaller  than  grain,  and  all  the  little  abortive  grains  fall  through  the  sieve, 
while  all  that  is  properly  developed  is  retained.  Seeds  of  a  different  class,  and  which  are  larger 
than  the  grain,  must  subsequently  be  separated  from  the  latter,  by  means  of  other  sieves  which 
retain  the  gi-ain. 

.3.  By  washing,  throwing  the  seed  into  vats  filled  with  water,  in  which  they  are  afterward 
stirred  about.  AH  the  heterogeneous  matter,  as  well  as  those  light  grains  which  swim  on  the  ' 
surface,  are  then  removed.  This  is  by  far  the  best  way  of  getting  rid  of  the  seed  of  the  wild  mus- 
tard f'sinapisj,  and  that  of  .several  other  "weeds.  Immediately  after  this  operation,  all  the  grain 
which  has  been  immersed  must  be  spread  out  to  dry,  if  we  would  not  have  it  sustain  any  damage. 
This  process  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  practice  of  moistening  the  seeds,  and  then  keep- 
ing them  in  a  state  of  humidity,  in  order  to  accelerate  the  germination  of  them,  and  then  burj-ing 
them ;  this  practice  has  long  existed  among  gardeners.  It  has  also  been  recommended  that  this 
mode  of  proceeding  should  be  applied  to  arable  land,  especially  when,  at  the  sowing  season,  the 
earth  is  extremely  dry.  But  I  cannot  deny  that,  in  my  opinion,  it  is  particularly  at  this  period 
that  such  a  practice  would  be  fraught  with  most  danger;  for,  if  the  drouth  should  continue  after 
all  the  moisture  has  evaporated,  or  been  absorbed  from  the  germinating  seed,  this  latter,  or  the 
young  plant  it  has  produced,  must  necessarily  become  parched  and  die ;  therefore,  it  is  far  better 
for  the  seed  to  remain  in  the  earth  without  germinating,  until  sufficient  rain  falls  to  impregnate  it 
with  moisture,  and  calls  forth  its  vitality.  It  is  true  that,  where  moisture  comes  opportunely,  the 
above  plan  may  prove  successful ;  for  the  seeds  will  germinate  and  shoot  up  much  more  rapidly 
than  they  would  have  done  had  they  been  put  into  the  earth  dry;  but  the  advantage  is  not  suffi- 
ciently great  to  counterbalance  the  risk  ;  at  all  events,  recourse  should  only  be  had  to  this  practice 
when  the  sowing  has  been  so  much  retarded  that  there  is  no  longer  any  danger  of  the  earth  be- 
coming so  dry  as  to  parch  the  seed. 
(  Divers  methods  of  heating  or  swelhng  the  seeds  have  also  been  recommended,  for  the  purpose 
'i  of  accelerating  and  strengthening  the  process  of  germination.  "We  shall  speak  elsewhere  of  those, 
\  the  object  of  v^'hich  is  to  preserve  the  grain  from  smut  and  other  diseases  ;  at  present  we  shall  ou- 
1 1  ly  occupy  ourselves  with  those  means  which  have  for  their  object  the  stimulating  or  strengthening 
the  principle  of  vegetation. 
_  (a).  The  drainage  from  dung-hills,  lime  water,  wood-ash  water,  salt  water.  &c.,  these  being  con- 
sidered as  active  manures  which  place  the  young  plants  in  direct  contact  with  aliments  peculiarly 
adapted  to  their  nature,  tend  to  accelerate  vegetation,  and  give  to  these  plants  sufficient  vigor  to 
enable  them  advantageously  to  combat  the  injurious  action  of  whatever  may  be  around  them. — 
But  theory  and  unprejudiced  experiments  combine  to  demonstrate  the  inefficacy  of  manure  which 
immediately  .surrounds  the  seed  ;  for  the  young  plant  first  derives  its  nourishment  from  the  seed 
grain  itself;  and,  when  it  begins  to  seek  nourishment  through  the  medium  of  its  roots,  the  ramifi- 
cations of  these  latter  shoot  out  too  far  to  admit  of  their  receiving  any  nutriment  fi-om  the  sub- 
stances which  immediately  surround  the  husk  of  the  seed.  These  manures,  when  thus  applied, 
are,  therefore,  productive  of  little  or  no  effect;  their  quantity  being  too  insignificant  to  produce 
any  sensible  effect  upon  the  soil. 

(b).  Some  persons  have  also  recommended  for  this  purpose  divers  substances  ■which  contain 
oxygen,  and  even  some  acids,  particularly  oxygenated  muriatic  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  cinnabur,  and 
other  oxides  of  lead,  sulphate  of  iron  (green  copperas),  nitre  (saltpetre),  nitric  acid,  sulphuric  acid, 
and  arsenic.  Many  of  these  substances  have  been  used  for  a  considerable  period,  long  before  it 
was  discovered  that  oxygen  and  those  matters  which  from  being  surcharged  with  that  acid  easily 
separate  from  it,  act  as  violent  stimulants  on  the  germinating  properties  of  seeds  ;  since  that  dis- 
covery, the  attention  of  many  scientific  men  has  been  directed  to  this  point.  How^ever  incontesta- 
ble the  fact  may  be,  that  oxygen  possesses  the  faculty  of  accelerating  vegetation,  many  carefully 
conducted  experiments  have  shown,  that  this  excessive  stimulation  of  tlie  genn  of  the  young 
plant  is  far  from  being  productive  of  benefit,  but  rather  tends  to  predispose  the  plant  to  weakness 
and  disease. 

Both  theory  and  experience  incline  us,  therefore,  no  longer  to  advise  the  employment  of  these 
means,  and  especially  as  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  to  what  extent  they  may  be  used,  and  how  they 
may  be  emploj'ed  on  an  extensive  scale  so  that  each  shall  receive  its  due  proportion. 

Several  agriculturists  have  endeavored  by  the  use  of  these  substances  to  keep  off  and  destroy 
insects  and  birds;  but  the  common  steeps  of  this  nature  do  not  produce  the  desired  effect;  and  it 
is  dangerous  to  employ  poisonous  ones,  particularly  such  as  contain  arsenic  in  sufficiently  power- 
ful proportions  to  ensure  the  attainment  of  the  desired  object. 

Each  separate  kind  of  grain  has  a  certain  period  of  time,longer  or  shorter,  during  which  it  ought 
to  lay  in  the  earth  in  order  fully  to  develop  itself  and  ensure  its  producing  perfect  plants.  The  success 
of  the  crop  very  often  depends  entirely  on  a  favorable  time  being  chosen  for  placing  the  seed  in 
the  irround.  But  as  the  success  of  this  choice  depends  upon  the  state  of  the  weather  and  tem- 
perature durin?  the  iieriod  of  vegetation,  tlK  f-^-mer  will  never  be  ablew-ith  certainty  to  deter- 
miue  tlie  iiost  tim'?  for  getting  the  seed  into  tnc  ground.  He  must  be  chiefly  guided  by  the  dry- 
(9'6) 


VEGETABLE  REPRODUCTION.  401 

ness  or  humidity  of  the  air  and  of  the  soil,  and  thus  endeavor  to  select  that  state  which  he  knows 
to  be  most  favorable  to  each  kind  of  grain.  Rye,  barley,  and  buckwheat  require  a  dry  and  warm 
soil  to  favor  their  first  germination  :  others,  on  the  contrary,  as  wheat  and  oats,  require  more  moist- 
ure. Much  is  already  gained  if  only  in  this  respect  the  favorable  motion  has  been  seized  ;  and 
there  will  be  a  far  more  reasonable  hope  of  the  harvest  being  successful  when  the  sowing  has 
taken  place  under  such  favorable  auspices,  than  there  ever  can  be  when  it  has  been  performed 
under  ditTeront  circumstances.  It  has  often  been  remarked  that  certain  states  of  the  weather  and 
of  temperature  are  particularly  propitious  to  the  operation  of  sowing.  In  the  spring,  when  the 
atmosphere  is  loaded  with  fogs,  which,  particularly  at  sunrise  and  early  in  the  morning,  give  to 
the  boundaries  of  the  horizon  an  apparently  undulatory  raotion,  so  that  the  rising  sun  appears,  in 
the  language  of  the  people,  "  to  dance."  When  this  is  the  ca.se,  large  barley  may  be  sown  with 
peculiar  advantage.  Many  agriculturists  attribute  great  advantages  to  the  seed  being  brought  in 
contact  with  the  dew,  and,  consequently,  recommend  that  the  sowing  should  be  performed  toward 
evening,  and  the  seed  not  covered  until  the  following  morning ;  but  this  can  only  managed  when 
the  nights  are  warm.  If  there  is  any  danger  of  white  ft-ost  coming  on,  the  seed  must  be  covered 
at  once. 

Many  agriculturists  give  it  as  their  decided  opinion  that  the  seed  should  be  got  into  the  ground 
at  the  earliest  period  at  which  the  operation  can  be  performed,  and  as  quickly  as  possible.  But 
by  acting  up  to  this  maxim  in  the  fullest  extent  of  its  meaning,  we  shall  run  the  risk  of  sustaining 
great  loss,  especially  if  we  neglect  those  considerations  which  have  reference  to  the  state  of  the 
.soil  and  the  temperature.  In  all  cases,  however,  everything  should  be  kept  in  readiness  to  em- 
brace the  first  favorable  moment.  _  The  English  have  a  saying,  "  You  had  better  be  out  of  temper 
than  out  of  season."  What  is  chiefly  to  be  avoided  is  the  neglecting  a  suitable  amount  of  prepa- 
ration, from  a  desire  to  sow  early. 

Formerly  the  moon  was  supposed  greatly  to  influence  the  period  of  sowing;  certain  seeds  were 
to  be  put  into  the  earth  during  the  moon's  inci-ease,  others  during  its  decrease.      The  rules  apper- 
taining to  this  theory  had  almost  been  forgotten,  when  a  skillful  and  experienced  American  gar- 
dener revived  them  by  relating  his  own  experience  and  experiments,  and  he  brought  over  several    ' 
Englishmen  to  his  opinion.     A  natural  philo-sopher  seeks  to  explain  the  influence  of  the  moon,  by   'i 
saying  that  the  uninterrupted  action  of  light  which  takes  place  when  the  moon  shines  throughout   / 
the  whole  night  may  possibly  be  injurious  to  plants  during  their  period  of  germination,  since  k  is  a   / 
well  known  fact  that  light  is  not  favorable  to  plants  which  are  in  this  state.     It  will  be  advisable 
to  wait  until  this  system  is  confirmed  by  a  greater  number  of  facts  and  experiments  before  we 
allow  ourselves  to  be  at  all  influenced  by  it.* 

Each  kind  of  seed  ought  only  to  liave  a  covering  of  earth  of  such  a  depth  as  is  suitable  to  its 

nature.     So  long  as  this  depth  is  not  exceeded,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  seed  wiU  shoot  the 

better  for  being  placed  at  a  considerable  depth  below  the  surface,  because  it  there  finds  the  ne- 

ces.sary  moisture,  and  the  young  shoots  which  are  given  off  from  its  roots,  run  less  risk  of  being 

parched,  deprived  of  earth,  or  destroyed  by  frost.     But  too  thick  a  covering  might  very  possibly 

',   entirely  prevent  the  germination,  or,  at  any  rate,  present  too  great  an  obstacle  to  the  putting  forth 

I    of  the  seminal  leaves.     As  a  general  principle  it  maj^  be  admitted  that  the  larger  the  seed  the 

thicker  is  the  covering  it  can  bear ;  while  very  fine  seeds  will  only  bear  a  light  covering  of  earth. 

There  are  three  methods  of  covering  up  the  seed  in  agricultural  operations: 

1.  By  sowing  under  furrow.s,  and  burying  the  seed  by  plowing. 

2.  By  sowing  upon  furrows,  and  burying  the  seed  with  a  harrow. 

3.  By  sowing  in  land  which  has  been  plowed  and  harrowed,  and  burying  the  seed  by  a  second 
harrowing,  or  bj!-  passing  a  rofler  over  it. 

And  to  these  we  may  add  a  fourth,  viz. : — 

4.  By  burying  the  seed  with  a  drill,  or  some  machine  of  the  kind. 

The  depth  at  which  the  seed  ought  to  be  buried,  and  the  choice  of  the  manner  of  covering  it, 
depend  as  much  upon  the  actual  nature  of  the  seed,  as  upon  the  state  of  the  soil  and  temperature. 
All  kinds  of  seed  require  to  be  more  covered  in  dry  than  in  moist  seasons.  We  must  allow  our- 
selves to  be  guided  by  this  fact ;  carefully,  however,  avoiding  all  extremes,  as  it  is  possible  that 
the  temperature  may  change  immediately  after  the  seed  has  Ijeen  sown  ;  and  tlien,  if  heavy  show- 
ers should  happen  to  fall,  those  seeds  which  have  been  placed  deep  in  the  earth  will  be  very  like- 
ly to  be  .smothered.  The  drill,  or  a  similar  machine,  is  the  best  instrument  which  can  be  made 
use  of  for  covering  the  seed,  because  it  enables  us  at  once  promptly  and  securely  to  sow  to  a 
greater  or  less  depth  as  seems  best.  In  the  course  of  this  chapter  v/e'will  consider  the  nature  of 
each  kind  of  seed.  For  the  present  we  shall  merely  observe,  that  among  the  seeds  in  most  gen- 
eral u.?e,  vegetables,  wheat,  barley,  and  oats  require  to  be  well  covered ;  while  rye  and  buck- 
wheat, on  the  contrary,  do  not  admit  of  being  placed  so  deep  in  the  earth  :  there  is  always  great 
danger  in  sowing  the  latter  under  furrows  when  there  is  any  possibility  of  wet  weather  ensuing. 
Some  agriculturists  have,  in  order  that  they  may  proceed  with  more  certainty,  adopted  the 
practice  of  burying  one-half  their  seed  under,  and  sowing  the  other  upon  the  furrow.  I  do  not 
con.sider  that  it  is  of  much  consequence  as  regards  autumnal  sowing,  whether  or  not  this  method 
is  employed  ;  and  if  may  often  prove  beneficial  to  the  agriculturist  to  act  upon  it,  especially  if  he 
is  not  inclined  to  devote  much  manual  labor  to  the  operation.  But  when  it  is  applied  to  the  spring 
sowing,  the  most  deplorable  re.sults  have  ensued,  because  by  means  of  it  the  seed  is  divided  into 
two  portions  in  point  of  vegetation,  and  this  diiFerence  is  perceptible  even  up  to  the  period  of  its 
attaining  full  maturity. 

It  is  always  necessary  to  pay  very  great  attention  to  the  sowing  of  small  seeds,  such  as  clover- 
seed,  for  they  may  when  covered  by  harrowing  easily  become  too  deeply  imbedded  in  the  earth  ; 
not  that  they  require  to  be  well  surrounded  with  mould  to  ensure  their  germination,  unless  the 
weather  happens  to  be  extremely  favorable.     We  shall  return  to  the  consideration  of  this  subje&t   > 
;   when  we  come  to  speak  of  the  cultivation  of  each  kind  of  produce  separately.  ) 

(       *  See  I.TCCTUKES  on  Science  and  Art,  bv  Dr.  Lardner,  vol.  i.  p.  ,5G1  et  sen.  ) 

^^.^~JE!lcc;-L:'d!L.^.....__ L. ^.....^ ^  ^_ .,.^,^,^,.^3 


402 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Of  all  the  qnestioiis  relating  to  this  point,  the  most  difficult  to  solve  are  those  of  the  average  | 
depth  at  which  to  sovi',  the  quantity  of  seed  which  ought  to  be  put  into  the  earth,  and  where  the  , 
ground  should  be  sown  thickly  and  where  scantily.  As  the  expressions  "  to  sow  thickly  "  or  , 
'•  scantily  "  are  absolutely  relative,  w^e  must  first  of  all  determine  what  we  mean  by  them  ;  and  i 
this  is  not  difficult,  since  we  iind  a  very  great  uniformity  of  opinion  in  almost  all  nations  and  i 
climates  respecting  the  quota  of  seed  which  ought  to  be  sown  on  a  given  space  *  The  medium  i 
quantity  is,  if  we  reduce  the  land  and  the  seed  to  our  measure,  between  eighteen  and  twenty  ^ 
inetzen  of  Berlin  t  per  acre  ;  this  measure  applies  to  every  kind  of  grain  but  oats,  which  are 
usually  sown  one-quarter  or  one-half  less  thickly4 

If  tliere  were  any  means  of  spreading  the  seed  uniformly  over  the  land,  and  each  grain  pro- 
duced a  plant,  such  a  quantity  of  seed  would  be  excessive.  Count  Podevil,  in  bis  account  of  his 
agricultural  experiments,  has  calculated  that  where  this  quantity  of  seed  is  used,  each  squa-e  foot 
of  ground  receives  ninety-one  giains  of  rye  ;  and  states  that  on  examining  one  of  the  thickest 
covered  portions  of  the  held,  he  has  found  only  thirty-two  plants  growing.  It  appears  to  me  im- 
possible that  even  that  number  could  attain  to  maturity,  for  there  could  not  be  sufficient  room  or 
nourishment  for  them  on  so  small  a  space  ;  at  any  rate  they  would  put  forth  no  suckers,  nor  would 
each  plant  produce  more  than  one  car.  I  have  often  observed  that  in  very  fine  com  crops,  where 
the  ears  were  large  and  full,  although  not  sufficiently  so  to  cause  them  to  be  laid,  and  which  have, 
yielded  a  produce  far  exceeding  tliat  which  might  be  expected  from  the  fruitfulne.«s  of  the  soil, 
there  were  not  more  than  five  or  six  plants  on  each  square  foot  of  ground  ;  and,  indeed,  my  gen- 
eral experience  leads  me  to  be  of  opinion  that  they  cannot  thrive  if  they  are  much  thicker,  for, 
wherever  a  greater  number  of  plants  spring  up,  the  weaker  ones  disappear,  and  only  the  more 
vigorous  arrive  at  maturity. 

But  as,  in  the  ordinary  process  of  sowing,  it  is  impossible  to  ensure  the  seeds  being  uniformly 
dispersed,  and  can  still  less  expect  every  plant  to  succeed,  we  caimot  be  at  all  guided  by  these 
statements,  however  true  they  may  be ;  therefore  the  sowing  .should  always  be  sufficiently  thick 
to  leave  no  spot  scantily  supplied  with  .seed,  and  then  either  trust  to  Nature  to  thin  the  plants  on 
tliose  spots  where  they  may  be  loo  thick,  or  clear  it  subsequently  by  hand.  As  experience  has 
pretty  generally  determined  the  measure  of  seed,  which,  according  to  the  ordinary  manner  of 
sowing,  is  the  most  suitable,  and  as  those  who  have  endeavored  to  reduce  that  quantity  have  gen- 
erally been  far  from  successful,  so  long  as  they  persisted  in  adhering  to  that  reduction,  tlie  agri- 
culturist will  do  well  to  adhere  to  the  old  proportion. 

Bui  if  the  method  of  sowing  can  be  sufficiently  improved  to  enable  us  to  calculate  upon  the  seed 
being  uniformly  dispersed,  and  if  the  mode  of  burying  the  seed  can  be  so  contrived  as  to  ensure 
each  grain  being  placed  exactly  at  a  proper  depth,  the  success  of  the  crop  may  be  thus  rendered 
more  certain ;  and  if,  at  the  same  time,  the  richness  of  the  soil  leads  us  to  entertain  well  grounded 
hop(!s  that  each  [ilant  will  put  forth  several  suckers,  it  is  evident  that  at  least  half  the  seed  may  be 
saved. 

The  greater  or  lesser  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  should  therefore  be  determined — 

1.  By  the  skill  of  the  sower,  "as  upon  this  depends  the  uniformity  and  equality  with  which  the 
seed  will  be  dispersed  over  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

2.  By  the  goodness  of  the  seed,  or  by  its  being  .such  as  leads  us  to  believe  that  a  very  great  ma- 
jority of  the  grains  will  produce  healthful  plants  likely  to  attain  maturity. 

3."  By  the  temperature  being  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  the  sowing  ;  and  by  the  slate  of  the 
moisture  of  the  atmosphere  and  soil  being  more  or  less  advantageous  to  the  kind  of  grain  which 
is  to  be  sown. 

4.  By  the  firmness  or  looseness  of  the  soil,  and  the  state  in  which  it  is  at  the  time  the  seed  is 
sown;  and  whether  such  a  .stale  is  likely  to  be  favorable  or  not  to  the  process  of  germination,  and 
the  striking  out  of  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

5.  By  the  fertility  and  richness  of  the  soil,  and  its  adaptation  to  the  nature  of  the  produce  to  be 

*  Here  our  excellent  author  is  in  en-or  :  such  an  unifomiity  does  not  exist.  The  quantity  of  seed  which 
I  have  seen  used,  and  have  myself  allowed  for  a  given  space  on  my  lands  in  Italy,  is  but  exactly  the  half  of 
what  is  ordinarily  used  on  the  borders  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  [French  Trans. 

t  A  "  metzen  "  is  100  English  quarters. 

X  The  portion  of  seed  requisite  fur  different  crops  and  different  soils,  the  advantages  of  changing  the  seed, 
and  cf  varying  the  ordinary  quantity  employed,  are  all  themes  to  which  considerable  and  lengthened  alten- 
lion  might'be'profitably  devoted  by 'the  farmer.  We  have  little  dtiubt  diat  on  many  soils  the  proportion  of 
seed  u.sually  applied  for  the  cereal  grasses  might  be  profitably  diminished  one-half.  There  is  a  very  excel- 
lent pamphlet  by  Mr.  Hewitt  Davi.s,  on  "  the  advantages  of  diminishing  the  quantity  of  seed,"  which  the 
farmer  may  consult  with  advantage.  The  following  table  gives  the  ordinary  proportions  employed  in  Eng- 
land: (Johnson's  Farmers'  EncycloptEdia) . ^___^ 


Wheat . 
Oats  - . . 
Barley  . 
Eye-... 
Beans . . 


Tares 

Buckwheat 

Clover,  Red 

Clover,  White  ) 

Trefoil (  Mixed 

Red  Clover  . .  i  seeds. 
Rye  Grass  ...J 

Turnips 

Mangel-wurzel 

Potatdes 


Time  of 


Sept.  to  Dec-  .. 

Feb.  to  April 

Feb.  to  May 

Aug.  and  Sept.. 
Nov.  to  March.. 
Jan.  to  March  . . 
Aug.  to  March.. 

May 

March  and  April 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

May  to  Aug ' 

April  and  May.. 
March  to  June.. 


•jadcasc. 


2i  to  34-  bushels 

4  to  6 

3  to  4 

2.V  to  3} 

3  to  4 

3.V  to  4i 

2^  to  3 

2to2J- 

12  to  16  lbs. 

3  to  4  lbs. 

2  lbs. 

2  lbs. 

1  peck 

2  to  3  lbs. 


D)->ll. 


2  to  3  bushels 
3J-  to  4.T 
■2l  to  ?A 
2  to  3 
2k  to  3i 
3to4 
2  to  2i 

10  to  14  lbs. 


U  to  2  lbs. 


DibbUt. 


J  2  bushels 
2*  to  3 


(978) 


J 


VEGETABLE  REPRODUCTION.  403 

sown  iu  it ;  as  this  latter  point  may  have  considerable  influence  upon  the  development  and  suc- 
cess of  the  plants. 

6.  By  the  period  at  which  the  sowing  takes  place.     Early  sowings  favor  the  growth  of  suckers,   i 
and  this  growth  then  takes  place  before  the  plants  acquire  stalks.     This  point  is  of  so  much  im- 
portance that,  in  some  kinds  of  grain,  only  half  as  much  seed  need  be  used  when  the  sowing 
'   takes  place  in  July,  as  would  be  required  if  that  operation  was  performed  in  October. 

By  duly  weighing  all  these  considerations,  a  clever  agriculturist  will  be  enabled  to  determine 
whether  to  diminish  or  increase  the  amount  of  seed  to  be  put  into  the  ground,  without  troubling 
himself  with  any  of  those  theories  which  advocate  the  seed  being  sown  thickly  on  rich  laud,  and 
scantily  upon  poor  land,  or  vice  versd. 

Among  the  greater  number  of  these  agriculturists  who,  in  tilling  their  land,  blindly  follow  one 
old  routine,  we  find  a  greater  inclination  to  augment  than  to  diminish  the  quantity  of  seed.  This 
proceeds  partly  from  a  prejudice  in  favor  of  the  maxim  which  inculcates  the  doing  of  too  much 
rather  than  too  little;  and  partly  from  the  fact  that,  in  the  early  stages  of  their  growth  and  vegeta- 
tion, thickly  sown  plots  have  always  a  finer  appearance  than  those  which  are  thinly  sown.  I 
have  always  observed  that  persons  are  gratified  by  the  sight  of  thickly  covered  fields,  although  it 
must  have  been  evident  that  the  greater  number  of  plants  must,  of  necessity,  be  stifled  and  perish, 
in  order  to  leave  room  for  the  others  to  arrive  at  maturity.  In  their  reciprocal  struggle,  the  plants 
always  weaken  each  other :  and  hence  a  period  always  arrives  when  those  thickly  "covered  fields 
assume  a  yellowish  tint.  If  the  weather  be  unfavorable,  whole  patches  of  vegetation  perish,  and 
vacant  spots  are  left  where  there  were  previously  the  greatest  number  of  youna'  plants.  I  do  not 
■  deny  that  the  plants  which  perish  afterward  serve  as  manure  to  those  which  remain,  but  this  is  a 
'  very  expensive  kind  of  manure  ;  and  it  not  unfrequently,  especially  in  autumnal  sowings,  causes 
a  general  putrefaction. 

The  principal  motive  usually  assigned  for  sowing  the  seed  very  thickly  is  the  necessity  of  sti- 
fling Aveeds ;  but  I  cannot  say  that  I  ever  found  it  productive  of  this  result.  A  plant  which  i 
throws  out  numerous  strong  suckers,  v^'ithout,  however,  forming  a  compact  tissue  on  the  soil,  > 
compresses  the  weeds  ;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  thickly  sown  plants.  If  the  soil  and  the  i 
temperature  are  more  favorable  to  the  seeds  of  weeds  contained  in  the  soil  and  mixed  with  the 
grain  than  they  are  to  the  kind  of  grain  which  has  been  sown,  the  weeds  shoot  up  as  well  as  the 
corn,  and  often  maintain  their  place  better.  The  excessive  thickness  of  the  com  is  in  itself  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  it  from  vegetating  quicklj-.  There  is  an  example  of  this  in  the  marshes  of  the 
Oder,  where  twice  the  usual  quantity  of  oats  is  generally  sown,  often  as  much  as  three  bushels 
(scheffeh)  of  seed  are  allowed  per  acre,  and  yet  the  weeds  are  there  as  abundant  as  in  any  other 
place  :  they  always  dispute  the  ground,  particularly  with  corn;  and  the  temperature,  according 
as  it  favors  the  one  or  the  other,  decides  the  mastery,  unless  these  weeds  are  torn  up  by  the 
hand,  an  operation  -which  most  small  farmers  undertake.  I  adhere  firmly  to  my  practice  of  sow- 
ing one-half  as  thickly  as  my  neighbors,  and  can  safely  say  that  I  do  not  suffer  more  from  weeds 
than  they  do  ;  nor  have  I  ever  yet  found  myself  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  laying  down  my  ara- 
ble land  as  pasturage  on  account  of  the  weeds'  having  gained  the  ascendency.  In  fact,  the  or- 
dinary quantity  of  seed  is  sufficient  to  cover  the  soil  so  completely  that  each  spot  will  bear  a  more 
than  adequate  number  of  plants.  The  only  kind  of  grain  which  I  sow  more  thickly  than  any  other 
is  oats  upon  fallow  or  newly  broken  pasture  ground,  and  that  because  then  every  grain  does  not 
fall  on  a  place  where  it  can  germinate. 

The  processes  of  sowing  vary  infinitely,  and  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  give  a  verbal  description 
of  them;  but  this  operation,  however  performed,  is  always  an  important  one.  The  best  mode  of 
proceeding  is,  doubtless,  that  which  is  termed  the  broadcast  sowing,  in  which  the  sower  throws 
the  seed,  as  he  goes  up  the  field,  to  the  left  with  his  right  hand,  and  as  he  returns  to  the  right 
with  his  left  hand,  or  else  he  walks  on  the  edge  of  the  fuiTow  and  casts  it  with  the  wind  each 
time  coming  along  the  edge  of  that  portion  of  land  which  was  sown  by  his  preceding  cast ;  but 
this  kind  of  sowing  requires  very  great  nicety  and  some  skill  on  the  part  of  the  sower.  But  the 
wind  must  be  well  observed,  and  the  extent  of  its  power  calculated.  In  all  cases  that  mode  of 
sewing  is  best  in  which  the  sower  is  most  skilled,  and  there  is  always  some  risk  in  adopting  a 
new  one  until  the  man  has  practiced  it  carefully. 

It  is  a  generally  acknowledged  fact  that  the  sower  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  the  ag- 
ricultural laborers;  many  agriculturists,  however,  attach  little  or  no  importance  to  the  selection 
of  him,  and  entrust  this  operation  to  any  day-laborer  or  servant.  They  even  go  so  far  as  to  set  , 
him,  as  his  day's  task,  a  certain  quantity  of  .grain  to  sow  ;  this  the  man  likes  well  enough,  for  it  is 
very  easy  for  Jiim  to  cast  a  great  quantity  of  seed  into  the  earth.  In  most  farms  an  excessive 
quantity  of  seed  is  used  compared  with  the  extent  of  land  sown,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  sow  i 
thickly  in  order  to  make  up  for  the  badness  of  the  sowing.  If  it  be  desired  to  fix  upon  some  sort 
of  rule  for  guidance,  let  the  quantity  of  seed  be  ba.sed  upon  the  extent  of  land  to  be  sown  ;  and, 
first  of  all,  let  a  skillful  sower  be  secured,  and  care  taken  that  he  shall  not  be  too  much  hurried, 
but  kept  in  a  humor  to  do  his  work  properly. 

It  has  often  been  asked  how  much  work  a  sower  con  do  in  a  day  :  De  Munchansen  has  calcu- 
lated this  in  his  first  volume  of  "  The  Father  of  a  Famili;."  But  we  ought  to  be  satisfied  if  a  'i 
sower  .sows  eighteen  acres  per  day.  This  is  undoubtedly  tne  least  that  a  man  of  ordinri-y  activity  \ ' 
ought  to  get  through,  and  I  have  met  with  many  skillful  sowers  who  will  getlhrough  twice  as 
'  much.  But  the  action  of  sowing  is  very  fatiguing  ;  and  a  man  who,  by  the  uniform  and  equal 
manner  in  which  he  disperses  the  seed,  saves  a  gieat  deal,  has  some  claim  upon  our  considera- 
tion. If  he  be  neglectful,  he  should  be  immediately  disciiarged :  it  is  in  the  utmost  degree  neces- 
sary that  the  skill  of  the  sower  should  be  ascertained,  since  on  that  depends  the  nature  and  ex- 
tent of  the  pre[Kiration  which  must  be  made  for  covering  the  seed.  i 

On  very  large  farms  two  sowers  often  walk  side  by  side,  and  act  at  once  ;  but  these  men  should  ' 
be  accustomed  to  act  in  unison,  otherwise  harm  rather  than  good  will  result  from  the  practice.  ' 
For  my  own  part.  I  prefer  assigning  to  each  sower  his  own  separate  space.  ' 

(9-n) 


Still  greater  skill  and  more  attention  is  requisite  to  sow  fine  seeds  and  spread  them  uniformly 
and  in  small  quantities  over  the  ground,  than  is  in  the  sowing  of  grain ;  this  operation  ought  only 
to  be  confined  to  persons  who  are  conversant  with  it. 

The  difficulty  which  has  been  experienced  in  certain  localities  of  finding  good  sowers,  has  rer. 
dered  the  drill  plows  or  sowing  machines  particularly  valuable.  Several  have  been  invented 
and  recommended,  but  I  cannot  say  that  I  have  yet  met  with  any  machine  of  this  kind  which  dis- 
tributes the  grain  uniformly.  Indeed,  I  have  only  seen  the  models,  and  have  not  witnessed  the 
performance  of  the  operation  of  sowing  by  one  of  these  machines,  or  seen  the  crops  sawn  with  it. 
Some  drill-plows  have  been  invented  which  only  spread  the  seed,  while  there  are  others  which 
both  spread  and  cover  it  at  the  same  time.  The  first  of  these  may  be  useful,  and  is  very  simple  ; 
the  others  are  complicated,  not  to  be  depended  upon,  and  do  not  distribute  the  seed  unitbrmly.  I 
doubt  whether  any  machine  whatever  can  equal  the  sowing  of  a  good  sower  ;  but  I  am  willing 
to  admit  that  its  action  may  be  far  preferable  to  the  performance  of  a  bad  one. 

It  is  quite  otherwise  with  drills  or  machines  intended  ibr  the  purpose  of  sowing  in  rows,  for 
they  deposit  the  seed  at  regular  distances,  and  leave  intervals  of  space  between,  which  may  ei- 
ther be  hoed  or  stirred.  Without  them  it  is  almost  impossible  to  sow  with  any  degree  of  regu- 
lai-ity,  nor  can  the  plants  be  dispersed  in  a  uniform  manner  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  there  will  be 
an  accumulation  of  seed  in  the  fun'ow — which  defects  can  only  be  counterbalanced  by  careful 
hoeing. 

Hereafter,  when  I  have  described  the  manner  of  sowing  different  kinds  of  seed,  I  will  speak 
I   of  some  of  the  most  important  points  relative  to  cultivation  in  rows. 

The  period  at  which  the  seed  shoots  up  and  begins  to  show  itself,  depends  partly  upon  ir.s  par- 
ticular nature,  and  partly  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  state  of  the  temperature.  All  plants 
present  themselves  either  -vs  ith  a  leaf,  or  in  form  of  an  awl,  or  with  two  seminal  lobes.  All  gi'a- 
mineous  plants  rise  irom  the  ground  in  the  first-mentioned  manner :  we  will  now  proceed  to  treat 
in  general  terms  of  the  sowing  of  that  class  of  plants. 

Taking  the  word  in  its  strictest  sense,  we  mean  by  the  expression  corn,  plants  bearing  ears  and 
belonging  to  the  gramineous  class,  and  which  we  Qultivate  for  the  sake  of  the  nourishment  con- 
tained in  their  seed  or  grain.  It  is  true  that  many  persons  include  under  this  denomination  all  the 
various  kinds  of  plants  which  are  cultivated  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  their  seed,  and  employing 
it  as  an  aliment;  but,  as  those  we  designate  corn  are  of  a  higher  order,  and  resemble  each  other 
more  than  they  do  any  other  kind  of  plant,  we  shall  apply  this  denomination  solely  to  those  which 
belong  to  the  genus  of  gi-amineous  plants  properly  so  called. 

It  has  not  yet  been  ascertained  in  what  place  corn  grow^s  spontaneously,  or,  indeed,  whether 
any  countries  exist  in  which  such  is  the  case  ;  for  nothing  exists  to  prove  that  it  has  been  any- 
whei'e  met  with  growing  wild.  This  circumstance,  and  the  probability  that  it  is  very  much 
changed  fi-om  its  primitive  state,  apply  in  common  to  it  and  to  domestic  animals,  both  of  which 
have  appeared  in  all  climates  where  man  has  been,  and  have  accommodated  themselves  to  all  the 
various  changes  and  modes  of  human  existence. 

If  we  consider  them  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  they  are  distinguished  from  other  grami- 
neous plants  by  their  seeds,  which  are  larger  than  those  of  other  plants,  and  full  of  flour,  and 
it  is  this  reason  which  induces  us  to  cultivate  them;  the  seeds  of  various  other  gramineous 
plants  are  equally  nourishing,  and  of  a  similar  nature,  and  are  occasionally  employed  as  food,  as, 
for  example,  tares. 

It  appears  that  they  were  originally  annuals  in  warmer  climates.     Some  of  them  only  have  been 
\  •  habituated  by  cultivation  to  pass  the  winter  in  the  earth,  because  our  summer  does  not  suffice  to 
bring  them  to  maturity. 

They  have,  like  almost  all  the  gramineous  tribe,  a  disposition  to  form  tufts,  and  to  multiply 
themselves  by  throwing  off  suckers  and  knots  of  new  roots,  which  latter  again  produce  new  off- 
sets, particularly  when  new  earth,  has  been  piled  round  these  shoots,  and  the  growth  of  the  stems 
stopped.  By  carefully  preventing  these  latter  fi-om  growing  up,  it  is  possible  to  preserve  them 
for  several  years,"  and  oblige  them  to  form  a  thick  turf. 

They  may  be  made  to  produce  an  enormous  quantity  of  seed  by  thus  encouraging  their  multi- 
plication, making  them  throw  off  suckers,  and  then  separating  and  replanting  their  offsets.  It  is 
thus  that  the  Irishman,  Millar,  procured  in  one  year  21,109  ears,  and  in  these  ears  .576,840  .grains 
of  corn,  from  one  grain  which  lie  planted  in  June,  and  from  which  at  different  times  during  the 
following  .spring,  he  obtained  offsets,  which  he  planted  ;  and  he  was  of  opinion  that,  if  he  had 
tried,  he  might  still  farther  have  increased  this  quantity.  Several  other  persons  have,  with  still 
less  care,  obtained  from  one  single  grain  40,000  grains  in  one  year  only  ;  so  that  it  is  laughable  to 
hear  persons  talking  of  the  seed  being  multiplied  80  or  100  times,  as  if  that  were  something  ex- 
ti'aordinarj'. 

These  gramineous  plants  always  extend  innumerable  fibres  from  their  roots  to  the  superficies  of 
the  soil,  and  bind  it  together  by  the  tissue  thus  formed  ;  they  likewise  ramify  considerably  in  the 
depth  of  the  soil,  wherever  they  find  loose  and  rich  earth. 

All  sorts  of  corn  or  grain  contain  constituent  parts  of  a  similar  nature  ;  but  which  vaiy  in  th( 
proportions,  and,  in  some  sorts,  in  their  combinations. 

The  first  of  these  constituent  parts  is  gluten.  This  substance  was  first  of  all  discovered 
wheat,  and  attributed  to  that  kind  of  grain  only  ;  but  it  has  since  been  found,  although  in  a.  lesser 
quantity  and  more  closely  united  with  the  starch,  in  other  kinds  of  grain.  This  sub.stance  is  inti- 
mately allied  with  animal  matter  ;  it  is  c  imposed  of  the  same  primitive  substances,  and  acts  in 
the  same  manner  when  undergoing  alteration,  or  submitted  to  the  action  of  fire.  Hence  it  forms 
the  most  essential  aliment  of  the  'inima]  ftame,  and  the  nutritive  properties  of  wheat  depend, 
where  there  is  an  equal  weight  of  flour,  on  the  quantity  of  this  substance  which  the  grain  con- 
tain.?. The  proportion  of  it  found  even  in  the  same  kinds  of  grain  varies  gree.tly. 
'  The  second  is  xfarch.  This  substance  is  probably  inferior  to  gluten  in  point  of  nutritive  prop- 
erties.    Nevertheless,  it  i.s  -very  nourishing,  and  appears  to  favor  the  digestion  of  gluten.     Instinct 


strongly  iucliaes  both  men  and  animals  to  covet  it  as  food ;   and,  in  tlie  long  run,  it  is  preferred  to 
'   gluten,  which  often  tends  to  cause  illness.     Cattle  fed  in  starch  manufactories  afford  an  excellent 
illustration  of  this. 

The  third  is  a  sweet,  mucilai^mous  substance,  which  is  only  to  be  found  in  small  quantities  in 
wheat ;  but  v/hich  increases  during  germination,  or  in  the  preparation  of  malt,  and  is  formed  of 
,  Btarch.     It  is  hy  means  of  this  substance  that  the  grain  becomes  adapted  for  acetous  or  vinous  fer- 
mentation ;  it  appears  to  be  akin  to  starch  in  point  of  nutritive  properties,  and  to  assist  in  the  di- 
gestion not  only  of  gluten  but  also  of  starch  itself 

In  the  natural  state  of  the  grain,  these  three  constituent  parts  are  only  blended  together.  By 
the  simple  act  of  digestion,  or  by  the  process  of  making  into  bread,  theybecome  more  intimately 
combined,  and  can  then  no  longer  be  separated.  In  digestion  a  mass  is  formed  similar  to  glue; 
but  in  the  process  of  making  bread,  fermentation  takes  place  which  produces  carbonic  acid,  and 
renders  this  aliment  easier  of  digestion. 

The  fourth  is  the  husk.  This  is  composed  essentially  of  fibrine,  which  cannot  be  di.ssolved  by 
means  of  digestion  alone  ;  however,  it  contains  a  somewhat  soluble  and  aromatic  matter. 

The  fifth  is  moisture.     This  is  to  be  found  even  iu  the  driest  grain  :  it  increases  the  weight  and 
bulk  of  the  grain,  although  it  diminishes  its  specilic  gravity.      It  yields  no  nourishment,  and  is  of 
no  advautage ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  when  existing  in  too  large  a  proportion,  it  accelerates  the  de- 
terioration of  the  grain,  for  which  reason  grain  should  always  be  kept  dry.     The  artificial  modes 
of  drying  grain,  which  are  practiced  in  the  nonhern  countries  on  the  borders  of  the  Baltic,  by 
I   nicans  of  drying-fioors  or  planks,  tend  to  preserve  iHe  grain  much  longer,  especially  if  it  be  placed 
in  large  heap.s,  by  which  means  it  absorbs  less  of  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere".     Grain  which    , ' 
has  not  been  dried  in  any  way  ought,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  exposed  iu  thin  layers,  so  that  it  may    ,' 
be  generally  exposed  to  the  air;  it  should  be  frequently  stirred  or  otherwi.se  moved  about,  in  or-    •[ 
der  that  the  moisture  which  it  contains,  as  well  a.']  that  portion  which  it  attracts  from  the  atmo- 
sphere, may  evaporate.     Different  observations  and  experiments  tend  to  give  rise  to  the  belief  \ 
that  by  means  of  an  absolute  seclusion  from  contact  with  atmospheric  air,  grain  may  be  prevented    ', 
from  deteriorating;  but  this  cannot  be,  unless  it  has  fir.st  been  thoroughly  dried.*     These  couslitu-    ' 
ent  parts  vary  iu  their  proportions  not  only  in  the  different  varieties  of  grain,  but  also  in  the  same 
kind.     The  temperature  of  the  .season,  the  kind  of  manure  bestowed  on  the  soil,  the  maturity  of 
the  crop,  and  the  period  at  which  the  harvest  takes  place,  all  conspire  to  influence  the  rela'tive    / 
,    proportions  of  these  matters.     Corn  which  has  grown  on  a  humid  soil,  and  in  a  moi.st  temperature, 
has  a  very  thick  husk,  and,  consequently,  is  not  so  heavy  as  that  grown  under  opposite  circum- 
stances, although  appai-ently  the-same  in  volume.     The  proportions  of  the  other  constituent  parts 
vary  in  a  like  manner.     Hence  it  happens  that  we  often  iiud  grain  grown  m  one  year  so  much 
more  nourishing  than  that  of  others. 

The  nutritive  properties  of  grain  are  not  always  in  exact  proportion  with  its  weight ;  the  ratio 
is,  however,  very  approximative,  and  much  more  so  than  that  of  the  nutritive  properties  with  the 
volume  ;  cou.sequently,_  it  will  always  be  advisable  to  buy,  estimate,  and  employ  it  according  to 
its  weight  rather  than  its  measure.  This  is  now  generally  admitted  with  reference  to  the  manu- 
facture of  brandy  from  grain  :  skillful  and  experienced  distillers  are  always  guided  by  weight 
rather  than  measure. 

The  weights  of  the  diffei-ent  kinds  of  grain  vary  ;  a  bushel  of  grain,  Berlin  measure,  will  weigh 
as  follows : — 

Wheat from  84  to  96  lbs.  I  Small  Barley from  55  to  70  lbs. 

Rye 76      86  Siberian  Barley 74      86 

Sprat,  or  Battledore  Barley 65      84         J  Oats 42      56 

The  produce  of  different  kinds  of  grain  depends,  where  the  temperature  is  equal,  on  the  fruit- 
fulness  of  the  soil;  and  the.se  kinds  of  produce  exhaust  the  soil  in  proportion  to  the  luxuriance  of 
the  crop,  the  size  of  the  grain,  and  the  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  which  it  contains.  For  their 
vegetation  and  increase  depend  in  a  great  measure,  if  not  entirely,  on  the  nutritive  matter  suitable 
to  it  contained  in  the  soil,  but  the  proportion  of  these  required  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

Some  persons  have  endeavored  to  determine  the  sum  total  of  the  produce  of  each  kind  of  grain 
throughout  entire  provinces  and  countries:  but  the  data  whence  these  conclusions  were  deduced 
were  far  too  vague  to  be  depended  upon,  and,  consequently,  no  reliance  can  be  placed  on  them  ; 
much  less  can  they  be  applied  to  particular  case.s,  and  to  certain  modes  of  cultivation.  Thu.s, 
when  we  take  the  average  of  several  years,  we  find  that  our  calculations  are  sometimes  above 
and  sometimes  below  the  results  above  named. 

In  Northern  Germany,  the  average  is  usually  taken  from  the  triennial  rotation  with  a  fallov/-. 


Of  Wheat 7  bushels.  I  Of  Barley. 

Rye ■ 6  |       Oats... 


'    according  to  the  order  in  which  these  crops  follow  the  last  amelioration. 

In  countries  where  a  great  part  of  the  land  is  badly  cultivated  and  carelessly  sown,  this  ave- 
rage must  be  taken  at  a  lower  rate  ;  only  five  bushels  per  acre  must  be  allowed.  Schwerz,  ac- 
cording to  his  notes,  which,  however,  cannot,  in  my  opinion,  warrant  such  a  deduction,  states  that 
the  average  in  Belgium,  per  acre,  Magdebourg  measure — 

Is  in  Wheat 11-80  bushels  Berlin  measure.  I  In  Autumnal  Barley.. 17-95  bush.  Berlin  meas. 

Rye 12-28  do.  |       Oats 24-76  do.  'i 

He  contrasts  with  this  several  of  the  statements  of  Arthur  Young,  ia  his  travels  thi-ough  the 

*  On  the  borders  of  the  Adriatic,  and  in  situations  where  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere  and  of  insects 
are  very  prejudicial  to  giain,  I  have  seen  wheat  preserved  in  walled  pits  formed  in  the  eanh,  having  but 
one  orifice,  and  that  one  hermetically  sealed.  A  long  stick  is  inserted  into  this  pit,  which  reaches  to  the 
bottom  ;  and  this  is  from  time  to  time  drawn  out  to  show  the  state  of  the  temperature  of  the  gi-ain  in  the 
interior  of  the  pit.     If  it  indicates  heat,  the  grain  is  immediately  taken  out  to  give  it  air.      [French  Travis 

(081)  '  ■       ; 


406  thaer's  PRI^x•IPLEs  of  agriculture. 

north,  south  aiid  east  of  England,  and  calculates  the  general  average  of  the  produce  iu  England 
at  that  period,  viz.  from  1760  to  1770,  at  per  acre,  Magdebourg  measure — 

OfWheat 9'39  bushels,  Berlin  measure.  I  Of  Spring  Barley,  12-60  bush.  Berlm  measure. 

Rye 9-58  do.  |        Oats 14-38  do. 

Hence  he  infers  the  Agriculture  of  Belgium  to'be  superior  to  that  of  England.     Taking  this  lat- 
ter as  a  whole,  nobody  -will  deny  the  truth  of  his  inference,  not  even  the  English  them.selves  ;  but, 
if  he  here  includes  this  rotation,  which  was  formerly  only   practiced  in  some  small  districts  of 
\    England,  and  which  has  not  until  lately  been  generally  adopted,  or  if  he  means  to  infer  that  this 
\   rotation  is  not  so  good  as  any  other,  not  only  does  he  draw  a  false  conclusion,  but  he  shows  that 
,    he  has  not  read  Young  with  attention,  and  that  he  has  not  comprehended  the  end  at  which  he    i 
aimed,  which  goes  directly  to  prove  that  the  ordinary  agricultural  undertakings  in  the  provinces    i 
i'    through  which  he  has  passed  are  still  very  imperfect,  and  that  they  might  and  ought  to  be  im- 
proved by  a  better  system  of  tillage.     If  he  had   exhibited  the   average  produce  of  improved    . 
farms  which  Arthur  Young  gives,  particularly  in  those  travels  which  were  made  at  a  later 
epoch,  when  there  had  been  several  established,  the  result  would  have  been  nearly  as  follows 

For  Wheat 15  bushels  per  acre.  |  For  Oats 24  bushels  per  acre. 

For  Barley 18  bushels  per  acre. 

In  those  provinces  they  do  not  cultivate  rye,  at  least  to  any  extent. 

T  have  before  spoken  of  the  proportional  value  that  one  kind  of  grain  bears  to  another. 

During  the  period  of  the  vegetation  of  cereals,  great  attention  must  pe  paid  to  those  circum-  'i 
stances  and  accidents  which  we  are  about  to  notice,  and  to  the  making  of  those  preparations  which  i 
we  shall  point  out. 

So  far  as  regards  autumnal  corn,  it  is  considered  advantageous  for  the  plants  not  to  shoot  much   [ 
at  first ;   but,  on  the  contrary,  for  the  grain  to  lie  in  the  earth  for  a  period  proportionate  to  the    ] 
temperature  which  they  contain,  because  then  the  inferior  part  of  their  germ,  the  root,  becomes 
more  developed  and  gains  strength.     I  have  remarked,  where  the  weather  is  favorable  and  the    , 
soil  deep,  the  seeds  spring  up  just  three  days  later  than  they  do  in  a  .shallow  soil.    "When  an  ex- 
traordinary state  of  dimness  in  the  soil  causes  the  seeds  to  germinate  very  slowly,  we  cannot  re- 
gard this  as  advantageous;  however,  it  is  only  injurious  on  account  of  its  retarding  the  vegetation    ' 
too  long.     In  the  autumn  of  1810,  the  rye  sown  toward  the  end  of  August  remained  in  the  ground     , 
until  nearly  the  end  of  October,  that  is  to  say,  seven  or  eight  weeks,  and  many  persons  thought 
that  it  would  never  spring  at  all.     It  did,  however,  eventually  shoot  above  the  ground.,  and  came 
up  tolerably  thick,  and  would  have  yielded  a  good  crop  of  grain  if  the  drouth  had  been  less  ex- 
cessive in  the  spring,  and  it  had  been  able  to  throw  off  suckers  as  usual.    With  respect  to  spring 
com,  it  is  desirable,"on  the  contrary,  that  it  should  come  up  promptly,  in  order  that  the  weeds  may 
not  gain  the  ascendency. 

It  is  a  good  sign  when  corn  comes  up  in  a  uniform  manner,  whether  we  consider  it  with  rela- 
tion to  time  or  strength.     If  it  comes  up  slowly,  and  be  unequal  in  sti-ength  and  color,  that  an- 
nounces some  disea.se.     It  is  more  deplorable  to  .see  spring  corn  shoot  up  twice  than  autumnal 
'  I   corn,  because  the  latter  acquires  a  uniform  appearance  more  easily  in  the  spring,  whereas  the 
I   other  retains  the  disparity. 

I       The  germ  which  iirst  appears  ought  to  be  of  a  deep  color :  if  rj-e,  a  brown  verging  on  red  ;  if 

wheat;  rather  brown ;  if  spring  corn,  of  a  deep  green ;  but  in  no  case  should  it  be  tinged  with 

yellow :  this  latter  hue  denotes  a  disposition  to  disease,  from  which  the  plants  seldom  recover. 

I     The  first  leaves  which  develop  themselves  .should  be  short,  thick,  and  somewhat  obtuse  at  their 

points,  tough,  elastic,  and  given  to  curl  and  contract  themselves. 

After  the  development  of  the  first  leaves,  the  stalk  forms  a  knot  above  the  root ;  this  knot  opens, 
and  from  all  sides  of  it  come  out  lateral  shoots.     The  more  perfectly  this  takes  place,  the  more 
\   vigorous  may  we  expect  the  corn  to  be.    These  shoots  must  not  gi-ow  too  speedily,  still  less  should 
they  fall  or  fade  on  account  of  weakness ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  desirable  that  they  should  rise 
tough  and  elastic  above  the  soil.     In  autumnal  corn  I  have  frequently  seen  offsets  shooting  up 
vigorously,  acquiring  a  great  bight,  and  bearing  leaves  of  a  light  green  hue,  succeed  to  an  amelio-    ' 
ration  of  the  soil  in  which  manure  bad  been  buried  a  short  time  before  the  sowing,  during  moist,    \ 
warm  weather:  this  activity  of  vegetation  was  attended  with  the  most  deplorable  results,"  and  all    , 
that  remained  in  the  spring  was  a  field  almo.st  entirely  despoiled  of  vegetation.     It  appears  that 
in  such  a  case  the  amount  of  hydrogen  contained  in  the  plants  was  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
carbon  vi^hich  they  contained.      Under  such  circumstances  as  these,  it  does  not  appear  to  me  that     ' 
there  can  ever  be  any  di.sadvantage  in  the  soil  being  richly  furnished  with  plants,  even  though     \ 
the  leaves  were  to  rot  the  plant ;   for  the  plant,  protected  by  its  lateral  offsets,  would  remain 
healthful,  and  in  the  spring  would  resume  its  vegetation. 

The  commencement  of  winter  finds  autumnal  sowings  in  various  conditions:  some  of  the  kinds 
of  grain  have  not  germinated,  when  others  have  begun  to  shoot.  In  whatever  state  they  may  be, 
I  have  never  yet  seen  them  destroyed  by  frost.  During  the  extreme  cold  weather  of  the  rigorous 
winter  of  1802  and  1803  the  ea-.-th  was  free  from  snow,  yet  I  could  not  perceive  that  any  plant 
had  been  destroyed  ;  I  had  not,  however,  any  opportunity  of  seeing  white  wheat.  In  the  follow- 
/  ing  spring  all  the  sowings  looked  wretchedly  ;  those  which  had  thrown  off  suckers  before  the 
commencement  of  winter  had  lost  their  leaves,  which  at  first  turned  of  a  whitish  hue,  then  half 
rotted,  and  at  length  dropped  upon  the  soil :  no  new  shoots  were  perceptible.  It  was  not  until 
the  end  of  April  that  the  rye  began  to  put  fo' .'".  new  shoots  ;  the  wheat  did  not  recover  itself  un- 
til the  end  of  May.  Up  to"  that  time  the  frost,  which  had  penetrated  the  soi-  to  the  depth  of  more  '; 
than  three  feet,  absorbed  the  whole  of  the  caloric  brought  into  contact  with  the  soil  by  the  atmo-  * 
sphere.  Subsequently  the  plants  shot  up  again  with  promptness  and  vigor:  no  blanks  were  to 
be  perceived,  excepting  in  those  places  where  the  soil  had  cracked  to  such  an  extent  as  to  ren- 
der it  dangerous  to  approach  it ;  and  even  these  places  were  subsequently  covered  to  a  tolerable 
(982) 


extent  after  being  closed  up  by  the  expansion  of  the  earth.  The  rye  alone,  wliich  had  been 
sown  on  shelving  beds  of  sand,  wherein  it  had  thrown  off  no  suckers  before  the  commencement 
of  winter,  was  found  to  be  destroyed,  a  strong  easterly  wind  having  .swept  away  the  sand,  and 
left  the  roots  bare. 

The  seed  is.  undoubtedly,  best  preserved  under  a  bed  of  snow,  particularly  when  the  super- 
ficies of  the  soil  is  somewhat  hardened  before  the  snow  falls.  It  continues  to  grow  beneath  this 
covering,  and  the  seed  which  has  been  buried  for  but  a  short  time  .shoots  out  and  springs  up  be- 
neath the  shelter  of  the  snow.  However  cold  the  weather  may  be,  and  however  long  it  may  last, 
the  seed  thus  covered  does  not  suffer  at  all  from  it ;  indeed,  the  coldest  winters  have  always  been 
followed  by  the  most  abundant  harvests  of  autumnal  corn.  Mild  winters,  with  frequent  alterna- 
tions of  heat  and  cold,  are  invariably  injurious  to  all  seeds  sown  in  a  moist  soil,  unless  good  and 
sufficient  mea.sure.s  are  taken  to  keep  the  soil  well  drained.  Neither  should  the  snow  be  trodden 
or  pressed  down  upon  the  seeds  ;  wherever  footpath.s,  or  even  footprints,  have  been  made  in  deep 
snow,  the  greater  part  of  the  plants  underneath  disappear. 

"When  the  .snow  and  frost  are  disappearing  is  a  very  dangerous  period,  if  not  the  most  danger- 
ous of  all.     The  seed  is  liable  to  be  drowned  if  the  snow  happens  to  be  precipitately  melted  by 
rain,  and  tlie  water  be  so  enclosed  that  it  cannot  flow  oft;  or  the  ditches  so  full  of  frozen  snow  that 
it  is  impo.ssible  to  open  their  channels.     In  such  cases,  nothing  but  extreme  promptitude  and  ac- 
tivity on  the  part  of  the  farmer  can  save  the  seed  ;  he  must  employ  all  the  hands  he  can  muster  in 
endeavoring  to  procure  a  drainage  ;  and,  after  all,  he  will  sometimes  strive  in  vain,  it  being  impo.s- 
sible.     On  a  soil  through  which  the  water  filters  freely,  some  hope  may  be  entertained  that  it  will 
sink  into  the  earth  before  the  plants  perish  ;  but  such  can  never  be  the  case  when  the  frost  has 
taken  deep  hold  of  the  soil.     A  thaw  is  still  more  injurious  to  the  seed  when  it  comes  on  very   ,' 
slowly,  and  is  accompanied  by  alternations  of  frost.     When  there  is  sunshine  during  the  day,  and    i 
frost  during  the  night,  or,  what  is  still  worse,  when  there  happens  a  fall  of  snow  during  the  night.    ( 
which  is  soon  melted  by  the  sun,  the  thawed  superficies  of  the  soil  becomes  saturated  with  water, 
which  is  unable  to  penetrate  tlu-ough  the  inferior  stratum,  and  still  continues  to  be  hardened  by 
the  frost;  this  water  freezes  during  the  night,  and,  in  doing  so,  rai.ses  uji  the  superficial  layer  of  ' 
earth  subjected  to  its  influence,  and  with  it  the  plants  growing  there.     During  the  day  the  earth    ', 
thaws  again,  and  the  earth  falls  back  to  its  original  position ;  but  the  plants,  being  lighter,  remain 
on  the  surface,  wholly  denuded  of  earth.     For  several  successive  nights  and  days,  the  .same  thing 
is  frequently  repeated,  and  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the  plants  are  thus  uprooted — even  the    . 
roots  themselves  being  broken  where  their  lower  extremities  have  been  tightly  fixed  in  the  frost-   , 
bound  earth.     E  ven  the  most  vigorous  plants  cannot  entirely  resist  such  weather ;  thosC;  however,    , ' 
which  have  most  roots  and  are  most  tufted,  bear  it  better  than  others.     The  more  porous  the  soil, 
the  greater  is  the  danger. 

Such  weather  as  that  of  which  we  have  just  spoken  occurred  in  March,  1804  ;  and  it  was  the 
sole  cause  of  the  partial  failure  of  the  corn  crops,  and  the  dearth  of  grain  which  was  felt  that  year, 
which  was,  nevertheless,  otherwise  favorable  to  vegetation. 

In  the  spring,  if  the  seeds  do  not  come  up  well,  or  the  plants  appear  to  be  rather  thin,  people 
are  apt  to  become  alarmed  lest  they  should  have  been  entirely  destroyed  during  the  winter,  or 
else  have  suffered  too  much  to  admit  of  the  hope  that  the^'  will  yield  even  a  passable  harvest,  and 
often  hastily  determine  on  plov/ing  the  land  up.  There  is  no  year  that  I  can  remember  in  which 
the  farmers  were  so  uneasy,  and  so  much  in  doubt  as  to  what  they  should  do,  as  in  1803.  How- 
ever, the  greater  number  of  those  who  plowed  up  their  autumnal  corn,  in  order  to  sow  spring  bar- 
ley, regretted  it  afterward  ;  because  the  autumnal  sowings  which  were  allowed  to  remain  yielded 
a  far  better  crop  than  the  barley  by  which  the  plowed  up  portions  were  replaced.  Indeed,  a  sat- 
isfactory crop  of  barley  is  rarely  obtained  under  such  circumstances ;  oats  will,  in  general,  be 
found  to  answer  better. 

Sometimes  agriculturists  have  carefully  harrowed  autumnal  wheat  which  appeared  to  be  quite 
destroyed,  and  then  sown  oats  on  the  greund  ;  they  have  subsequently  reaped  oats  and  wheat  to- 
gether, and,  upon  the  whole,  had  a  good  harvest,  but  the  wheat  has  exceeded  the  oats  in  quantity. 

The  experiments  made  on  this  point  by  some  of  the  Mecklenberg  agriculturists,  and  which  are 
narrated  in  the  second  part  of  the  "Annals  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Mecklenberg,"  are  both 
interesting  and  remarkable.* 

It  has  also  been  found  that,  by  passing  a  harrow  carefully  over  the  ground  in  spring,  when  the 
soil  is  thoroughly  dry,  very  beneficial  effects  have  often  been  produced,  even  when  the  laborers 
have  expressed  their  fears  that  the  operation  would  absolutely  destroy  all  that  remained  of  the 
wheat  plants.     Harrowing  is,  without  doubt,  one  of  the  most  beneficial  operations  which  can  be    < 
applied  to  autumnal  corn ;  but  it  must  be  sufficiently  effective  to  cover  the  whole  field  with  a  layer   ' 
of  loose  earth,  as  will  always  be  the  case  when  harrows  having  iron  teeth  are  made  use  of.     Re-     i 
course  may  be  had  to  this  operation  with  advantage  in  every  case,  excepting,  as  we  have  already   ' . 
said,  where  the  plants  have  been  uprooted,  when  it  will  be'  better  to  roll  the  ground.    A  mild,  dry 
March  is  particularly  favorable  to  the  vegetation  of  autumnal  corn,  as  well  as  to  the  preparations 
for  putting  in  spring  corn. 

In  the  spring,'  all  corn  which  looks  well  and  healthy  ought  to  put  forth  lateral  shoots,  extend  it- 
self over  the  soil,  and  gain  strength,  rather  than  ran  up  rapidly.  The  vigorous  nature  of  a  plant 
which  has  already  begun  to  show  offsets  in  the  autumn,  contributes  greatly  to  further  this  end  ; 
but  the  weather  must_  be  favorable,  the  heat  in  April  and  the  beginning  of  May  very  moderate, 
and  a  sufiicient  quantity  of  rain  must  have  fallen  to  moisten  the  ground  and  render  it  favorable  to 
the  vegetation  of  thickly  tufted  corn.  Then  the  operation  of  harrowing  will  prove  particularly 
beneficial,  especially  if  performed  in  a  proper  manner  and  at  a  fitting  period  ;  the  layer  of  newly 
loosened  earth  encouraging  the  plants  to  sprout  and  put  forth  new  shoots.  Should  they,  however, 
after  this,  sho  Jt  up  rapidly,  with  only  one  or  two  stems,  and  run  to  stalk — as  very  frequently  hap- 
pens when  there  is  a  sudden  rise  of  temperature  unaccompanied  by  rain — the  com  never  becomes 
*  See  the  -Annalen  des  Ackerbaues." 
(983) 


408  THAER  S  PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


thick;  and  even  though  lateral  shoots  subsequentl}'  appear,  which  are  called  "  May-shoots,"  they 
being  so  much  later  than  the  principal  stems,  never  produce  any  ears  of  much  value.  It  is  not  so 
much  the  crowding  together  of  the  plants,  as  this  multiplication  and  elongation  of  the  oflsets — this 
uniform  sprouting  of  new  stems — which  decides  the  question  as  to  the  richness  of  the  harvest; 
and  in  that  the  appearances  change  almost  incessantly.  One  iield,  which  at  the  commencement 
of  May  is  covered  with  plants,  and  makes  a  very  great  show,  will  in  June  be  but  scantily  furni.shed 
with  cars,  the  plants  having  run  up  to  a  great  iiight  and  become  stalky;  while  another,  which  ap- 
peared to  be  very  much  behindhand  in  May,  will  in  June  present  the  aspect  of  a  field  of  thickly 
tufted  corn,  luxuriantly  furnished  with  ears  and  thick  stems.  Most  agriculturi.sts  will  have  had 
opportunities  of  ob.scrving  this  phenomenon,  but  only  a  very  few  of  them  have  profited  by  this  ex- 
perience ;  since  they  mostly  like  to  see  their  fields  covered  with  straight,  thick  plants  in  the  autumn 
and  early  in  the  .-jpring,  without  caring  to  consider  whether  these  crops  bear  any  indications  of 
strength  or  are  likely  to  shoot  out  luxuriantly.  The  aspect  presented  by  a  field  of  coi'n,  cursorily 
examined,  is  very  deceitful.  It  is  only  by  going  over  the  field  and  examining  all  the  plants  sepa- 
rately, that  any  definite  opinion  can  be  formed  with  respect  to  its  fruitfulness. 

The  slower  the  growth  of  the  stems  and  tlie  development  of  the  ears,  the  better.  A  forward, 
precocious  crop  will  never  be  a  luxuriant  and  plentiful  one.  The  ears  should  be  uniformly  devel-  . 
oped  over  the  whole  field  about  the  same  time;  and  for  this  reason  cool,  damp  weatVier  in  May 
is  considered  to  be  favorable  to  the  production  of  a  plenteous  harvest.  At  the  time  w  hen  the  ear 
I  begins  to  form,  the  plant  will  have  attained  the  half  of  its  ultimate  hight ;  at  least.  I  have  always 
i  found  this  to  be  the  case  as  regards  rye.  The  strength  of  the  stem.s,  particularly  lowai'd  the  bot- 
tom, is  of  quite  as  much  importance  as  their  hight.  It  is  only  when  the  stems  are  proportionately 
stroui;  that  the  length  of  the  ears  will  be  in  proportion  to  that  of  the  straw  ;  as,  for  instance,  the  ear 
will  be  nearly  as  many  inches  long  as  the  entire  stem  is  feet  in  hight.  Thin,  wiry  stems  often  at- 
tain to  a  cons*iderable"hii?lit,  and,  nevertheless,  bear  small  ears.  The  knots  of  tlie  .stem  ought  to 
be  thick  and  brov^-.n  ;  the"  blades  of  a  deep  rich  green,  and  stiff.  When  the  ears  have  acquired  an 
mcrea.se  of  growth,  and  the  flowering  begins,  the  corn  ought  to  present  a  uniform  .surface,  and  all 
the  plants  be  the  same  hight.  When  some  ears  here  and  there  shoot  up  higher  than  any  of  the 
others,  it  does  not  presage  a  good  harvest. 

The  flowering  season  is  also  a  critical  period  for  corn.     If  the  temperature  continue  to  be  wet     . 
for  any  length  of  time,  fecundation  will  be  difficult  and  imperfect.     In  June,  a  dry  and  warm  tern-    ^ 
perattire,  with, a  few  intervening  showers,  is  desirable.     As  the  weather  exerci.ses  a  considerable 
iuflueuce,  especially  on  rye,  I  shall  take  occasion  to  revert  to  this  subject  again.     It  is  astonishing 
how  much  greater  a  resistance  vigorous  corn  opposes  to  the  action  of  weather,  &c.  than  that  which     | 
is  offered  by  the  weaker  kinds. 

During  and  after  the  period  of  flowering,  comes  the  danger  of  the  plants  being  laid.     When 
corn  is  laid  previously  to  this,  without  being  beaten  down  by  heavy  showers  or  hail,  it  is  in  con- 
sequence of  the  exce.ssive  richness  of  the  soil — a  circumstance  which  every  sen.sible  and  prudent 
agriculturi.st  should  always  take  care  to  avoid.     Com  which  has  been  beaten  down  previously  to 
'    the  flowering  period  .soon  ri.ses  again,  but  not  without  retaining  a  slight  curvature. 

When  the  com  is  laid  by  rain,"this  evil  is  so  much  the  greater  in  proportion  as  it  takes  place  at    ^ 
an  early  period.     It  is  not  always  the  crowded  condition  of  the  stems,  or  tlieir  multiplicity,  which    ^ 
causes  the  corn  to  be  laid,  but  usually  the  weakness  of  the  plants  and  their  dispo.sition  to  disease  ;    , 
for  we  often  see  corn  that  is  very  thin  and  scanty  in  one  field  laid,  while  that  in  an  adjoining  field,    ' 
although  thick  and  luxuriant,  w-ill  remain  erect.     Very  abundant  manuring,  with  superficial  and 
badly  executed  plowing,  accompanied  by  very  thick  sowing,  constitute  the  ordinary  causes  of  the 
laying  of  corn  ;  while  deep  plowing,  performed  witli  care,  and  seeds  well  furnished  with  offshoots, 
rather  than  thickly  sown  in  the  first  instance,  prevent  this  inconvenience.  _  In  the  latter  case,  the     , 
stem  has  more  strength  at  the  lower  part ;  and  in  the  former  it  rises  too  rapidly,  and  obtains  hight, 
and  perhaps  strength  of  blade,  at  the  expense  of  the  stem.     All  corn  which  is  of  a  yellow  color 
indicates  the  presence  of  too  much  hydrogen  in  proportion  to  the  carbon,  and  consequent  weak- 
ness. 

What  I  have  just  said  has  reference  principally  to  autumnal  corn  :  however,  m  most  pomts,  it 
may  be  applied  to  spring  crops  as  well.  The  peculiarities  of  each  will  be  noticed  when  we  come 
to  treat  of  the  several  species  separately. 

Among  the  dififerent  diseases  which,  under  various  forms,  attack  corn,  as  \^'ell  as  other  plants, 
during  the  period  of  their  vegetation,  the  following  are  the  most  common  and  remarkable  : 

Abortion;  or,  the  shedding  or  fa/ling  of  the  grai7i.— Tins  disease  causes  the  plants  to  become 
suddenly  white  or  yellovi',  as  if  at  the  period  of  their  maturity,  and  are  soon  completely  dried  up. 
It  is  partly  the  top  of  the  plant  or  the  top  of  the  ear  that  is  first  diseased  ;  and  this  appears  some- 
times to  be  occa.sioned  by  the  return  of  cold,  or  white  fro.st.     Grounds  exposed  to  the  north  wind,    ^ 
and  the  highest  parts  of'fields,  are  most  subject  to  this  disease  ;  but  it  is  often  seen  in  wet  laud,    > 
and  still  more  often  in  fields  surrounded  ty 'woods,  where  frosty  vapors  fall  in  great  abundance, 
1    which  have  a  fatal  influence  on  the  young  ears  by  suddenly  chilhng  them. 
'        Upon  dry  soils  which  contain  great  h.eat,  and  where  the  want  of  rain  is  experienced,  we  see 
another  disease  of  a  similar  kind,  but  which  attacks  the  whole  plant :  this  di.sease  is  not  confined 
to  sandy  soils,  but  manife.sts  it.self  in  fields  which  have  been  only  superficially  plowed,  which  are 
never  left  in  repo.se,  and  which  are  abundantly  manured  with  new  manure  a  .short  time  before  the 
seed  is  put  into  the  ground.     I  know  extensive  arable  lands  on  which  this  disea.se  always  attacks 
the  rye  during  dry  weather,  and  the  owners  of  the  land  believe  it  to  be  inevitable.     Allowing  the 
land  to  remain  fallow,  laying  it  down  to  pasture,  plowing  it  deeply,  or  spreading  the  manure  over 
'   the  surface  after  the  seed  is  got  into  the  ground,  will  be  sure  to  eradicate  the  evil* 
t        A  di-sease  called  by  the  Engli.sh  Might,  and  which  is  of  a  totally  different  character  to  the  one 
of  which  we  have  now  been  speaking,  is  .seldom  met  with  among  us;  it  only  manifests  itself  now 
i  then,  and  usually  appears  in  wet  localities.     It  consists  ui  a  sudden  paralysis  of  the  vital 
■-  Vide  "  Wilrich  uber  da.s  Verscheiiien  der  Sa;iten.''     Niedersachs  :  Annalen.     Jahr.  iv.  st  iii.  54.     A. 
(984) 


strength,  a  mortal  apoplexy,  a  sudden  death  which  attacks  the  plant.  I  observed  this  disease  to 
be  prevalent  during  the  rainy  but  warm  summer  of  1802  ;  it  showed  itself  in  patches  in  moist  sit- 
uations :  one  day  an  extent  of  some  feet  would  lose  color ;  on  the  next  this  appearance  would  have 
extended  over  the  crop  to  a  distance  of  thirty  or  forty  perches.  The  plants  became  completely 
white,  and  as  dry  as  straw.  It  was  easy  to  pull  them  up,  and  all  their  principal  roots  came  up 
with  them  quite  white  and  dry :  nothing  remained  in  the  soil  but  a  few  fibres.  During  that  sum- 
mer, the  di.sease  of  which  we  are  now  speaking  was  far  more  prevalent  on  the  fields  in  my  neigh- 
borhood than  upon  my  own :  some  persons  attributed  it  to  the  ravages  of  an  insect,  but  I  was  never 
able  to  di.scover  a  foundation  for  such  an  opinion,  nor  could  1  discover  that  the  plants  had  received 
any  injury  which  could  account  for  their  rapid  decay.  Tliis  evil  appeared  to  me  to  be  attributa- 
ble to  an  electrical  state  of  the  air,  or  to  an  instantaneous  mutation  of  positive  and  negative  elec- 
tricity between  the  cui-rents  of  air  and  the  earth,  which  were  signalized  by  various  indications, 
though  no  storm  manifested  itself  in  the  neighborhood.  It  has  long  been  considered  that  light- 
ning has  a  baneful  eflPect  upon  every  kind  of  cereals,  particularly  if  it  comes  about  the  time  of 
flowering. 

Mil  or  mel-dew  brand,  and  smut,  appear  to  me  to  be  analogous  the  one  to  the  other,  or,  at  least, 
to  have  one  common  origin.  Some  agriculturists  comprise,  under  the  term  bi-and,  both  the  mil- 
dew and  smut;  and,  in  fact,  the  latter  appears  to  me  always  to  be  a  consequence  of  the  formei". — 
The  mil  or  mel-dew,  or,  as  it  is  vulgarly  called,  the  honcy-dciv,  is  a  glutinou.s,  sweet  humidity, 
which  exudes  from  the  plants,  and  is  similar  to  honey  :  it  is  very  agreeable  to  bee's.  Nobody  will 
believe,  in  our  days,  that  it  falls  from  heaven,  since  it  often  attacks  one  whole  crop  of  corn,  while 
that  which  is  perhaps  in  the  very  next  field  is  free  from  it  ;  the  primaiy  cau.se  of  it  doubtless  lies 
in  the  atmosphere  ;  the  disease  is  most  prevalent  when,  in  the  middle  of  summer,  and  while  the 
plants  are  in  full  vigor,  during  or  after  the  flowering  season,  sudden  changes  take  place  in  the  air, 
and  heat  is  succeeded  by  instantaueuus  cold  :  in  fact,  it  is  a  disease  produced  by  chills.  Upon 
some  vegetables,  as  French  beans,  there  are  immediately  seen  a  quantity  of  animalculis.  which 
are  undoubtedly  the  consequence,  and  not  the  cause  of  the  disease.  Among  cereals,  a  small  red 
insect  may  occasionally,  but  not  often,  be  remarked  :  throughout  the  whole  of  the  plant  signs  of 
weakness  are  observable,  and  its  vegetation  is  checked.  Should  a  more  favorable  temperature, 
however,  supervene,  accompanied  by  gentle  showers,  the  plants  will  often  be  restored ;  yellow 
spots  will  continue  to  be  visible  upon  the  leaves  and  stem,  which  gradually  acquire  a  deeper  hue, 
and  at  length  burst,  .shedding  a  brown  powder;  this  is  what  is  properly  called  smut,  and  I  have 
almo.st  invariably  .seen  it  succeeding  to  mildew.  Botanists  have  for  a  long  time  considered  diese 
balls  or  .spots  to  be  little  fungi,  which  grow  on  the  leaves;  and  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  the  President  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  England,  in  a  recent  description  of  this  disease,  wliich  made  such  terrible 
ravages  in  England,  particularly  in  1804,  has  given  a  very  magnified  and  detailed  drawing  of  it, 
in  which  the  form  of  the  fungus  is  very  clearly  to  be  traced.  Many  botanists  consider  it  to  be  a 
parasitical  plant  appertaining  to  the  class  cereals,  and  term  it  cBcidum,.  For  my  own  part,  I  am 
much  more  inclined  to  regard  it  as  a  disease  of  the  skin  ;  for  plants,  as  well  as  animals,  are  subject 
to  such,  and  each  has  a  certain  form.  If  this  disea.se  once  gets  a  head,  the  plant  soon  becomes  so 
weak  that  it  is  incai)able  of  bearing  grain,  and  all  hopes  of  a  fine  and  plentiful  crop  vanish.  This 
disease  is  move  frequent  in  some  climates  and  countries  than  in  others ;  and  it  is  peculiar  to  those 
\vhich  are  much  subject  to  fogs.  One  very  extraordinary  fact  is  that  the  barberry  bu.sh  will  pro- 
duce .snmt.  or  something  very  similar  to  it,  in  all  corn  growing  within  a  considerable  distance  of  it. 
This  is  a  fact  which  has  been  confirmed  by  numerous  observations  and  experiments  in  almost  all 
countries.  But  it  has  never  yet  been  clearly  and  satisfactorily  ascertained  in  what  manner  the 
barberry  produces  this  effect.  My  friend  Einhoft'has  made  several  experiments  on  the  po.ssibility 
of  communicating  rccidum  to  cereals  by  cutting  branches  from  the  barberry,  which  were  quite 
covered  with  it.  and  shaking  them  over  the  corn,  or  else  planting  them  in  the  midst  of  it;  but  he 
never  succeeded  in  thus  producing  the  disease:  thei'efore,  it  would  s?em  that  it  is  not  the  com- 
munication of  this  dust,  but  the  vegetation  of  the  barberr3'  in  the  vicinity  of  the  corn-field,  v^diich 
engenders  the  disea.se.  Nor  will  it  attack  crops  planted  near  young  and  newly  made  barberry 
hedges;  but  as  these  latter  grow  up  the  disease  will  appear,  and  increase  in  virulence  from  year 
to  :soar,  until  these  hedges  are  rooted  up.  As  soon  as  the  barberry  has  been  thoroughly  extirpa- 
ted, the  evil  disappears. 

The  fr/rinaceon'i  snnif.  is  a  disease  in  which  the  plants  are  covered  with  a  v/hite,  powdery-look- 
ing substance.  It  .seldom  attacks  cereals,  but  is  usually  found  among  vegetables.  It  appears  to 
ari.se  from  the  ,same  cause  as  honey-dew,  with  which  it  is  frequently  confounded.  Itattacks  those 
vegetables  which  are  liable  to  it  about  the  period  of  their  attaining  to  maturity ;  and  it  is  this  age, 
and  not  the  influence  of  the  .sea.son,  v^^hich  predispo.ses  the  plants  to  it. 

No  definite  information  has  yet  beeii  obtained  with  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  diseases  of  plants. 
Agriculturists  seldom  have  the  capacity  or  the  leisure  to  admit  of  their  ob.serving  and  tracing  out 
all  the  phenomena  attendant  on  them  ;  and  botanists  and  other  scientific  men  rarely  have  the  ne- 
cessary opportunities  of  pursuing  this  study.  One  opinion  after  another  is  brought  forward,  each 
founded  on  different  views,  and  expressed  in  different  terms  ;  and  hence  endless  confusion  arises. 
As  I  have  no  intention  of  venturing  upon  such  dangerous  and  untenable  ground,  I  shall  ab.stain 
from  entering  upon  the  subject  of  the  analogy  which  is  suppo.sed  to  exist  between  the  disea.ses  of 
plants  and  those  of  animals.  I  shall  also  pass  over  in  silence  the  various  insects  which  occasioually 
do  so  much  mischief  to  corn  and  other  crops. 

THE  HARVEST. 

The  getting  in  of  com  and  other  kinds  of  cereals  is  in  general  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  the 
agi-icultural  operations.  We  shall  at  once  proceed  to  speak  of  the  principal  circumstances  rela- 
ting to  it,  without  entering  into  those  minor  details  with  which  the  reader  is  most  probably  ac- 
quainted ;  or,  if  he  should  not  be,  which  cannot  be  taught  by  verbal  explanation.  The  principal 
conditions  requisite  to  ensure  the  succe.ss  of  the  hai-vest  are,  that  it  shall  be  got  in  as  quickly  as  pos- 


410 


THAERS   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


sible  ;  that  the  plants  shall  not  be  allowed  to  shed  their  grain  ;  and  that  the  ears  shall  be  firm,  dry, 
•and  fully  matured. 

In  order  to  avoid  all  impediments  to  the  progress  of  the  harvest  when  once  it  is  commenced, 
the  farmer  should  make  every  preparation  beforehand  ;  he  should  air  and  repair  all  his  bams  ;  see 
that  his  wagons,  implements,  and  every  thing  which  can  by  possibility  be  required  are  fit  for  use. 
Everything,  in  fact,  should  be  got  into  a  state  of  readiness, *so  that  not  a  moment  shall  be  lost  after 
the  operation  is  once  commenced  ;  all  other  operations  which  will  not  positively  suffer  from  delay 
should  be  postponed.  The  straw  bands,  or  twists  of  reeds  or  o.sier,  with  which  the  sheaves  are  to 
be  tied  up.  should  also  be  prepared  beforehand,  for  no  prudent  farmer  will  suffer  his  sheaves  to 
be  fastened  up  with  their  own  straw. 

In  extensive  I'gricultural  undertakings  which  have  but  few  or  no  statute  laborer.s,  the  first  care 
should  be  to  procure  a  sufBcient  number  of  hands ;  a  calculation  should  be  made  as  to  the  number 
which  will  be  requi.?ite.  and  everj-  possible  means  resorted  to  in  order  to  secure  them.  The  usual 
mode  of  proceeding  is  to  let  off  land  to  laborers,  on  which  they  are  permitted  to  cultivate  certain 
things — as,  for  example,  potatoes,  linseed,  tobacco.  &c. — on  condition  of  their  helping:  to  get  in  tlie 
harvest  at  certain  wages,  or.  if  they  fail  to  do  so,  forfeiting  the  produce  of  the  land  which  tliey  have 
cultivated.  This  mode  of  proceeding  is,  in  general,  very  expensive,  but  it  is  often  the  only  "means 
of  attaining  the  desired  end. 

There  are  various  data  laid  down  for  determining  the  number  of  laborers  which  will  be  requi- 
site to  get  in  the  hai-vest  from  a  given  extent  of  ground,  but  most  of  them  have  only  relation  to 
certain  localities.  By  some  it  has  been  supposed  that  six  men  and  eight  women  are  required  for 
three  hundred  acres  of  laud,  two-fifths  of  which  are  sown  with  autumnal,  and  thi-ee-fifths  with 
spring  corn.  In  this  calculation,  one  man  has  been  supposed  capable  of  cutting  three  acres  per 
day  of  fine  corn,  and  from  three  to  five  women  of  raking  and  binding  the  com.  The  quantity  of 
corn  which  a  team  can  draw  in  the  course  of  the  daj'  will  depend  upon  the  weight  of  the  crop, 
and  the  distance  of  the  field  from  the  stack-yard.  One  man  and  one  woman  will  be  sufficient  to 
load  and  rake  up  after  a  wagon,  and  three  men  and  three  women  will  suffice  to  unload  the  wagon 
and  stack  the  com.  This  calculation  is,  howevei*,  liable  to  modifications — .some  laborers  being 
more  active  than  others,  some  more  skillful.  The  number  of  persons  required  will  al.so  be  greatly 
influenced  by  the  state  of  the  weather,  which  oft3n  tends  materially  to  prolong  or  retard  the  opera- 
tion. 

There  are  various  modes  of  performing  the  operation  of  getting  in  the  harvest;  it  is,  however, 
very  difficult  to  change  from  one  to  another  where  the  laborers  cannot  be  hired  from  othei-  pla- 
ces, and  the  farmer  is  forced  to  manage  with  tho.se  belonging  to  the  immediate  neighborhood.  It 
is  by  no  means  immaterial  in  which  mode  the  harvest  is  got  in  ;  some  being  advantageous  in  one 
point  of  view,  and  some  in  another.  But  the  various  isolated  departments,  viz.  mowing,  reaping, 
raking,  binding,  loading,  unloading,  and  stacking,  are  all  so  intimately  connected  with  each  otlier 
that  no  change  can  be  made  in  one  which  does  not  pervade  the  whole  series.  Any  projected 
alteration  must  never  be  adopted  without  due  consideration,  since  the  laborers  frequently  go  very 
clumsily  to  work  about  it.  even  though  it  may  be  much  easier  than  the  mode  of  proceeding  to 
which  they  have  been  accustomed ;  innovations,  too,  often  damp,  if  not  destroy,  that  alacrity  and 
cheerfulness  on  the  part  of  the  men  ■which  cannot  be  too  diligently  fostered  during  harvest  time. 
Most  reapers  keep  themselves  and  each  other  in  good  humor  by  intermingling  jokes  and  pleasant- 
ry ■with  the  progress  of  their  work;  but  these  vanish  before  the  imposition  of  a  ne-w  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding, and  give  place  to  sullenness  and  discontent;  although  the  probability  is  that,  in  those 
places  where  it  is  cu.stomary,  this  very  mode  of  operating  may  be  even  more  merrily  performed 
than  that  which  these  men  are  habituated  to.  If,  notwithstanding  this  disadvantage,  it  should  still 
be  deemed  expedient  to  introduce  some  new  plans,  care  must  be  taken  that  all  the  chief  laborers 
shall  thoroughly  understand  it,  and  that  the  overseer,  especially,  shall  be  intimately  acquainted 
wth  all  its  details,  and  fully  capable  of  giving  both  directions  and  instructions  w^ith  regard  to  it. 

We  shall  not  attempt  to  describe  all  the  various  modes  of  getting  in  the  harvest,  becau.se  it  is 
difficult  to  give  a  sufficiently  lucid  description  of  the.se  proceedings  to  be  of  any  utility,  although 
they  may  easily  be  acquired  by  observation  and  practice,  but  content  ourselves  with  making  men- 
tion of  the  principal  one.s. 

The  instruments  employed  in  cutting  are  the  sickle  and  the  scythe.  When  the  former  is  used, 
the  corn  is  said  to  be  reaped  ;  and  when  the  latter,  it  is  said  to  be  mo-wn.  The  sickle  or  reap- 
hook  is  to  be  prefeired,  when  the  reapers  use  it  properly,  as  the  ears  are  then  less  liable  to  .shed 
their  .grain.  The  chief  cause  of  the  preference  given  to  the  .scythe,  is  the  saving  of  manual  labor 
which  it  produces,  and  the  despatch  with  which  the  operation  progresses  when  this  instrument  is 
used.  Ko  doubt  can  be  entertained  but  that,  when  the  crops  are  thick,  half  laid,  and  interlaced 
with  each  other,  the  sickle  should  be  used  ;  and  the  advantage  arising  from  the  grain  not  being 
shed,  will  amply  cover  the  extra  expense  attendant  on  reaping.  But  where  any  of  the  kinds  of 
grain  are  allowed  to  stand  too  long,  merely  from  a  predilection  for  the  use  of  the  sickle,  this  ad- 
vantage is  entirely  lost,  and  the  quantity  of  grain  which  is  shed  and  lost  during  the  getting  in  of 
the  harvest  is  often  much  greater  than  vvonld  have  been  wasted  had  the  crop  been  properly 
mowed.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  when  grain  is  reaped,  a  verj'  high  stubble  is  left  .standing, 
and  consequently  the  amount  of  straw  is  decrea.sed.  This,  however,  can  hardly  be  termed  a  less 
on  strong,  heavy  land,  where  an  abundance  of  straw  can  always  be  obtained,  and  where  this  long 
stubble  will,  ir" buried  by  plowing,  tend  to  loosen  and  ameliorate  the  soil. 

There  are  two  -waj^s  of  mowing  corn  :  firstly,  by  means  of  a  scythe  surmounted  by  a  cradle, 
which  is  made  to  cut  from  right  to  left,  and  which  lays  down  the  com  in  swaths  on  the  left ;  and 
secondly,  by  means  of  a  common  scythe,  in  which  case  the  mower  cuts  toward  the  standing  com, 
op  which  the  cut  corn  consequently  rests.  This  man  must  be  followed  by  an  assistant,  whose  bu- 
siness it  is  to  gather  up  the  mown  corn,  and  lay  it  on  bands  ready  to  be  tied  up.  This  second 
mode  of  proceeding  can  only  be  resorted  to  where  the  corn  is  strong  and  heavy.  One  great  ad- 
vantage attendant  upon  U  is,  that  it  shakes  the  ears  much  less,  and  saves  the  trouble  of  raking; 
^986) 


corn  thus  cut  is  less  liable  to  shed  its  grain.  The  labor  attendant  on  it  is  scarcely  greater  than 
would  attach  to  other  modes  of  proceeding,  for  the  women  who  follow  the  reaper  and  gather  up 
the  corn  save  the  extra  labor  of  raking. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made,  and  not  entirely  without  succe.ss,  to  invent  instruments  for  the 
purpose  of  performing  the  various  operations  appertaining  to  the  getting  in  of  corn  ;  but  the  labor 
was  so  little  diminished  by  any  of  them,  and  tlie  corn  in  general  so  much  injured,  that  no  advan- 
tage whatever  can  be  derived  from  their  use. 

The  crops  are  .sometimes  tied  up  directly  they  are  mown,  while  at  others  they  are  left  in  swaths 
or  heaps  on  the  ground  to  dry.  The  former  mode  of  proceeding  can  only  be  resorted  to  when 
there  is  but  little  grass  intermingled  with  the  crop.  Some  farmers  prefer  leaving  the  grain  in 
heaps  on  the  ground  until  a  litile  rain  has  fallen.  When  such  is  the  intention,  the  sheaves  must 
be  made  very'small,  or  else  they  will  take  too  long  drying  ;  the  best  way  is  to  put  the  corn  into 
sheaves  standing,  as  it  suffers  much  less  from  moistui-e  while  in  that  position  than  it  does  vvhen 
lying  on  the  ground.  Under  those  circumstances,  where  the  crops  must  necessarily  remain  for  a 
considerable  time  in  the  field,  as  will  often  be  the  case  where  a  tithe  or  duty  has  to  be  paid  on  it, 
the  sheaves  are  placed  together  in  shocks,  and  a  cap  or  covering,  consisting  of  a  head  sheaf,  spread 
out  for  the  purpose,  which  prevents  the  shock  from  suffering  even  from  continuous  rain.  When  / 
the  corn  is  made  into  large  sheaves,  they  should  be  removed  from  the  field  as  soon  as  tied  up,  and  i 
on  no  account  suffered  to  remain  another  night  exposed  to  the  weather.  / 

Nothing  can  be  so  disadvantageous  to  the  farmer  as  for  the  weather  to  be  moist  and  damp  at  i  ^ 
the  harvest  time,  as  this  state  of  temperature  gives  the  grain  a  tendency  to  germiuate.  Under  ^ 
such  circumstances,  he  will  have  need  of  all  his  forethought  and  activity,  and  must  spare  neither 
care  nor  expeu.se  if  he  would  .save  his  crop.  He  must,  above  all,  preserve  his  good  humor  and 
cheerfulnes.s.  for  any  diminution  of  either  will  paralyze  all,  and  cause  the  laborers,  who  otherwise 
take  a  lively  interest  in  the  operation,  to  become  disheartened  and  sullen.  Various  modes  of  pro- 
ceeding have  been  recommended  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  corn  during  harvest  from  the  ef- 
fects of  warm,  moist  weather:  but  most  of  them  are  only  applicable  to  some  few  localities. 

When  the  corn  is  left  in  heaps  or  swaths  on  the  ground,  they  must  be  frequently  opened, 
and  turned,  in  order  that  the  ears  may  not  become  attached  to  the  ground,  but  may  be  exposed  to 
the  action  of  a  free  current  of  air.  Whenever  there  is  the  slightest  chance  of  the  corn  drying,  it 
should  be  immediately  tied  up,  and  carted  with  the  least  possible  delay. 

Sometimes  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  turn  the  crop  repeatedly  after  it  has  been  brought  into 
the  barns,  and  to  expose  it  to  the  action  of  the  air  by  spreading  it  over  the  floor.  The  corn  can 
only  be  tied  up  as  fiist  as  it  is  mown,  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  even  then  it  willbe  best  to  set 
the  sheaves  in  shocks,  and  cover  the  top  with  a  head  sheaf,  or  sheaf  laid  upon  its  side,  and  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  protect  the  shock  from  rain  ;  corn  may  thus  be  suffered  to  remain  on  the  field  until 
the  weather  improves,  without  any  danger  of  its  germinating.  Some  farmers  pile  the  corn  in 
heaps  without  tying  it,  and  then  cover  each  heap  with  a  sheaf  drawn  loosely  together  at  the  top, 
and  stretched  out  at  the  bottom  so  as  to  form  a  cap.  When,  on  account  of  the  unskillfulness  of  the 
laborers,  it  is  impossible  to  cover  the  heap  properly,  the  sheaves  must  be  made  very  small,  each  one  i  ^ 
weighing  not  more  than  eight  or  ten  pounds,  and  these  must  he  set  up  leaning  against  each  other, 
80  that  the  wind  may  blow  through  them.  When  thus  exposed  to  the  air,  the  coi-n  can  bear  con- 
tinuous rains  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.* 

Vv'^ith  us,  the  corn  is  usually  preserved  in  barns  until  wanted  to  be  threshed;  and  it  is  only 
made  into  stacks  when  the  barns  are  too  full  hold  more.  There  is  a  very  great  difference  between 
our  stacks,  which  frequently  occasion  so  much  loss  to  the  farmer,  and  the  carefully,  systematically 
built  corn  stacks  of  the  English  agriculturist,  such  as  I  have  described  in  vol.  ii.  part  1.  of  my 
"English  Agriculture."  These  latter  are  fully  capable  of  preserving  all  kinds  of  corn,  without 
its  being  in  the  slightest  degree  injured  or  deteriorated  ;  it  would,  however,  be  difficult  to  intro- 
duce them  into  our  system,  and,  in  fact,  it  could  not  be  done  unless  the  sheaves  were  very  small. 
A  building  has  been  suggested  which  partakes  of  the  nature  both  of  a  barn  and  a  stack.and  this 
is,  in  my  opinion,  very  likely  to  answer.  There  are  various  opinions  respecting  the  form  in  which  ^ 
barns  or  granaries  should  be  built,  and  also  with  respect  to  the  superiority  of  different  barn  floors.  ', 
When  these  latter  are  long,  a  whole  line  of  wagons  may  be  introduced  at  once ;  but  where  they 
are  square,  not  more  than  three  at  most  can  enter.  In  my  opiziion,  the  old  custom,  -w^iatever  that 
may  be,  should  be  adhered  to ;  the  advantage  attendant  upon  either  of  these  forms  is  not  so  great 
as  to  make  it  worth  while  to  change  the  mode  of  getting  in  the  harvest,  and  alter  the  construction 
of  the  barns.  Long  floors  are  chiefly  found  in  those  localities  where  the  corn  is  not  laid  up  com- 
pactly until  the  whole  of  it  is  tied  ;  while  square  ones  are  principally  found  where  the  crop  is 
carted  and  carried  home  as  .soon  as  any  portion  of  it  is  made  up  into  sheaves. 

When  corn  is  stowed  up  in  barns  or  in  stacks,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  no  hollows  or 
vacant  spaces  should  be  left,  but  that  the  whole  mass  should  be  compactly  pressed  together.  This 
point  should  be  particularly  attended  to,  not  only  because  much  room  is  thus  saved,  but  also  be- 
cavise  the  grain  then  keeps  much  better.  No  practice  can  be  more  erroneous  than  that  of  leaving 
openings  and  vacuities  with  the  view  of  admitting  a  free  current  of  air,  and  thereby  can-ying  off 
the  vapors  engendered  among  the  cereals  ;  it  will  always  be  found  that  corn  keeps  best  when 
most  compactly  stored,  and  that  wherever  hollows  or  spaces  are  left,  mildew  will  always  be  en- 
gendered. 

There  are  various  modes  of  threshing  corn.  I  shall  merely  mention  those  which  are  effected  ,  ^ 
by  the  feet  of  horses,  by  wagons  having  ten  or  twelve  angular  wheels,  and  by  sledges,  or  conical  ,  * 
rollers.!    The  usual  way  of  threshing  com  is  with  flails.      These  implements  are  not,  however, 

*  Some  remarks  on  this  subject  will  be  found  in  the  "  Annalen  des  Ackerbaues,"  bd.  iv.  sec.  82  ,  and  , 
"  Anzeigen  der  Leipsicher  CEconomischen  Societat."    Michaelis  Messe.     1785.    Sec^  50.     "  Untrugliche    , 


always  similar,  uor  are  they  always  used  in  the  same  way,  but  none  of  the  modifications,  either  in 
their  make  or  in  the  manner  of  using-  them,  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  render  it  worth  while 
to  talve  the  tiouble  of  endeavoring  to  teach  the  laborers  to  perform  the  operation  in  aiiy  way  to 
which  they  are  unaccustomed,  especially  when  they  are  upon  task  work.  , 

Threshing  is  generally  executed  in  one  of  three  ways:  _  • 

[a]    In  small  farms :  by  the  farm  servants,  either  early  in  the  morning  or  late  in  the  evening. 

(i).  By  day  \\ork  :  in  this  case  the  number  of  sheaves  which  are  to  be  threshed  in  each  day  is 
usually  determined  beforehand.  "Where  this  system  is  pursued,  the  laborers  must  be  well  looked 
after,  or  they  \\ill  leave  the  corn  in  the  ear,  and  otherwise  slight  the  work,  in  order  to  save  them- 
selves trouble. 

(c).  By  task  \\ork  :  here  each  man  has  to  thresh  a  certain  number  of  sheaves,  or  produce  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  grain.  This  mode  of  proceeding  is  usually  practiced  in  large  farms  where  a  num- 
ber of  laborers  are  constantly  kept. 

The  farmer  himself,  or  his  steward,  or  bailiff  ought  to  pay  particular  attention  to  the  performance 
of  this  operation,  or  the  laborers  will  leave  the  corn  in  the  ear,  cheat,  and  thieve;  besides,  these 
persons  must  maintain  order,  look  after  the  threshed  portions,  and  see  that  the  gram  is  properly    ^ 
freed  from  all  impurities,  measured,  and  carried  to  the  granary. 

Various  machines  have  been  invented  for  the  purpose  of  threshing  com,  and  many  of  them  an- 
swer very  well. 

The  best  and  most  generally  used  threshing  machine  is  one  that  was  invented  in  Scotland,  and 
which  has  since  been  greatly' improved  and  modified.  This  machine  beats  the  grain  and  chaflF 
from  the  straw  Sy  means  of  a  revolving  cylinder  furnished  with  flails  or  beaters  ;  it  separates  the 
grain  fi-om  the  chaff,  dust,  and  straw,  and  also  separates  the  light  from  the  heavy  grains.  This  in- 
strument has  been  made  of  various  sizes  ;  some  are  put  in  action  by  water,  others  by  wind,  and 
others  asrain  by  two.  four,  or  six  horse.s.  Their  mechanism  is  complicated  but  durable,  and,  con- 
sequently, they  are  very  expensive.  There  is  however,  a  manufactory  at  Friederichswerk,  in 
Seelande,  where  they  may  be  obtained  at  very  moderate  prices  :  the  large  and  complicated  ma- 
chines which  require  six  horses  to  put  them  in  motion  may  be  had  for  500  rix-dollars  ;  and  the 
smaller  ones,  such  as  are  usually  worked  by  two  horses,  for  180  rix-dollars.  These  machines 
thresh  the  corn  very  evenly,  and  in  proportion  to  their  size  very  quickly.  The  only  thing  which 
can  be  complained  of  is,  that  they  break  the  straw  ;  but  this  need  not  be  rendered  a  ground  of 
complaint,  for  it  serves  to  make  it  better  adapted  for  fodder  and  for_  litter,  without  unfitting  it  for 
other  purposes.  In  those  farms  where  threshing  it  an  operation  which  should  always  be  reserved 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  men  employed  during  the  winter,  threshing  machines  can  only  be 
of  partial  use  ;  their  advantage  and  utility  is  most  evident  at  those  periods  when  it  becomes  neces- 
1     sary  to  expedite  the  work. 

'  With  us  the  grain  is  usually  stored  up  in  granaries,  most  of  which  are  over  some  part  of  the 
farm  buildings,  or  what  is  still  better,  over  open  sheds.  In  very  large  agricultural  undertakings, 
there  are  buildings  set  aside  expressly  for  thir  purpose. 

The  large  massive  buildings  erected  in  Russia  and  Sweden  for  the  purpose  of  storing  up  grain, 
are  the  best  adapted  for  this  purpose  ;  in  these  the  reservoirs  are  built  in  the  fonn  of  tall  chimneys, 
extending  from  the  summit  of  the  building  to  the  ground  ;  when  completely  filled,  they  are  closed 
at  the  top  so  completely  as  to  prevent  all  communication  with  the  atmosphere  ;  they  are  emptied 
at  once  by  opening  an  orifice  near  the  ground.  The  grain  must  have  been  perfectly  dried  in  the 
air,  or  else  in  an  oven  or  close  stove,  before  being  stored  up  in  the.se  places.* 

In  Ukraine  the  grain  is  still  frequently  stored  up  in  pits  and  trenches,  as  used  fonnerly  to  be  the 
custom  in  Germany.! 

After  having  been  thre-shed,  the  grain  should  be  spread  out  to  dry  on  the  floor  of  the  granary  ; 
at  first  it  should  be  laid  in  thin  layers  of  about  .six  inches  deep,  but  afterward,  when  it  has  become 
tolerably  dry,  it  may  be  collected  more  together,  and  left  in  heaps  or  layers  of  a  foot  or  a  foot  and 
a  half  in  thickness. 

The  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  com  was  got  in,  as  well  as  the  state  of  the  atmosphere 
both  then  and  siib.sequently,  will  guide  the  farmer  in  his  after  treatment  of  the  grain.  "V\^here  it  has 
only  been  got  in  a  short  time,  and  where  the  weather  is  damp,  it  must  be  frequently  turned  and 
moved  :  at'first  it  ought  to  be  attended  to  twice  a  week;  afterward  only  once  a  week  ;  and  in  the 
summer,  when  it  is  tolerably  dry,  once  a  month  will  be  quite  sufiicient. 

A  careful  surveillance  must  be  maintained  in  the  granaries  to  prevent  the  mischief  which  is  fre- 
quently done  to  grain  by  insects  and  vemiin.     No  foreign  grain  should  be  admitted  into  the  gran- 
ary, uiile.ss  it  is  ascertained  to  be  perfectly  sound,  and  free  from  insects.     The  walls  of  the  granary 
must  ke  kept  in  perfect  repair;   they  may  be  painted,  provided  that  a  bri.sk  cun-ent  of  air  can  be 
kept  up  through  the  place  to  caiTy  off  the  smell.     When  insects  first  appear,  a  strong  current  of  < 
air  will  frequently  entirely  get  rid  of  them  ;    but  if  they  once  get  ahead  ;    all  that  remains  to  be 
done  is  to  .sell  the  grain  at  the  best  price  which  it  will  fetch,  and  have  the  granary  thoroughly 
cleansed  and  purified  before  anymore  is  placed  in  it.     Various  substances  may  be  strewed  about 
it  which  are  injurious  and  poisonous  to  the  insects,  as  tobacco  leaves,  or  a  wash  composed  of  a 
decoction  of  the  leaves  of  the  alder  or  walnut  tree  ;    turpentine,  pitch,  or  tar  may  be  inserted  into   / 
all  the  clefts  or  crannies.     But  the  most  efScacious  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  burn  sulphur  in  the    / 
granary  several  different  times,  and  thus  fumigate  the  place  ;    if  proper  precautions  are  taken, 
this  may  be  done  without  any  danger  of  the  building  taking  fire  ;  every  opening  must  be  carefully- 
closed  up,  or  the  smoke  will  escape  and  do  no  good.  . 

Rats,  mice,  and  weevils  injure  the  grain  very  much,  besides  dirtying  it  with  their  excrements. 
Cats,  owls  and  hedgehogs  will  sometimes  diminish  the  number  of  these  vermin  ;  but  they  also 
dirty  the  grain.  The  use  of  poison  for  the  purpose  of  their  destraction  is  justly  regarded  as  dan- 
"  Norberu's  Beschreibung  eines  Kommagazins  in  den  neuer  Abhandlunger  der  Schwedischer  Academie 
der  Wissenschaften,"  Bd.  X.  A. 

'  Scbrebers  Sammlung  von  Schriften  zum  Kameral  WissenBchaft,'.  Bd.  X.  A. 


gerous  ;  but  there  is  a  way  in  which  recourse  may  be  had  to  it  without  risk.  The  first  thinjj  to 
be  dcT.e  is  to  find  some  bait  which  these  vermin  are  fond  of,  and  place  it  in  some  spot  close  bj"- 
the  granary.  When  it  is  observed  that  they  eat  it  with  avidity,  and  devour' all  that  is  placed 
there  at  night  before  the  next  niornin;.?,  some  ratsbane  or  arsenic  should  be  mixed  with  it;  and 
thus  all  the  rats  will  be  destroyed  in  one  night.  This  practice  is  not  attended  with  the  same  dan- 
ger as  the  dispersion  of  poison  about  the  granary  would  be  ;  for  the  animals  who  have  eaten  of 
the  poisoned  food  set  apart  for  them,  do  not  return  to  tlie  grain  ;  they  eiihe'-  crouch  in  a  comer, 
or  else  run  up  on  to  the  roof  where  they  soon  die.  All  the  grain  should  then  be  rakod,  in  order 
to  see  if  any  animal  has  dirtied  it.  If  any  of  the  poisoned  food  be  left,  it  must  be  immediately  re- 
moved ;  for  should  any  rat  be  left  alive;  he  will  not  touch  it. 

"We  shall  now  proceed  to  speak  of  the  several  species  of  grain;  and,  iirst,  of  corn,  properly 
speaking. 

WHEAT. 

From  the  botanical  genus  triticuni,  arise  four  distinct  genera  which  we  consider  as  wheat,  and 
cultivate  in  our  fields,  viz.  r — 

Triticum  hyheritum  ct  izstivum '"vVinter  or  lammas  wheat. 

"        Sptlta Spelt  wheat. 

"        Monocoaim One-a:i"nined  wheat. 

"        Polonicum Polish  wheat. 

The  innumerable  minor  varieties  derived  from  the  first  species,  or  wheat  properly  so  called,  are 
but  degenerations  or  varieties  which  have  undergone  changes  arising  from  extraneous  circum- 
stances. This  opinion  is  contrary  to  the  one  usually  entertained,  even  by  botanists,  who  do  not, 
however,  agree  with  regard  to  the  distribution  of  the  species  and  varieties  of  the  jilants  which 
■we  cultivate  in  our  fields,  and  which  are  under  the  influence  of  art.  They  do  not  even  agree 
about  autumnal  and  spring  corn.  Although  these  two  kinds,  and  especially  some  varieties  of 
them,  appear  to  differ  so  widely'  in  their  nature,  they  may,  without  difficultj',  be  rendered  similar, 
if  not  wholly  the  same.  If  real  autumnal  wheat  is  sown  in  Febraary,  or  about  the  beginning  of 
March,  a  portion  of  its  lateral  offsets  produce  stems  and  ears  which  come  to  perfection  the  same 
year,  though  they  yield  but  a  scanty  crop.  If  the  grain  thus  obtained  be  sown  on  the  following 
spring  it  will  approach  nearer  to  the  nature  of  spring  wheat,  produce  more  stems  and  ears  and  [ 
ripen  quicker ;  and  if  the  grain  arising  from  this  second  crop  be  again  sown  on  the  third  spring,  , 
actual  spring  wheat  will  come  up.  On  the  other  hand,  if  real  spring  wheat  be  sown  toward  the 
end  of  October,  and  a  hard  winter  follows,  in  which  the  plants  are  not  sufficiently  covered  with 
snow,  the  wh:de  of  the  crop  will  inevitably  perish;  but  if  the  temperature  is  favorable,  it  will 
succeed  tolerably  well,  put  forth  ears,  and  ripen  before  the  autumnal  wheat.  The  grain  obtained 
from  it  will,  if  set,  produce  plants  that  bear  the  winter  better,  and  approach  nearer  to  the  nature 
of  autumnal  wheat,  remain  longer  in  the  ground,  and  shoot  up  taller  and  stronger  ;  on  the  follow- 
inn  year  it  will  have  acquired  all  the  characteristics  of  autumnal  wheat,  remain  still  longer  in  the 
ground,  and  shoot  up  still  higher  and  stronger. 

I  cannot  consider  the  triticum  compositiim  (Egyptian  wheat)  as  a  distinct  variety,  singe  it 
loses  all  its  numerous  shoots,  and  its  distinguishing  characteristics,  on  being  sown  on  poor  land, 
as  these  arise  solely  from  a  superabundance  of  succulency.  After  this  w^heat  has  been  reproduced 
several  times  on  poor  land,  it  ceases  to  bear  the  slightest  trace  of  that  multiplicity  of  ears  by  which 
it  is  distinguished.     The  grain,  however,  becomes  larger  as  the  number  of  the  shoots  decrease. 

That  wiiich  is  termed  triticum  turg-idnm  (turgid,  or  English  wheat),  is,  perhaps,  a  distinct  va- 
riety. The  ears  and  the  husk  are  peculiar,  from  their  structure  ;  the  grain,  from  being  wider  at 
the  back  than  any  other,  and  from  the  absence  of  that  velvety  appearance  at  the  round  end  which 
is  observable  in  the  grain  of  other  wheat.  This  last-mentioned  peculiarity  was  observed  by 
Crome.  Sometimes  it  is  bearded  ;  at  others,  not.  I  do  not  know  \vhether  the  English  distin- 
guish it  particularly  from  other  kinds,  there  is  so  much  confusion  among  their  innumerable  va- 
rieties. It  certainly  cannot  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  common  or  generally  cultivated  va- 
rieties among  them  ;  the  term  English  wheat,  which  we  have  bestowed  upon  it,  is  therefore  inap- 
propriate. 

We  shall  hereafter  speak  of  the  different  kinds  of  Spelt  and  Polish  wheat. 

The  varieties  of  wheat  are  innumerable,  especially  in  countries  where  very  great  attention  is 
paid  to  the  cultivation  of  grain,  as  is  the  case  in  England.  I  have  reckoned  more  than  a  hundred 
kinds  of  wheat  which  are  recognized  by  the  English,  and  each  of  which  has  a  different  name  ; 
but  all  these  are  very  frequently  confounded,  the  one  with  the  other. 

Haller  justly  observes,  that  ''the  beard  is  a  very  uncertain  characteristic,  since  in  some  soils 
vheat  acquires  a  beard,  while  in  others  it  loses  it."  The  English,  however,  pay  no  attentiun  to 
this  circumstance. 

The  color  of  the  grain  is  a  much  more  definite  sign.  Red  and  brown,  yellow  and  white  wheat 
are  always  distinguishable  from  one  another.  The  color  of  the  straw,  when  it  has  attained  matu- 
rity, does  not  always  agree  exactly  with  that  of  the  grain.  For  instance,  dark  colored  grain  may 
frequently  be  seen  growing  on  white  straw,  and  vice  versd. 

Brown  wheat  grows  in  countries  where  there  is  strong  wheat  land.  When  transplanted  to 
other  lands,  it  degenerates.  It  is  as  yet  doubtful  whether  the  wheat  derives  its  red-brown  hue 
from  the  soil,  and  whether  or  not  it  will  lose  it  when  sown  in  a  different  kind  of  land.  If  this 
change  does  take  place,  it  is  verj'  gradually  effected. 

The  kind  which  is  usually  sown  in  the  autumn,  and  occasionally  in  the  spring,  is  the  yellow 
wheat.  _  For  some  time  this  species  had  been  wholly  discarded  by  scientific  agriculturists,  and 
the  white  wheat  adopted  in  its  stead,  on  account  of  the  latter  yielding  equally  well,  and  likewise 
fetching  a  much  higher  price  when  once  it  began  to  be  appreciated.  It  also  forms  a  whiter  iiour 
than  the  yellow  wheat,  even  when  less  carefully  sifted.  It  is  purchased  chiefly  for  the  use  of 
the  navy,  and  for  ship  provisions,  and  fetches  a  very  high  price.  It  would,  in  all  probability, 
(989)  r  J 


have  been  preity  generally  introduced,  had  not  the  winter  of  1803  proved  it  to  be  exceedingly 
delicate.  In  many  countries  it  could  not  resist  the  long  period  of  dry,  cold  weather  which  thea 
occurred,  and  perished,  while  the  yellow  wheat  bore  the  severity  of  the  temperature  very  well. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  white  wheat.  In  one  the  husk  is  smooth ;  in  the  other  it  i-  cov- 
ered with  fine  hair,  which  gives  to  the  ear  a  velvety  appearance.  The  English  pay  very  great 
attention  to  this  difference,  as,  according  to  them,  it  is  not  only  invariable,  but  very  important 
The  former  kind  they  term  egg-shell  wheat ;  the  latter,  velvet-ear.  They  consider  that  the  for- 
mer  answers  better  in  damp  situations  than  the  latter,  which,  from  its  rough  husk,  attrac  ts  too 
much  moi.sture,  and,  consequently,  is  expo.sed  to  the  smut,  and  dries  very  slowly :  on  the  other 
hand,  however,  the  velvet-ear,  or  that  which  has  this  uneven  covering,  is  considered  as  best 
adapted  for  dry.  elevated  situations,  because  it  is  better  able  to  bear  continuous  heat  than  the 
other,  does  not  dry  up  so  soon,  and  is  not  so  liable  to  contract.  This  opinion  is  doubtless  well 
founded,  since  the  Httle  hairs  with  which  its  husk  is  covered  may  be  regarded  as  suckers.  A 
long  while  ago,  I  received  some  of  this  rough  white  wheat  from  England;  I  have  since  met 
with  it  in  this  countrj-,  and  was  informed  that  the  seed  from  which  it  originated  came  from  the 
principality  of  Dessaw  ;  this  also  had,  however,  most  probably  been  brought  from  England  ori- 
ginally :*  it  has  no  beard.  If  any  one  kind  of  wheat  more  than  another  ought  to  be  called  Eng- 
lish w^heat,  it  is  this,  and  not  the  tritiaim  tnrgirlvm.  (| 

That  variety  which  is  so  much  esteemed  in  England,  and  which  bears  the  name  oi  hedge-wheat, 
I    and  has  been  produced  by  the  seed  obtained  from  some  large  plants  found  near  to  a  hedge,  the 
which  have  become  multiplied  and  perfected  by  careful  cultivation,  is  by  no  means  a  distinct  spe- 
cies, but  will,  if  cultivated  in  the  ordinary  way,  soon  be  found  to  decline  and  degenerate. 

In  the  same  manner,  autumnal  wheat  is  distingui,shed  from  spring  wheat  by  cultivation  and  art, 
rather  than  any  botanical  difference. 

As  it  is  of  little  consequence  whether  rye  or  wheat  is  sown  for  the  autumnal  crop,  the  question 
must  be  decided  by  the  adaptation  of  the  soil  to  one  or  the  other  of  these  products.  Argillaceous 
soils  should  always  be  reserved  for  wheat ;  whereas  sandy  soils  will  be  found  best  suited  to  rye. 
It  may  generally  be  admitted  as  a  principle  that  land  which  contains  more  than  fifty-five  parti?  in 
a  hundred  of  sand  is  by  no  means  so  well  adapted  for  the  production  of  wheat  as  it  is  for  that  of 
rye.  Thei-e  are,  however,  circumstances  which  tend  to  modify  this  pi-inciple — as,  for  instance,  the 
position  of  the  land,  the  sources  from  which  it  derives  its  moisture,  &:c.  Where,  from  situation, 
the  soil  is  inclined  to  be  damp,  it  will  be  better  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  wheat  than  for  that  i 
of  rye,  even  though  it  may  contain  from  sixty  to  sixty-five  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand  ;  for  the 
dampness,  which  compensates  for  the  absence  of  clay,  would  be  exceedingly  injurious  to  rye. 

The  success  of  autumnal  wheat  can  never  be  depended  on,  unless  the  ground  upon  which  it  is  ) 
sown  is  tolerably  stiff.  Light,  loose  land,  devoid  of  clay,  may,  if  it  is  sufficiently  moist,  and  con-  / 
tains  an  abundance  of  humus,  produce  wheat  ;  but  the  crop  is  always  casual  and  uncertain,  be-  / 
cause  .such  a  soil  does  not  afford  a  sufficient  holdfast  to  the  roots,  especially  in  the  winter. 

The  gi-eater  the  proportion  of  clay  a  soil  contains,  and  the  less  proportion  of  sand,  the  more  it  is 
qualified  for  the  production  of  wheat,  and  the  less  for  that  of  rye.  If  land  containing  but  little  sand 
has  fifteen  parts  in  a  hundred  of  lime,  it  may  be  considered  as  good  wheat  land  ;  this  lime  tends 
to  give  it  a  degree  of  divisibility  without  at  all  injuring  its  consistency,  and  entirely  prevents  the 
development  of  that  acidity  which  is  so  injurious  to  wheat. 

But  in  order  to  ensure  the  success  of  wheat  crops  the  land  must  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
nutritive  particles  to  feed  plants  which  require  so  large  an  amount  of  nourish»ent  as  these  do. — 
Argillaceous  .soils,  abounding  in  humus,  and  of  a  blackish  brown  hue,  are  consequently  those,  of 
all  others,  which  bear  the  richest  crops  of  wheat.  Land  which  is  naturally  less  fertile  may  be 
ameliorated  through  the  medium  of  manure  ;  clayey  soils,  however  badly  and  scantily  they  may 
be  manured,  always  bear  better  crops  of  wheat  Ihan  of  rye,  especially  when  situated  in  a  cold 
damp  place  ;  this  is  the  reason  that  fields  situate  on  mountains  are  always  more  profitable  when 
sown  with  ^vheat  than  they  are  when  sown  with  rye. 

Wheat  will  not  flourish  if  the  .soil  contains  any  free  acid  ;  whenever  I  have  met  with  land  which, 
although  apparently  in  every  way  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  yet  failed  to  yield  good 
crops,  I  have  always  found,  on  examination,  that  it  contained  a  sensible  quantity  of  acid. 

Such  land  may  be  rendered  fit  for  the  production  of  wheat  by  ameliorations  of  hme,  marl/ or 
ashes,  or  by  paring  and  burning  the  surface  ;  after  this  last-named  operation  has  been  performed, 
it  w-ill  prove  equally  adapted  for  barley,  peas,  or  clover. 

It  may  then  be  considered  as  an  undeniable  fact  that  argillaceous  lands  can  be  applied  with  far 
greater  advantage  in  the  production  of  wheat  than  in  that  of  rye.  But  nothing  but  local  circum- 
stances and  the  state  of  the  temperature  can  determine  to  which  kind  of  grain  a  medium  soil  or 
thin  clay,  containing  from  fifty-five  to  sixty-five  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand,  is  most  favorable  of 
production.  In  those  countries  whei-e  wheat  constitutes  the  sole  food,  and  rye  is  but  little  valued, 
the  fonner  is  usually  cultivated  ;  but  with  us  it  is  quite  the  contrary,  wheat  is  only  cultivated 
when  particular  circumstances  combine  to  raise  its  price  far  above  its  relative  value  as  regards  rye. 
For  although,  on  the  average,  such  a  soil,  when  kept  in  good  condition,  may  produce  a  crop  of 
wheat  of  far  greater  value  than  one  of  rye  would  be,  it  is  well  known  that  wheat  exhausts  land 
very  much,  and  that  its  enervating  effects  are  sensibly  evident  upon  the  succeeding  crops ;  be- 
sides, wheat  straw  furnishes  less  substance  for  the  reproduction  of  manure  than  any  other.  Thus 
wheat  tends  to  enfeeble  the  whole  .system  of  the  rural  economy,  especially  when  repeated  crops 
of  it  are  raised.  Prudent  agriculturists,  (herefure,  content  themselves  with  grovring  rye.  '"'nm 
which  they  derive  certain  if  not  large  profits. 

Wheat  is  generally  sown  on  fallow  ground,  or,  if  the  soil  contains  little  natural  fertility,  on  ma- 
nured fallows.  Occasionally,  when  the  land  is  very  strong  and  rich,  this  practice  is  departed 
from,  as  there  is  then  some  "danger  of  the  coi-n  being  lodged  ;  and  a  crop  of  cabbages,  or  some 

I  found  it,  in  1811,  sown  in  a  marshy,  damp  soil ;  at  least  one-third  of  the  crop  was  suffering  from  smut 


WHEAT  415 

other  produce  of  a  like  nature,  is  first  raised  from  the  land.  Some  agriculturists  do  not  sow  wheat 
even  after  this  preliminary  crop,  but  substitute  for  it  winter  barley,  to  be  succeeded  by  a  fallow 
or  a  fallow  crop,  and  then  sow  the  wheat.  Others  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  advantages  of 
the  alternate  cultivation  of  various  crops,  and  attached  to  the  triennial  rotation,  sow  barley  on  the 
manured  fallow,  and  then  wheat.  This  barley  is  very  frequently  laid,  but  they  are  of  opinion  that 
it  is  less  injured  by  this  circumstance  than  wheat  would  be.  The  wheat  which  is  then  sown,  so 
far  from  bding  very  luxuriant  an<?  vigorous,  is  often  exceedingly  poor  and  weak.  Barley  forms 
by  no  meais  a  good  preparation  tor  wheat;  indeed,  the  soil  must  contain  a  superabundance  of  ' 
nutritive  matter  to  admit  of  the  wheat  succeeding  at  all ;  on  poor  land  it  yields  but  a  very  thin 
crop.     When  the  land  is  of  a  medium  quality,  wheat  is  almost  always  sown  on  a  manured  fallow. 

This  remark  applies  to  rotations  with  pasturage  as  well  as  to  the  triennial  rotation  ;  and  now  , 
mcst  persons  consider  that  it  is  most  advantageous  to  sow  wheat  on  the  manured  fallow  which 
succeeds  the  rest,  on  account  of  the  manure  being  most  efficacious  when  spread  over  land  -which 
has  been  left  at  rest.  The  doctrine  which  teaches  that  a  double  force  is  productive  of  more  effect 
than  a  single  one,  is  by  no  means  new;  but  the  agriculturists  of  former  days,_who  acted  upon  the 
system  of  rotations  with  pasturage,  deemed  it  more  expedient  to  distribute  this  richness  of  ihe  soil 
over  a  series  of  years,  and  accordingly  first  profited  by  the  amelioration  induced  by  the  rest,  and 
subsequently  by  the  manure.  By  this  mode  of  proceeding  they  certainly  did  not  obtain  such  ex- 
ceedingly luxuriant  crops  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  had  less  wheat  lodged  in  wet  years,  and, 
on  the  whole,  realized  a  very  considerable  amount  of  produce.  On  many  fields  wheat  was  not 
then  sown  at  all,  while  now  it  is  sown  as  soon  as  the  sward  is  broken  up  and  manured. 

Every  fallow  which  is  to  be  sown  with  wheat  should  receive  four  plowings,  while  those  which 
are  to  be  sown  with  rye  need  only  receive  three ;  for,  although  wheat  requires  a  stiff  soil,  it  also 
requires  that  all  the  nutritious  matter  should  be  brought  within  reach  of  its  suckers,  and  the  hard 
clods  broken  and  pulverized. 

In  general,  wheat  is  sown  in  the  spring  after  turnips  or  cabbages ;  for,  although  there  cannot 
be  a  doubt  that  these  crops  take  from  the  land  on  which  they  vegetate  a  great  proportion  of  its 
succulency,  yet,  as  they  are  never  sown  but  on  rich  soils  which  have  been  plentifully  manured, 
\  they  leave  quite  sufficient  nutritive  matter  to  ensure  tlie  success  of  the  wheat.  Indeed,  these 
crops  tend  to  give  the  soil  a  very  efficient  preparation  for  corn ;  they  shadow  it  with  their  leaves, 
and  render  it  loose  and  friable.  Should  it  be  deemed  necessary,  there  is  always  time  enough  be- 
tween the  getting  in  of  this  fallow  or  preparatory  crop,  and  the  sowing  of  the  wheat,  to  plow  the 
land  once  or  twice. 

After  some  w^eeded  crops  which  have  been  very  plentifully  manured,  and  have  grown  on  par- 
ticularly rich  land — as,  for  example,  tobacco  or  cabbages — wheat  is  also  sown.  The  soil  is  then 
so  loose  and  clear  that  this  crop  can  be  got  into  the  ground  \vith  one  plowing  only ;  and,  even 
■when  sown  rather  later  than  usual,  succeeds  wonderfully.  Wheat  sown  after  potatoes  is,  how- 
ever, always  poor  and  weak  ;  this  has  been  proved  to  be  a  fact  by  numerous  well-attested  exper- 
iments, although  some  agriculturists  insist  upon  it  that  wheat  crops  thus  obtained  are  equally  as 
fine  as  rye  crops  would  be. 

Wheat  sown  after  a  crop  of  vegetables  does  not  answer  so  well  as  it  would  if  sown  on  a  dead 
fallow.  Nevertheless,  there  are  cases  in  which,  when  thus  sown,  the  crop  has  far  surpassed  that 
which  \vould  have  been  obtained  from  a  fallow.  Instances  of  this  are  chiefly  observed  when  the 
w^eather  has  been  unfavorable  to  the  operations  attendant  on  fallowing,  but  has  greatly  assisted  in 
forwarding  the  growth  of  the  vegetables,  the  debris  of  which  then  render  the  .soil  better  adapted 
for  the  reception  of  wheat  than  it  was  after  the  fallow.  But  the  soil,  after  having  borne  this  crop 
of  vegetables,  must  always  be  plowed  previously  to  the  wheat  being  sown,  or  the  success  of  the 
crop  will  be  doubtful. 

Some  persons  consider  peas  to  be  the  best  preparation  for  wheat ;  others,  on  the  contrary,  pre- 
fer beans.  The  latter  absorb  more  nourishment  than  the  former,  because  they  usually  yield  a 
much  more  abundant  crop.  Should  the  soil  be  only  moderately  supplied  with  fertility,  it  will,  af- 
ter having  borne  beans,  be  too  poor  to  yield  a  good  crop  of  wheat ;  peas  would,  therefore,  have 
been  better,  as  they  would  impoverish  the  land  less.  But,  where  the  soil  is  rich  enough  to  furnish 
the  requisite  nourishment  to  both  crops,  I  think  beans  an  excellent  preparation  for  wheat.  The 
rotation  which  has  from  time  immemorial  been  followed  in  Kent,  viz.,  wheat  and  beans  alternate- 
ly, proves  the  justice  of  my  opinions  ;  a  similar  rotation  has  also  been  adopted  in  various  other 
parts  of  England.  I  have  seen  very  fine  wheat  grown  on  land  which  had  previously  borne  beans 
sown  in  rows. 

Lastly,  the  best  and  most  successful  way  of  obtaining  good  wheat  crops,  is  to  sow  the  grain  in 
brokenup  clover  land  ;  but  in  order  to  grow^  it  on  land  which,  from  its  friability,  appears  not  to 
be  at  all  adapted  for  wheat,  the  best  way  is  to  sow  the  grain  after  one  single  plowing.  It  not  un- 
frequently  happens  that  the  produce  then  yielded  infinitely  surpasses  that  of  crops  raised  on  fal- 
low ground,  and  it  is  said  to  be  less  exposed  to  smut  and  other  diseases.  But  these  advantages 
will  not  be  obtained  unless  the  clover  has  been  thick,  vigorou.%  and  unmixed  with  weeds :  the 
second  cutting  taken  sufficiently  early  to  admit  of  the  shoots  acquiring  a  hight  of  eight  or  ten 
inches  ;  and,  lastly,  the  whole  of  this  plowed  in  without  having  been  pa.stured.  These  conditions 
can  rarely  all  be  fulfilled  unless  the  soil  happens  to  be  particularly  good,  and  great  attention  is  paid 
to  the  whole  of  the  cultivation.  In  breaking  up  the  clover,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  furrows 
are  drawn  straight,  and  the  furrow-slices  well  laid  over.  The  best  way  to  ensure  success  is  to 
make  use  of  a  light  plow.  The  plowing  must  be  performed  a  month  before  it  is  necessary  to  sow 
the  grain,  in  order  that  the  clover  may  have  time  to  become  decomposed,  and  the  ground  equal- 
ized. The  seed  may  be  covered  by  harrowing,  but  the  best  plan  of  proceeding  is  to  make  use  of 
the  extirpator  for  this  purpose.  This  mode  of  sowing  wheat  on  a  single  plowing  is  very  seldom 
put  in  practice,  except  on  clover  land  of  one  year's  growth  ;  nevertheless,  if  the  clover  is  thick 
and  vigorous,  has  been  mown  without  being  pastured,  and  the  soil  is  clear  and  loose,  the  same 
course  may  always  be  pursued.    Where,  however,  the  contraiy  is  the  ca.'^e,  the  land  must  be 


416  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

plowed  three  times  before  it  will  be  fit  for  the  reception  of  the  seed;  consequently,  only  one  cat- 
ting of  clover  can  be  obtained  from  it  that  j'ear.  General  experience  tends  to  prove  that  it  is  high- 
ly injudicious  to  sow  wheat  upon  its  own  stubble.  Tull,  and  some  of  his  imitators,  certainly  sowed 
wheat  j'ear  after  year  in  the  same  field;  but  then  he  only  derived  a  crop  from  one-half  of  the  sur- 
face, and  fallowed  the  other  half  The  same  may  be  observed  with  regard  to  the  Belgian  sys- 
tem ;  but  even  there  wheat  is  seldom  or  never  seen  on  the  same  land  for  two  consecutive  years. 
Wheat  sown  after  barley  is  always  feeble  :  this  plan  of  proceeding  will  only  be  foun^l  to  answer 
on  very  good,  strong  land.  Various  experiments  have  appeared  to  prove  that  oats  fcrm  a  better 
preparatory  crop  for  wheat  than  barley  does.  White  wheat  is  considered  to  succeed  better  after 
brown,  and  vice  versa,  than  the  same  kind  does  when  sown  in  tvi'o  successive  years.  It  may, 
however,  be  regarded  as  a  general  principle  that  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  injudicious  to  sow- 
wheat  on  the  stubble  of  any  other  crop  of  corn.  Wheat  sown  after  linseed  rai-ely  yields  more  than 
a  very  scanty  crop,  but  it  answers  much  better  after  hemp.  I  have,  however,  seen  a  very  fine 
crop  of  wheat  produced  after  linseed  sown  on  ameliorated  land  which  had  only  been  plowed 
once. 

There  is  no  kind  of  corn  in  which  the  success  of  the  crop  depends  so  much  on  a  careful  selec- 
tion of  the  seed  as  it  does  in  wheat,  for  bad  or  defective  seeds  contain  the  principle  of  smut  or  dis- 
eases equally  as  fatal.  We  shall  have  occasion  to  enlarge  more  fully  on  this  subject  by-and-by,  • 
and  will  then  enter  into  a  consideration  of  the  best  method  of  purif3'ing  the  seed. 
I  Wheat  is  usually  sown  later  than  rye,  not  because  it  would  be  injurious  to  commit  it  to  the 
(  ground  earher  (for  the  experience  of  several  countries  teaches  us  that  it  may  be  advantageously 
sown  in  August),  but  because  wheat  is  better  able  to  bear  a  late  sowing  than  rye  ;  and,  conse- 
quently, the  latter  is  got  into  the  ground  first.  Wheat  also  suffers  less  than  rye  when  sown  during 
wet  weather ;  and  this  accounts  for  dry  weather  being  always  chosen  for  the  purpose  of  getting 
the  latter  into  the  ground,  while  the  former  is  sown  either  in  wet  or  dry  weather. 

Wheat,  when  sown  in  an  argillaceous  soil,  can  bear  a  covering  of  earth  three  inches  deep  ;  and, 
where  the  land  is  light  and  loose,  this  depth  may  be  increased  to  four  inches:  it  germinates  very 
well  at  this  depth,  and  .shoots  up  without  difficulty.  It  may,  therefore,  without  danger,  be  cov- 
ered by  a  superficial  plowing,  provided  that  the  soil  is  properly  loosened,  and  not  too  damp  :  this 
plan  of  proceeding  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  sandy  soils,  as  the  young  roots  of  the  corn  are  then  en- 
abled to  take  a  fiiTuer  hold,  and  are  less  liable  to  suffer  from  the  effects  of  drouth.  The  practice 
cannot,  however,  be  carried  into  effect  upon  broken-up  clover  land. 
I  Wheat  withstands  the  wet  weather  usually  met  -with  in  winter  better  than  rye,  and  often  shoots 
up  again,  even  in  places  M'here,  from  there  having  been  standing  water,  it  seemed  to  have  entire- 
ly disappeared.  But,  notwithstanding  this,  the  fields  should  always  be  very  carefully  drained. 
'  After  an  unfavorable  winter,  the  wheat  will  often  look  very  bad,  even  up  to  the  beginning  of 
'  May,  and  only  a  few  plants  scattered  here  and  there  ■will  be  discoverable.  The  farmer  must  not, 
however,  on  this  account  despair  of  the  crop,  but  must  wait  until  some  weeks  of  continuous  warm 
weather  shall  have  given  the  crop  a  chance  of  recovering  itself;  should  this  fail  to  produce  any 
\  beneficial  effect  upon  the  appearance  of  his  field.s,  he  may  then  have  recour-se  to  the  plow,  and 
,  break  the  land  up.  An  account  of  some  very  interesting  observations  made  on  this  point  at  Meck- 
lenberg  will  be  found  in  the  "Annals  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Mecklenberg,"  vol.  ii.  1803, 
p.  169. 
I  Wheat  requires  more  careful  and  continuous  attention  throughout  the  whole  period  of  its  vege- 
tation than  any  other  kind  of  cereal,  and  it  amply  repays  all  the  labor  and  pains  bestowed  upon  it. 
If  it  is  only  just  beginning  to  vegetate  in  the  spring,  and  the  soil  is  tolerably  diy,  nothing  will 
prove  so  beneficial  as  to  pass  a  harrow,  having  iron  teeth,  over  it.*  By  this  means  the  crust  will 
be  broken  up  which  has  been  formed  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  during  the  past  winter,  and 
the  superficial  stratum  of  the  soil  brought  into  direct  contact  with  the  atmosphere  ;  the  coronal 
roots  which  .shoot  about  this  time  then  find  around  them  a  soil  recently  impregnated  with  atmo- 
spheric matter,  which  tends  greatly  to  favor  the  growth  of  the  plants,  while  those  weeds  which 
shoot  up  at  this  season  will  all  be  then  destroyed  by  the  action  of  the  harrow.  A  fine  day  should 
be  chosen  for  the  performance  of  this  operation,  which  must  be  boldly  undertaken.  If,  after  this, 
the  field  has  everj'  appearance  of  having  been  newly  sown  and  no  green  leaf,  or,  indeed,  any- 
thing but  the  bare  ground  is  perceptible,  then  there  is  everj'  reason  to  hope  that  the  operation  will 
be  aUeuded  with  siiccess.  Should  a  few  torn  leaves  or  blades  of  wheat  be  perceptible,  it  will  not 
matter,  provided  that  the  plants  themselves  are  not  torn  up.  After  a  lapse  of  eight  or  ten  day.s,  if 
the  weather  is  favorable,  the  plants  will  be  seen  to  shoot  up  afresh,  and  the  field  will  present  a 
much  better  and  greener  aspect  than  it  did  before  the  operation.  The  farmer  may  be  pardoned 
anything  but  the  omission  of  performing  this  important  operation  at  the  most  favorable  and  propi- 
tious moment.  Everything  else  should  be  set  aside  for  the  time  being,  in  order  that  all  the  teams 
may  be  brought  to  work  in  harrowing  the  corn  fields.  The  remarks  relative  to  this  point,  which 
will  be  found  in  the  "  Annals  of  the  Agricultural  Societj'  of  Mecklenberg,''  are  well  worthy  of 
perusal.  No  general  rule  can  be  laid  down  respecting  the  amount  of  draught  power  which 
should  be  attached  to  the  plow,  so  much  depending  on  the  tenacity  of  the  soil.  The  harrowing 
must  be  so  complete  that  the  field  shall  be  entirely  "covered  with  a  layer  of  loose  earth,  and  those 
clefts  which  are  usually  formed  in  argillaceous  soils  when  they  become  dry  completely  filled  up. 
This  operation  need  not  be  confined  to  tenacious  clayey  soils,  but  may  be  applied  to  land  which 
is  sown  with  wheat,  without  fear  or  hesitation  ;  the  only  difference  which  need  be  made  is,  that 
fight  .soils  should  be  less  violently  harrowed. 

There  cannot  be  a  doubt  but  that  the  operation  of  weeding,  by  means  of  which  all  the  intervals 
or  spaces  which  separate  the  plants  are  freed  from  weeds,  cultivated  and  loosened,  is  exceedingly 
beneficial  to  the  crops.  But  it  is  rarely  performed,  excepting  in  places  where  the  farmer  himself 
and  his  family  \^  orli ;  or  in  localities  where  the  laborers  are  accustomed  to  it,  and  execute  it  as 

*  Or  else  a  rake  with  iron  teeth. 


i  WHEAT.  417 

task  work.  When  the  men  are  skillful  in  the  perfoiTaance  of  this  rperation,  it  is  not  nearly  so 
diiEcult  or  laborious  as  at  first  sight  it  appeal's  to  be. 

That  species  of  cultivation  bestowed  through  the  medium  of  the  hand-hoe  is  even  more  bene- 
ficial to  the  crops  than  weeding  ;  it  is  not  only  more  rapidly  performed  and  less  fatiguing,  but 
the  surface  of  the  soil  is  thus  loosened  and  ameliorated,  and  the  earth  raked  up  round  the 
plants  with  less  difficulty,  and  the  plants  themselves  easily  thinned,  where  they  grow  too  closely 
together. 

I  shall  presently  have  occasion  to  describe  that  kind  of  cultivation  w^hich  may  be  bestowed  bv 
means  of  the  horse  hoe,  and  which  can  only  be  applied  to  crops  sown  in  rows  or  lines,  but  which 
is  so  beneficial  to  wheat. 

When,  on  a  very  fertile  soil,  the  wheat  plants,  which  before  appeared  to  be  rather  few  and  far 
between,  suddenly  shoot  up,  and  put  forth  vigorous  leaves  and  lateral  shoots,  there  is  every  reason 
to  fear  that  the  vegetation  will  become  too  luxuriant  and  the  corn  lodged. 

There  are  two  ways  of  avoiding  this  evil;  viz.,  either  by  cutting  oti'the  tops  of  the  plants,  or  by 
turning  sheep  on  to  the  corn-lields. 

When  the  first  ofthe.se  two  is  adopted,  the  tallest  leaves  are  cut  when  the  vegetation  of  the 
wheat  is  advancing,  and  it  puts  forth  leaves  and  covers  the  soil ;  care  must,  however,  be  taken  not 
to  touch  the  heart  of  the  plant.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  this  operation  should  be  per- 
formed by  careful  persons  accustomed  to  mowing,  and  never  by  those  to  vrhom  the  portions  cut 
otf  are  to  be  given  as  fodder  for  their  cattle  ;  because,  where  such  is  the  case,  they  are  very  apt 
to  cut  oft' too  much,  in  order  to  obtain  more  food  for  their  animals,  and  tlius  materially  injure  tlie 
wheat.  The  practice  of  cutting  the  leaves  of  the  corn  at  this  sea.son,  tends  to  check  and  temper  the 
luxuriance  of  the  vegetation.  It  must  never  be  undertaken  without  due  consideration  and  re- 
flection. The  farmer  must  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  fertility  and  other  qualities  of  the 
soil  and  must  carefully  weigh  all  the  appearances  and  probabilities  from  which  any  deductions 
relative  to  the  weather  and  temperature  which  may  be  anticipated  may  be  drawn  ;  which  latter 
are  often  very  deceptive,  since  a  state  of  temperature  highly  favorable  to  wheat  is  frequently  suc- 
ceeded by  oue  which  retards  the  vegetation  of  the  crop  so  much,  as  to  create  regret  that  anything 
should  have  been  done  to  weaken  it.  Nothing  but  practice  and  attention  can  enable  the  farmer  to 
avoid  frequently  falling  into  great  errors  on  this  point.  When  the  wheat  plants  are  interlaced,  the 
leaves  of  a  dark  green  hue  and  intermingled  with  one  another,  when  its  shoots  are  full  and  vigor- 
ous and  tall,  some  check  should  be  given  to  the  vegetation,  if  theliirmer  would  avoid  the  danger  of 
its  being  lodged  ;  but  where  these  appearances  are  not  visible,  it  should  be  let  alone. 

The  period  for  pasturing  sheep  upon  wheat,  usually,  is  about  the  latter  end  of  April.  This 
practice  should,  however,  only  he  had  i-ecourse  to  when  the  soil  is  particularly  fertile  and  the 
plants  cover  the  ground  with  a  thick  layer  of  green.  Where  this  mode  of  reducing  the  luxuri- 
ance of  the  vegetation  is  put  into  practice,  a  great  number  of  sheep  should  be  turned  upon  the 
land  at  once,  and  suffered  to  eat  down  the  young  plants  nearly  to  the  ground  ;  it  is  highly  injudi- 
cious to  turn  only  a  few  of  these  animals  on  at  a  time,  with  the  view  of  gradually  producing  the 
required  effect.  As  soon  as  the  sheep  have  performed  theiroflice,  they  must  be  removed,  and  the 
plants  allowed  to  recover  themselves.  I  consider  that  the  best  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  cutoff 
the  tops  of  the  phuits  ;  this,  however,  should  be  done  only  where  the  soil  is  very  rich. 

The  operation  of  which  I  am  now  about  to  speak  is  somewhat  analogous,  although  it  should  on 
no  account  be  confounded  with  the  last  mentioned  one;  I  allude  to  tha^  in  which  the  weeds  that 
have  shot  up  above  the  wheat,  and  rj'e  plants  springing  from  seed  which  chanced  to  be  among  the 
wheat  or  was  contained  in  the  manure,  are  cut  down.  This  mrfst  also  be  very  carefully  done,  and 
tlie  wheat  itself  ou  no  account  touched 

Inclement  and  cold  nights  are  more  unfavorable  to  wheat  than  to  any  other  kind  of  coi-n ;  they 
invariably  check  the  vegetation  of  the  crop,  and  almost  cause  it  to  retrograde.  But  the  plants 
soon  recover  themselves,  especially  if  a  period  of  fine  weather  succeeds  ;  a  very  few  days  will 
often  suffice  to  make  them  again  look  green  and  healthy.  Up  to  the  time  when  the  blades  shoot 
and  the  ears  become  developed,  wheat  thrives  best  in  a  warm  temperature  varied  by  continuous 
rains,  as  such  weather  is  most  favorable  to  the  growth  of  its  lateral  shoots.  When  it  is  about  to 
flower,  dry,  warm  weather  is  most  favorable  to  it.  After  the  grain  is  formed  and  matured,  the 
most  beneficial  temperature  is  a  moderately  moist  one  ;  continuous  drouth  and  warm  winds  ma- 
ture the  grain  too  quickly,  and  it  is  then  not  so  perfect  as  it  would  have  been  under  opposite  cir- 
cumstanc'es.     HeavN  rains  are  exceedingly  injurious,  as  they  tend  to  engender  smut  in  the  grain. 

Wheat  which  is  intended  for  sale  should  be  cut  before  it  comes  to  full  maturity,  otherwi.se  it  as- 
sumes a  dusky  appearance,  and  does  not  yield  such  white  flour ;  many  persons  endeavor  to  remedy 
this  by  moistening  the  grain,  but  buyers  always  reject  such  wheat,  especially  if  the  market  is  tol- 
erably stocked.  Besides,  wheat  is  always  disposed  to  shed  its  seed  ;  in  dry,  windy  weatl  ar,  there 
will  be  some  danger  of  a  great  deal  being  v.'asted  if  the  crop  is  allowed  to  get  too  ripe.  The  ex- 
act period  at  which  the  harvest  should  be  commenced  must,  therefoi-e.  be  carefully  chosen  ;  and 
this  has  arrived  when  the  grain  has  formed  its  farina,  ceases  to  be  milky,  and  yet  has  not  harden- 
ed. Although  wheat  usually  ripens  about  a  fortnight  later  than  rye,  it  frequently  happens  that  it 
is  fit  to  be  cut  before  the  rye  crops  have  been  gathered  in.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  i-j'e  should 
be  left  and  the  wheat  gathered  in,  because  if  it  is  neglected  the  loss  will  be  far  greater  than  that 
resulting  from  any  neglect  of  the  i-ye  -would  be  ;  only  that  portion  of  wheat  which  intended  for 
seed  should  be  suffered  to  become  completely  oi  dead  ripe,  and  this  must  then  be  gathered  in  as 
carefully  and  quickly  as  possible. 

When  wheat  is  sown  in  a  good  soil,  and  the  weather  is  favorable  to  its  growth,  it  yields  the 

largest  amount  of  produce  of  any  kind  of  grain,  in  nutritive  matter  at  least,  if  not  in  bulk  ;  and  then 

oats  is  the  only  kind  which  equals,  or  much  less  surpasses  it.     When  only  a  moderate  degree  of 

cultivation  is  be-stowed,  it  will  often  yield  twenty-four  bushels  per  acre,  provided  that  the  land  is 

!    good,  and  the  weather,  on  the  whole,  favorable.     In  England,  wheat  sown  in  drills,  and  carefully 

)    weeded,  will  often  yield  a  much  larger  crop.  Twelve  bushels  are  usually  regarded  as  a  good,  and 

\  (1041) i7 


THAERS   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE 


ei^ht  as  a  bad  crop.     On  good  wheat  land,  carefully  cultivated,  the  8-erage  amount  of  produce  is 
about  ten  bushels  per  acre  per  annum. 

iBat  we  shall  regard  wheat  as  still  more  advantageous  when  compared  with  other  grain,  if  we 
come  to  consider  the  value  of  its  produce.     This  value  is  by  no  means  conventional,  but  is,  on  tlie 
contrary,  founded  upon  the  nature  of  the  grain.     The  usual  weight  of  a  bushel  of  good  wheat  is 
from  84  to  96  lbs.,  and  this  weight  contains  a  far  greater  proportion  of  nutritive  parts  tliau  an  equal 
number  of  pounds  of  any  other  kind  of  grain  ;  these  parts,  too,  are  in  themselves  superior,  more     ' 
strengthening,  and  energetic.     It  al.so  contains  gluten,  that  substance  so  analogous  to  animal  mat-     ' 
ter,  in  much  larger  quantities,  and  in  a  much  purer  state  than  it  is  contained  by  any  other  kind  of 
grain,  and,  consequently,  wheat  is  mo,<t  adapted  for  animal  food.     Besides,  it  contains  particularly     ' 
good  starch.     From  the  intimate  combination  of  its  particles,  a  far  more  digestive,  nourishing,  and 
agreeable  kind  of  food  may  be  manufactured  from  wheat  than  from  any  other  kind  of  grain. 

The  condition  and  properties  ot  the  soil,  as  well  as  the  kind  and  quantity  of  manure  used  upon 
it,  has  a  considerable  eflect  upon  the  relative  proportions  of  the  constituent  jiarts  of  this  kind  of 
grain.  AVheat  grown  on  land  manured  by  fresh  sheep  or  horse-dung,  or  by  these  animals  being 
pastured  on  it  always  contains  a  very  large  proportion  of  gluten,  which  renders  it  unlit  for  the 
,  fabrication  of  beer  or  brandy,  while  it  nsakes  the  best  Hour  and  bread.  According  to  Heimbstadt. 
the  [iroportioa  of  gluten  contained  in  wheat  varies  from  five  to  thirty  parts  in  a  hundred.  Besides 
this,  all  kinds  of  wheat  have  not  an  equally  thick  husk.  This  difference  arises  partly  irom  variety 
and  species,  and  partly  from  the  nature  of  the  soil ;  damp  soils  always  make  the  husk  thicker. 
The  thickness  of  the  husk  is  always  exactly  in  an  inverse  ratio  with  the  weight  of  the  grain. 

In  proportion  as  wheat  recjuires,  and,  under  favorable  circumstances,  absorbs  a  larger  quantity 
of  nutritious  matter  from  tiie  soil  than  any  other  kind  of  grain,  so  in  like  proportion  does  it  exhaust 
the  land.  In  those  calculations  which  I  have  already  given,  and  which,  although  hypothetical  are 
based  on  experiments  made  for  the  express  purpose  of  throwing  some  light  on  this  point,  I  have 
stated  as  a  general  average  that  wheat  absorbs  forty  of  every  hundred  partsof  nutriment  contained 
in  the  soil. 

It  is  very  probable  that  in  the  formation  of  its  vegeto-aninial  gluten,  it  absorbs  a  large  portion  of 
animal  bumus,  or,  at  any  rate,  reqtiires  a  large  quantity  of  azote;  and  that  animal  manures  suit  it 
much  better  than  those  "which  are  purely  vegetable,  and  which  suffice  for  any  other  kind  of  cereals. 
Lime  and  alkalies  might  answer  as  well ;  1  say  might,  for  as  yet  we  have  no  positive  experiments 
on  this  point  to  prove  that  they  do.  Most  certain,  however,  it  is  that  wheat  exhaur'ts  land  much 
more  than  any  other  kind  of  grain;  both  general  experience  and  individual  experiments  tend  to 
,  attest  the  truth  of  this  fact.  The  cultivation  nf  it  should,  therefore,  be  restricted  wit.jin  certain 
limits,  especially  where  the  laud  is  light  and  friable,  as  in  these  cases  the  humus  contained  in  it  is 
much  more  easily  absorbed  than  it  would  bo  from  a  clayey  soil.  Where  the  circumstances  of  the 
undertaking  arc  such  as  to  admit  of  the  exhaustion  being  repaired  by  the  addition  of  fresh  manure, 
the  farmer  can  be  guided  by  his  own  interest  or  pleasure  on  this  point. 

Wheat  usually  gives  double  the  weight  of  straw  that  it  does  of  grain.  On  elevated  or  moun- 
tainous lands,  something  less — and  on  low,  Hat  grounds,  something  more  this  average  may  be  an- 
ticipated. The  weather  has  a  considerable  infmence  on  on  this  proportion  in  wheat  as  well  as  in 
all  other  kinds  of  grain.  Wheat  straw  is  more  nutritious  than  any  other  ;  but  it  is  not  so  well 
adapted  for  litter  as  rye  straw. 

Spring  Wheat. 

This  kind  is  not  distinguished  from  autumnal  wheat  by  any  botanical  characteristic,  but  simply 
by  a  property  which  has  been  artificially  communicated  to  it,  and  of  which  it  may  be  deprived 
bv  a  change  in  the  mode  of  cultivation,  viz.,  that  of  coming  more  quickly  to  ear.  It  is  not  always 
beai-ded.  "it is  well  known  that  spring  wheat  is  often  made  to  become  autumnal.  This  cannot, 
liowever,  be  so  easily  effected  with  stune  varieties  as  it  may  with  others. 

Various  kinds,   both  with  and  without  beard,  have  been  cultivated.     The  beardless  varieties 
(    have  generally  been  considered  the  best.     It  will  be  impossible  to  decide  whether  or  not  certain 
'    kinds  of  wheat  brought  from  Tunis  or  Candia,  and  cultivated  by  Fischer,  at  Dunkelsbiihl,  are  de- 
serving the  high  prai.se  bestowed  on  them,  until  some  more  conclusive  experiments  have  been 
made  on  the  subject. 

Spring  wheat  docs  not  require  so  stiff  a  soil  as  autumnal  wheat,  but  thrives  well  on  light  land, 
provided  that  this  land  is  not  too  dry,  and  is  also  rich  in  humus  and  manure.  It  also  must;  be  well 
tilled,  pulverized,  and  cleared.  The  fields  in  which  spring -wheat  can  be  sown  with  most  cliance 
ot  success,  are  those  in  which  weeded  crops  have  been  cultivated,  and  where  autumnal  %\  heat 
has  not  been  sown,  either  on  account  of  the  weeded  crop  having  been  got  in  too  late,  or  because 
it  in  general  forms  a  very  bad  preparation  for  spring  corn. 

Spring  wheat  succeeds  better  than  autumnal  wheat  when  .sown  after  potatoes,  provided  that  the 
soil  is  rich,  and  not  too  dry.  In  general  it  takes  the  place  of  large  barley.  Many  agriculturists 
consider  it  to  be  exceedingly  advantageous  always  to  sow  spring  wheat  instead  of  large  barley 
after  weeded  crops,  where  the  alternate  rotation  is  pursued,  because  its  produce  will  invariably 
be  found  to  be  greater  than  that  of  barley  ;  but  the  result  has  not  justified  the  opinion,  e.xcc;pting 
where  the  .soil  has  been  rich,  and  abuii>»antly  stored  with  humus.  There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that 
spring  wheat  absorbs  more  nutritious  matter  than  barley.  Where  the  soil  is  poor,  the  crop  fails ; 
and  where  it  is  rich,  it  thrives  and  exhausts  it.  Autumnal  wheat,  which  is  not  sown  until  two 
years  afterward,  and  even  the  succeeding  rj-e  crops  will  yield  but  a  scanty  produce,  unless  the  ex- 
hausted land  is  ameliorated  by  good  manuring. 

To  these  remarks  it  may  be  added,  that  spring  wheat  is  very  apt  to  fail  in  our  climate.  Cold, 
rainy,  and  even  dry  summers  are  injurious  to  it.  Ju  those  years  when,  from  a  .succession  of  alter- 
nately warm  and  dry  weather,  barley  thrives  very  well,  at  least  half  the  wheat  ears  will  be  found 
to  be  destroyed  by  smut.  This  disease  attacks  spring  wheat  much  more  frequently  than  it  does 
autumnal  wheat ;  whereas  caries  seems  to  be  peculiar  to  the  latter.    This  circumstance  may  pos- 


(1042) 


Bibly  account  for  the  fact,  that  notwithstanding  the  praises  lavished  on  spring  wheat,  it  is  but  little 
cultivated  in  the  north  of  E  urope  ;  indeed,  it  is  seldom  met  with  there,  excepting  in  those  places 
where  autumnal  wheat  is  not  cultivated. 

The  period  for  getting  the  seed  into  the  ground  occurs  some  time  between  the  middle  of  April 
and  the  middle  of  May  ;  it  should  not  be  sown  so  early  as  spring  rye  ;  it  does  not  in  general  ripen 
until  September.  The  grain  is  smaller,  and  does  not  make  so  much  show  as  that  of  autumral 
wheat.  The  husk  is  usually  stronger,  and  the  grain  lighter,  although  the  farina  which  it  yields  is 
fully  equal  in  qualitj'  to  autumnal  wlieat.  Some  persons  are  of  opinion,  however,  that  it  does  not 
answer  so  well  as  the  latter  when'  used  for  the  purpose  of  making  bread,  but  speak  very  highly  of 
its  qualities  when  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  starch. 

When  wheat  is  scarce,  buyers  frequently  do  not  object  to  giving  as  much  for  spring  as  for  au- 
tumnal wheat;  but  otherwise  they  reject  it,  and  not  entirely  without  reason,  on  account  of  the 
siuallaess  of  tlie  grain,  and  that  it  fetches  but  a  very  low  price. 

Spelt. 
Triticum  apd-ta  is  chie%  distinguished  from  wheat  by  its  husk,  which  is  flat,  and  round  at  the 
end,  and  encloses  and  retains  the  grain  so  firmly  that  it  cannot  even  be  separated  from  it  by 
threshing ;  recourse  is,  therefore,  obliged  to  be  had  to  a  mill.  It  is,  doubtless,  this  circumstance 
wliich  prevents  this  useful  grain  from  being  cultivated  in  the  north  of  Germany,  where  the  mill- 
ers are  unacquainted  with  the  means  which  must  be  taken  for  the  purpose  of  freeing  the  grain 
from  the  husk  or  chaff. 

Tiiere  are  various  kinds  of  spelt ;  some  with  and  some  without  a  beard;  some  grown  as  au- 
tumnal, some  as  spring  com  ;  and  these  varieties  differ  in  hue  and  color. 

There  is  no  difference  between  the  cultivation  of  wheat  and  that  of  spelt.  The  latter  is 
stronger,  and  less  liable  to  fail  during  winter  when  sown  in  damp  situations  than  wheat ;  it  grows 
higjier,  is  not  so  easily  laid,  and  does  not  .shed  its  grain  so  quickly  ;  neither  does  it  require  so  rich 
a  soil.  It  is,  like  wheat,  subject  to  smut ;  but  does  not  suffer  so  much  from  the  ravages  of  that 
disease.  When  the  grain  is  separated  from  the  husk,  it  is  quite  equal  to  wheat  in  weight  and 
value  ;  some  persons  even  assert  that  wheat  does  not  yield  so  good  flour,  or  make  such  nice 
bread  as  spelt. 

It  is  either  preserved  in  the  husk  or  separate  from  it ;  it  is,  however,  seldom  separated  from  it, 
unless  it  is  to  be  used  immediately,  as  it  keeps  better  in  that  covering,  and  is  less  liable  to  be  in- 
jured by  vermin,  or  become  heated.  Sometimes  it  is  sent  to  market  in  the  husk,  at  others  not  un- 
til freed  from  it ;  in  the  former  case,  it  only  fetches  one-half  as  much  as  it  does  in  the  latter. 

It  is  sown  in  the  husk,  but  twice  as  thickly  as  wheat.  In  the  south  of  Germany  it  is  more 
generally  cultivated  than  any  other  kind  of  grain.  • 

W^hen  in  the  husk,  it  may  be  advantageously  used  as  provender  or  forage  for  horses  ;  and  in 
places  where  the  millers  are  not  acquainted  with  the  proper  mode  of  separating  the  grain  from 
the  husk,  this  is  the  best  if  not  the  only  use  to  which  it  can  be  applied. 

One-grained  Wheat  {Einkorn  of  the  Germans.) 
Triticum  monococmi-,  or  Saint  Peter's  wheat,  very  much  resembles  large  flat  barley,  in  its 
genera]  appearance  and  in  the  form  of  the  ear,  but  it  has  not  so  much  beard.  The  grain  is  eejual 
in  value  to  that  of  spelt ;  but  it  is  much  smaller.  It  is  cultivated  both  as  spring  and  autumnal 
wheat,  on  land  which  is  regarded  as  too  poor  to  bear  spelt;  also  on  the  most  remot^^rop  di- 
visions, and  in  places  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  farm  buildings.  It  is  most  frequently 
met  with  in  Wirtemberg. 

The  species  known  to  botanists  triticum  'polonicum,  Polish  ■^vheat,  Vaiachian  wheat,  Surinam 
wheat.  &c.  has  been  derived  from  the  triticum,  monococon.  This  variety  differs  from  all  others  in 
tlie  form  of  its  ears  and  grain,  both  of  which  are  long  and  narrow.  The  quality  of  the  farina  is 
about  half  way  between  that  of  w^heat  and  rye  flour.  It  ripens  late,  when,  as  is  usually  the  case, 
it  is  cultivated  as  spring  corn  ;  in  cold  summers  it  rarely  attains  to  maturity.  It  is  much  prized  as 
an  ingredient  in  soup,  after  having  been  ground,  and  is  said  to  approach  nearer  to  the  nature  of 
rice  than  any  known  production.  It  has  not  yet  been  made  a  marketable  commodity  among  us, 
nor  do  we  expect  to  see  it  so. 

Smut  or  Caries  in   Wheat  {Brand.) 

In  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  and  other  species  of  the  family  of  trilicnms,  there  is,  in  some 
countries,  nothing  that  militates  so  much  against  the  success  of  the  crops  as  thase  diseases  termed 
"  smut"  and  "  caries;"  and,  consequently,  no  subject  has  so  deeply  engaged  the  attention  of  ag- 
riculturists, as  the  means  of  guarding  against  this  evil.  Numberle.ss  volumes  have  been  written 
on  this  subject  in  every  known  language  ;  but,  as  yet,  very  little  light  has  been  thrown  upon  it,  on 
account  of  the  disease  having  been  confounded  with  others  which  are  essentially  distinct  and 
arise  from  totallj'  opposite  causes,  or  else  because  each  author  has  given  his  own  views  and 
opinions  only,  without  reference  to  those  of  others,  and  these  have  been  too  frequently  founded 
on  narrow  and  partial  views  of  the  subject. 

We  shall  commence  by  drawing  a  line  of  distinction  between  these  two  diseases,  both  of 
which  are.  in  Germany,  comprehended  under  the  deaoiainaxiou  o{  brand ;  the  first,  or  brand 
properly  so  called,  is  that  disease  which  the  French  designate  "  nielle,"  and  the  English  "  nmut." 
It  entirely  destroys  the  substance  of  the  grain,  and  nothing  remains  in  the  husks  but  a  blackish  \ 
brown  du.st.  This  disease  is,  doubtless,  the  same  as  that  which  develops  itself  in  various  kinds  of 
grain,  and  especially  in  barlej'  and  other  gramineous  plants,  and  which  is  frequently  designated 
"  soot,"  because  the  powder  to  which  the  grain  is  resolved  so  much  resembles  that  deposited  by 
flame,  and  is,  in  fact,  fully  capable  of  supplying  the  place  of  actual  soot  in  the  preparation  of  the 
black  colo.-  used  in  painting.  This  disease  attacks  wheat  more  frequently  than  any  other  kind  of 
grain,  and  often  destroys  the  greater  part  of  the  crop.     I  have  seen  afield  of  spring  wheat,  sown 

(ion) 


on  a  recently  manured  sandy  soil,  in  which  I  could  not  discover  one  single  perfect  grain*  It 
often  shows  itself  before  tlie  ears  have  begun  to  form,  and  traces  of  blackness  and  disease  are 
visible  even  in  the  very  marrow  of  the  plant.  Where  this  is  the  case,  however,  the  plants  grow 
up  to  their  usual  hight,  the  ears  attain  their  usual  size,  and  even  lo&k  healthy,  although  they  are 
thin  and  poor  The  husks  are  greener,  shorter,  and  rather  more  rounded.  When  the  ear  is  ap- 
proaching its  full  sibe,  the  black  hue  becomes  perceptible  through  the  husk ;  which  latter  is  not, 
however,  so  thin  as  in  barley,  where  it  bursts  before  the  formation  of  the  ear  is  nearly  completed, 
and  sheds  a  black  dust.  When  the  wheat  has  attained  its  full  growth,  the  husks  burst,  and  the 
rain  and  wind  wash  away  and  carry  off  the  black  dust,  without  its  injuring  or  discoloring  the 
sound  grain.  But  where  the  wheat  is  cut  before  it  has  become  perfectly  matured,  and  the  weather 
is  damp,  the  powder  remains  in  the  husk,  is  carried  to  the  barn  with  the  wheat,  and  there  beaten 
out  by  the  flail.  In  this  manner  the  sound  wheat  becomes  blackened,  because  this  black  powder 
attaches  itself  particularly  to  that  slight  tuft  of  hair  or  down  which  exists  at  the  extremity  of 
wheat,  at  the  bottom  of  the  line  or  cleft  which  passes  down  each  grain.  This  discoloration,  not- 
withstanding which  the  grain  remains  uninjured,  is  called  the  tip  (le  bont  den  nagelbrand,  der 
spitzhrand,)  and  is  very  often  confounded  with  caries.  But  it  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  a 
mere  external  discoloration  of  the  grain,  and  has  not  the  slightest  effect  on  its  soundness;  it  can- 
not, however,  be  denied  that  it  may  tend  to  give  a  black  shade  to  the  flour,  unless  the  grain  is 
very  carefully  cleansed  before  being  sent  to  be  ground.  Tliere  are  two  ways  of  cleansing  the 
grain;  the  first  consists  in  washing  it,  and  does  not  injure  it  in  the  least,  provided  that  immedi- 
ately afterward  it  is  carefully  dried ;  the  second  consists  in  threshing  the  grain,  mixed  with 
barley  chaff"  or  dry  clay,  and  subsequently  separating  it  from  these  substances  by  passing  it 
several  times  through  a  winnowing  machine. 

The  disease  itself  is  not  hereditary,  nor  is  it  transmitted  through  the  medium  of  the  seed  ;  it  is 
engendered  on  moist  or  exceedingly  rich  land  when  the  weather  is  damp  and  warm.  It  is  true 
that  an  imperfect  grain  will  produce  only  a  feeble  plant,  and  such  an  one  will  undoubtedly  be 
more  liable  to  take  disease  than  another  would  be  ;  but  still  the  disease  is  not  hereditary  in  the 
actual  sense  of  that  word,  and  for  this  reason  :  those  grains  which  actually  are  attacked  by  this 
disease  are  completely  destroyed,  and  the  powder  which  falls  from  them  adheres  merely  to  the 
exterior  of  the  ollie^s,  and  does  not  injure  them  in  this  point  of  view.  Sound  grain  which  is  only 
discolored  by  this  smut  powder  will  always  produce  healthy  crops,  provided  that  there  are  no 
other  circumstances  attending  it  which  lead  to  an  opposite  result.  My  own  experience,  as  well 
as  that  of  others,  tends  to  prove  that  not  only  the  ear,  but  the  whole  of  the  grain  is  attacked  by 
smut.  No  washes  can  impede  the  progress  of  the  disease  ;  the  best  way  of  preventing  its  at- 
tacks is  to  see  that  the  .seeds  are  sound  and  fully  matured,  the  sowings  properly  performed,  the 
soil  thoroughly  drained,  and  that  species  of  manure  applied  which  is  best  adapted  to  its  nature. 
The  weather  and  temperature  exercise  considerable  influence  over  this  disease  ;  in  one  year  it 
will  be  scarcely  heard  of,  while  in  another  its  results  will  be  most  fatal.  There  are  some  par- 
ticular fields  in  which  the  crops  frequently  suffer  from  caries,  and  where  smut  is  unknown  ;  while 
in  others  the  the  former  disease  may  be  guarded  against,  while  the  latter  can  never  entirely  be 
eradicated. 

Cnriea  does  not  wholly  destroy  the  consistence  of  the  grain,  nor  does  it  injure  its  form  ;  never- 
theless, its  blackish-brown  hue,  its  smell,  and  its  nauseous  flavor  are  sufficient  evidences  of  change 
and  deterioration.  This  disease  does  not  appear  to  be  developed  until  the  grain  begins  to  form ; 
no  traces  of  it  are  perceptible  until  after  the  period  of  flowering.  The  ears  look  sickly,  pallid,  and 
■weak,  and  eventually  become  covered  with  dark-colored  specks.  Caries  deteriorates  the  sound 
grain  when  any  of  the  diseased  ones  are  suff'ered  to  get  among  it;  but  as  those  which  are  at- 
tacked are  lighter  than  the  others,  it  is  easy  to  get  rid  of  them  by  the  process  of  winnowing. 
W^heu  this  operation  is  carefully  performed,  the  greater  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the  diseased 
grains  may  be  separated  from  the  sound  ones.  Where  only  a  few  are  left,  thej'  do  not  spoil  the 
flour  or  render  it  injurious  to  health  ;  but  where  there  are  any  considerable  number  of  them,  they 
communicate  a  disagreeable  flavor  to  it,  and  render  it  unfit  for  any  kind  of  use.  The  grain  even 
becomes  less  adapted  for  the  use  of  brewers  and  di.stillers,  and  deteriorates  from  the  quality  of 
the  brandy  made  from  it. 

The  cause  of  caries,  at  least  of  the  most  viralent  variety  of  this  disease,  exists  in  the  seed,  and 
is  hereditary.  This  is  suificiently  attested  by  the  fact,  that  many  agriculturists  whose  crops  have 
year  after  year  suffered  from  its  ravages,  have  only  succeeded  in  escaping  from  this  evil  bj'  a 
most  careful  selection  of  the  seed,  and  by  following  it  up  with  other  suitable  preventive  proceed- 
ings ;  but  no  sooner  have  they  ceased  to  observe  these  precautions,  than  the  disease  has  returned 
as  badly  as  ever. 

WHien  perfectly  ripe  grain  which  has  never  been  attacked  by  this  disease,  has  been  threshed 
previously  to  being  sweated  in  the  stack,  is  then  spread  over  the  granary  in  thin  layers,  ca-refully 
moved  about  to  expose  it  to  the  air  until  dry,  and  then  sown,  the  farmer  may  make  himself  per- 
fectly easy  respecting  the  success  of  his  crop,  at  least  so  far  as  regards  this  disease.  All  danger 
may  frequently  be  avoided  in  grain  a  year  old,  which  has  been  properly  ti'eated  and  carefully 
preserved. 

If.  however,  this  catmot  be  entirely  depended  upon,  there  are  various  means  of  preventing  or 
lessening  this  evil,  all  of  which  are  attended  with  greater  or  less  success. 

Some  pei-sons  consider  it  as  sufficient  to  wash  the  wheat  in  clear  water,  provided  that,  while  doing 
so,  care  is  taken  to  remove  all  the  light  and  diseased  grains,  which  invariably  rise  to  the  top. 

Others  regard  salt  water  as  more  efficacious ;  the  light  grains  being  then  more  sure  to  swim  on 
the  top  ;  besides,  it  cannot  he  denied  that  salt  also  acts  beneficially  in  another  way. 

The  most  really  efficacious  preventives  have  been  found  to  be  lime,  ashes,  common  salt,  glau- 

*From  this  it  would  seem  that  this  disease  is  much  more  frequent  and  dangerous  in  the  north  than  it  is  in 
the  south.  1  have  never  seen  it  commit  anything  like  the  ravages  above  deBcribed,  either  in  Italy,  France, 
or  Switzerland.  [French  Trana. 

(1044) 


ber  and  other  salts,  alutn,  sulphate  of  iron,  and  arsenic     These  sr.bstances  are  used  either  sin- 
gly or  combined,  in  various  foi-ins  and  ways. 

The  following  is  the  most  usual  way  of  applying  lime: — One  bushel  of  recently  slaked  and 
pulverized  lime  is  considered  as  sufficient  for  twelve  bushels  of  seed.  The  grain  is  washed  with 
cold  water,  from  which  the  chill  has  been  taken  :  some  agriculturists  use  urine.  It  is  thrown  into 
tliis  fluid  and  well  stirred  about  until  all  the  light  grains  iioat  on  the  surface ;  these  must  be 
skimmed  oif  and  thrown  aside  as  useless.  The  wheat  thus  steeped  should  then  be  drained  for  a 
little  while,  and  afterward  powdered  with  the  newly  slaked  lime  ;  it  should  then  be  left  un- 
touched for  eight  or  twelve  hours,  and  then  stirred  np  thoroughly,  spread  out  in  thin  layers  over 
the  floor,  and  left  to  dry;  it  must  not  be  put  into  sacks  until  thoroughly  dry.  Many  agriculturists 
take  equal  parts  of  lime  and  alkaline  ashes,  and  thus  produce  a  caustic  alkali,  which  mixture, 
whether  viewed  in  a  theoretical  or  practical  point  of  view,  appears  to  be  highly  efficacious.  Some 
persons  also  add  a  greater  or  less  proportion  of  common  salt.  A  wash  is  also  made  composed  of 
lime,  ashes  aud  urine,  to  which  common  salt  is  occasionally  added,  and  the  grain  watered  with  it. 
There  are  various  manipulations  and  modes  of  proceeding  in  these  cases  ;  and,  although  each 
person  attaches  particular  importance  to  his  own  plan,  they  are  all  much  the  same  in  point  of  ef- 
fect. The  chief  thing  to  be  attended  to  is  to  see  that  thiese"  pickles  are  made  as  strong  and  active 
as  possible,  and  that  the  whole  of  the  grain  is  so  thoroughly  stirred  about  that  each  individual 
seed  receives  its  due  share.  The  grain  must  be  left  under  the  influence  of  this  mixture  for  a  cer- 
tain time,  aud  until  a  slight  degree  of  heat  is  perceptible  and  then  spread  out  and  exposed  to  the 
air.  Some  persons  regard  kitchen  salt  as  exceedingly  efficacious,  and,  consequently,  depend  chieflj' 
upon  it :  but  the  best  authenticated  and  most  numerous  experiments  tend  to  prove  that  no  sub- 
stances so  fully  answer  this  purpose  asHme  and  ashes ;  aud  in  most  countries  these  are  tlie  cheap- 
est which  can  be  obtained. 

Solutions  of  vitriol  aud  alum  have  been  very  highly  recommended  ;  but  as  there  are  as  yet  no 
authenticated  proofs  of  their  efficacy,  we  shall  not  pu.t  them  on  a  par  -with  the  other  matters. 

Arsenic  is  a  very  efficient,  but  also  a  very  dangerous  substance,  to  make  use  of,  and,  when  em- 
ployed, must  be  confided  to  the  care  of  some  person  who  is  perfectly  aware  of  the  frightful  effects 
of  this  subtle  poison. 

Although  these  two  diseases,  smut  and  caiies,  are  completely  distinct  in  their  nature,  it  not  un- 
frequently  happens  that  both  are  found  existing  in  the  same  field ;  and  although  it  has  been 
proved  that  the  principal  cause  of  caries  is  in  the  seed,  and  that  by  a  careful  selection  or  treat- 
ment of  the  seed  it  may  frequently  be  eradicated,  yet  it  must  be  confessed  that  it  will  often  be 
engendered,  even  where  the  seed  has  been  perfectly  sound,  by  various  causes  which  exercise  a 
peculiarly  pernicious  influence  over  vegetation  ;  and,  consequently,  there  is  no  certain  means  of 
guarding  against  it 

RYE. 

Secale  cereale  (common  ryel.  Of  this  grain  we  have  but  one  species,  and  all  its  numerous  va- 
rieties are  distinguished  by  no  botanical  characteristic,  but  merely  by  some  difference  in  their  na- 
ture, occasioned  by  peculiarities  in  the  mode  of  cultivation. 

Autumnal  and  spring  rye  acquire  the  properties  that  give  rise  to  these  appellations,  in  the 
same  way  as  autumnal  and  spring  wheat  do  :  we  have  already  described  this.  The  following  are 
the  properties  of  autumnal  rye  :  it  remains  longer  in  the  ground,  grows  more  bushy,  and  does  not 
put  forth  its  stems  or  seed  stalks  until  late  in  the  season.  We  have  one  variety  which  came  ori- 
ginally from  the  Russian  provinces  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  and  which  has  all  the  properties 
of  autumnal  rye.  Those  varieties  known  by  the  names  of  Archangel  rye,  Noriregian  rye,  St. 
John's  rye,  SfC.  are  one  and  the  same,  and  no  dissimilarity  between  them  can  be  discovered. 

I  cannot  yet  make  up  my  mind  whether  or  not  the  kind  termed  Wallacfiion  rye  is  of  a  differ- 
ent nature.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  there  has  been  some  mistake  respecting  it ;  for  fifty 
years  ago  Siberian  barley  (hordeum  ccelestej,  was  regarded  as  a  species  of  r^ye,  aud  called  Wal- 
larhian  rye  ;  and  notsix  years  ago  some  of  it  was  sent  to  me  under  that  name.  The  real  Walla- 
chian  rye  has  no  distinguishing  characteristic.  Every  kind  of  grain  which  is  for  some  years  sub- 
jected to  a  mode  of  cultivation  similar  to  that  pursued  in  gardens,  and  the  seed  of  which  has 
been  carefully  selected,  undergoes  some  changes  in  its  nature  ;  but  it  is  not  difficult  to  foresee 
that  when  it  comes  to  be  again  cultivated  in  the  open  field,  the  existence  of  these  alterations  will 
be  of  short  duration. 

That  kind  of  rye  which  comes  to  us  from  the  Russian  provinces  on  the  borders  of  the  Baltic, 
and  the  German  name  of  which  may  be  translated  "  bushy  rye,"  is  far  superior  to  others.  It  re- 
sists inclement  weather  better,  grows  fuller  and  higher,  is  not  so  easily  laid,  and  when  sown  on  a 
good  soil  with  proper  care,  always  yields  a  large  amount  of  produce.  It  must,  however,  be  got 
into  the  ground  before  the  end  of  September.  If  sown  later,  or  on  poor  ground,  these  advantages 
will  not  be  so  manifest.  It  puts  forth  its  blade  and  stems,  flowers,  and  ripens  much  later  than 
common  rye ;  and  in  order  to  have  it  ready  for  reaping  about  the  same  time  as  the  other,  it  must 
be  sown  very  early.  This  variety  undergoes  no  alteration.  I  have  been  unable  to  perceive  the 
slightest  degeneration  even  when  it  has  grown  near  enough  to  other  kinds  of  rye  to  receive  the 
pollen  blown  fi-om  their  stamens. 

Land  containiiig  a  large  proportion  of  sand  is  best  adapted  for  rye,  which  is  the  only  grain  that 
can  be  cultivated  on  a  soil  containing  eighty-five  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand,  or  more.  With  us, 
land  of  this  nature  is  always  called  rye-land.  Soils  containing  less  than  eighty-five  parts  in  a  hun- 
dred of  sand  are  also  adapted  for  that  production  of  rye. 

The  richer  the  land,  the  more  vigorous  and  luxuriant  will  the  rye  be.  This  grain,  however, 
an.swers  on  poor  land,  which  wheat  does  not.  But  this  depends  much  upon  the  nature  of  the 
land.     Sandy  soils  part  with  their  humus  so  much  more  easily  than  clays  do. 

If  an  exhausted  field  or  portion  of  land  be  left  in  repose  for  some  years,  it  will  collect  sufficient 
nntrition  to  enable  it  to  bear  a  crop  of  rye,  though  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  will  only  be  a  poor 
one. 

(1045) 


Neither  is  rye  so  liable  to  be  injured  by  any  acidity  in  the  soil  as  wheat  or  barley  would  be,  and, 
consequently,  it  may  be  cultivated  on  marsby,  or  heath  and  furze  land,  which  has  been  drained. 

Rye  may  therefore  be  i-egarded  as  the  most  precious  gift  of  God  to  the  inhabitants  of  sandj-and 
poor  countries  ;  without  it,  many  districts  would  have  been  uninhabitable. 

The  degree  of  preparation  bestowed  on  the  soil,  and  the  nature  of  the  crop  which  precedes  the 
rye,  are  not  of  so  much  consequence  as  these  points  wouid  be  if  wheat  were  to  be  sown.  A  sandy 
soil,  su.  .1  an  one  as  is  best  fitted  for  the  production  of  rj'e,  requires  but  three  plo'wings  ;  while 
more  tenacious  soils  amply  repay  the  expense  of  a  foartii,  by  the  increased  amount  of  produce 
which  they  tlien  yield. 

Those  preparatory  crops  which  are  advantageous  to  wheat,  are  equally  so  to  rj-e  when  it  is 
sown  on  the  soils  on  which  they  can  be  cultivated.  A  diminution  in  the  produce  of  the  i-ye  crop 
is  almost  invariably  observed  when  it  is  made  to  succeed  potatoes  or  linseed. 

Rye  bears  being  sown  on  the  stubble  of  some  other  grain,  or  even  on  its  own,  much  better  than   i 
wheat  does.     It  is  also  well  known  that  in  some  countries  rye  is  sown  three  or  four  times  in  sue-    i 
cession  on  the  same  land  ;    but  the  crops  thus  raised  are  so  miserably  poor  that  all  unprejudiced 
persons  have  discarded  such  a  rotation.      Not  even  rich  and  repeated  ameliorations  can   prevent 
the  produce  in  grain  from  falling  off  sadly,  although  the  straw  may  vegetate  luxuriantly.      All 
those  isolated  cases  -which  are  brought  forward  for  the  purpose  of  proving  that  the  second  crop  •    i 
has  been  finer  than  the  first,  and  of  defending  this  mode  of  proceeding,  cannot  overcome  general     i 
experience,  and  might,  if  investigated,  be  very  easily  explained  away.     New  manure,  buried  a 
short  time  only  before  the  sowing  took  place,  and  the  decomposition  of  which  had  been  prevented 
by  drouth  or  humidity,  would  alwaj's  be   injurious  to  the  first  crop,  while  it  would  favor  the 
vegetation  of  the  succeeding  ones. 

This  mode  of  proceeding  may,  however,  be  excused,  where  the  ground  is  only  fit  for  the  pro-    / 
ducfion  of  rye,  and  -where  straw  is -worth  as  much  or  more  than  grain. 

It  is  true  that  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  pay  so  much  attention  to  the  choice  of  the  seed  for 
a  rye  as  for  a  wheat  crop  ;  nevertheless,  perfect  and  ripe  seeds,  free  from  disease,  will  always 
fully  repay  the  attention  bestowed  on  their  selection.  Rye  can  only  bear  a  very  light  covering  of 
earth:  if  sown  too  deeply  in  the  ground,  and  especially  where  the  soil  is  tenacious,  it  will  often 
be  unable  to  germinate,  and  will  perish.  This  is  the  reason  -why  it  is  so  dangerous  to  bury  rye 
with  a  plo-vv :  I  have  experienced  this  to  my  cost.  If  the  soil  is  very  dry,  and  remains  so  after 
the  sowing  has  taken  place,  rj^e  sown  in  rows  may  have  some  advantages  over  that  which  has 
been  sown  by  broadcast,  because  it  shoots  up  more  evenly  and  equally.  But  as  the  kind  of  tem- 
perature which  will  succeed  to  the  .so-wings  cannot  be  foreseen,  it  is  always  most  prudent  to  have 
recourse  to  the  haiTow,  unless  the  seed  is  to  be  buried  by  passing  the  extirpator  supei-ficially  over 
the  ground,  which  mode  of  proceeding  is  certainly  preferable  to  any  other. 

In  our  climate,  the  best  time  for  getting  the  seed  into  the  ground  is  somewhere  between  the 
middle  of  September  and  the  middle  of  October.  In  some  countries,  however,  the  rj-e  is  sown 
in  the  open  field  during  the  whole  of  the  winter,  and  even  up  to  the  end  of  February,  and  at 
times  with  great  success.  This  is  done  to  enable  it  to  benefit  by  the  ameliorations  bestowed  on 
the  land  in  the  winter. 

Many  impartial  observers  assert, that  the  latest  sowings  are  those  -which  can  be  most  depended    [< 
upon  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  crop.s  are  never  so  large  as  those  obtained  from  earlier  f-owings    / 
where  they  do  succeed.     The  worst  period  for  getting  the  seed  into  the  ground  is  from  the  mid-    ) 
die  of  October  to  the  middle  of  November.      But  the  bvtiliy  rye,  of  which  I  have  already  made 
mention,  must  always  be  sown  early  in  the  year ;    in  fact,  it  can  scarcely  be  got  into  the  ground 
too  soon.      I  have  even  sown  it  in  the  middle  of  June  without  its  coming  up  that  year.      When 
not  sown  until  October,  it  grows  very  feebly  ;   and  its  lateral  shoots,  being  behindhand  when  the 
ears  begin  to  form,  remain  poor  and  weak. 

From  eighteen  to  twenty  metzen  of  rje  are  generally  .sown  per  acre.  When  bushy  rye  is 
sown  in  Augu,st,  or  about  the  beginning  of  September,  from  twelve  to  fourteen  metzen  of  seed 
-vs'ill  be  quite  suiEcient,  if  it  is  sown  evenly  and  regularly.  It  grows  so  full  and  luxuriantly  that 
three-fourths  of  the  plants  are  choked,  and  but  one-fourth  remain.  In  the  spring  the  fields  often 
look  so  clear  that  those  fanners  who  are  not  accustomed  to  this  grain  blame  themselves  for  having 
been  too  stingy  with  their  seed.  But  it  would  have  been  just  the  same  if  they  had  sown  it  more 
thickly,  for  in  the  autumn  the  plants  increase  and  grow  so  full  that  they  push  against  each  other ; 
each  one  puts  forth  len  or  twelve  blades  or  more,  and,  provided  the  .=oii  is  rich  and  the  weather  fa- 
vorable, the  -whole  field  appears  closely  covered  -with  a  luxuriant  crop.  As  this  kind  of  rye  comes 
up,  puts  forth  its  leaves  and  shoots  much  later  than  any  other,  it  often,  in  May,  appears  to  be  very 
much  behind  other  crops  in  point  of  vegetation,  but  before  .June  is  over  it  has  far  surpassed  them. 

Rye  crops  are  equally  as  much  benefited  as  wheat  by  being  harrowed  in  the  spring,  especially 
where  a  hard  crust  has  formed  over  the  surface  of  the  soil ;  but  this  tillage  or  cultivation  is  never 
bestowed  on  it.  HaiTowing  is  exceedingly  beuefici;il  to  rye,  even  where  the  soil  is  of  a  very 
sandy  nature ;  but  in  these  cases  the  operation  must  be  performed  with  light  -wooden  harrows, 
and  not  until  the  plants  have  ptit  forth  their  .strong  roots.  Where  these  latter  have  been  torn  up 
by  frost,  especially  from  a  spongy  soil,  or  uncovered  by  the  wind,  it  will  be  better  to  use  a  roll. 

'The  flowering  season  is  a  m.ore  critical  period  for  rj'e  than  for  any  of  the  other  cereals  ;  nor 
can  the  farmer  reckon  with  any  certainty  on  the  success  of  his  crop  until  this  has  passed.  A 
white  frost  coming  on  about  the  flowering  time  may  wholly  or  partially  prevent  the  formation  of 
the  grain.  This  evil  frequently  only  attacks  the  hedges  of  the  field,  or  those  parts  most  exposed 
'  to  the  wind,  and  frequently  only  injures  one  side  of  the  ears,  viz.  that  one  next  to  the  quarter 
whence  the  wind  comes.  Where  this  has  been  the  case,  the  ear  loses  color,  the  poiats  of  the 
husks  pucker  up,  and  the  husks  are  found  to  be  empty. 

Rainy,  damp,  or  very  -windy  weather,  occurring  about  the  flowering  season,  has  a  pernicious 
influence  on  rye.  Occasional  showers  do  it  no  barm,  even  when  they  are  tolerably  frequent,  pro- 
vided that  there  are  a  few  hours  of  -warm,  sunny  -weather  between  each  ;  for  duripg  rain  the  rye 
(1045) 


RYE.  423 

closes  up  its  valves,  and  when  the  sun  afterw^ard  comes  out,  tlie  anthers  spring  up  so  vigorously 
that  the  pollen  from  the  stamens  covers  the  field  like  a  thick  cloud.  But  during  continuous  rains 
the  anthers  undergo  an  alteration  in  the  valves,  and  rot;  or,  at  any  rate,  impregnation  does  not 
take  place  ;  or  if  it  does,  the  embryo  of  the  grain  is  putrefied  and  lost.  It  is  thus  that  the  disea-=e 
termed  the  spur  or  ergot  of  rye  is  engendered,  and  that  curiou.s,  blackish,  violet-colored  excres- 
cence formed  which  is  so  well  known,  and  of  itself  appears  to  be  of  no  con.sequeuce,  but  when 
swallowed  in  large  quantities,  and  especially  while  fresh,  occasions  such  dangerous  and  mortal 
diseases  in  both  men  and  animals. 

Strong,  vigorous  rye  is.  however,  better  able  to  resist  the  influences  of  foreign  causes  even  dur- 
ing the  Hov^'ering  season,  than  weak  and  sickly  plants  are. 

When  the  flowering  time  is  over,  it  will  be  easy  to  discover  whether  fecundation  has  been  ac- 
complished or  not,  or,  in  other  words,  whether  or  not  the  husks  contain  their  grain  :  it  is  only  ne- 
cessary to  hold  the  ears  up  to  the  light  in  order  to  ascertain  this,  because  the  impregnated  valves 
•  appear  transparent.  But  as  with  rye  the  flowering  process  proceeds  but  very  slowly,  it  is  as  well 
I  not  to  be  in  too  great  a  hurry  to  calculate  the  probable  success  of  the  crop,  lest  we  form  an  erro- 
neous judgment.  When  the  plant  is  farther  developed,  the  emptj'  husks  will  be  felt  on  passing 
the  hand  over  each  ear. 

Rj'e  is  ripe  when  the  straw  becomes  pale  ;  when  its  yellow  hue  fades  almost  to  white,  and  the 

knots  have  lost  evei-y  trace  of  green  :   the  grain  is  hard,  easy  to  be  detached,  and  falls  out  on  the 

[    plants'  being  struck  or  shaken.     But  Cato's  maxim  must  always  be  observed  with  regard  to  rye  : 

Oracu/nm  exto  bidno  citius,  quam  biduo  serins  metere,  (get  in  your  harvest  two  days  too  soon 

rather  than  two  days  too  late). 

On  laud  of  tolerable  quality,  and  which  from  its  nature  is  as  well  adapted  for  rye  as  for  wheat, 

I     the  average  produce  of  these  two  kinds  of  grain  will  be  nearly  or  quite  the  same  in  volume.     I 

have,  however,  never  known  an  instance  in  which  a  rye  crop  averaged  more  than  twenty-two 

'     bushels  per  acre  ;    while  much  larger  crops  of  wheat  are  frequently  obtained,  although  it  must  be 

,    confessed  that  it  was  from  land  much   too  stiff' for  rye.      Twelve  bushels  may  be  regarded  as  a 

very  fair  amount  of  produce  ;    but  now  and  then  the  crop  barely  yields  three  bu.shels  per  acre. 

Where  it  is  less  than  this,  it  may  be  said  altogether  to  fail ;  a  soil  on  wliich  thi$  is  usually  the  case, 

hardly  repays  the  expense  of  sowing  it,  and  has  no  nominal  value  as  arable  land. 

The  weight  of  a  bushel  of  good  rye  is  from  seventy-six  to  eighty-six  pounds. 

Next  to  wheat,  rye  may  be  said  to  contain  the  large.st  amount  of  nutritive  matter  of  any  of  the 
'  cultivated  cereals.  It  contains  an  aromatic  substance,  which  seems  to  adhere  more  particularly 
to  the  husk,  since  that  agreeable  taste  and  smell  peculiar  to  rye  bread  are  not  perceptible  in  that 
whi^'h  is  made  of  rye  Hour  that  has  been  pas.sed  through  a  very  fine  bolting  cloth.  The  smell,  as 
well  a.?  tlie  blackish  hue,  "may  be  re.stored  by  means  of  a  decoction  of  rye  bran  in  warm  water 
u.sed  in  making  the  dough.  This  substance  appears  to  facilitate  digestion,  and  has  a  peculiarly 
stretigthening:  refreshin?  and  beneficial  effect  upon  the  animal  frame. 

In  places  where  rye  is  the  chief  article  of  food,  the  price  of  this  grain  is  not  .so  variable  as 
it  is  in  others,  or,  at  any  rate,  it  remains  more  in  accordance  with  the  abundance  or  .scantiness  of 
the  crops.  Foreign  demand  has  in  this  country  but  a  very  indirect  inHuence  on  its  price.  With 
us,  rye  reijulates  tlie  price  of  all  other  products;  and  even,  by  the  wages  of  manual  labor,  the 
price  of  all  kinds  of  manufactured  commodities.  The  circumstauct-s  of  the  locality  may  be  such 
as  to  render  it  more  advantageous  to  grow  other  products,  but  the  demand  for  rye  is  always  most 
regalur  and  certain.* 

All  .'.oils  coiiiaiuiii::  an  exces-^ive  proportion  of  sand,  and  which  are  not  too  mucli  exj.osed  to 
humidity,  will  be  foun-i  to  bear  bettor  crops  of  rye  than  of  any  other  kind  of  gi-ain,  provided  that 
the  sowings  -arc  cai-efiilly  executed. 

This  trraiu  exhausts  land  much  less  than  wheat.      In  a  previous  .sc'ction  we  have  admitted, 

as  a  general  principle,  that  rye  ab.sorbs  thirty  parts  in  a  hun(ii-ed  of  the  imtriment  contained  in 

the  soil.     As  this  errain  yields  a  larger  quantity  of  straw  than  any  odicr,  it  will,  if  this  straw 

is  reduced  to  manure,  restore  a  larger  portion  of  the    nutrimiMjt  which    it    has  absorbed  than 

,'    any  other ;    besides,  its  straw  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  all  the  pui-po.ses  of  an  agricultural  under- 

'    takiu,;.f. 

Spriui:  rye  is  simply  a  variety  of  autumnal  rye,  and  may.  as  ]  have  before  observed,  easily  be 
changed  uito  aatunmal  rye.  It  is  generally  made  use  of  to  replace  the  latter,  when  it  has  been 
im|iossible  to  sow  the  seed  in  time;  and  the  ground  is  not  fit  for  any  other  kind  of  grain,  and 
especially  for  the  purpose  of  derivinsf  benefit  from  the  manure  bestowed  on  the  soil  during 
winter.  It  thrives  well  on  land  which  is  too  sandy  and  too  dry  for  barley  or  oats.  After  pota- 
toes or  autumnal  rye  which  has  failed,  spring  rye  succeeds  adinirably,  provided  that  it  has  been 
Sown  as  early  as  possible,  and  in  a  soil  properly  prepared  for  its  reception. 

Spring  rye  otherwise  seldom  yields  an  amount  of  produce  at  all  equal  to  that  of  autumnal 
rye.  and  sometimes  altogether  fails.  Its  grain  is  small,  and  has  a  very  thin  hu.sk;  but  contains 
such  excellent  flour,  as  to  cause  it  frequently  to  fetch  a  higher  price  than  autumnal  rye. 

It  ought  to  be  sown  early,  viz.  either  at  the  end  of  March,  or  about  the  beginning  of  April ; 
autumnal  rye  .should  be  sown  at  the  commencement  of  March.  Spring  rye  is  not  unfrequently 
sown  on  the  stubble  of  autumnal  rje,  after  an  amelioration  of  fresh  manure.  The  soil  is  only 
prepared  for  this  kind  of  .sov/ing  during  the  cold  and  wet  winter  months ;  consequently,  dog's- 
tail  grass,  bent  grass,  and  other  varieties  of  agrostis.  multiply  rapidly.  In  general,  no  fields  arc 
found  to  be  so  infested  with  weeds  as  tho.se  in  which  rye  "is  chiefly  cultivated.  Such  land  has 
hence,  often,  and  very  unjustly,  been  accused  of  being  disposed  by  Nature  to  produce  bent  grass. 


*  This  remark  Is  chiefly  applicable  to  the  north  of  Germany,  or  to  countries  where  the  inhabitants  live 
chiefly  on  rye,  which  is  not  generally  the  case  either  in  France  or  Switzerland.  [French,  Trans. 

(1047) 


BARLEY. 
There  are  five,  or,  some  say,  six  species  or  subspecies  of  barley  actually  known  and  cultivated 
among  us — 

1.  Hordeum  vulgare Common  or  spring  barley. 

2.  "        distichon Two-rowed  or  long-eared  barley. 

3.  "         cceleste Siberian  barley. 

4.  "        nudum Flat,  naked  barley. 

5.  "        hexastichon Six-rowed  or  winter  barley. 

6.  "        leocriton Sprat  or  battledore  barley. 

All  species  of  barley  require  a  light,  rich,  loamy  soil,  which  retains  moisture,  without,  however, 
sufterin^  from  damp  ;  a  soil  which  contains  from  fifty  to  sixty-iive  parts  in  a  hundred  of  .sand,  and 
the  rest  chiefly  clay.  If  having  the  former  of  these  proportions  it  is  situated  in  a  dry  position,  and 
having  the  latter  iii  a  moist  one,  it  will  be  rendered  still  more  adapted  for  the  production  of  bar- 
ley. This  kind  of  grain,  however,  thrives  wonderfully  well  on  more  clayey  or  stiffbr  soils,  where 
there  is  a  sufficient  quantity  of  humus  to  prevent  the  land  from  being  too  tenacious;  in  .short,  in 
land  which  may  be  classed  among  good  wheat  lands.  If  the  clayey  soil  contains  a  (Certain  quan- 
tity of  lime,  and  the  proportion  of  clay  in  it  is  sufficiently  diminished  to  render  it  light,  without 
ceasing  to  be  consistent,  it  will  then  be  peculiarly  adapted  for  barley  ;  and  the  more  .=o  from  the 
lime  purging  the  soil  of  its  aciditj-,  which  latter  quality  militates  against  the  success  of  barley.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  moi.st  summer.s,  barley  will  be  found  to  succeed  very  well  on  land  in  which 
sand  is  the  predominating  ingredient,  and  where  it  is  found  in  the  proportion  of  from  70  to  75 
parts  in  a  hundred  ;  provided,  however,  that  the  soil  is  in  tolerably  good  condition.  But  during 
dry  summers  the  crops  of  barley  would  fail  on  such  land  ;  consequently  its  produce  can  never  be 
depended  on.  A  poor,  tenacious,  moist,  cold,  acid  soil  is  by  no  means  proper  for  barley,  nor  will 
Uiat  grain  often  .succeed  when  sown  upon  it. 

Land  in  which  barley  is  to  be  sown  must  be  thoroughly  loosened  and  pulverized.  When,  as 
usually  happens,  it  is  sown  on  the  stubble  of  autumnal  gi'ain,  the  land  must  be  plowed  at  least 
three  times  for  its  reception  ;  but  wheie  the  s  dl  has  been  thoroughly  locsehed  during  the  pre- 
ceding year  by  weeded  crops,  one  plowing  will  be  quite  sufficient. 

If  those  crops  by  which  the  barley  was  preceded  have  not  left  a  sufiicient,  or  indeed  a  con.sid- 
evable  quantity,  of  nutriment  behind,  an  amelioration  composed  of  manure  which  lias  undergone 
fermentation  must  be  bestowed  upon  the  soil.  The  tender  nature  of  this  gi-ain  re  nders  it  neces- 
sary that  the  nutrition  intended  for  it  should  be  easy  of  digestion,  and  properly  prepared  for  and 
adapted  to  its  organs. 

Barley  is  not  exposed  to  anv  particular  disease  excepting  smut,  and  that  seldom  injures  it 
much.  Those  ears  which  are  attacked  by  it  are  chiefly  the  early  ones,  and  then  it  appears  as  if  the 
whob  field  was  covered  with  diseased  plants  ;  but  when  the  health3'  ears  attain  maturit  ,  scarcely 
any  trace  of  the  others  remain.   Pickling  and  liming  have  no  effect  on  this  kind  of  smut  whatever. 

All  those  kinds  of  barley  which  are  usually  sown  in  the  spnng,  support  and  require  a  tolerably 
thick  covering  of  earth;  they  may  be  buried  by  a  shallow  plowing  of  three  or  four  inches  deep, 
and.  in  fact,  when  sown  on  a  very  light  soil,  must  be  placed  at  this  depth  beneath  the  surface. 
The  land,  however,  must  always  first  be  allowed  to  get  thoroughly  dry ;  with  us  nothing  is  more 
conducive  to  the  success  ol  this  grain  than  a  period  of  dry  weather  succeeding  to  the  sowing. 

Perfectly  ripe  seeds  which  have  not  become  heated  in  the  granary  will  always  produce  healhy 
plants ;  they  must,  however,  be  carefully  .sifted  and  washed,  to  separate  them  from  those  seeds 
of  weeds  which  usually  grow  so  fast  among  barley.  When  this  has  been  done,  and  the  seed  is 
sown  early,  twelve  or  fourteen  metzen  per  acre  will  answer  as  well  as  twenty  or  twenty-two 
would  otherwise  do,  especially  where  large  barley  is  sown. 

Barley  becomes  very  thick  and  busby  where  it  has  suflBcient  s>  ace,  but  when  crowded  the 
plants  are  weakly.  .Small  barley  may  be  sown  much  more  thickly,  as  the  plants  are  never  so  full 
and  bushy  as  those  of  large  barley. 

Should  heavy  rains,  which  harden  the  ground,  come  on  after  the  seed  has  been  sown,  a  harrow^ 
must  be  pas.sed  over  the  soil  as  soon  as  it  becomes  drj',  and  before  the  barley  begins  to  spring  up. 
in  order  to  break  the  crust,  which  otherwise  often  impedes  the  growth  of  the  plants,  being  too  hard 
to  admit  of  their  forcing  their  way  through. 

After  the  barley  has  begun  to  appear  above  ground,  it  is  often  very  dangerous  to  make  use 
of  the  harrow,  as  the  plants  are  as  brittle  as  glass.  This  operation,  if  performed  at  all,  mu.st  be 
very  carefully  managed  ;  a  light  w^ooden  harrow  used,  and  the  latter  part  of  the  day  or  the  even- 
ing chosen  for  the  purpose. 

Common,  or  spring,  or  small  quadrangular  Barley. 

This  species  is  i-egarded  as  best  adapted  for  poor  land,  and  hence  has  been  de.signated  the  bar- 
ley of  sandy  soils ;  it  will,  however,  succeed  equally  well  on  clayey  soils,  provided  they  are  rich 
and  the  weather  is  favorable  to  it,  but  not  better  than  large  barley.  It  has  six  rovi's,  and  conse- 
quently its  ear  is  in  the  form  of  a  square,  having  two  wide  and  two  naiTow  sides. 

It  is  very  delicate  ;  a  sharp  fro.?t  will  destroy  it,  and  it  suffers,  more  or  less,  from  every  inclem- 
ency ;  but" it  is  to  be  hoped  that  by  being  sown  generation  after  generation  in  our  climate,  it  will 
eventually  become  stronger  and  more  roljust.  This  kind  of  barley  occupies  but  a  very  short  period 
in  its  vegetation  ;  in  nine  or  ten  weeks'  space  it  comes  out  of  the  sack  as  seed,  and  returns  to  it 
again  as  new  grain;  on  this  account  it  is  frequently  not  sown  until  the  middle  of  June.  If  the 
weather  which  then  succeeds  is  warm  and  properly  moist,  the  crop  may  turn  out  better  even  than 
large  barley,  which,  from  the  length  of  time  it  takes  in  vegetating,  seldom  meets  with  a  constantly 
favorable  state  of  temperature.  But,  notwithstanding  the  most  favorable  appearances,  small  bar- 
ley frequently  does  not  turn  out  well,  especially  if  there  is  any  lack  of  humidity  ,at  the  period  when 
the  ear  is  beginning  to  be  developed  ;  on  an  average  it  cannot  be  said  to  yield  as  good  an  amount 
of  produce  as  large  barley. 

In  the  triennial  rotation  in  which  a  very  imperfect  fallow  only  is  bestowed  on  the  autumnal  com, 
(1048) 


BARLEY. 


'     and  where  the  preparation  (jf  the  fields  is  not  commenced  until  July,  this  barley  presents  the  great 

'     advantage  of  not  requiring  to  be  sown  early  ;  in  cases  of  necessity,  even  the  end  of  June  may  not 

i    be  too  lute.     Thus,  in  favorable  seasons  it  admits  of  the  land  being  half  fallowed,  by  v.'hich  means 

the  soil  is  pulverized  and  aerated,  and  the  weeds  destroyed  ;  this  is  often  much  more  beneficial  to 

the  land  than  a  late  fallow. 

The  proper  period  for  cutting  must  be  carefully  watched  and  embraced  ;  the  plants  must  not  be 

'    suffered  to  attain  to  absolute  maturity,  especiallj-the  later  shoots;  because  the  ears,  being support- 

'    ed  by   very  thin  and  brittle  stems,  snap  off  and  fall  to  the  ground.     When  the  grain  ceases  to  be 

'   milky,  but  may  be  compressed  between  the  fingers  like  wax,  and  most  of  the  ears  are  of  a  yellow 

color,  the  period  has  arrived  for  cutting. 

If  there  is  then  any  danger  of  the  grain  being  shed,  it  should  be  mown  while  the  dew  is  on,  and 
got  in  with  every  precaution. 

This  barley  weighs  less,  and  yields  much  less  farina,  than  large  barlej'.  A  bushel  seldom  weighs 
more  than  from  3ti  to  64  lbs.  Its  price  i,,  low,  not  only  because  its  intrinsic  value  is  inferior  to  that 
of  largo  barley,  but  also  because  brewers  are  more  accustomed  to  the  latter,  and  prefer  it.  Small 
barley  cannot  be  mixed  with  the  large  and  used  for  making  beer,  because  they  do  not  both  ger- 
minate at  the  same  time  ;  therefore  it  is  in  little  request,  and  at  present  is  hardly  used  lor  any- 
thing but  feeding  horsea  Its  straw  appears,  even  in  weight,  to  be  less  abundant  than  that  of  any 
otlier  grain. 

Two-roived,  long-eared,  or  large  fiat  Barley. 
Many  farmers  consider  that  this  kind  only  thrives  on  clayey  soils,  but  T  have  often  cultivated  it 

Son  land  containing  more  than  sixty-two  parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand,  and  usually  with  greater  suc- 
cess than  small  barley,  provided  that  I  got  it  into  the  ground  about  the  end  of  March  or  the  be- 
'i    ginning  of  April,  with  previou.sly  plowing  the  land,  but  contenting  myself  with  burying  it  by 
\i   means  of  an  extirpator,  in  land  which  had  been  tilled  to  a  considerable  depth  and  thoroughly  im- 
/    pregnated  with  humus,  for  a  weeded  crop.     Where  these  conditions  have  been  carefully  ob- 
,'    served,  I  have  never  known  the  crops  entirely  to  fail;  and  the  smallest  quantity  which  I  have  ob- 
I     tained  in  these  cases  has  been  six  bushels  per  acre,  and  that  in  the  summers  of  1809  and  1810,  when 
^   barley  suffered  .so  much  from  drouth,  especially  about  the  period  of  the  formation  of  the  ear.     I 
have  occusionally  obtained  as  much  as  fitteen  bushels  per  acre  from  a  .soil  thus  tilled  and  pre- 
pared :    but  tlien  it  was  in  excellent  condition,  and  the  season  was  highly  favorable  to  it.    Conse- 
quently, I  decidedly  prefer  hu'ge  to  small  barley  in  any  rotation  which  is  adapted  to  this  grain. 

Large  barley,  when  sown  early,  suffers  but  litlle  from  frost;  and  even  when  the  tips  of  the 
leaves  turn  yellow,  it  has  not  sustained  any  great  injury.  When  sown  on  a  sandy  soil,  the  leaves 
will  often  assume  a  yellow  tinge  during  dry  weather,  but  the  plants  are  not  the  worse  ;  all  that  is 
required  is  a  little  moisture  at  the  period  wiien  the  ears  are  beginning  to  form,  this  being  tiie  mo.st 
critical  period.  But  if  the  plants  turn  yellow  ii-om  excess  of  moisture,  which  is  too  oftezi  the  case 
in  low,  damp  situations,  they  will  inevitably  peri.sh. 

In  large  agricultural  undertakings,  where  it  has  been  sown  pretty  early,  one  thing  attending  it 
is  very  inconvenient;  namely,  that  it  ripens  about  the  same  time  as  the  rye;  and  although  it  is  less 
apt  to  .shed  its  grain  than  small  barley,  the  laborers  must  be  taken  off"  the  rye  in  order  immediate- 
ly to  cut  it.  This  circumstance  may  be  an  inducement  to  sow  it  later  in  the  spring,  and,  on  clayey 
soils,  even  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  May ;  and  to  sow  small  barley  on  the  sandy  soils.  When 
large  barley  is  ripe  a  busliel  of  it  will  weigh  70  and  odd  pounds. 

Siberian,  or  quadrangular  naked  Barley, 
Botanists  regard  this  as  a  variety  of  the  hordcnm  vulgnre,  or  small  quadrangular  barley,  and 
believe  that  it  always  retains  a  disposition  to  resume  its  original  form.  I  have  my  doubts  on  this 
point,  although  now  and  then  some  of  the  grains  strongly  resemble  those  of  small  barley  ;  these, 
liowover,  are  such  as  have  not  attained  their  full  growth,  cannot  separate  themselves  from  their 
valves,  and  either  do  not  germinate  and  appear  above  ground  at  all.  or  else  produce  Siberian  barley. 
But  as  it  frequently  is  almost  impossible  to  distinguish  between  our  cultivated  species,  we  cannot 
come  to  any  determination  on  the  point. 

Siberian  is  distinguished  from  small  barley  by  its  plants  being  fuller,  more  bushy,  and  putting 
forth  more  blades,  even  when  both  kinds  are  grown  on  the  same  soil,  and  the  plants  sown  at  equal 
distances  from  each  other.  The  stems  which  bear  the  ears  are  much  thicker  than  those  of  large 
barley.  The  ear  is  longer  than  that  of  small  barley,  and  contains  a  greater  number  of  grains  ;  but 
the  most  di^^tinguishing  characteristic  is,  that  when  the  ear  ripens,  the  beard  falls  off',  and  the  grains  i ' 
separate  themselves  from  the  valves,  and  assume  a  difierent  form  from  that  of  other  kinds  of  bar- 
ley.    Where  the  .soil  is  rich,  the  ears  of  this  barley  are  u.sually  six-rowed. 

From  its  grain  being  naked,  and  having  an  appearance  different  to  that  of  barley  in  general,  it 
has  been   called  wheat,  rye,  barley-wheat,  &c. ;   and  also  David's  corn,  Jerusalem  corn,  and     i 
Egyptian  or  Wallachian  corn.     Gaspard  Bauchiu  termed  this  kind  of  barley  zeopyron  or  tritico 
spellnm. 

As  Siberian  barley  has  long  been  kno^vn  to  both  agriculturists  and  botanists,  it  seems  at  first 
sight  strange  that  it  should  not  be  more  generally  cultivated  on  fertile  soils.  Nevertheless,  when 
we  come  to  consider  what  are  the  conditions  requisite  to  ensure  its  success,  we  cease  to  wonder  that 
should  not  be  so.  It  unites  in  itself  all  that  can  render  spring  corn  recommendable.  It  is  strong; 
its  produce  is  certain  ;  it  grows  thickly  ;  the  stem  which  bears  the  ear  is  stiff',  it  yields  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  nutritious  grain  ;  its  straw  is  excellent,  and  fully  equal  to  that  of  wheat  straw  ; 
and,  upon  the  whole,  it  is  much  more  productive  than  large  barley.  But  it  requires  a  fertile,  rich 
and  well-tilled  soil;  and  as  my  friends  have  always  cultivated  it  alter  their  fallow  crops,  I  cannot 
say  whether,  if  sown  on  the  stubble  of  some  other  grain,  would  yield  so  much  better  than  all  other 
kinds  of  barley,  which  it  certainly  does  in  the  cases  I  have  named.  It  must  also  be  got  into  the 
ground  as  eai'ly  as  possible,  in  order  to  allow  it  time  to  come  up,  and  put  forth  its  leaves  and  stems 
(1043) 


426  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


before  the  ^varlnth  of  die  weather  induces  the  formation  of  the  ear.     Several  persons  who  have 
sown  it  late  have  seen  their  crops  fail.     If  attacked  by  frost  while  young,  it  suffers  very  much.  It 
is  said  that  when  sown  early,  like  autumnal  com,  it  has  been  cut  several  times  in  the  course  of 
the  summer  ;  and  on  the  succeeding  year  has  yielded  a  good  crop.     But  this  account  is,  in  all  pro-   ; 
bability,  exagscerated  ;  at  any  rate,  we  cannot  give  credence  to  it  until  it  has  been  confirmed  by   i 
well  attested  experiments. 

This  barley  is  usually  of  about  the  same  weight  as  rye  ;  sometimes  a  little  heavier.  ' 

With  regard  to  its  nutritious  properties,  Einhotf  found  that  they  amounted  to  74|  in  a  hundred 

1  parts,  being  thus  2|  more  than  rye.  But  he  observes  that  it  has  so  large  a  proportion  of  sweet 
mucilage  and  of  vegeto-auimal  substances,  and  consequently  of  the  most  nuti-itive  matters,  that  it 
ought  to  rank  between  wheat  and  rye.     ("  Annalen  des  Ackerbaues,"  b.  viii.  sec.  27).     By  adding 

■     a  little  wheat  and  a  little  rye  to  it.  a  highly  nutritious  bread  may  be  made. 

'         Several  experiments  made  by  brewers  with  this  species  of  barley  have  failed,  the  beer  being 

!  strong,  but  thick  and  muddy,  while  others,  on  the  contrary,  have  succeeded  in  producing  very  ex- 
cellent beer.  It  is  very  much  prized  by  brandy  distillers.  This  grain  is  fully  equal  in  value  to  rye. 
Naked  flat  Barley. 
This  kind  somewhat  resembles  the  preceding  in  many  respects  ;  but  the  ears  are  longer,  and  it 
is  onlj-  two -rowed.  When  individual  plants  are  cultivated  in  good  garden  ground,  it  yields  a 
larger  grain  than  that  of  Siberian  barley  ;  but  decreases  in  size  very  materially  when  a  crop  is 
sown  in  the  open  field.  In  all  those  experiments  or  trials  of  it  of  which  I  have  heard,  it  yields  a 
much  smaller  amount  of  produce  than  Siberian  barley.  In  speaking  thus,  I  do  not,  of  course,  in- 
clude tho.se  experiments  made  in  gardens  with  a  view  to  ascertain  to  what  extent  one  grain  may  be 
multiplied.  This  barley  is  one  of  the  numerous  descriptions  of  grain  which  I  abandoned  after 
having  given  them  a  fair  trial. 

Six-rowed,  or  Winter  Barley. 

I  This  is  admitted  by  botanists  to  be  a  distinct  species,  but  in  my  opinion  it  is  not  only  a  variety 
of  the  quadrangular  barley  ;  although,  in  its  natural  state,  it  has  a  distinguishing  characteristic, 
duadraugular  barley  is  likewise  six-rowed  ;  but  in  that  the  grains  stand  out  more  when  they 
ripen,  and  thus  form  a  hexagon.  But  I  believe  this  to  arise  solely  from  some  difference  in  the 
mode  of  cultivation,  and  regard  it  as  more  probable  that  this  species  has  been  created  by  some  in- 
sensible metamorphosis  which  has  taken  place  in  the  hordeum  rvlfrare;  which  ceases  to  be  so 
delicate  when  sown  early,  and  may  very  likely,  in  the  course  of  several  generations,  become 
able  to  bear  the  severity  of  winter,  and  gradually  assume  the  form  of  the  kind  wo  are  now 
speaking  off. 

Sixrowed  barley,  habituated  to  being  sown  a.s  autumnal  grain,  requires  a  rich  yet  consistent 
soil ;  such  a  one  as  would  be  proper  for  wheat  in  iow  situations,  where  the  soil  is  fertile,  it  is 
preferred  to  all  other  kinds  of  barlej'.  especially  on  those  lands  on  which  wheat  would  he  liable 
to  be  laid  ;  and  it  is  chiefiy  on  this  account  thai  it  is  so  much  cultivated.  It  is  rarely  laid,  and 
sometimes  yields  an  enormous  amount  of  produce — often  as  much  as  twenty-eight  bushels  of  grain 

/  per  acre,  and  never  less  than  twenty-two.  it  occasionally  suffers  from  the  severity  of  winter ; 
and  where  this  is  the  case,  it  seldom  or  never  recovers  itself.  In  such  case.s,  therefore,  the  best 
way  is  to  break  up  the  ground  at  once,  and  sow  it  with  spring  barlej'.  On  poor,  or  even  ou 
mediocre  laud,  six-rowed  barley  never  thrives  ;  it  requires  a  soil  such  as  would  be  considered  as 
proper  for  wheat. 

This  barley  should  be  sown  as  early  as  August,  if  we  would  have  it  capable  of  resisting  the 
winter,  and  on  a  fallow,  or  some  preparatory  crop  which  has  thoroughly  loosened  the  soil.  Cab- 
bage or  rape  is  u.sually  considered  as  the  best  preparation.  It  then  ripens  in  good  time,  either 
about  the  end  of  June  or  the  beginning  of  July  ;  and  this  circum.stance  is  a  great  recommendation 
to  it,  as  thus  the  labors  of  harvest  are  more  divided  ;  besides,  at  this  time  barley  is  often  in  great 
request.  It  is  threshed  immediately  after  being  reaped,  and  sent  to  market  Under  these  con- 
siderations, it  offers  many  very  great  advantages;  but  apart  from  them  it  finds  few  advocates,  its  / 
grain  being  even  more  diminutive  than  that  of  small  barley,  and  in  general  lighter,  and  it  being 
altogether  an  inferior  crop.  < 

Sprat,  Battledore,  or  Rice  Barley. 

This  species  is  also  known  by  the  names  of  bearded  barley,  peacock  barley,  German  rice,  fan 
barley,  Venetian  barlej',  and  Japanese  barley.  It  has  long  been  known,  and  w^as  formerly  much 
more  cultivated  in  Germany  than  it  now  is. 

Its  ears  are  shaped  like  a  lancet ;  they  have  two  rows  of  strong  beards  or  awns,  which  diverge 
from  the  stem  to  which  the  grains  are  attached. 

It  grows  very  bushy,  and  consequently,  ought  to  be  evenly  sown,  and  treated  in  all  respects 
like  large  flat  barley. 

I  have  made  various  trials  of  it,  but  cannot  discover  that  it  is  in  any  way  superior  to  large  bar- 
ley, excepting  that  its  stem,  being  short  and  strong,  it  is  never  laid,  even  when  sown  cm  the  rich- 
est land.     But  I  prefer  sowing  Siberian  barley  on  good  land.    I  cannot  say  that  I  have  ever  per- 
ceived in  what  manner  its  grain  can  be  said  to  resemble  rice. 
OATS  (A VENA  SATIVA.) 

Under  this  botanical  term  is  comprehended  a  portion  of  those  varieties  of  this  kind  of  grain 
which  we  know  and  cultivate.     To  this  species  belong  : 

1.  The  common  zvhite  or  March  oaf ,  which  is  most  generally  cultivated,  and  most  to  be  de- 
pended upon  when  sown  in  a  soil  adapted  to  it 

2.  The  heavy  oat.  called  by  us  the  "  English  oat,'  and  by  them  the  "  Polish"  or  "  Spani.sh  oat" 
It  is  distinguished  by  its  stiff  "leaves  and  stems,  large  panicles,  and  equally  large  grains ;  at  least, 
when  grown  on  a  soil  suitable  to  it.     When  sown  in  damp,  marshy  land,  the    ear  becomes  even 

(1050) 


OATS.  427 


larger;  bat  then  the  husk  thickens,  and  the  grain  acquires  little  or  no  additional  weight.  It  is 
said  that  it  may  be  cultivated  as  autumnal  grain ;  but  1  am  not  aware  that  this  assertion  is  borne 
out  by  any  recorded  facts. 

3.  That  oat  distinguished  by  naturalists  as  a  particular  species,  under  the  name  of  the  aveiia 
trisjierma.  which  sometimes  contains  three  ripe  grains  in  one  husk,  but  which,  for  all  that,  does 
not  appear  to  yield  very  large  amounts  of  produce. 

4.  Tke  early _  oat,  which  may  be  sown  very  soon,  and  ripens  early  in  the  year.  This  species  is 
chiefly  valued  in  mountainous  countries,  where  all  other  oats  would  not  ripen  before  September. 

To  the  black  grained  oats  belong  : 

5.  The  black  sriossy  oat,  the  grain  of  which  often  weighs  ten  pounds  per  bushel  more  than  any 
other  kind,  and  is,  consequently,  infinitely  more  nutritious.  It  requires  a  rich  soil,  and  is  pecu- 
liarly adapted  for  low  situations,  while  on  elevated  grounds  it  is  easily  laid  or  blown  down  by 
high  winds. 

6.  The  acorn  oat,  the  grains  of  ^hich  are  partly  white  and  partly  black,  and  which  is,  conse- 
quently, both  a  variety  and  a  mixture  of  the  white  and  black  oat.  It  has  a  very  hard  husk,  but  a 
very  farinaceous  grain. 

We  have  a  distinct  kind  of  oats,  and  one  which  has,  consequently,  been  regarded  by  botanists 
as  a  peculiar  species,  in  the — 

7.  Georgian,  Turkey,  or  Hniis;arian  oat.  It  has  along  compact  panicle,  and  its  grains  turn 
mostly  toward  one  side.  When  first  introduced,  it  was  said  to  yield  a  very  large  amount  of  pro- 
duce ■  but  subsequent  experience  has  served  to  prove  that  it  yields  neither  more  nor  less  than 
common  oats.  It  ripens  later,  and  is  not  so  liable  to  .shed  its  grain ;  and  probably  it  is  on  this  ac- 
count that  farmers  who  sow  a  great  quantity  of  oats,  continue  to  grow  this  on  some  porl ion  of 
their  land.     Its  great  defect  is,  tliat  it  cannot  be  threshed  without  difficulty. 

8.  The  hairy  oat.  I  shall  not  venture  to  decide  ^^•hether  or  not  this  is  the  avena  strigona  of 
botanists,  which  they  state  grows  wild  with  us.  General  experience  has,  however,  proved  that 
common  oats  will  rejjrodnce  themselves  on  a  sandy  .soil,  especially  in  heathy  or  furzy  districts, 
and  become  transformed  into  this  variety — pot  immediately,  it  mu.st  be  confes.sed,  but  by  degrees  ; 
and  that  they  will  resume  their  primitive  form  on  being  sown  in  good  ground.  Does  the  same  ef- 
fect result  from  this  as  is  produced  by  the  growth  of  hair-gra.ss  among  autumnal  corn,  viz  :  that 
the  wild  plant  being  best  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  establishes  itself  and  chokes  or  de.stroys 
whatever  grain  is  sown  ?  Or  does  one  species  actually  assume  the  form  of  another;  and  is  it, 
therefore,  ouly  a  variety  ?  This  hairy  oat  has  several  strong  awns  which  do  not  fall  off:  a  thick 
husk,  and  but  little  farina.  It  hardly  weighs  half  as  much  as  common  oats;  nevertheless,  on 
these  poor  soils  it  is  not  without  its  advantages.  When  seven  on  a  richer  soil,  it  puts  forth  strong 
stems  and  a  large  leaf  and  is  then  cultivated  as  fodder,  and  mown  while  green. 

9.  The  naked  oat  ("avena  riuda.J  This  kind  is  but  little  introduced  among  us  ;  in  Scotland  it  is 
much  cultivated,  and  made  into  bread. 

The  English  recognize  various  other  kinds  of  oats,  but  they  are  only  varieties  obtained  by  cul- 
tivation. 

For  some  time  past,  oats  have  been  treated  among  us  as  one  of  the  vi^orst  and  poorest  of  all 
the  cereal  tribe,  and,  consequently,  have  ouly  been  sown  on  the  woret  and  poorest  portions  of 
land.  Formerly,  the  price  of  this  grain  was  less  llinn  half  that  of  rye;  but  since  a  greater  number 
of  hoi'ses  have  been. kept,  its  price  has  ri.sen  above  that  which  it  bears  relatively  to  other  grain,  in 
consequence  of  its  being  so  eminently  adapted  for  the  feeding  of  these  animals,  and  hence  its  cul- 
tivation has  become  more  pi-ofitable.  Nevertheless,  it  is  seldom  grown  even  now,  excepting  in 
places  where  it  is  not  deemed  advisable  to  sow  any  other  kind  of  grain. 

The  soil  for  oats  may  be  of  any  kind  whatever,  provided  it  be  sufficientlj'  but  not  too  dry:  this 
grain  has  such  vigorous  organs  that  they  can  dissolve  and  appropriate  nutritious  particles  which 
would  be  of  no  use  to  any  other  kind  of  corn.  They  even  appear  capable  of  dissolving  insoluble 
acid  humus.  It  will  grow  on  the  most  tenacious,  cold,  or  clayey  soils,  as  well  as  on  poor  gra- 
velly land  where  nothing  else  will  vegetate.  It  suffers  from  unfavorable  and  inclement  v.'f;itlT-.r, 
but  recovers  itself  much  sooner  than  barley  when  the  weather  begins  to  improve.  On  newly 
broken'up  land,  or  on  marshy  ground,  it  may  be  cultivated  for  several  consecutive  years,  and  its 
produce  will  often  go  on  increasing  until  the  third  or  fourth  year;  while  a  crop  of  any  other  grain 
would  exhaust  the  soil  at  once,  if  it  is  not  immediately  ameliorated.  The  reason  of  this  probably 
is  that  oats  appropriate  to  their  nourishment  every  particle  which  the  soil  will  j'ield,  and  which 
would  not  be  dissolved  by  other  plants  without  the  aid  of  time  and  tillage.  Oats  wdien  cultivated 
on  a  fertile  soil,  are,  however,  much  more  profitable. 

In  the  triennial  rotation  with  a  fallow,  this  grain  is  cultivated  as  the  fourth  or  sixth  crop,  and  gen- 
*  erally  in  places  where  barley  would  be  unable  to  find  any  nourishment.  It  would  appear  that, 
on  strong  wheat  land,  it  is  always  belter  to  cultivate  oats  than  barley.  In  the  Mecklenberg  rota- 
tions with  pasturage,  oats  come  after  barley,  and  constitute  the  last  crop.  The  Holstein  agricul- 
turists have  assigned  a  better  situation  to  it,  by  sowing  it  on  broken-up  grass  land  which  has  been 
in  repose  ;  and  they  adhere  to  this  plan  of  proceeding  even  when,  in  the  ensuing  winter,  they  in- 
tend to  fallow  the  ground  ;  for,  on  broken-up  turf  or  gra.ss  land,  where  the  herbage  is  not  decom- 
posed, oats  always  .succeed  well,  particularly  if  sown  in  good  time.  This  kind  of  grain  is  also  well 
adapted  for  being  sown  on  two-year-old  clover,  from  which  the  farmer  wishes  to  derive  all  the 
benefit  he  can  until  autumn.  When  such  land  is  broken  up  early  in  the  autumn,  and  sown  with 
oats  in  the  beginning  of  spring,  covered  by  harrowing,  and  then  harrowed  again  when  the  plants 
are  just  above  the  ground — a  kind  of  cultivation  which  this  grain  will  bear  better  than  any  other — 
a  larger  amount  of  produce  will  usually  be  obtained  than  would  have  been  if  the  clover  had  been 
broken  up  directly  after  the  first  cutting,  and  the  ground  plowed  three  times,  and  then  sown  with 
autumnal  corn. 

When  oats  are  sown  on  the  stubble  of  any  other  grain,  the  land  must  be  plowed  once,  twice, 
or  thrice.  Most  agriculturists  agree  that  oats  sown  on  thrice-plowed  land  succeed  best,  but  it  is 
(1051) 


seldom  that  they  do  tlow  land  three  times  for  this  grain:  this  arises  either  from  want  of  time,  or 
from  the  croj)  being  thought  not  worth  the  trouble.  They  are  also  deterred  by  a  fear  lest  the  sow- 
ings should  not  be  performed  early  enough —  a  point  which  is  seldom  of  much  consequence,  unless 
the  climate  is  particularly  cold.  Where  oats  are  sown  on  two  plowings,  an  abundance  of  weeds, 
spring  up  ;  and  where  the  soil  has  previously  been  infested  by  weeds  propagated  by  their  seeds, 
I  have  often  found  those  crops  of  oats  which  are  sown  on  two  plowings  more  .scanty  tlian  those 
which  are  sown  on  one  only.  But  where,  on  the  other  hand,  the  field  has  been  chiefly  infested  by 
weeds  propagated  by  their  roots,  the  crop  always  succeeds  decidedly  better  after  several  plowings. 
Land  is  seldom  manured  for  oats,  although,  now  and  then,  it  does  happen  to  be  so,  and  this  most 
'  frequently  when  the  crop  is  to  be  succeeded  by  autumnal  corn.  Fresh  manure  agrees  with  oats 
very  well,  and  the  greater  part  of  such  an  amelioration  will  be  left  in  the  Sviil  for  the  next  crop. 

Oats  are  usually  .sown  more  thickly  than  any  other  kind  of  grain,  either  because  the  bushel  (con- 
tains fewer  grains,  or  because  oats  do  not  grow  so  bushy  as  other  kinds  of  corn,  excepting  on  very 
rich  soils.  One-half  more  seed  than  would  be  conisidered  as<lhe  proper  quantity  for  any  other 
kind  of  grain  must  be  sown  in  this  case  ;  and  on  broken-up  grass  land,  which  has  only  had  one 
plowing,  the  quantity  had  better  be  doubled,  because  all  the  seeds  do  not  come  up.  There  are, 
'  however,  some  places  in  which  they  increase  the  quantity  of  seed  sown  on  grass  land  to  an  extra- 
ordinary extent,  in  the  hope  of  thus  destroying  the  weeds. 

To  ensure  the  success  of  a  crop  of  oats,  it  is  necessary  tliat  the  seed  should  be  plump,  fresh,  and 
uninjured  by  fermentation.  Oats  which  have  acquired  an  unpleasant  taste  or  smell  while  in  the 
sack  or  store-house,  certainly  come  up  from  the  ground  like  others  ;  but  they  produce  a  weakly 
plant,  which  perishes  at  the  flowering  season.  I  accidentally  obtained  proofs  of  this  during  the 
period  that  I  was  studying  Agriculture.  There  is  no  grain  besides  wheat,  in  which  this  evil  re 
quires  to  be  guarded  against  so  much  as  in  oats. 

The  usual  period  for  sowing  oats  is  in  April :  on  broken-up  pasture  land  they  are  so\'('n  in  the 
middle  of  March,  if  possible  ;  but  where  the  situation  is  warm,  the  sowing  may  be  delayed  as 
late  as  the  commencement  of  June  :  and  it  is  when  thus  sown  tliatoats  succeed  best,  provided  that 
the  weather  is  favorable  :  this  is  occasioned  as  much  by  the  soil  having  received  a  better  prepara- 
tion, as  it  is  by  the  destruction  of  the  weeds  being  more  complete. 

Oats  do  not  germinate  so  easily  as  barley;  nor  is  the  process  of  germination  so  uniform,  except- 
ing where  it  takes  place  under  a  very  favorable  temperature.     The  crop  does  not  come  up  .simul- 
taneously, nor  do  the  phmts  ripen  equally.     Many  weeds  which  germinate  with  oats,  as  for  in- 
stance the  wild  mustard  and  the  wild  radish,  tend  materially  to  weaken  the  crop  ;  and  should, 
therefore,  be  destroyed  by  harrowing.     Oats  bear  this  operation  very  well,  even  after  the  plants 
have  begun  to  appear  above  ground,  especially  when  they  have  been  sown  in  rows,  covered  by 
i    a  light  plowing,  and  the  soil  then  superficially  harrowed.     When  a  period  of  favorable  we&ther 
<    has  supervened,  and  the  weeds  have  only  put  forth  their  seminal  leaves,  the  operation  of  harrow- 
ing will  be  productive  of  very  great  benefit;  but  when  the  third  leaves  are  developed,  and  the 
weeds  have  taken  deep  root,  it  does  little  or  no  good  ;  for  if  it  were  carried  to  a  sufficient  depth  to 
ensure  the  destruction  of  the  weeds,  it  would  inevitably  injure  the  oats;  consequently  many  per- 
.    sons  have  endeavored  to  delay  burying  the  oats  sown  on  plowed  land,  until  they  have  put  forth 
)    germs  of  at  least  an  inch  and  a-half  in  length,  in  order  that  the  crop  may  shoot  up  rapidly,  and 
)    free  from  weeds.     This  plan  has  proved  successful  with  many,  their  oats  having  come  up  exceed- 
ingly bushy,  and  free  from  weeds  ;  but  with  me  it  did  not  succeed  at  all,  my  oats  .seldom  afipear- 
/    ed  above  the  ground,  and  an  immense  quantity  of  weeds  choked  the  soil.     The  third  and  last 
/    trial  which  I  made  of  it  was  attended  with  rather  better  success,  for  the  seed  did  come  up;  but  a 
'    period  of  dry  weather  succeeded,  which  prevented  it  froAi  thriving  as  it  ought  to  have  done. 

Great  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  ripening  of  oats;  and  where  they  ripen  unequally,  the  cut- 
ting must  be  commenced  the  moment  that  the  first  part  is  ripe,  or  the  grain  will  most  likely  be 
shed  ;  beside.s,  if  the  remainder  does  not  come  to  maturity,  and  the  grain  cannot  be  .separated  from 
it  by  threshing,  it  will  but  serve  to  increase  the  value  of  the  straw,  and  render  it  more  uouri.shing. 
Moreover,  the  grain  which  ripens  first  is  always  most  sub.stantial.  When  oats  have  been  cut  be- 
fore they  are  completely  ripe,  they  mu.st  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  swaths  for  a  longer  period  ; 
and  some  persons  believe  that  they  then  ripen  and  increase  in  weight :  the  actual  fact  is,  that  they 
will  be  very  liable  to  decrease  and  spoil  if  left  too  long. 

Oat  straw  is  more  esteemed  for  provender  than  that  of  any  otlier  grain,  perhaps  because  there 
usually  is  more  grain  left  attached  to  it  than  to  any  other  kind  of  straw.  In  many  farms  this  grain 
is  purposely  left,  and  the  oats  are  but  slightly  threshed.  When  used  as  litter,  and  thus  converted 
into  manure,  it  is  only  regarded  as  beneficial  to  warm  soils. 

As  oats  weiirh  very  light  (not  more  than  fifty  pounds  per  bushel)  and.  according  to  analysis 
made  by  Einhoff  (a  superficial  one  it  must  be  confe.s.sed),  do  not  contain  more  than  sixtj'  parts  in 
hundred  of  nutriment,  consequently  only  thirty  pounds  in  a  bushel,  this  grain  is  not  equal  to  half 
the  value  of  rye.  But  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  Einhoff"  founded  this  analy.sis  on  obsen'ations 
made  on  bad  oats,  and  that  this  grain  is  worth  at  least  half  the  value  of  rye.  In  many  countries  it 
fetches  a  higher  price,  on  account  of  its  being  so  much  esteemed  as  fodder  for  horses  ;  while  in 
others  which  are  far  better  adapted  for  its  cultivation,  but  where  there  is  less  sale  for  it,  its  price 
falls  below  one  half  the  price  of  rye. 

MILLET  (PANICUM). 
MiUivm  femine-hiteo  of  Toumefort,  Pamculnm  miUiaceum  of  Linnaeufl. 
This  plant  undoubtedly  belongs  to  the  cereal  tribe. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  it  cultivated:    The  common  m\\\eX.  fPamcnm  milliaceum),  bxiA  the   '\ 
German  millet  (paniaim  Italicnm  or  GermanicnmJ.     There  are  several  varieties  of  each  of  these    ' 
whicli  are  chiefly  distinguished  from  one  another  by  'he  color  of  their  grain.     The  common  millet 
is  preferred  as  having  the  largest  grain  ;  and  the  German  millet  as  being  least  lipbie  to  shed  its 
grain,  as  ripening  more  quickly,  and  as  not  being  so  much  robbed  by  birds.  The  cultivation  required 
by  botli  is  the  same  or  nearly  so. 
(10.52) 


Millet  requires  a  warm,  rich,  sandy,  well  pulverized  soil.  It  succeeds  better  when  sown  after 
some  crop  which  has  been  abundantly  manured,  than  it  does  when  sown  immediately  after  an 
amelioration  of  uudecomposed  manure. 

A  soil  must  be  tilled  to  a  great  depth  for  its  reception,  and  plowed  three  times,  besides  being 
harrowed,  rolled,  and  thoroughly  freed  from  weeds.  Many  farmers  dig  their  ground  to  a  great 
depth  previously  to  sowing  it  with  this  plant ;  but  a  good  plowing  answers  the  purpose  equally 
well.  Millet  is  in  general  very  successful  on  newJy  drained  land,  provided  that  it  is  in  good  con- 
dition, and  also  land  which  has  been  left  in  repose  for  several  years  ;  in  the  latter  case  a  single 
plowing  is  sufficient,  if  the  soil  is  subsequently  harrowed,  and  well  broken  up  with  a  roller,  before 
the  seed  is  put  into  it.  When  this  class  of  soils  are  too  dry  for  linseed,  there  is  no  more  proiitable 
means  of  employing  them  than  by  sowing  them  with  millet. 

Aliilet  should  be  sown  in  May;  about  three  metzen  of  seed  is  the  quantity  usually  used  per 
,    acre  ;  a  harrow  is  then  passed  lightly  over  the  soil,  and  where  the  ground  is  dry,  a  roller  must  also 
be  used.     The  seed  must  be  thoroughly  ripe,  perfect,  and  free  from  disease.  , 

As  soon  as  weeds  make  their  appearance  among  millet  which  is  just  shooting  above  ground,  / 
they  must  be  eradicated  by  weeumg.  This  is  absolutely  necessary,  if  we  would  not  endanger  the  : ' 
success  of  the  crop  ;  and  can  only  be  dispensed  with  wliere  the  land  has  only  lately  been  drained,  '. 
and  brought  into  cultivation,  and  consequently,  has  few  or  no  indigenous  weeds.  It  is  on  this  ac- 
count that  millet  can  seldom  be  cultivated  to  any  great  extent.  One  weeding  is  rarely  suthcient  i 
for  it ;  for,  if  the  soil  is  at  all  disposed  to  produce  weeds,  it  will  require  a  second,  if  not  a  third  ; 
each  one  tbllowing  about  a  Ibrtnight  or  three  weeks  after  the  other. 

The  best  way  is  to  tear  up  the  weeds  with  hand  rakes  constructed  for  the  purpose  ;  this  mode 
of  proceeding  answers  far  better  than  hand-weeding,  as  by  its  means  not  only  all  the  weeds  may 
be  eradicated,  but  the  supernumerary  plants  may  be  thinned  otf.     The  etlect  of  this  cultivation  on    . 
the  success  and  vegetation  of  the  crop  is  wonderful ;  after  it  the  millet  shoots  up  so  rapidly  that    ,[ 
the  w^eeds  seldom  have  time  to  grow  again,  or,  if  they  do,  it  is  in  very  small  numbers,  and  they    , ' 
may  easily  be  pulled  up.  i'^ 

trreat  attention  is  requisite  to  seize  oa  the  exact  moment  at  which  the  plant  attains  maturity,  '^ 
,  especially  with  common  millet,  which  ripens  very  unequally,  and  is  very  liable  to  shed  its  seed.  , 
This  evil  is,  however,  much  less  to  feared  w^here  ihe  crop  has  been  cultivated,  and  thinned  in  the  ', 
way  we  have  mentioned.  Those  who  only  cultivate  millet  in  patches,  cut  otf  the  spikes  as  tliey  ', 
(  ripen,  and  carry  them  home  in  sacks  ;  but  as  this  can  only  be  done  where  this  plant  is  cultivated 
but  little,  the  reaping  must  be  commenced  as  soon  as  the  greater  part  of  the  plants  are  ripe,  and 
performed  with  great  care  with  a  sickle. 

This  plant  must  not  be  left  on  the  ground  in  swaths,  because  if  rain  comes  on,  and  it  gets  wetted, 
it  sheds  its  grain.  It  should,  on  the  contrary,  be  immediately  carried  to  the  barns,  and  there 
threshed,  and  freed  from  all  impurities  and  foreign  substances  as  much  as  possible.  The  grain  (| 
should  then  be  spread  in  very  thin  layers  over  the  tloor,  and  stirred  about  every  day  with  a  rake 
until  perfectly  di-y,  otherwise  it  will  become  heated  and  bitter.  Tiie  .straw  is  tied  up  even  though 
moist,  and  carried  into  the  air  to  be  dried  ;  if  not  properly  dried,  it  will  become  mouldy  on  being 
stacked.     This  straw  is  much  esteemed  as  provender  for  cattle. 

Although  when  cultivated  to  any  great  extent,  it  is  not  possible  to  cut  oil' the  ears  separately  as 
they  ripen,  it  is  worth  while  to  gather  all  those  in  this  manner  which  will  be  required  for  seed. 
Grain  which  ripens  thoroughly,  aud  of  which  proper  care  has  been  taken,  shoots  up  evenly,  and 
produces  perfect  plants,  free  from  disease,  and  especially  from  smut,  which  frequently  manifests 
itself  in  this  grain  where  proper  precautions  have  not  been  taken.  That  portion  of  millet  which 
is  intended  tor  seed  should  be  preserved  in  some  place  through  which  there  is  a  free  circulationof 
air,  and  where  it  can  become  perfectlj"^  dry  :  it  should  be  threshed  when  wanted.  The  best  way 
of  freeing  millet  from  its  husk  is  by  making  use  of  mills  somewhat  resembling  fulling  mills,  which 
beat  it  with  sticks  or  hammers. 

Millet  is  well  known  to  be  a  very  nutritious  grain;  in  most  countries  it  forms  an  article  of  food, 
and  in  many  cases  is  used  instead  of  rice.  Consequently,  its  price  generally  bears  a  relative  pro- 
portion to  that  of  rice. 

Millet  is  also  cultivated  as  fodder ;  it  is  then  sown  more  thickly,  and  mown  as  soon  as  its  pani- 
cles are  developed. 

That  plant  which  is  designated  under  the  name  of  marsh  millet,  belongs  to  another  species  or 
family  of  vegetables.  One  variety  of  it  ripens  with  us  during  warm  summers,  and  when  sown  in 
gardens ;  it  is  called  Indian  millet  (holcus  sorgham).  There  are  several  other  kinds,  but  they 
all  require  warmer  climates ;  and  it  is  far  from  probable  that  any  of  them  will  ever  be  naturalized 
in  our  country,  thei-efore  I  do  not  consider  it  necessary  to  particularizfe  them. 

Rice,  and  all  the  varieties  of  that  family,  are  also  by  no  means  adapted  to  our  climate,  although 
in  many  of  the  records  of  different  agricultural  societies  accounts  of,  and  instructions  respecting,  its 
cultivation  are  to  be  found.  I  question  much  if  it  will  ever  ripen  in  the  north  of  Germany,  unless 
it  be  in  hot-houses;  even  in  the  south  of  France,  several  experiments  made  with  a  view  of  intro- 
ducii^  it  have  been  unsuccessful.  The  nearest  place  where  it  can  be  raised  is  beyond  the  Alps,  ' 
I  am  well  acquainted  with  one  case,  in  which  the  parties  thought  they  had  sown  and  raised  rice, 
and  it  turned  out  to  be  Siberian  barley. 

Lastly,  from  its  nature,  maize  should  be  included  among  the  grain  tribe  ;  but  as  its  cultivation 
differs  in  toto  from  that  of  those  w^e  have  already  mentioned,  and  closely  resembles  that  appertain-     , 
ing  to  weeded  crops,  w^e  shall  defer  an  account  of  it  until  we  come  to  treat  of  that  portion  of  our     , 
subject. 

THE  CULTIVATION  OF  GRAIN  IN  ROWS  OR  WITH  THE  HORSE-HOE. 

This  kind  of  cultivation  is  equally  applied  to  all  other  kinds  of  crops ;  but  as  it  appears  peculiai-- 
ly  adapted  to  grain,  I  shall  speak  of  it  here. 

We  find  instances  of  its  being  known  and  practiced  as  far  back  as  the  15th  century.    Joseph 
(1053) 


Locatclli,  a  Spaniard,  made  some  experiments  in  it  which  drew  upon  him  the  attention  of  the 
Emperor,  and  caused  him  to  be  summoned  to  repeat  them  in  tlie  presence  of  the  monarch.  But 
wliat  appears  still  more  extraordinary  is,  that  it  was  known  in  Persia  and  Hindostan  ;  that  the 
rows  were  there  sown  by  proper  machines,  and  the  plants  cultivated  during  their  vegetation  with 
instruments  worked  by  horses  or  oxen.  In  England,  Jethro  TuU  is  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  it. 
In  Erance,  Du  Hamel,  Chateauvieux,  and  others  introduced  and  propagated  it  about  the  begin- 
ning ot  the  18th  century.  But  TuU's  mode  of  proceeding,  according  to  which  very  broad  spaces 
are  left  between  the  rows,  which  are  repeatedly  tilled  with  a  plow  during  the  vegetation  of  t:  t 
(Jrop,  is  nearly  out  of  date,  and  has  given  place  to  another  in  which  the  rows  are  parallel  with,  and 
nearer  to  each  other.  We  shall  content  ourselves  here  with  speaking  of  the  latter,  and  refer  our 
readers  for  details  of  the  former  to  the  1st  and  3d  vols  of  our  "  E  nghsh  Agriculture."  Persons  who 
take  an  interest  in  the  matter  will,  probably,  have  already  read  those  dissertations,  and  will  here 
find  some  contradictions  of  what  was  tlien  stated  ;  but  we  must  beg  them  to  consider,  that  the 
statements  \\'hich  are  about  to  be  made,  are  the  result  of  more  mature  experience,  and  founded  on 
numerous  experiments. 

The  machines  for  sowing  corn  in  rows,  and  the  horse-hoes  which  have  been  invented  in  England, 
are  too  numerous  to  admit  of  their  being  severally  described.  Almost  all  agriculturists  agree  that 
Cooke's  sowing  machine  is  the  best;  but  it  is  very  complicated,  and  must  be  used  with  great  care.- 
In  the  first  part  of  my  "Description  of  the  Agricultural  Instruments  in  most  general  use,"  I  have 
giveu  a  plate  of  Ducket'.'!  machine  for  sowing  corn  in  rows ;  and,  in  the  thirdpart  of  the  same  work, 
that  of  another  invented  by  myself,  with  proper  descriptions.  Long  experience  has  convinced  me 
tliat  the  latter  is  so  convenient,  durable,  and  easily  used,  and  answers  my  purpose  so  well  that  I 
could  not  desire  a  better  ;  although  I  can  only  sow  corn,  peas,  vetches,  and  lentils  with  it,  and  not 
any  of  the  smaller  seeds  wbich  Cooke's  machine  will  sow.     Neither  can  1  regulate  or  alter  at 

ill  the  quantity  of  the.  seed  of  each  kind  of  grain  which  it  shall  sow ;  but  it  always  distributes 


quantity  which  is  amply  sufficient  for  every  case  or  exigency  ;  and  although  it  is  true  that  occa- 
sionally something  might  be  saved  out  of  this,  the  saving  would  be  so  trifling  that  it  is  scarcely 
worth  "mentioning.  It  only  uses  half  the  quantity  of  seed  in  sowing  wheat,  rye,  and  oats,  which 
would  be  required  if  the  broadcast  or  hand  sowing  were  put  in  practice.  This  machine  suits  all 
kinds  of  land  -,  it  can  be  used  on  the  stiffest  clays  without  receiving  any  injury,  jolt,  dislocation,  or 
fracture,  and  therefore  may  be  trusted  even  with  inexperienced  or  careless  laborers.  Its  frame  also 
serves  for  the  honse-hoe  ;  all  that  is  required  to  be  done  is,  to  detach  the  seed-box  and  substitute 
for  it  some  implement  of  the  hoe,  coulter,  or  pronged  kind,  which  will  best  fulfil  the  end  in  view. 
There  is  not  the  slighte-st  difficulty  in  using  tliis  instrument,  but  itis  impossible  to  give  an  intelligi- 
ble and  useful  verbal  description  of  the  manner  in  which  it  is  used. 

This  kind  of  cultivation  may  be  bestowed  on  land  of  every  descripion,  from  the  most  tenacious 
to  the  most  friable,  provided  that  it  has  previously  been  properl3'  tilled.  Nevertheless,  when  it 
has  to  be  applied  to  clayey  soils,  the  moment  must  be  seized  when  they  have  attained  that  degree 
of  moisture  which  best'befits  them  for  receiving  the  various  kinds  of  hoe  tillage. 

When  the  soil  is  very  sandy  in  its  nature,  those  marked  advantages  so  often  attendant  upon 
horse-hoe  tillage  must  not  be  expected.  Land  containing  from  30  to  Bo  parts  in  a  hundred  of  clay 
is  best  adapted  for  and  best  repays  this  kind  of  cultivation. 

A  field  may  be  on  a  declivity.'in  which  case,  the  share  or  six-pi'onpc.  hoe,  which  forms  a  por- 
tion of  this  instrument,  does  not  enter  equally  into  the  ground.  The  soil  must  be  rich  and  well  cul- 
tivated to  enable  this  operation  to  be  productive  of  its  full  advantages.  Poor  land  will  be  incapa- 
ble of  feeding  that  vigorous  growth  of  stems  and  leaves  which  is  induced  by  the  action  of  the  hoe. 
"\\''hen  the  temperature  has  been  favorable,  a  considerable  increase  of  produce  has  often  been  ob- 
tained even  on  poor  soils  by  sowing  the  corn  in  rows,  but  the  proportional  increase  here  was  no- 
thing to  what  it  would  have  been  on  rich  land  ;  and,  in  many  cases,  the  ears  which  the  plants  bore 
had  not  sufficient  nutriment  to  enable  them  to  form  their  grain. 

The  soil  must  be  completely  free  from  those  large  stones  which  come  up  into  the  layer  of  vege- 
/  table  mould,  as  the  share  and  prongs  of  the  hoe  would  inevitably  be  broken  if  they  came  in  contact 
, '  with  them.  Small  stones  do  not  altogether  impede  the  operation  of  sowing  in  row.?,  but  they  wear 
I  out  the  implements  very  much ;  it  ought,  in  fact,  to  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule,  that  this  opera- 
'  tion  should  never  be  introdixced  until  those  stones  which  are  capable  of  doing  harm  have  all  been 
removed. 

Another  indispensable  condition  to  the  success  of  this  mode  of  cultivation  is,  that  the  land  shall  be 
entirely  free  fi-om  those  weeds  which  are  propagated  by  their  roots,  as  well  as  from  all  others 
which  perpetuate  themselves  in  the  soil ;  and  also  that  it  shall  be,  as  far  as  possible,  free  from  those 
which  are  propagated  through  the  medium  of  their  seeds ;  for,  though  many  of  these  weeds  are 
destroyed,  and  others  prevented  from  coming  up  by  the  use  of  the  horse-hoe,  they  are  not  com- 
pletely eradicated.  Suppo.^iing  the  horse-hoes  entirely  to  destroy  those  \yeeds  which  come  up 
in  the  spaces  between  the  rows,  they  cannot  touch  those  which  spring  up  in  the  rows  and  among 
I  i  the  corn.  The  weeds  impede  the  passage  of  the  shares  or  irons  of  the  hoe,  and  cause  them  iw  drag 
portions  of  earth  along  with  them ;  a  p&ri  of  the  weeds  certainly  are  torn  up,  but  those  which  grow 
in  the  rows  are  only  rendered  more  vigorous,  and  enabled  to  shed  their  seed  on  ground  loosened 
and  prepared  for  its  reception  by  tillage"  Hence  it  results  that  this  kind  of  cultivation  seldom  suc- 
ceeds in  cleansing  a  soil  from  weeds  which  is  infested  with  them ;  but  it  will  keep  a  field  clear 
which  is  from  the  beginning  tolerably  free  from  weeds,  provided  that  pains  are  taken  to  detect  and 
pull  up  every  one  that  makes  its  appearance  among  the  plants  in  the  rows,  which  will  be  a  com- 
paratively easy  task,  for  but  few  will  be  found. 

This  system  of  cultivation  admits  of  the  possibility  of  the  ordinary  rules  for  alternating  the  crops 
being  neglected,  which  no  other  can  do,  and  of  several  crops  of  corn  being  raised  successively,  on 
account  of  its  tendency  to  keep  the  soil  loose  and  clear.  A  field  which  has  been  drilled  and  projj- 
erly  cultivated  with  a  horse-hoe  will  generally  be  found  to  be  so  thoroughly  loosened  and  pulveri- 
zed after  the  first  plowing  as  to  be  fit  for  the  reception  of  seed  without  any  farther  preparation. — 
(10.54) 


Those  persons,  therefore,  are  quite  wrong  who  assert  that  drill-sowing  is  intimately  connected 
with  alternate  rotations;  on  the  contrary,  it  supersedes  the  necessity  of  them,  and  strict  adherence 
to  tliem  renders  it  almost  impossible  to  drill  all  the  crops  :  this  is  one  of  the  principal  objections  al- 
leged against  them  by  Arthur  Young  and  other  English  agricultarists.  If  clover  is  to  be  sown  on 
barljy  which  sacceeds  to  a  weeded  crop,  this  can  only  be  done  where  the  preparatory  tillage  has 
been  perfectly  performed  ;  the  seed  must  be  got  into  the  ground  as  soon  as  the  hoe  has  been  pass- 
ed over  it  for  the  last  time,  in  order  that  it  may  come  in  contact  with  a  layer  of  fresh  earth.     This 

, '  seed  falls  into  the  farrows  drawn  by  the  feet  of  the  hoe,  and  when  tlie  weather  is  favorable,  comes 
up  in  rows,  and  yields  a  fine  crop  ;  but  sad  experience  testifies  that  when  the  weather  is  unfavor- 
able it  is  often  completely  destroyed.  Once,  a  heavy  shower  came  on  directly  after  I  had  thus 
sown  my  clover,  which  washed  all  the  loosened  earth  into  the  furrows,  and  wedged  the  seeds 
down  so  tightly  that  the  young  shoots  could  not  make  their  -way  up,  and  consequently  peri.shed. — 
At  another  time,  in  1810,  a  long  period  of  drouth  supervening  on  tlie  sowings  prevented  the  clo- 
ver from  germinating  at  all,  or  else  dried  it  up  us  soon  as  it  began  to  sprout.  Such  late  sowings 
in  which  the  seed  cannot  be  brought  into  contact  with  the  interior  of  the  soil  are  always  prejudi- 
cial to  the  success  of  the  crop  ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  I  have  rch'olved  never  again  to  drill  barley, 
when  it  is  my  intention  to  sow  clover  on  it.     Autumnal  corn  may  be  sown  in  rows  on  a  single 

'  plouing,  provided  that  that  operation  has  been  carefully  performed,  and  the  soil  has  settled  down 
sufficiently  ;  but  the  roots  of  the  clover  impede  the  action  of  the  machine,  and  prevent  the  drilling 
from  behig  so  easily  accomplished  as  it  otherwi.se  would  have  been.  On  tlie  v.  Iiole,  this  kind  of 
tillage  keeps  land  veiy  loose  and  clear,  and  causes  it  to  yield  crops  wh.ich.  even  when  sown  con- 
secutively, are  not  nearly  so  inferior  to  tho.se  which,  in  the  alternate  nitations,  only  occur  at  C(>rtain 
intervals,  as  successive  crops  of  grain  sown  by  broadcast  and  not  cultivated  with  the  horse-hoe 
would  be.  In  fact,  this  system  of  tillage  may  be  said,  in  a  great  measure,  to  supersede  fallows 
and  weeding. 

The  advantages  of  drill  sowing  may  be  summed  up  in  this,  that  by  its  means  the  grain  can  al- 
■ways  be  placed  in  tlie  ground  at  the  exact  de|)th  required  by  its  nature,  by  tlie  nature  of  the  soil, 
and  the  state  of  the  temperature  ;  and,  consequently,  every  healthy  seed  is  sure  to  germinate.  But 
this  advantage  does  not,  perhaps,  surpa.ss  the  injury  resulting  from  the  accunndation  of  the  seed  in 
tlie  rows;  hence  it  becomes  evident  that  it  is  the  hoe  tillage  which  gives  to  drill  sowing  such  an 
incontestable  advantage  over  broadcast  sowing,  an  advantage  wliich  has  been  demonsti-ated  by 
countless  comparative  experiments.  Everyone  is  well  aware  that  a  highly  beneficial  effect  is 
produced  on  the  vegetation  of  plants  bj'  the  loosening  of  that  crust  which  is  formed  over  the  .sur- 
face of  the  soil.  Hitherto,  however,  it  has  been  chiefly  noticed  in  garden  ground,  for  ver^r  few 
persons  have  undertaken  experiments  on  a  large  scale  for  the  purpose  of  testing  it.  This  practice 
ise-pecially  beneficial  when,  in  the  spring,  the  hard  crast  which  had  been  forming  all  the  winter 
is  opened  and  broken,  and  the  soil  thus  brought  into  contact  with  the  atmosphere ;  and  it  is  on 
this  account  that  hoe  tillage  is  so  much  more  Ijenefi'^iai  when  applied  to  autumnal  corn,  than  it  is 
when  applied  to  spring  corn,  and  especially  to  such  as,  like  quadrangular  barley,  vegetates  in  so 
short  a  time  that  th.e  ground  cannot  harden  sufficiently  to  impede  its  growth,  it  is,  however,  on 
wheat  that  its  beneficial  etTects  are  generally  most  evident,  eidieron  account  of  the  duration  of  the 
vegetation  of  that  grain,  or  else  because  wheat  requires  more  nutrition  than  any  other  kind  of 
grain,  and  the  action  of  the  hoe  brings  the  nutritive  particles  of  the  soil  within  t!)0  reach  of  its  roots. 
Be.sidoi,  great  benefit  arises  from  that  accumulation  and  heaping  of  fre.^h  earth  round  the  stems  of 
the  plants,  which  hoe-tillage  eft'ccts.  This  tillage  is  exceedingly  benefici;d  to  all  plants,  but  espe- 
cially to  those  which,  like  cereals,  put  forth  roots  from  their  lower  joints,  and  u  hich  roots  thus 
find  themselves  surrounded  with  tVesh  earth.  It  should  be  bestowed  on  the  crop  when  the  plants 
are  most  in  want  of  nourishment,  at  the  period  of  their  active  vcgi-tation,  a.'id  wlien  the  ears  begin 
to  show  themselves. 

It  has  .sometimes  been  observed  that  cereals  v\-hich  have  been  carefully  cidtivated  with  a  horse- 
hoe  remain  longer  in  the  ground.  an<l  flower  and  ripen  much  later  than  others.  This  is  not,  how- 
ever, always  the  case,  although  I  have  very  frequently  remarked  it ;  where  it  docs  happen,  it  will 
always  be  favorable  to  the  crop,  since  the  plants  then  grow  more  bushy,  and,  late  in  the  season, 
put  forth  a  larger  number  of  blades  at  once.  When  grain  is  .sown  in  drills,  a  greater  degree  of 
equality  will  always  be  observable  between  the  blades  and  ears,  than  is  ever  seen  when  the  crop 
is  sown  by  broadcast ;  and  tho.se  late  and  abortive  ears  which  are  so  often  found  in  crops  sown  in 
the  last  named  manner  are  rarely  seen.  This  kind  of  tillage  gives  a  greater  degree  of  .strength  to 
the  bottoms  of  the  stems  than  any  other,  and  that  is  one  reason  that  grain  sown  in  rows  always 
stands  erect  incases  where  otherwise  it  would  be  laid,  a  circumstance  which  is  alone  sufficient  to 
render  it  highly  advantageous. 

Many  persons,  while  t!ie\v  acknowledge  the  beneficial  elFects  of  honse-hoe  tillage  on  damp,  tena- 
cious soils,  fear  to  apply  it  to  loose,  dry,  gravelly  land,  lest  it  should  tend  to  render  it  still  more 
arid  ;  but,  on  attentive  e.Kamination.  this  fear  will  be  found  groundless.  Land  which  is  kept  loose 
on  the  surface  will  retain  moisture  for  a  much  longer  period  during  the  summer,  than  land  which 
is  covered  with  a  hard  crust,  because  during  the  night  the  fonner  will  attract  moisture  from  the 
atmosphere.  Light  rains  moisten  loose  ground  much  more  than  they  do  that  which  is  clo.se,  be- 
cause, in  the  former  the  moisture  can  penetrate  into  the  soil,  whereas  in  the  latter  it  remains  on 
the  surface,  and  is  quickly  evaporated. 

For  some  time  past  there  has  been  very  great  difference  of  opinion  with  regard  to  the  distance 
apart  which  the  rows  ought  to  be.  Some  farmers  consider  six  inches  to  be  the  proper  distance, 
others  twelve ;  but  at  present  it  pretty  generally  admitted  that  from  eight  to  nine  inches  is  the 
distance  most  suitable  to  all  kinds  of  grain.  Where  the  space  between  the  rows  is  less  than  this, 
it  can  hardly  be  perceived  that  the  earth  has  been  hoed  up  round  the  stems  of  the  plants,  the  in- 
strument takes  up  so  litde  earth  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  a  wider  space  is  useles.s,  and  only 
wastes  the  ground.     The  best  way  is,  in  spring  corn,  to  drill  the  rows  as  close  together  as  possi- 

^   ble,  and  in  autumnal  com  to  set  them  farther  apart.    In  order  to  effect  this,  an  alteration  must  be 

(  (1055) 


made  in  the  machine  used  for  drilling;  mine  drills  the  rows  at  about  eight  inches  and  a  half  asan- 
der,  and  I  consider  that  to  be  a  very  good  distance. 

Next  to  the  grain  crops,  vegetables  pi-ofit  most  by  being  sown  in  rows  ;  and  this  system  certainly 
has  a  very  advantageous  effect  upon  them.  I  have,  however,  found  it  attended  witli  some  incon- 
venience as  regar  is  peas  ;  when  I  have  sown  them  in  this  manner,  I  have  been  only  able  to  cul- 
tivate them  with  the  hoe  while  vei-j-  young,  and  then  the  earth  could  not  be  heaped  round  them 
for  fear  of  smothering  them.  As  thej'  became  older,  their  stalks  spread  out  so  on  all  sides  that  the 
horse-hoe  could  not  ibe  brought  near  them  for  fear  of  tearing  them.  Notwithstanding  the  utmost  | 
vigilance,  I  have  never  been'able  to  seize  on  the  proper  period  for  hoeing  this  crop  with  advan- 
tage. When  I  sowed  my  peas  farther  apart,  they  did  not  cover  the  soil  sufficiently,  and  yielded 
better,  certainly,  but  much  less  straw  than  when  sown  by  broadcast.  I  will  not,  however,  pre-  i 
tend  to  deny  that  these  inconveniences  might  be  obviated  at  that  time,  and  then  it  would  become 
exceedingly  advantageous  to  drill  and  hoe  peas.  / 

On  the  other  hand,  drill-sowing  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  lentils  ;  these  plants  should  he  sown  at   , ' 
tlie  same  distance  apart  as  peas;  the  smaller  ones  with  the  barley,  and  the  larger  ones  with  the 
oat-cyliuder.      Lentils  thus  sown  usually  bear  an  extraordinary  number  of  pods,  and  may,  with- 
out much  trouble,  be  kept  free  from  weeds. 

That  which  is  said  respecting  the  expense  of  this  kind  of  cultivation  will  be  found,  by  those 
who  ai-e  at  all  acquainted  with  it,  to  be  entirely  without  foundation.  Even  wheu  the  increased 
expenses  of  the  operation  are  valued  at  the  highest  ])0ssible  sum,  and  the  cost  and  keeping  in  or- 
der of  the  machine  also  taken  into  account,  these  sums  will  be  more  than  defrayed  by  the  saving 
in  the  seed.  In  order  to  obtain  an  approximative,  and,  at  the  same  time  a  .sufficiently  high  es- 
timate of  these  expenses,  1  will  suppose  that  onl_\'  two  acres  of  land  can  be  drilled  per  day.  and  , 
the  same  extent  hoed.  I  shall  reckon  the  hor.'^e  labor  at  twelve  groschen  per  day,  and  the  work  ' 
of  the  two  laborers  at  the  same  ;  consequently  a  day's  work  will  cost  one  rix-dollar.  Tiie  sowing 
machine  is  passed  over  tlie  ground  once  and  the  hoe  twice  ;  which  will  make  the  sowing  of  ten 
acres  cost  three  rix-dollars.  or  that  of  a  hundred  acres  thirty  rix-dollars.  If  on  one  hundred  acres 
of  land  T  sow  nine  nietzen  of  seed  on  each  one  in.stead  of  eighteen.  I  sliall  save  nine  hundred  m-  t- 
zen,  or  fifty-six  bushels  and  a  haU'of  seed;  and  if  I  reckon  each  bushel  to  be  worth  one  rix-dollar, 
in  order  to  have  round  numbers,  I  slrall  save  twenty-six  rix-dollars  and  a  quarter.  In  order  to  be  ' 
able  to  sow  one  hundred  acres  of  autumnal  corn  in  ten  days,  I  shall  rc(iuire  a  machine  v,'illi  which 
I  can  sow  and  cultivate  a  similar  extent  of  spring  com  ;  such  an  one,  with  all  its  fittings  up,  may 
be  obtained  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  rix-dollars.  To  this  sum  I  shall  add  4  per  cent,  interest,  be- 
'  sides  a  diminution  of  capital  of  one-sixth  per  annum  ;  consecjuently.  in  six  years  there  will  be  one 
'  hundred  and  eighty-six  dollars.  On  the  seventh  year  it  will  be  paid  for  by  the  saving  it  has  ef- 
fected in  the  seed.  Such  a  machine  will  certainly  last  twenty  years,  especially  if  only  used  for  au- 
tumnal corn.  Every  three  or  four  years  it  will  require  repairs,  but  the  saving  in  seed  will  be 
amply  sufficient  to  cover  these,  and  some  left  to  allow  of  the  hoes  being  newly  ironed  or  footed  if 
requi-site. 

Should  it  be  necessary,  as  some  persons  pretend  that  it  is,  to  keep  an  exti-a  hor.se  solely  for  the 
performance  of  this  operation,  then  drill  sowing  will  undoubtedly  become  expensive  ;  but  there 
are  very  few  farms  in  which  this  will  be  requisite. 

Besides,  the  aivantages  arising  from  drill  sowing  do  not,  as  some  imagine,  consist  solely  in  the 
saving  of  .seed  which  is  thus  effected,  but  in  the  increa.sed  amount  of  produce  which,  under  this 
system,  the  land  may  be  made  to  bear.     The  fact  of  this  increase  is  demonstrated  by  a  thousand    / 
experiments,  and  no  doubt  can  longer  be  entertained  on  the  .subject  even  by  the  most  virulent  op-    i ' 
pouents  of  the  system.      No  general  estimate  as  to  the  average  amount  of  this  increase  can  be    ' 
given,  as  most  of  the  comparative  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  it  liave  been    i 
attended  with  different  results.      In  many  of  them  the  wheat  thus  sown  yielded  one-third  more 
than  that  ^vhich  was  sown  broadcast ;    this  calculation  was  ba.?ed  on  the  extent  of  land  sown,  and 
not  on  the  quantity  of  seed  u,sed  :   according  to  another  experiment  it  only  yielded  one-fifth  more, 
and  according  to  another  only  one-tenth.      The  variation  in  these  results  was,  in  a  great  measure, 
created  by  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil.      The  richer,  deeper,  and  more  free  from  stones 
and  weeds  a  soil  is,  the  greater  will  be  the  advantages  arising  from  drill-sowing  ;  while  on  poor, 
shallow  land,  the  benefits  will  be  but  trifling.      Many  farmers  who  pur.sue  this  system  of  sowing 
state  that  the  longer  they  adhere  to  it  the  better  their  land  becomes ;  while  others,  on  the  contraiy, 
assert  that  the  land  deteriorates.     This  contradiction  may  easily  be  accounted  for;  there  is  little 
doubt  but  that  the  fomier  manured  the  soil  sufficiently  to  maintain  its  fertility,  whereas  the  lat-    ' 
ter  neglected  to  do  so,  and  put  their  faith  entirely  in  the  beneficial  effects  of  horse-hoe  tillage ; 
for  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  .soil  is  exhausted  by  the  additional  amount  of  produce  which 
di-ill  sowing  causes  it  to  bear,  although  this  exhaustion  is  not  apparent  during  the  first  few  years. 

The  erain  of  cereals  which  are  regularly  sown  in  this  manner,  acquires  greater  perfection 
every  time  it  is  reproduced.  All  the  experiments  which  have  hitherto  been  made  tend  to  prove 
that  it  is  much  heavier  than  that  w^hich  has  been  sown  broadcast.  In  flat  barley  I  have  found 
a  difference  of  6  lbs.  per  bushel,  and  in  wheat  an  even  greater  increase  of  weight.  The  grain 
is  large  and  full,  which  renders  it  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  seed.  If,  then,  we  ^^•ould  obtain 
good  grain  for  seed,  we  must  always  keep  a  machine  for  drilling  and  use  it. 

We  cannot,  however,  advise  the  adoption  of  drill  sowing  for  every  kind  of  grain,  or  even 
for  all  winter  grain,  excepting  in  those  agricultural  undertakings  in  which  every  detail  is  car- 
ried to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection,  and  the  whole  process  of  cultivation  followed  up  with 
science  and  skill.  Crops  sown  in  drills  or  rows  require  constant  attention  to  enable  the  farmer 
to  fix  upon  the  best  period  and  means  of  hoeing  them.  One  single  instance  of  carelessness 
or  neglect  will  often  seriously  injure  the  crop ;  therefore,  those  who  are  not  well  skilled  in  all  ' 
the  manipulations  of  this  sy.stem  must  proceed  with  the  utmost  circum.spection,  and  experi- 
mentalize on  a  small  piece  of  ground  first,  in  order  to  learn  how  to  manage ;  most  persons, 
when  first  they  begin  to  use  the  horse-hoe,  are  either  too  timid  or  too  venturesome.  Drill 
(1056) 


sowing  when  applied  to  poor  land  does  not  repay  the  labor  and  trouble  it  occasions.  Lastly, 
iu  a  farm  which  is  not  properly  organized,  and  where  there  must  necessarily  be  many  things 
which  require  the  attention  of  the  far:iier,  it  is  seldom  prudent  to  enter  upon  this  system  of 
cultivation. 

It  is  in  the  spring  only  that  autumnal  corn  should  be  hoed  :  when  this  cultivation  is  applied 
to  the  crops  in  the  autumn,  it  does  not  appear  to  be  productive  of  any  great  benefit,  let  the 
seed  have  been  got  into  the  ground  ever  so  early.  Tbe  crop  should  be  hoed  as  soon  as  the 
seed  begins  to  appear,  and  the  ground  is  tolerably  dry.  In  general  it  will  be  found  advan- 
tageous to  pass  an  iron  harrow  across  the  rovi's  first,  which  serves  to  break  that  hard  crust 
which  has  been  formed  over  the  surface  of  the  soil  during  winter ;  where  this  is  not  done,  the 
feet  of  the  hoe  will  be  very  likely  to  throw  the  earth  over  the  young  plants,  and  smother 
them.  Should  the  soil  be  too  tenacious  to  break  at  once,  a  roller  must  be  passed  over  it  after  the 
harrow,  provided  that  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  admit  of  this  operation  being  performed,  for  it 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  surface  should  be  thorouglily  pulverized.  Tbe  next  step  to 
be  taken  is  to  fit  such  irons  on  to  the  horse-hoe  as  will  drive  the  .soil  from  the  middle  of  the  spaces 
and  heap  it  against  the  rows  of  plants  on  either  side  :  this  should  be  d(jne  at  the  period  when  the 
corn  is  beginning  to  .shoot  up,  and  put  forth  its  stems  and  .blades.  tfuch  cultivation  will  not  do 
the  crop  any  harm  even  if  adopted  after  the  plants  have  put  forth  their  leaves  and  stera.s ;  but  it 
should  be  finished  before  the  ears  begin  to  form.  The  farmer  mu.st  endeavor  to  embrace  that 
moment  for  the  performance  of  this  operation  when  the  soil  contains  exactly  the  proper  amount 
of  moisture,  and  is  neither  too  much  hardened  by  drouth,  or  softened  and  -cndered  clammy  by 
wet.  It  will  not  unfrequently  happen,  when  the  weather  is  unt'avoiable,  that  he  wiil  be  obliged 
to  select  the  spots  where  it  will  be  best  to  commence.  This  is,  in  fact,  tl;e  most  critical  period  for 
drilled  crops;  nevertheless,  where  .skill  and  activity  are  employed,  there  is  little  fear  of  any  want 
of  success.  There  doubtless  are  now  and  then  cases  in  which  the  weather  is  so  unfavorable  that 
the  hoeing  cannot  be  accomplished  :  when  such  occur,  no  very  luxuriant  crop  can  be  anticipated  ; 
but  if  the  first  parts  of  tlie  operation  have  been  properly  performed,  corn  sown  in  rows  will  always 
yield  a  larger  amount  of  produce  than  that  which  has  been  sown  broadcast. 

Many  farmers  only  hoe  spring  corn  once,  and  then  have  such  irons  attached  to  the  instrument 
as  will  heap  the  earth  round  tlie  roots  of  the  plants ;  and  they  apply  this  cultivation  to  the  crop  at 
the  period  when  the  plants  are  just  putting  forth  their  blades;  but  the  crop  always  thrives  best 
when  it  has  been  cultivated  with  rake-like  irons  while  very  young;  and  sucli  cultivation  is  the 
more  advantageous  when  it  clears  away  the  weeds  from  between  the  rows.  It  must  not,  how- 
ever, be  performed  so  soon  as  to  cause  the  tops  of  the  plants  to  be  covered  with  earth.  Rakes 
which  are  intended  to  be  passed  over  the  land  early  in  the  season  must  be  flat  and  not  convex,  in 
order  that  the  earth  may  slide  over  them,  and  not  be  thrown  to  the  sides. 

Some  agriculturists  have  preferred  dibbling  corn  to  sowing  it  in  rows.  Where  such  a  plan  is 
carried  into  effect,  the  plants  not  only  come  up  in  regular  rows,  but  are  at  equal  distances  from 
each  other  iu  those  rows,  and  may  then  be  cultivated  in  every  direction,  either  with  instruments, 
or  by  hand.  A  still  greater  saving  of  .seed  is  thus  effected,  and  one-quarter  of  the  amount  usually 
employed  will  be  found  sufficient.  When  grain  is  dear,  this  saving  will  almo.st  defray  the  ex- 
pense of  the  labor  ;  and  hence  it  is  that  in  years  of  scarcity  this  practice  has  found  so  many  advo- 
cates. The  seed  is  put  into  the  ground  by  means  of  a  dibble,  having  holes  in  it  three  or  four  inches 
apart,  in  each  of  which  a  few  grains  are  placed  ;  or,  with  what  is  still  better,  an  instrument  made 
on  purpose,  and  similar  to  that  used  by  gardeners  for  sowing  peas :  by  means  of  pressure  of  the 
foot,  this  instrument  makes  twelve  holes  at  a  time.  The  furrows  drawn  by  the  plow  serve  to  give 
a  direction  to  the  ro-ws,  and  a  line  is  drawn  down  the  center  of  each  ofthe.se  ;  the  ground  is  sub- 
sequently harrowed. 

It  must  be  evident  to  every  one  that  this  mode  of  proceeding  occupies  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  time,  and,  consequently,  can  only  be  applicable  under  certain  circumstances,  and  to  a 
limited  extent.  The  small  farmer  who  works  himself,  and  is  chiefly  assisted  by  his  own  family, 
will  be  most  likely  to  derive  benefit  from  it.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  invent  instru- 
ments or  machines  which  will  perform  the  office  of  clibblers.  and  sow  the  grain  at  uniform  dis- 
tances ;  but  it  has  been  found  impossible  to  cany  out  tlie  plan.  Various  experiments  have  also 
been  made  on  this  subject  in  Paris,  which  are  related  at  some  length  by  the  Comte  Francois  de 
Neufchateau,  in  a  work  entitled  "  L'Art  de  Multiplier  les  Grains."  Paris,  1809.  But  this  work 
treats  only  of  the  multiplication  of  the  seed,  and  scarcely  refers  to  the  expense  or  extent  of  the 
sowings. 

LEGUMINOUS  CROPS. 

The  cultivation  of  leguminous  plants  or  of  sihquous  crops  (for  hitherto  no  distinction  has  been 
made  in  agricultural  phraseology  between  the.se  two  kinds  of  produce),  is,  doubtless,  quite  as  an- 
cient as  that  of  cereals  ;  for  reason  and  experience  have  combined  to  teach  mankind  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  cultivate  anything  more  nourishing,  better  adapted  to  the  animal  frame,  and,  at  tbe 
same  time,  which  yields  so  plentiful  a  crop. 

Leguminous  plants  contain  a  large  quantity  of  what  EinhofF  calls  "  vegeto-animal"  matter 
fthierisrke  vesetabilinche  snhs^tanz).  This  substance  bears  a  very  great  affinity  to  animal  matter, 
and  is  quite  as  nutritious  as  gluten,  as  it  constitutes  the  predominating  ingredient  iu  vegetables, 
and  they  are  more  nourishing  than  cereals.  It  has  long  been  known  that  lentils,  peas,  and  beans, 
n  )t  only  satisfy  hunger  best,  but  are  more  easy  of  digestion,  and  have  a  greater  tendency  to 
strengthen  the  frame  than  any  other  vegetable  products.  To  the  healthy  laborer  they  supply  the 
place  of  animal  food,  and  yield  that  nutriment  of  which  rye  and  potatoes  are  incapable.  With  us 
they  are  absolute  necessaries  to  those  who  work  hard,  and  especially  to  sailors;  neither  lands- 
men nor  sailors  are  contented  unless  they  can  have  a  meal  of  legumes  at  least  twice  a  week.  Both 
experience  and  chemical  analysis  tend  to  prove  that  legumes  aVe  the  most  nourishing  part  of  the 
vegetable  kin^'dom.  The  straw,  even  when  exhauisted,  is  equal  to  the  straw  of  grain;  but  as  it 
never  is  dry  when  mown,  especially  that  derived  from  climbing  vegetables,  which  retains  its  suc- 
(10.57) as 


culency  and  vitality  unimpaired  up  to  the  period  of  its  being  cut,  it  is  generally  much  more  nonr- 
ishing  than  the  straw  of  grain  crops.  The  haulm  of  these  vegetables,  too,  when  cut  before  the 
formation  of  the  fruit  or  seed,  yields  a  far  more  nourishing  fodder  than  any  of  tlie  cereals  do. 

This  cla^s  of  leguminous  plants  appear  not  only  to  be  particularly  nourishing  to  men  and  ani-    \ 
mals,  but  even  to  supply  tbod  to  vegetables.     The  great  proportion  of  vegetoanimal  matter  which 
they  contain,  causes  them  iu  a  great  measure  to  resemble  animal  manure,  to  be  very  easily  decom- 
posed by  putrefaction,  and  to  enter  more  promptly  into  the  composition  of  plants.     It  is  on  this 
account  that  from  lime  immemorial,  they  have  been  used  in  Europe  for  the  amelioration  of  other 
crops.     The  lupine,  which  on  account  of  its  bitterness  cannot  be  otherwise  employed,  is  the  chief 
one  of  this  tribe  which  is  plowed  into  the  ground  as  green  manure  ;  not  only  is  this  plant  buried   , 
■while  green,  but  its  seed  is  made  use  of  for  the  purpose  of  dressing  olive  trees,  after  having  been    / 
steeped  in  boiling  water,  in  order  to  destroy  its  germinating  principle.      Other  vegetables  are 
likewise  similarly  employed. 

Besides  this  vegeto-animsl  substance,  leguminous  plants  contain  starch,  and  a  soluble  mucou.s 
matter  similar  to  that  contained  in  the  grain  of  cereals,  but  not  so  sweet. 

The  best  way  of  prepariiig  vegetables  for  food  is  to  boil  them.  Their  various  component  parts 
are  thus  brought  into  more  intimate  combination  and  rendered  more  soluble,  digestible,  and 
agreeable  to  the  stomach.  They  gain  as  much  by  this  mode  of  proceeding  as  grain  does  by  fer- 
mentation, and  by  being  made  into  bread.  They  may  themselves  be  made  into  bread,  but  then  it 
has  a  crude,  unpleasant,  rancid  taste.  They  are  not  unfrequently  mixed  with  rye,  or  wheat  flour, 
and  then  they  render  tlic  bread  more  nourishing  without  altering  its  flavor. 

There  cannot  be  a  doubt  but  that  products  which  contai)i  so  much  nutritive  matter  mu.st  de- 
prive the  soil  on  which  they  grow  of  a  corresponding  portion  of  its  nutrition.  Nevertheless,  it  ap- 
pears that  tJiese  plants  derive  a  far  greater  portion  of  their  nourishment  from  the  atmosphere  and 
from  water  than  cereals  do,  and  that  they  adapt  it  to  their  use  by  means  of  their  organs.  I  can- 
not go  so  far  as  to  affirm,  with  some  persons,  that  vegetables  derived  from  the  soil  appropriate 
and  apply  to  their  nourishment  a  peculiar  substance,  which  is  rejected  by  all  kinds  of  cereals  ;  but 
certain  it  is  that  the  pro[iortional  quantity  in  which  they  absorb  the  pnm"  ve  substances  is  differ- 
ent. General  experience  teaches  us  to  regard  these  substances  as  fallow  crops,  or  crops  which 
ameliorate  the  soil,  and  the  alternate  cultivation  of  which  and  of  grain  crops  tends  to  maintain  it  in 
good  condition,  and  ensure  far  more  luxuriant  corn  crop.s  than  could  be  obtained  if  grain  were  al- 
ways cultivated.  It  would  be  superfluous  to  add  anything  to  what  we  have  already  said  in  the 
first  volume  of  this  work  respecting  the  necessity  of  a  rotation  of  crops,  for  every  experienced  ag- 

'lich 


riculturist  well  knc\vs  that  even  good  manuring  will  not  maintain  land  in  good  condition  on  whici 
consecutive  crops  of  grain  alone  are  cultivated,  and  that  an  alternation  of  vegetable  crops  with 
these  is  absolutely  necessary. 

THE  PEA- 

The  pea  is  the  kind  of  pulse  most  generally  cultivated  among  us. 

There  are  two  princi .  ,al  varieties :  the  j'ellow,  which  is  chiefly  used  in  this  country,  and  the  gray, 
or  Prussian  pt;a,  wtiich  is  chietiy  cultivated  in  Pru.ssia  and  Poland. 

The  yellow  pea  furnishes  us  with  another  variety,  which,  even  when  dry,  preserves  its  gi-een 
hue,  but  is  not  otherwise  distinguished. 

Gardeners  raise  new  varieties  of  this  vegetable  every  year;  but  their  characters  are  not  penna- 
nent,  and  they  speedily  degenerate  unless  cultivated  with  great  care.  There  are  some  kinds  in 
which  the  pods  form  and  ripen  early,  and  the  haulm  is  not  so  strong  as  in  others.  These  are 
looked  upon  as  a  more  certain  crop  ;  the  husk  of  the  pea  is  thought  to  be  finer,  and  the  pea  itself 
more  tender;  but  the  larger  and  later  variety  often  yields  the  greatest  amount  of  produce,  both  as 
regards  peas  and  haulm.  That,  however,  to  which,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  preference  should 
be  given  is  the  early  variety  ;  it  not  being  so  liable  to  be  attacked  by  mildew^  before  the  pods  are 
formed,  and  from  being  ready  to  be  gathered  early,  leaving  more  time  for  the  preparation  of  the 
soil  and  the  sowing  of  the  crop  which  is  to  succeed  to  it. 

The  gray  Prussian  pea,  which  is  large  and  angular  in  shape,  and  bears  a  violet  colored  flower, 
is  said  not  to  bear  change  of  climate,  and  to  degenerate.  In  Line  and  "Weser,  a  gray  pea,  bear- 
ing violet  colored  flowers,  is  cultivated  ;  but  it  is  grown  almost  exclusively  as  fodder  for  cattle, 
and  considered  to  be  unfit  for  the  u.se  of  man  on  account  of  its  unpleasant  taste.  This  is  probably 
a  variety  of  the  Prussian  pea. 

The  yellow  pea,  for  the  most  part,  bears  white  flowers;  some,  however,  bear  violet  coloted 
flowers  speckled  with  black.  Many  persons  are  of  opinion  that  this  has  been  occasioned  by  .*me 
cross  with  vetches  ;  but  from  what  I  have  observed,  such  cannot  be  the  case,  and  the  alteration  of 
the  color  of  the  flower  arises  from  sometliing  in  the  soil  or  temperature  not  hitherto  dLscoveret 

A  clayey,  sandy,  or  calcareous  .soil,  which  is  not  too  much  exposed  either  to  cold,  wet,  or  drouth 
is  doubtless  the  best  for  peas ;  this  pulse  will,  however,  succeed  on  stift'as  well  as  on  sandy  clay: 
when  the  latter  are  not  too  dry,  and  the  weatlier  is  favorable.  But  in  all  situations  calcareous  par 
tides  .seem  to  be  favorable  to  its  vegetation,  even  when  they  only  exist  in  small,  or  even  in  mi- 
nute portions.  In  many  countries  peas  have  only  been  found  to  succeed  on  such  soils  as  had  been 
ameliorated  with  lime  or  marl,  and  the  effect  has  been  perceptible  even  where  a  considerable  pe- 
riod had  elapsed  since  the  manuring  of  the  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  they  do  not  appear  to  be 
able  to  bear  the  slightest  degree  of  acidity  in  the  .soil ;  and  hence  the  beneficial  effects  of  lime 
and  marl  on  this  kind  of  crop,  may  arise  chiefly  from  the  tendency  of  those  substances  to  destroy 
all  acidity. 

In  the  triennial  rotation,  peas  are  cultivated  on  the  fallow  ;  this  usage  is  established  in  almost 
every  place  where  the  soil  is  adapted  for  the  production  of  peas.  It  cannot,  however,  be  denied 
that  after  peas  the  crop  of  autumnal  corn  is  not  usually  so  luxuriant  as  it  would  have  been  after  - 
fallow  ;  and  the  soil  is  more  infested  with  weeds,  especially  if  peas  have  frequently  been  sowi 
that  place,  instead  of  a  summer  fallow  and  plowing  being  given.  This  circumstance  causes  many 
persons  to  be  found  who  are  so  attached  to  the  old  plan  that  they  will  sow  their  peas  on  the  di- 
(10.58) 


PEAS.  435 

'  vision  intended  for  spring  corn,  railier  than  on  a  fallow  ;  and  then  cause  the  peas  to  be  succeeded  , 
f  by  a  dead  fallow,  in  order  to  be  able  to  point  out  the  luxuriance  of  their  crops  of  autumnal  'om  , 
to  the  partisans  of  fallow  crops.  These  adherents  of  the  old  system  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to 
attribute  the  pretended  scarcity  of  corn,  and  its  deaniess  for  some  years  past,  to  the  cus'om  of 
sowing  peas  ou  the  fallows.  But.  provided  that  the  peas  do  not  come  too  often,  and  the  tiilage  of 
the  fallows  is  not  altogether  neglected,  and  the  soil  is  properly  tilled  both  before  and  after  the 
pea  crop,  there  is  no  danger  to  be  apprehended  ;  and  the  .slight  diminution  which  is  visible  in  the 
produce  of  the  autumnal  corn  will  be  doubly  and  trebly  compensated  by  the  produce  of  the  peas, 
while  the  impoverishment  which  they  n;.ay  occasion  will  be  amply  atoned  for  by  the  ameliora- 
ti<H»  arising  from  their  liaulm. 

In  alteruate  rotations  with  pasturage,  peas  have  long  been  placed  after  all  the  other  crop.?,  and 
cultivated  on  the  last  division,  or  that  which  precedes  the  repose,  and  have  in  general  succeeded 
but  badly  ;  but  a  better  system  is  now  pretty  generally  coming  into  practice.*  It  is  an  undoubted 
fact,  that  peas  succeed  remarkably  well  on  the  stubble  of  clover,  and  after  any  weeded  crop — as 
potatoes,  for  e.Nample.  But  both  of  these  also  form  an  excellent  preparation  for  corn  ;  con.sequent- 
ly,  between  them  and  the  peas  a  crop  of  wheat  is  usually  taken.  Some  persons  are  of  opinion  that 
peas  never  succeed  well  on  land  where  they  have  not  been  sown  before,  and,  consequently,  al-  i 
ways  sow  them  in  the  same  places.  This,  however,  is  mere  prejudice,  unless  there  are  other 
causes  which  render  the  rest  of  the  fields  unfit  for  the  production  of  peas.  Others,  on  the  con- 
trary, fear  lest  the  peas  should  degenerate,  if  they  or  any  similar  leguminous  crop  are  .sown  too 
{  frequently  ou  the  same  spot ;  but  there  is  nothing  in  experience  which  tends  to  confirin  this,  and 
•  all  fear  of  evil  may  be  avoided  by  manuring  the  land  between  the  two.  and  bestowing  proper 
tillage  upon  it. 

There  are  various  opinions  as  to  whether  peas  ought  to  be  cultivated  as  a  first,  .second,  or  third 
crop  alter  the  soil  has  been  manured.  Many  farmers  fear  tha^  by  sowing  them  immediately  after  ' 
an  amelioration  of  manure,  they  shall  only  obtain  an  abundance  which  will  grow  and  flower  with-  ' 
out  bearing  any  pods  or  yielding  any  seed.  Those  whose  land  is  so  rich  as  on  avei'age  years  to 
lead  them  to  apprehend  this  evil,  will  do  well  to  abstain  from  manuring  for  peas.  But  such  is  by  no 
means  a  usual  case  ;  and  even  though  the  produce  of  the  grain  crop  should  be  slightly  diminish- 
ed, it  is  desirable  that  the  peas  should  vegetate  luxuriantly,  on  account  of  the  great  utility  of  the 
haulm,  and  the  fertilizing  influence  which  its  shadow  exercises  on  the  soil  w  hen  the  crop  is  thick 
and  vigorous. 

On  land  of  an  average  quality,  peas  which  have  been  manured  are  always  infinitely  superior  in 
point  of  (juantity  as  well  as  haulm  to  any  others,  and  they  then  leave  the  soil  in  a  condition 
peculiarly  favorable  to  the  succeeding  crop  ;_  for  it  is  well  known  that  a  scanty  crop  of  this  vegeta- 
ble leaves  the  soil  infested  with  weeds.     It  is,  however,  seldom  advisable  to  manure  very  pleuti- 
i   fully  for  peas. 

'  Every  year  fresh  comparative  experiments  have  furnished  us  with  additional  proofs  that  ma- 
nure, whether  decomposed  or  fre.sh  and  strawy,  when  spread  over  the  soil  after  the  sowing,  is  not 
only  more  advantageous  to  peas  sown  on  sandy  c.lays  than  it  would  have  been  if  buried  by  a  plow- 
ing, but  that  it  is  also  more  beneficial  to  the  grain  crop  which  is  to  .succeed  the  peas.  Experience 
has  demonstrated  in  a  striking  manner  that  all  those  theoretic  principles  which  appear  to  contra- 
dict this  fact,  fall  before  it.  I  cannot,  however,  extend  this  practice  to  stiff,  clayey  soils;  for  I  am 
not  aware  that  any  experiments  have  been  made,  for  the  purpose  of  testing  its  efficacy  on  land  of 
that  description. 

Another  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  bury  the  manure  with  the  peas,  and  for  this  purpose  the  peas 
arc  sown  broadcast  on  the  manure  after  it  has  been  spread. 

It  has  been  ob.served,  those  crops  of  peas  which  have  been  manured  with  the  dung  of  sheep  or 
horses  are  alvs'ays  finer  flavored  and  have  a  thinner  husk  than  of  such  as  have  been  sown  on  the 
manure  produced  by  cattle  and  pigs.  Ameliorations  of  lime  and  a.shes  ai-e  productive  of  similar 
advantages. 

Although  it  is  universally  admitted  that  peas  thrive  best  on  a  loose,  well  pulverized  soil,  never- 
theless  many  agriculturists  have  become  convinced  by  experience,  that  when  sown  on  one  plow- 
ing, they  succeed  better  than  after  the  most  elaborate  tillage.  I  do  not  intend  to  deny  the  truth  of 
the  experiments  adduced  in  support  of  this ;  but  what  I  say  is,  that  there  were,  undoubtedly,  some 
particular  circumstances  which  infiuenced  the  result,  and  I  cannot  receive  these  statements  as  any 
foundation  for  a  general  rule.  Where  a  damp  soil  has  been  broken  up  before  the  commencement 
of  winter,  the  upper  layer  of  earth  is  very  likely  to  become  so  saturated  with  water  as  in  tiie 
spring  to  render  it  impossible  to  plow'it  for  the  reception  of  seed,  without  turning  it  into  clods  in- 
stead of  dividing  it.  The  farmer  does  not  wish  to  depart  from  that  rule  which  prescribes  that  the 
seed  shall  be  sown  as  early  as  possible,  and,  consequently,  throws  the  peas  into  a  soil  which  the 
plow  has  hardened  in.stead  of  loosened,  and  which  is  by  no  mean,?  adapted  for  the  recep- 
tion of  this  kind  of  pulse.  On  land  which  is  not  subject  to  this  inconvenience,  and  where  the  farmer 
need  not  begin  to  plow  the  ground  which  was  broken  up  before  the  commencement  of  winter, 
until  it  is  sufficiently  dry  to  benefit  by  that  operation,  a  crop  sown  on  two  plowings  is  always  finer 
and  better :  and  though  a  great  quantity  of  weeds  come  up,  the  peas  always  get  the  upper  hand. 
The  practice  of  drilling  peas  is  decidedly  more  advantageous  than  any  other  on  dry  land. 

It  is  usually  advisable  to  sow  peas  as  early  in  the  year  as  possible;  in  fact,  they  are  the  first 
crop  ^^'hich  should  be  got  into  the  ground  in  the  spring.  Frosts  do  not  injure  them,  even  when 
they  have  begun  to  come  up.  I  have  not  however,  found  it  injurious  to  peas  to  sow  them  late  in 
the  spring  ;  on  the  contrary,  I  must  confess  that  those  v\'hich  I  have  sown  in  May  have  always 
succeeded  best,  at  least,  so  far  as  regards  the  produce  in  haulm.  I  do  not,  however,  make  it  a 
rule  to  sow  them  late,  because  the  success  of  the  crops  I  have  just  mentioned  always  appeared  to 

gei-cthte  Vfirhaeltniss,  der  Viehzucht  und  des  Ackerbaues."  S.  146  ;  "  Annalen  der  Mecklen- 
burgischen  LandwirthschaftsgosclJschafts."    B.  11;S.  276. 

l^or,9) ^ ; 


436  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

me  to  be  chieflj'  owing  to  the  state  of  the  weather.  Peas  which  ai-e  sown  early  in  the  season,  -we 
at-  >  told,  escape  the  attacks  of  mildew  previous  to  the  fonnation  of  the  pods,  and,  onsequently, 
the  r  sraiu  is  but  little  injured,  although  the  vegetation  of  the  plant  is  arrested.  But  I  have  inva- 
riab.v"obser\'ed,  that  this  disease  does  not  attack  the  late  peas  which  are  in  full  vigor,  while  it  de- 
stroy;^ the  early  ones.  Eckardt  advises  that  the  peas  should  not  all  be  sown  at  once,  bnt  a  period 
of  n'int  or  fifteen  days  suffered  to  elapse  between  each  sowing,  by  which  means  the  whole  crop 
will  be  prevented  from  failing.  I  cordially  agree  with  him  in  this  opinion,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  make  it  a  rule  never  to  sow  while  the  ground  is  very  damp,  or  when  the  furrow-slice  hard- 
ens instead  of  dividing  on  being  turned  over  by  the  mould-board.  The  quantity  of  seed  usually 
sown  for  peas  is  from  a  bushel  to  twenty  metzen  per  acre.  It  is  calculated  that  when  a  bushel  is 
sown  twelve  grains  fall  on  every  square  foot,  which  would  be  too  much  if  spread  uniformly  over 
the  surface.  When  peas  are  sown  on  furrows,  a  certain  portion  cannot  be  prevented  from  re- 
maining uncovered,  and  becoming  a  prey  to  birds,  which  are  so  greedy  after  this  grain,  that  they 
will  even  dig  it  up  after  it  has  been  buried.  ^Vhen  peas  are  .sown  under  furrows,  this  evil  is  not 
so  much  felt,  although  even  then  it  cannot  be  altogether  prevented,  and  thepeas  germinate  much 
sooner.  This,  of  course,  makes  a  difference  in  the  quantity  of  seed  which  it  is  necessary  to  sow.  It 
has  also  been  observed,  that  when  a  great  deal  of  rain  falls  during  the  flowering  season,  those  peas 
which  are  not  too  crowded  set,  or  pass  from  flower  into  fruit,  and  bear  much  better  than  those  in 
I  close,  thick-set  crops  ;  while  the.se  latter  yield  mo.st  haulm,  and  leave  the  soil  in  a  better  condition; 
It  is,  therefore,  requisite  to  ascertain  with  what  view  the  peas  are  sown,  before  we  venture  to  de- 
tenuine  whether  it  is  most  beneficial  to  sow  thickly  or  not.  Some  agriculturists  pretend  that  they 
destroy  the  weeds  by  sowing  their  peas  as  thickly  as  possible,  and,  therefore,  use  two  bushels  of 
seed  per  acre  ;  but  I  do  not  believe  that  they  attain  the  end  in  view  by  this  means,  for  the  weeds, 
and  especially  the  wild  mustard,  spring  up  and  vegetate  much  more  quickly  than  the  peas,  unless 
a  very  favorable  season  accelerates  the  growth  of  the  latter. 

Some  agriculturists  have  strongly  advised  that  peas  should  not  be  han-owed  after  they  have  be- 
gun to  come  up;  while  others,  and  especially  Dullo,  in  his  excellent  treatise  upon  Agriculture, 
have  as  strongly  recommended  this  practice  as  a  means  of  destroying  those  weeds  which  are  then 
appearing  above  ground,  and  only  stipulate  that  the  operation  shall  not  be  perfpi-med  until  the 
plants  begin  to  put  forth  their  leaves.  In  those  experiments  which  I  have  made  relative  to  this 
point,  I  have  never  been  able  to  discover  that  the  plants  were  at  all  injured  by  the  harrowing  ;  nei- 
ther could  I  discover  that  it  had  made  much  effect  on  the  weeds,  for  they  were  too  deeply  rooted 
in  the  soil.  Perhaps  the  best  mode  of  proceeding  is  not  to  harrow  at  all  after  the  peas  have  been 
sown  under  furrows,  until  they  begin  to  come  up  and  develop  their  leaves,  and  then  the  passing 
of  the  instrument  over  the  rough  plowed  land  will,  perhaps,  succeed  better  in  destroying  the 
weeds.  But  I  have  not  as  yet  put  this  plan  into  practice.  Dullo.  in  his  work  which  I  have  be- 
fore alluded  to,  slates  that  he  has  plowed  peas  into  the  ground,  with  great  success,  eight  or  ten  days 
after  they  were  sown,  and  consequently  after  they  had  begun  to  germinate;  and  that  these  peas 
came  up  ^vell,  and  were  peculiarly  free  from  weeds. 

In  England,  peas  are  frequently  cultivated  with  the  hand-hoe ;  and  those  which  have  been 
sown  broadcast,  are  thinned.      Small  farmers  frequently  weed  these  crops.     It  would  be  im- 
possible for  us  to  bestow  all  this  care  on  them,  for  we  usually  sow  peas  on  immense  extents  of  ) 
land.  > 

When  the  wild  mustard  and  radish  have  shot  up  so  fast  as  almost  to  stifle  the  peas,  and'  are  in  ? 
full  vegetation,  I  have,  in  common  with  other  agriculturists,  had  them  mown;  but  the  tops  of  the  ) 
peas  cannot  be  prevented  from  also  suffering  from  this  proceeding.  When,  however,  the  soil  is  / 
rich  and  the  weather  favorable,  the  crop  is  rather  benefited  than  injured  by  it, :  but  under  opposite  ? 
circumstances  the  peas  .suffered  greatly,  and  the  weeds  again  get  the  upper  hand.  ( 

Weather  and  temperature  have  a  greater  influence  on  the  success  of  peas  and  on  their  forma-  I 
tion  than  on  almost  any  other  field  crop  ;  hence  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  calculate  the  average  pro-  j 
duce  which  a  crop  will  yield.  Damp  weather  during  the  flowering  season  is  rather  beneficial  ( 
than  injurious,  because  the  comfoi-mation  of  the  flower  protects  it  from  the  introduction  of  moisture.  S 
In  dry  weather  the  flower  very  frequently  dries  up  without  setting.  _  ( 

It  is  very  unfortunate  if  at  the  flowering  season  the  crop  is  attacked  by  mildew  ;  where  such  is  > 
the  case,  a  very  promising  crop  will  in  four-and-twenty  hours  often  be  completely  destroyed,  and  J 
all  the  flowers  will  fall  without  setting.  Occasionally  there  appears  to  be  some  matter  m  the  air  / 
which  acts  on  the  plants  in  a  manor  as  yet  unknown  to  us,  and  prevents  the  formation  of  the  grain ;  ) 
this  is  frequently  observable  in  buckwheat,  as  well  in  other  crops.  ) 

Some  persons  stick  field  peas  as  they  v/ould  garden  peas.  This  mode  of  proceeding  certainly  v 
prevents  the  crop  from  being  laid,  and  facilitates  the  formation  of  the  seed,  but  it  greatly  increase's  ( 
the  amount  of  labor  required.  _  .  .  i 

In  a  few  places,  the  farmers  are  in  the  habit  of  covering  a  field  sown  with  peas  with  a  layer  of 
straw,  and  then  leaving  the  peas  to  make  their  ■way  through  it,  and  then  vegetate ;  by  this  niean.s 
the  weeds  are  all  stifled,  the  .soil  kept  moist,  and  those  stems  which  fafl  to  the  ground  prevented 
from  rotting.  Where  there  is  a  plentiful  supply  of  straw,  this  may  be  done  with  advantage,  and 
the  straw  will  aftei-ward  be  available  as  manure. 

It  is  necessary  to  embrace  the  exact  period  at  •which  the  peas  are  ready  to  be  cut  without  loss 
of  time.  In  general,  the  best  way  is  to  be  guided  by  the  maturity  of  the  early  pods,  without  noticing 
the  later  ones,  otherwise  the  largest  and  best  of  the  crop  is  liable  to  be  lost.  Tlie  only  exception  to 
this  rule  occurs  when  the  state  of  the  temperature  has  been  such  as  only  to  admit  of  a  few  of 
the  first  flowers  setting,  while  the  later  ones,  having  encountered  more  favorable  weatlior,  have 
been  more  succe.s.sful."  But  such  cases  rarely  occur ;  it  much  oftener  happens  that  the  peas  are 
still  green  and  in  flower  at  the  top,  while  the  lower  pods  are  ripe  and  diy.  The  fanner  must  not, 
on  any  account,  wait  for  the  later  flowers  to  come  to  maturity,  for  the  plaiits  will  continue  to  flower 
until  all  tiie  iitferior  pods  have  shed  their  seed.  These  late  flowers  are  by  no  means  injurious,  if 
they  do  not  niisicad  the  farmer  and  prevent  him  from  mowing  at  the  proper  sea.son.  The  straw  is 
(iot;o) 


then  better  and  more  nourishing,  and  those  peas  which  have  not  ripened  may  be  made  useful  m 
various  v^^ays.     The  only  thing-  v/liich  is  difficult,  is  to  dry  the  haulm  thoroughly. 

When  the  peas  are  laid,  it  is  very  diiScult  to  movt'  them.  The  sickle  is  the  best  instrument  that 
can  be  employed  for  this  purpose. 

When  the  weather  is  unfavorable,  it  is  very  difficult  to  dry  the  haulm.  During  alternate  rains 
and  sunshine  the  pods  open,  iilmost  the  whole  of  the  grain  is  shed  on  the  field,  and  nothing  is  left  to 
be  carried  but  the  haulm  or  straw  ;  this  is  particularly  the  case  when  peas  are  left  in  the  wads  or 
wisps,  and  frequently  turned  with  the  intention  of  drying  them.  When  weather  of  this  kind 
comes  on,  I  have  always  found  it  best  to  cock  the  peas  as  soon  as  ever  they  began  to  fade  ;  and  if 
the  rain  continued,  to  content  myself  with  raising  them  a  little  with  the  handle  of  a  rake,  and  to 
leave  them  in  the  same  place  until  they  wei-e  sufficiently  dry  to  be  carried.  It  cannot  be  denied 
that  the  straw  loses  some  of  its  goodness  under  this  mode  of  proceeding ;  but  then  there  is  less 
harm  to  be  feared  in  other  respects,  and  the  peas  are  prevented  from  shedding  their  seed  and 
leaves.  When  the  weather  is  fine,  it  will  be  found  most  advantageous  to  leave  the  peas  in  the 
wads  or  wisps  to  dry  ;  and,  if  necessary,  to  do  so  with  the  hand  and  not  with  a  rake. 

As  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  .succeeding  crop  that  the  land  should  be  plowed  as  soon 
as  possible  after  the  peas  have  been  mown,  it  is  best  to  lay  these  latter  on  as  narrow  strips  of  earth 
as  possible,  in  order  that,  if  the  getting  in  of  the  crop  is  delayed,  the  intervening  spaces  may  be 
plowed  without  loss  of  time.  However  tiresome  this  mode  of  proceeding  may  appear  to  be,  every 
agriculturist  who  is  aware  of  the  importance  of  breaking  up  the  pea  stubble  with  as  httle  delay 
as  possible  will  not  neglect  this  precaution. 

Some  persons  tie  the  peas  before  carrying  them,  but  this  is  a  verj'  useless  trouble. 

The  produce  of  the  ^lea  in  ripened  seeds  is  so  casual  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  lay  down  any 
general  average  with  regard  to  its  amount.  From  some  fields  I  obtained  thirteen  and  a  half  bushels 
of  seed  one  year,  and  only  two  and  a  half  bushels  on  another,  although  both  times  the  same  rou- 
tine of  cultivation  was  pursued.  On  good  soils,  ft-om  five  to  six  bushels  may  be  regarded  as  an 
approximative  average  of  the  produce  per  acre. 

The  price  of  peas  is  as  variable  as  their  produce.  Sometimes  it  is  equal  to  that  of  rye  ;  at  others, 
much  higher.  Provided  that  the  peas  are  not  attacked  by  worms  after  being  brought  into  the  gran- 
ary, they  may  be  kept  in  casks  for  a  considerable  period  ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  as  well  to  pi-eserve 
them,  as  there  will  always  be  a  supply  in  hand  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  any  j-ear  in  which  this 
kind  of  crop  fails. 

I  cannot  either  state  what  is  the  general  average  between  the  proportion  of  grain  and  of  straw, 
for  sometimes  the  amount  of  one,  and  sometimes  thatof  the  other  predominates.  W^henthe  soil  is 
good,  and  has  been  well  manured,  we  may,  however,  always  reckon  with  tolerable  certainty  upon 
a  good  crop  of  straw  if  not  of  seed,  and,  as  in  most  farms  straw  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  and 
chiefly  prized,  tlie  agriculturists  cultivate  peas  with  a  view  of  obtaining  it,  and  receive  a  good  crop 
of  grain  as  an  additional  blessing.  A  good,  well-tilled  field  sown  with  peas  will  yield  from  twelve 
to  sixteen  quintals  of  haulm  per  acre,  unless  a  period  of  dry  weather  impedes  the  vegetation  be- 
fore the  time  when  it  naturally  would  stop  ;  under  peculiarly  favorable  circumstances,  even  more 
than  this  may  be  obtained. 

Pea-haulm  is  considered  to  be  peculiarly  adapted  for  sheep  ;  many  farmers  give  it  instead  of 
hay,  but  this  can  only  be  done  when  the  greater  part  of  the  haulm  was  green  at  the  time  of  its  be- 
ing mown.  In  general  it  is  more  bulky  and  nourishing  than  the  straw  of  any  of  the  cereal  grasses. 
Pea-haulm  is  also  given  to  horses  and  cattle:  but  for  them  it  must  be  chopped,  because  the  stems 
are  usually  too  tough  to  admit_  of  their  being  easily  masticated,  and  they  are  apt  to  slip  between 
the  teeth.  The  refuse  which  is  left  after  the  peas  have  been  threshed  is  likewise  very  nutritious. 
It  is  always  best  to  consume  the  pea-haulm  before  any  other  kind,  and  not  to  keep  it  until  the 
spring. 

THE  LENTIL. 

There  are  two  vai-ieties  of  the  common  lentil ;  one  small  and  of  a  brownish  hue,  and  the  other 
large  and  more  inclined  to  yellow.  The  small  variety  has  an  aromatic  flavor  which  is  peculiar  to 
it,  and  this  causes  it  to  be  preferred  by  many  persons;  the  other,  however,  finds  the  readiest  sale 
These  two  varieties  are  very  frequently  crossed,  and  thus  a  mixed  lentil  is  produced  which  is  the 
one  most  commonly  grown.  The  quality  of  the  soil  has  a  considerable  influence  upon  the  .size  of 
the  seed. 

Latterly  the  Provence  lentil,  which  is  almost  as  large  and  of  the  same  color  as  the  pea,  has  been 
recommended.  It  yields  a  larger  produce  than  the  others,  both  in  .straw  and  grain,  even  when 
sown  on  sandy  soils,  but  has  very  little  of  the  flavor  of  a  lentil,  and  more  resembles  the  taste  of  a 
pea,  which,  causes  it  to  be  much  sought  for  as  a  dish  for  the  table.  As  it  grows  very  tall,  it  an- 
swers almost  as  well  on  sandy  soils  as  vetches  ;  and  I  consider  it  as  a  better  product,  whether  cul- 
tivated as  fodder  or  for  the  sake  of  its  grain. 

Lentils  require  a  soil  containing  a  tolerable  proportion  of  sand,  and  which  is  in  good  condition. 
They  seldom  thrive  on  clayey  soils. 

This  crop  is  sown  later  than  peas  on  account  of  its  sufTering  more  from  cold.  Twelve  metzenof 
seed  per  acre  will  be  found  sufficient;  but  care  mu.st  be  taken  that  this  seed  is  pure  and  not  inter- 
mingled with  the  seed  of  vetches,  or  the  sale  of  the  lentils  will  be  injured.  As  the  haulm  of  lentils 
is  delicate  and  feeble,  the  plants  are  very  liable  to  be  choked  by  weeds,  unless  the  ground  is  kept 
carefully  weeded.  Many  persons  dibble  lentils  in  rows,  leaving  room  for  a  rake  to  pass  between  ; 
for  my  own  part,  I  can  see  no  reason  why  this  crop  should  not  be  sown  with  a  drilling  machine, 
and  afterward  cultivated  with  a  horse  hoe. 

The  lentil  contains  a  greater  proportion  of  vegeto-animal  matter  than  any  other  vegetable,  and  is 
universally  regarded  as  being  highly  nutritious.  From  the  time  of  Esau  up  to  the  present  day  it 
has  been  con.sidered  as  an  article  of  food.  This  vegetable  fetches  a  higher  price  than  peas  ;  and 
(1061) 


as,  when  grown  on  a  soil  which  has  been  properly  tilled  and  is  adapted  for  their  reception,  they 
yield  from  ei^^ht  to  ten  bushels  per  acre,  their  culture  is  very  lucrative.  They  do  not  yield  much 
straw;  but  what  there  is,  is  very  delicate  and  nourishing,  and  somewhat  similar  to  the  hest  hay; 
consequently,  it  is  usually  reserved  for  young  animals,  as  lambs  and  calves.  As  lentils  require  to 
be  k.ept  very  free  from  weeds,  the  culture  of  this  crop  tends  to  improve  and  clear  the  soil. 

KIDNEY-BEANS  (HARICOTS.) 

A  great  number  of  varieties  are  cultivated  in  gardens,  the  pods  of  which  are  generally  gathered 
while  green.  Dwarf  species  are  cultivated  in  the  fields.  As  these  require  all  the  attention  of  gar- 
den cultivation,  and  must  be  carefully  trained  and  weeded,  they  may  be  said  to  be  unfit  for  field 
crops,  and  can  only  be  cultivated,  to  any  extent,  by  means  of  implements  adapted  for  the  purpose.* 
It  is  on  this  account  that  we  merely  allude  to  them  here,  reserving  what  farther  appertains  to  the  ' 
subject  until  we  come  to  treat  of  the  cultivation  of  maize,  with  which  that  of  haricots  may  be  ad-  ' 
vantageously  associated. 

BEANS  (VICIA  FABIA.) 

Numerous  varieties  of  the  vicia  fal/ia  are  cultivated  both  in  fields  and  gardens,  hut  the  small 
round  variety  which  bears  so  many  pods,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  horse-bean,  is  most  com- 
mon. It  varies  in  color,  verging  sometimes  on  yellow,  at  others  being  of  a  dark-brown  hue,  and  at 
others  spotted  with  various  shades  ;  but  this  difference  of  color  is  not  permanent,  and  has  no  influ- 
ence on  the  other  properties  of  the  bean. 

The  bean  requires  a  rich,  strong,  loamy  soil,  similar  in  quality  to  wheat  land ;  it  may,  however, 
be  cultivated  with  advantage  on  lands  which  are  not  quite  so  strong,  provided  that  they  are  toler- 
ably moist,  and  contain  a  large  quantity  of  humus,  and  that  humus  is  not  of  too  acid  a  nature  ;  for  I 

[  have  found  that  beans  are  subject  to  rust.  Beans  sei-ve  to  loosen  stiff  soils  ;  the  filaments  of  their 
roots  will  penetrate  even  the  hardest  clay.     Hence  they  have  been  regarded  as  an  excellent  pre- 

I    paration  forwheat  on  land  of  this  description.    Their  roots  and  the  shadow  of  their  leaves  and  haulm   ,' 

I  serve  to  keep  the  soil  loose  and  clear. 

'  When  the  soil  appears  to  require  amelioration,  it  must  be  manured  for  this  crop,  and  that  some- 
what plentifully  ;  for  beans  require  a  good  soil,  and  will  bear  a  considerable  quantity  of  manure. — 
This  plant  will  make  its  way  through  the  most  tenacious  soils,  and  therefore  may  be  buried  with 
the  manure,  and  by  the  first  plowing.  It  has  even  been  attempted,  and  not  without  success,  to 
sow  beans  on  a  tenacious  and  compact  turf,  and  plow  them  in;  and  they  have  invariably  been 
found  to  make  their  way  through.  There  is  not,  however,  any  doubt  but  that  they  are  benefited 
by  a  second  plowing ;  and  the  reason  why  this  is  not  more  frequently  bestowed  is,  that  most  per- 
sons consider  it  to  be  absolutely  necessary  to  get  the  seed  into  the  ground  as  early  as  possible; 
and.  therefore,  clayey  soils  which  have  been  plowed  up  in  the  autumn  do  not  dry  soon  enough  in  i 
the  spring  to  admit  of  their  being  plowed  before  the  seed  is  got  into  the  ground.  i 

It  is  generally  believed  that  those  beans  which  are  sown  earliest  thrive  best ;  and  consequently, 
when  the  weather  will  admit  of  it,  they  are  sown  in  December ;  for  most  persons  are  of  opinion  that, 
even  though  they  may  suffer  from  frost,  and  their  leaves  become  yellow  and  wither,  other  leaves 
will  replace  these,  and,  on  the  whole,  the  plants  will  not  suffer.  I  cannot  exactly  coincide  with 
this  opinion,  since  it  has  always  appeared  to  me  that  the  beans  which  have  been  sown  the  latest 
•     thrive  the  best.  ^ 

As  the  grain  is  very  large,  a  considerable  quantity  of  seed  is  often  required — often  as  much  as  , 
from  two  to  three  bushels  per  acre.  English  agriculturists  saj-  that  on  strong  land  which  is  moist,  , 
beans  should  be  sown  far  apart;  and  on  light,  dry  soils  near  together,  in  order  that  in  the  latter  . 
case  they  may  overshadow  the  whole  of  the  land.  The  plants  do  not  bear  so  many  pods  when  ( 
sown  closely,  as  they  do  when  sown  far  apart.  i' 

Beans  are  everywhere  cultivated  as  a  preparatory  crop,  or  instead  of  the  fallow  crop.     Some- 
times a  meadow  which  is  newly  broken-up  is  devoted  to  them,  or  they  are  sown  as  the  first  crop  on 
land  which  has  been  left  in  repose  or  laid  down  for  pasturage,  and  which  is  afterward  to  be  sown 
I    with  grain. 

I I  When  beans  have  been  buried  with  the  plow,  the  harrow  must  only  be  passed  very  lightly  over 
the  ground;  but  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  come  up  and  put  forth  their  leaves,  they  .should  be  well 
harrowed.  Beans  will  bear  a  pretty  good  harrowing  with  an  iron-toothed  harrow  ;  for  even  those 
which  are  broken  off  or  torn  by  this  operation  will  shoot  afresh. 

While  young,  thej'  require  to  be  kept  perfectly  free  from  weeds  ;  and  where  this  cannot  be  ef- 
fected by  haiTowing,  the  crop  should  be  hoed  if  we  would  have  it  succeed.  In  some  places  re- 
course is  had  to  the  singular  proceeding  of  turning  the  sheep  on  to  the  bean  fields  when  the  plants 
are  about  two  inches  above  the  ground.      These  animals  will  not  touch  the  beans  so  long  as  they 

,     can  find  a  single  morsel  of  anything  else  to  eat. 

,  The  practice  of  sowing  beans  in  rows  is  adopted  even  in  places  where  the  proper  machines  for 
accomplishing  this  opei'ation  and  horse-hoes  are  unknown.  Where  they  have  no  drill-machines, 
the  beans  are  sown  by  hand  in  every  third  or  fourth  furrow  drawn  by  the  plow,  and  about  two 
bufeliels  of  seed  per  acre  are  used.  When  the  beans  have  begun  to  come  up,  a  plow  is  passed 
along  each  side  of  every  line,  in  order  to  throw  the  earth  off  the  plants ;  and  in  a  short  time  after- 
w^ard  this  implement  is  again  used  in  an  opposite  manner  to  heap  the  earth  round  the  plants.  A 
plow  or  a  binoir  is  best  adapted  for  the  performance  of  this  operation  ;  I  have,  however,  seen  it 
very  well  accomplished  with  a  common  wheel-plow.     The  rows  are  sometimes  as  much  as  three 

*  Those  kinds  of  haricots  which  do  not  grow  very  tall,  never  require  sticking ;  and.  as  their  stem  is  strong- 
er than  that  of  peas,  they  may  be  more  easily  cultivated  vpith  the  horse-hoe  during  the  eaily  periods  of  their 
Tegetation.  These  dwarf  varieties  are,  therefore,  well  adapted  for  being  sown  and  raised  in  open  fields,  and 
on  all  farms  or  agricultural  undertakings  where  an  improved  system  p f  Agiiculture  is  pursued. 

[French  Tram. 
(1062) 


BEANS.  439 

feet  or  more  apart.  But  the  plants  are  sown  very  close  to  one  another  in  rows.  There  cannot  be 
a  doubt  but  that  the  crops  can  be  sown  in  this  manner  much  better  with  the  proper  implements, 
and  thatU'ss  seed  will  then  be  required  ;  twenty  metzen  per  acre  will  be  found  to  be  amply  suf- 
ficient. 

Beans  which  have  been  drilled,  and  subsequently  cultivated  with  the  hoi'sehoe,  yield  a  much 
larger  produce  in  grain  than  those  which  have  been  sown  by  broadcast ;  on  an  average,  the 
former  may  be  said  to  yield  twice  as  much  as  the  latter.  They  bear  pods  even  down  to  the  very 
bottoms  of  their  stems,  while  those  which  are  sown  too  closely  never  do.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find 
from  thirty  to  forty  pods  on  each  plant  sown  by  a  drilling-machine,  while  those  sown  in  the  other 
way  rarely  bear  more  than  ten.  As  the  lower  flowers  set  early,  they  escape  the  attacks  both  of 
rust  and  mildew,  which  diseases  often  prevent  the  later  flowers  from  bearing  pods  or  seed.  But 
the  haulm  of  beans  sown  in  rows  is  decidedly  inferior  to  that  of  those  sown  broadcast ;  the  lower 
part  of  the  stems  becomes  hard  and  ligneous,  and  the  leaves  are  more  apt  to  foil.  But  the  loss 
thus  experienced  bears  no  comparison  to  the  increase  of  produce  in  grain  ;  besides,  it  may,  in  a 
great  mea,sure,  be  avoided  by  training  the  plants  a  little  earlier. 

The  cultivation  bestowed  on  a  bean  crop  keeps  the  soil  clear  and  loose  during  that  period  ;  and 
when  the  plants  come  up  they  overshadow  it.  By  this  means  it  is  perfectly  prepared  for  the  next 
crop  ;  and  after  the  beans  have  been  gathered  in,  requires  comparatively  little  tillage.  The  ex- 
tirpator is  the  best  instrument  which  can  be  made  use  of  for  the  purpose  of  leveling  land  whi-ch 
has  been  thrown  into  ridges  by  drilled  crops.  When  this  has  been  used,  one  plowing  will  suffice 
to  prepare  the  land. 

When  beans  are  sown  broadcast,  they  are  usually  mixed  with  either  peas  or  vetches,  and  rarely    . 
sovi'n  alone  on  account  of  their  success  being  so  vei*y  casual.  i' 

This  plant  is  extremely  subject  to  attacks  of  rust  or  mildew,  or  both.  The  former  shows  itself  i\ 
on  the  leaves,  the  tips  of  which  turn  brown ;  this  spreads,  becomes  darker,  and  finally  destroys  ' 
both  the  leaves  and  the  plant.  Mildew  attacks  the  tops  of  the  plants,  and  is  immediately  followed 
by  the  appearance  of  an  innumerable  quantity  of  black  insects  or  bugs  (aphides),  which  soon  ex- 
tend themselves  over  the  whole  of  the  plant,  and  prevent  it  from  forming  any  fruit.  Some  farmers 
have  endeavored  to  dimini.sh  this  evil  by  cutting  oif  the  tops  of  the  plants  with  «»rae  sharp  instru- 
ment. I  have  never  found  those  crops  of  beans  which  have  been  sown  with  a  drilling-machine 
to  suffer  so  much  from  rust  or  milde\v  as  tho.5e  sown  broadcast;  for,  in  the  former  case,  the  plant 
'  is  usuallj'  pretty  strong  before  the  disease  appears,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  its  grain  is 
formed  ;  consequently,  the  ravages  are  not  so  sensibly  felt.* 

In  places  wliere  the  worth  of  the  soil  is  known,  when  the  bean  crop  promises  to  turn  out  badly, 
I  it  is  immediately  cut  and  the  field  broken  up,  and  the  beans  spread  in  the  fun-ows  and  covered  \ 
over,  because  a  poor  crop  of  beans  would  not  repay  the  injury  which  they  would  do  to  the  suc- 
ceeding wheat  crop  ;  for  it  is  well  known  that  it  is  only  those  bean  crops  which  succeed  well, 
that  form  a  good  preparation  for  wheat,  and  that  this  grain  almost  invariably  fails  when  sown  after 
a  poor  crop  of  beans. 

Beans  should  be  got  in  as  soon  as  the  greater  part  of  the  pods  turn  black,  and  without  regard 
to  the  maturity  of  those  which  were  set  last.  A  very  clever  English  agriculturist  has  even  gone 
so  fa'r  as  to  recommend  that  the  beans  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  the  seed  is  completely  formed, 
tied  up,  carried  to  some  place,  and  there  left  to  ripen,  in  order  that  the  land  on  which  they  grew 
may  be  die  sooner  plowed  up.  Beans  sown  by  broadcast  are  frequently  cut  down  with  a  scythe, 
and  tlien  collected  and  carried  out  of  the  field  ;  but  a  sickle  is  often  made  use  of  Beans  which  \ 
have  been  drilled  in  rows,  and  especially  such  as  have  been  well  hoed,  can  only  be  cut  with  a 
sickle  ;  a  scythe  would  break  the  lower  pods,  and  the  beans  would  then  fall  into  the  deep  fur- 
row.'; which  "the  hoe  had  left  between  the  rows,  and  thus  be  lost.  The  best  plan  appears  to  me  to 
be  to  have  them  pulled  up  ;  biit  this  cannot  be  done  on  tenacious  soils,  at  least  not  without  great 
difficulty. 

After  the  beans  have  been  cut  they  are  tied  up  in  small  sheaves,  five,  six,  or  seven  of  vvliich  are 
set  up  one  against  the  other  :  when  the  bean  harvest  is  not  succeeded  by  verj-  diy,  warm  weather, 
it  frequently  takes  a  long  time  to  dry  thoroughly.  But  as  it  is  now  well  known  that  n  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  the  field  should  be  cleared  with  as  little  delay  as  possible,  the  beans  are 
often  carried  to  some  other  place  to  complete  the  process  of  drying. 

The  produce  of  beans  sown  broadcast  is  even  more  casual  than  that  of  peas.  Where  the  ground 
is  adapted  for  them,  and  the  plants  are  sown  in  rows,  and  subsequently  cultivated  with  a  horse- 
hoe,  from  ten  to  twelve  bushels  of  grain  per  acre  may  be  expected.  In  -Kent,  and  other  counties 
of  England  in  which  beans  are  sown,  from  eighteen  to  twenty-seven  bushels  per  acre  of  our 
measure  is  regarded  as  the  ordinarj'  amount  of  produce. 

A  bushel  of  beans  weighs  from  a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and  three  pounds.  They  contain  a 
large  proportion  of  nutritious  vegeto-animal  matter,  although  not  so  much  as  peas  ;  but  a  larger 
quantity  of  amidon.  In  many  places  they  are  baked,  and  employed  as  food  :  sometimes  they  are 
Bveii  mixed  with  flour,  and  made  into  bread  ;  and  many  assert  that  they  communicate  a  most 
agresable  flavor  to  the  bread  thus  formed :  but  this  pulse  is  chiefly  given  to  horses.  In  many 
pans  of  Germany,  beans  sown  broadcast  are  kept  expressly  for  this  purpose,  without  being 
thrfjhed;  and  the  sheaves  are  cut  up  with  tlie  chopped  straw  expressly  to  be  given  to  horses. 
In  i'.ngland  beans  are  regarded  as  the  best  of  all  kinds  of  fodder,  not  only  for  draught,  but  also  for 
race-horises.     They  must  not,  however,  be  steeped  in  water,  as  some  persons  are  too  much  in  the 

*  With  us,  the  aphides  begin  to  show  themselves  on  the  leaves  about  the  20th  of  May.  At  this  period  the 
t;rop  should  be  carefully  looked  over  every  day  ;  and  if  a  few  lice  are  perceptible,  which  usually  precede  the 
insects  by  a  few  days,  women  and  children  should  he  immediately  sent  into  the  tifld  to  nip  otF  the  top  of 
every  bean  plant,  and  carrj'  it  away.  Where  these  laborers  make  use  of  both  hands  at  once,  the  work  may 
rery  soon  be  done,  and  at  vei-y  trifling  expense.  Every  thing  else  must  be  set  aside  in  order  to  attend  to 
this,  for  tlie  loss  of  a  day  or  two  might  cause  the  destruction  of  the  whole  crop.  I  have  alwaj's  found  the 
lowers  of  plants  which  had  been  thus  cropped  to  set  better  than  any  others.  [French  Trans. 

(1063) 


habit  of  doing,  in  order  to  swell  them  out,  but  given  in  their  natm-al  state.  They  are  also  made 
use  of  for  the  purpose  of  fattening  pigs,  and  are  exceedingly  adapted  for  this;  but  tlien  they 
should  be  soaked  in  water. 

Bean  straw  is  usually  considered  to  be  very  nutritious,  especially  when  it  has  not  suffered  from 
the  effects  of  unfavorable  weather;  this,  however,  depends  very  much  upon  the  period  at 
■which  the  crop  is  cut,  upon  whether  it  was  cut  while  the  haulm  was  yet  green,  or  later  in  the 
season  ;  thus,  in  the  latter  case,  the  leaves  will  have  fallen  off,  and  the _  stems  become  hardened.  . 
In  the  former  case,  bean  straw  is  considered  as  equal  to  hay,  and  is  given  to  horses  and  sheep  ' 
as  such.  With  regard  to  the  straw  of  drilled  beans,  as  I  have  before  stated,  it  often  losses  its 
quality.  In  this  kind  of  produce  the  relative  proportion  of  the  quantity  of  straw  to  that  of 
grain  is  almost  always  opposite. 

VETCHES.     COMMON  VETCH  (VICIA  SATIVA). 

Among  the  numerous  family  of  vetches  there  are  various  kinds  which  are  doubtless  useful ; 
hitherto. "however,  none  have  been  much  cultivated  excepting  the  common  vetch,  the  Narbonne 
vetch  (i-icia  NarbonenaisJ.  The  cultivation  bestowed  on  the  latter  in  no  -way  diflers  from  that 
bestowed  on  the  former;  and  as  it  appears  to  be  in  no  way  superior  to  the  other,  excepting  in 
cases  where  it  is  wished  to  cultivate  vetches  on  very  rich  land,  it  is  but  little  grown.  After  seve- 
ral experiments  I  have  given  up  the  saw-leaved  vetch  (vicia  serratifoliaj.  on  account  of  its  not 
having  come  up  to  my  expectations. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  common  vetch.  We  have  a  small  one  which  ripens  very 
early,  and  one,  the  haulm  of  -which  is  larger,  which  ripens  late,  and  requires  to  be  sown  very 
early  in  the  year  to  ensure  its  arriving  at  maturity. 

The  Ens-llsh  autumnal  vetch  is  probably  the  same  as  this  large  variety,  but  has  by  cultivation 
become  habituated  to  pas.sing  the  winter  in  the  ground.  Several  experiments  which  have  been 
made  in  our  climate  seem  to  demonstrate  that  this  vetch  is  incapable  of  resi-sting  the  winter  :  it  is  i 
less  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  sudden  hoar-frosts,  than  by  late  frosts  which  occur  after  vegeta- 
tion has  commenced.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  even  in  England  it  is  destroyed  by  frost; 
thus  the  advantage  which  might  be  derived  from  that  naturalization  of  this  species  would  not  be 
very  great,  sinceit  seldom  ripens  more  than  ten  days  before  the  spring  vetch,  when  this  latter  has  \ 
been  sown  in  good  time. 

Vetches  require  a  clayey  soil,  where  the  land  contains  more  than  sixty  parts  in  a  hundred  of 
sand,  and  is  not  in  a  very  damp  situation  ;  this  plant  will  also  thrive,  provided  that  the  ground  is 
properly  ameliorated,  and  the  summer  moist ;  but  in  dry  summers  it  rarely  succeeds. 

It  does  not  absolutely  require  a  very  rich  soil;  nevertheless,  it  always  succeeds  better,  and  the 
haulm  is  finer,  when  the  soil  contains  a  con-siderable  portion  of  succulency  ;  it  is  on  this  account 
that  wherever  it  is  practicable  they  manure  for  this  crop. 

This  plant  is  now  almost  as  often  cultivated  for  its  haulm  as  for  its  seed,  which  former  is  either 
used  as  green  meat  or  reduced  to  dry  fodder;  it  is  cut  while  in  flower,  and  before  many  pods  are 
formed. 

The  cultivation  of  this  crop  is  in  no  way  distinguished  from  that  of  peas  ;  as  the  seed  is  smaller, 
twelve  metzen  is  sufficient  for  an  acre  of  ground.  In  order  to  ensure  its  attaining  maturity, 
the  large  vetch  ought  to  be  sown  at  the  beginning  of  April.  The  small  variety  will  ripen,  even 
when  not  sown  till  the  end  of  May  ;  but  most  agriculturists  recommend  that  the  common  va- 
riety should  be  sown  early.  I  have,  however,  observed  these  crops  for  some  years  past,  and 
have  always  found  that  where  this  kind  of  vetch  had  not  been  sown  until  toward  the  middle 
of  May.  it  always  succeeded  better  than  when  sown  earlier.  If  cold  weather  comes  on,  the 
vegetation  of  the  plants  is  checked,  and  then  they  are  vei-j-  frequently  attacked  by  a  womi, 
which  gnaws  the  buds,  and  does  so  much  mi.schief  that,  if  the  soil  is  at  all  impoverished,  the 
plants  never  flower ;  where,  however,  it  is  rich,  the  plants  occasionally  overcome  this  evil,  and 
shoot  up  again.  Those  vetches  which  are  sown  later  escape  the  attacks  of  this  womi,  the 
period  of  its  existence  being  short. 

Where  it  is  intended  to  use  vetches  as  green  fodder,  ir  reduce  the  crop  to  hay  before  it 
has  attained  its  maturity,  it  may  be  sown  in  any  weather  up  to  the  beginning  of  July.  Irj  or- 
der to  be  enabled  to  stall  feed  cattle  on  green  vetches,  a  certain  quantity  must  be  sown  which 
will  last  until  the  others  come  up.  When  intended  for  this  purpose,  the  vetches  are  usually 
mingled  with  spring  rye,  barley,  or  oats;  and  to  these  latter  is  often  added  buckwheat,  in  or- 
der to  render  the  mixture  thicker  and  richer.  V^^'hen  the  crop  is  to  be  made  into  hay,  it  is 
considered  most  desirable  to  sow  the  vetches  by  themselves,  as  it  then  dries  more  uniformly. 
This  crop  is  made  into  hay  in  the  same  manner  as  clover  or  lucerne  ;  consequently  I  shall  re- 
fer my  readers  to  the  directions  which  will  be  given  when  I  come  to  speak  of  the  haymaking 
of  these  crops.  Vetches  take  longer  drying  than  clover,  but  are  not  so  Hable  to  be  spoiled 
when  the  process  of  drying  is  not  properly  conducted. 

Wlien  vetches  are  intended  for  the  feeding  of  horned  cattle,  in  the  .shape  of  green  meat  or 
drj- fodder,  they  ai-e  mown  while  in  full  flower;    but  when  they  are  intended  foi-  horses,  the     , 
pods  are  suffered  to  develop  themselves  a  little,  because  the  quantity  of  fodder  is  thus  increased, 
and  the  vetches  rendered  more  nutritious.  i 

The  sooner  vetches  are  mown  the  less  do  they  impoverish  the  soil.  But  whenever  this  plant 
has  been  sown,  the  ground  must  be  broken  up  directly  the  crop  has  been  got  in  ;  the  importance 
of  this  course  is  so  generally  known  and  recognized,  that  all  persons  who  have  it  in  their 
cause  the  newly  mown  plants  to  be  immediately  convej'ed  to  some  other  place  to  be 

When  vetches  are  mown  earlv  in  the  season,  and  at  the  time  when  they  are  putting  forth  their 
,  they  will  .shoot  again  if  the  soil  is  rich  ;  but  where  it  is  poor,  nothing  is  gained  by  such 
proceeding  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  two  cuttings  together  do  not  amount  to  as  much  as  would 
obtaiiicd  from  one  good  crop  cut  at  the  usual  period. 


It  is  a  very  bad  practice  to  endeavor  to  derive  advantage  from  the  second  shooting-  of  vetclies 
by  pasturing  cattle  on  them,  as  the  soil  is  then  hardened  by  the  feet  of  the  ajiimals,  and  the 
succeeding  crop  is  thus  often  seriously  injured.  Occasionally  a  second  crop  of  vetches  is  sown 
on  laud  which  has  produced  one  that  has  been  mown  while  green  ;  but  in  order  to  do  this 
the  utmost  promptitiide  is  necessary,  and  not  a  moment  must  be  lost  between  the  gathering  of 
one  crop  and  the  sowing  of  the  other.  But,  in  general,  buckwheat  or  radishes  are  sown  after 
vetches  which  have  been  cut  while  green. 

The  produce  of  vetches  in  seed  is  very  unequal.  Sometimes  as  much  as 'twenty -four  bushels 
per  acre  have  been  obtained ;  but_  eight  bu.shels  may  be  regarded  as  the  average  quantity. 
Vetches  grown  on  rich  land  have  yielded  as  much  as  from  1,809  to  2,000  lbs.  of  straw,  com- 
prehending the  husks  and  refuse.  The  haulm  of  this  crop  is  preferred  to  pea  haulm  for  the 
purpose  of  feeding  cattle.  When  vetclies  are  cut  while  green,  and  at  the  period  when  their 
pods  are  just  beginning  to  form,  3,000  lbs.  of  straw  per  acre  are  often  obtained  ;  but  even  where 
the  soil  is  most  fertile,  it  is  safest  only  to  reckon  on  2,000  lbs.  When  on  account  of  tlu  spring  be- 
ing very  dry  the  vetches  do  not  succeed,  the  produce  will  fall  to  1.000  lbs.  per  acre. 

Numerous  experiments  seem  to  testify,  that  when  cut  while  green,  vetches  scarcely  deprive  the 
.soil  of  any  portion  of  its  fertility,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  the  succeeding  crop  has  ofte.u  been 
found  to  be  decidedly  better  than  one  which  followed  a  dead  fallow,  provided,  however,  that  the 
ground  has  been  broken  up  without  loss  of  time  after  the  gathering  of  the  vetches.  Vetches 
which  attain  maturity,  and  yield  a  produce  in  grain,  may,  in  that  respect,  be  compared  with  peas. 
The  common  mixture  of  vetches  and  oats,  when  suffered  to  attain  maturity,  exhausts  land  much 
more  ;  and  a  crop  of  rye  grown  on  a  field  which  has  produced  this  kind  of  fodder,  and  from  which 
it  has  been  mown  little  by  little,  a.«  it  was  required,  will  indicate  very  plainly  by  the  difference  in 
its  produce  which  were  the  spots  on  which  the  vetches  and  oats  were  suffered  to  stand  too  long. 
In  England  it  is  by  no  means  unusual  to  sow  vetches  .solely  for  the  purpose  of  ameliorating  the 
soil.  In  such  cases,  however,  this  crop  is  not  plowed  in  at  once,  but  cattle  intended  for  fattening, 
and  pig.s,  are  turned  on  to  it ;  which  animals  certainly  spoil  a  great  deal  by  trampling  it  down,  but  ' 
they  also  consume  a  great  deal.  After  this  the  land  is  broken  up  without  loss  of  time,  and  sown  with 
rape.  This  mode  of  proceeding  is  not  in  some  respects  so  little  economical  as  it  appeared  to  be  to  ' , 
a  traveler  with  whom  I  am  acquainted. 

When  vetches  have  been  left  standing  till  their  seed  is  ripe,  they  are  commonly  used  to  feed 
horses  and  fatten  pigs  ;  they  are  also  given  to  sheep,  and  for  this  purpose  are  considered  preferable 
to  peas.  The  seed  of  this  plant  is  rarely  a  marketable  commodity  ;  it  is,  however,  not  unfrequeuily 
sold  lor  sowing.  Vetches  may  be  kept  for  a  long  time,  and  ultimately  sold  at  a  price  which 
yields  large  interest.  In  agricultural  undertakings  in  which  the  production  of  fodder  forms  an 
esseatial  feature,  it  is  advisable  to  keep  a  supply  of  vetch  seed  in  the  granary,  because  this  plant 
furnishes  the  best  resource  when  the  crop  of  clover  fails. 

The  straw  of  vetches  which  have  perfected  their  seed  is  more  grateful  to  cattle  than  that  of  peas  ; 
it  is  often,  indeed,  considered  equal  in  value  to  hay  ;  but  it  is  not  to  be  compared  with  vetches  that 
have  been  mown  in  the  green  state  and  made  into  dry  fodder. 

There  are  a  few  other  sorts  of  pulse  rarely  met  with,  and  confined  to  certain  localities  ;  such  are 
the  Spanish  lentil  flathirus  sat.ivus),  and  the  ch\ck  pe^  (cicer  arietiimm).  The  cultivation  of 
these  plants  differs  in  no  respect  from  that  of  peas  and  vetches,  and  hitherto  I  have  heard  no  reason 
assigned  for  preferring  them  to  the  plants  already  noticed. 

BUCKWHEAT  (POLYGONUM  FAGOPYRUM). 

This  plant  thrives  well  on  soils  which  are  too  poor  for  all  o  her  kinds  of  grain  either  of  the  spring 
or  summer  varieties.  It  grows  on  dry,  sandy  soils,  provuled  only  that  the  drouth  be  not  felt  pre- 
cisely at  the  time  when  the  plant  stands  most  in  need  of  moisture  ;  it  then  yields  as  plentiful  a  crop 
as  any  other  kind  of  grain  ;  but  if  the  grouud  be  in  asituation  somewhatmore  accessible  to  moisture, 
the  crop  of  buckwheat  is  so  much  the  more  to  be  depended  upon.  This  plant  also  thrives  on  heath 
and  marsh  lands,  provided  that  the  latter  have  been  previously  drained.  It  is  cultivated  to  great 
advantage  on  clearings  of  this  description,  and  is  very  useful  in  preparing  the  soil  for  the  reception 
of  other  kinds  of  grain. 

In  sandy  districts  buckwheat  is  the  only  crop  which  succeeds  when  sown  alternately  with  rye  ; 
in  such  situations  it  takes  the  place  of  all  other  tallow  crops  :  it  is  also  sown  on  lands  where  rye  has 
been  grown.  It,  however,  thrives  better  as  a  fallow  crop  on  land  which  has  been  used  as  pastur- 
age, or  left  in  repose  for  a  few  yeai's. 

On  richer  soils  the  plant  grows  more  vigorously,  but  onlj'  in  the  haulm,  rarely  producing  so 
much  seed  as  when  grown  on  proper  soils.  A  small  quantity  of  manure  is  advantageous  to  it ; 
but  a  large  quantity  makes  it  grow  too  strong  in  the  haulm.  When  the  land  on  which  buckwheat 
is  to  be  grown  reciuires  manuring,  it  is  usual  to  give  it  only  half  the  usual  quantity,  the  remainder 
bemg  reserved  till  after  the  harvest. 

Manure  furnished  by  furze,  a  plant  which  is  always  abundant  in  districts  where  buckwheat  is 
grown,  is  particularly' well  adapted  to  this  kind  of  grain. 

The  sowing  of  buckwlieat  even  on  the  lightest  soils,  must  always  be  preceded  by  two  plow- 
ings,  in  order  to  destroy  the  weeds. 

This  plant,  which  was  brought  from  the  East  at  the  time  of  the  crusades,  has  not  yet  lost  its 
sensibility  to  cold  ;  the  slightest  hoar-frost  destroys  it.  The  sowing  must  therefore  be  deferred 
till  ail  danger  of  cold  nights  is  over.  I  have,  however,  known  buckwheat  to  be  destroyed  by 
frost  as  late  as  St.  John's  day.  It  should  not,  therefore,  be  sown  earlier  than  the  middle  of  May, 
or  later  than  the  middle  of  June  ;*  for,  if  sown  at  a  later  part  of  the  season,  it  will  be  liable  to  be 

*  Tliroughout  at  least  the  half  of  France,  in  the  South  of  Svritzerland,  and  generally  in  countries  where 
the  corn  is  housed  about  the  middle  of  July,  and  the  hoar-frosts  seldom  begin  before  the  24th  of  October, 
(1065) 


442  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

attacked  by  the  white  frosts  of  autumn  before  its  seed  is  ripe,  and  then  the  quantity  of  grain  will 

be  much  diminished.     The  quantity  of  seed  sown  on  a  given  extent  of  gromid  is  about  the  half  of  ' 

that  used  in  sowing  wheat :  sowing  more  thickly  is  injurious  to  buckwheat.     In  countries  where 

I '   this  plant  is  sown  in  large  quantities,  tliey  treat  it  as  if  it  said  to  them,  "  Make  room  for  me,  I  am 

'   coming  up."  ' 

The  success  of  buckwheat  is  remarkably  affected  by  the  w^eather  to  which  it  is  exposed  in  the 

several  stages  of  its  growth  ;  in  this  re.spect  it  is  more  susceptible  than  any  other  kind  of  grain. 

J   It  requires  dry  weather  immediately  after  sowing,  and  springs  up  during  the  time  of  greatest 

drouth  ;  but  after  putting  forth  its  third  leaf,  it  requires  rain  in  order  that  its  leaves  may  be  devel- 

,   oped  before  the  appearance  of  the  flower,  which  soon  follows.     During  the  long  time  for  which  it 

continues  in  flower,  this  plant  requires  alternate  rain   and  sunshine  to  facilitate  its  growth  and 

enable  the  flowers  to  set.     The  flowers  drop  off  during  thunder  storms,  or  even  on  the  occurrence 

of  electric  phenomena  unaccompanied  by  rain.      Buckwheat  is  also  incapable  of  withstanding 

violent  easterly  winds,  which  cause  it  to  wither  before  its  flowers  are  set.      After  flowering,  the 

plant  again  requires  dry  weather  to  bring  all  its  seed  to  maturitj'  at  the  same  time,  and. ensure  an 

I   early  harvest. 

\        The  success  of  buckwheat  is,  therefore,  very  precarious.      It  depends  not  only  on  the  general 

'    state  of  the  weather  throughout  the  season,  but  also  on  the  particular  time  which  may  have  been 

chosen  for  sowing.     A  week  earlier  or  later  often  makes  a  very  great  difference.     Hence  those 

who  wi.sh  to  make  sure  of  their  crop  of  buckwheat  sow  it  in  three  or  four  separate  portions,  and 

I    at  diflPerent  times. 

The  seed  should  be  simply  covered  up  with  the  harrow,  and  not  in  furrows.     I  have  also  found 
'   that  the  use  of  the  roller  is  injurious. 

The  ripening  of  the  grain  is  very  unequal ;    for  the  plant  is  continually  flowering  and  setting. 

sometimes 


The  ripenmg  ot  the  gram  is  very  unequal ;    lor  tne  plant  is  continually  tiowering  ai 
"We  must,  therefore,  cut  it  at  the  time  when  the  greatest  quantity  of  grain  is  ripe.     It  i 
'   happens  that  the  first  flowers  do  not  set.  or  that  they  produce  nothing  but  barren  seeds,  destitute  of 
farina,  while  those  which  come  out  later  yield  better  seed.    But  the  grain  will  ripen,  and  even  the 
1 1   flowers  set,  while  the  crop  is  lying  on  the  ground  after  cutting,  especially  if  rain  fall.     This  oc- 
currence is,  therefore,  considered  favorable. 

The  produce  of  buckwheat  is,  as  just  observed,  verj'  uncertain.  "When  it  is  sown  after  a  corn 
crop,  one  good  harvest  may  be  expected  in  about  seven  years ;  in  the  same  interval  we  may 
reckon  upon  three  medium  and  three  bad  harvests.  But  when  buckwheat  is  sown  on  land  which 
has  been  left  in  repose,  or  laid  down  to  grass  for  a  few  years,  we  may  reckon  upon  one  good 
I  crop  out  of  two.  Extraordinary  crops,  amounting  to  twenty  bushels  per  acre,  are  but  very  rarely 
obtained. 

In  many  countries,  buckwheat  furnishes  an  important  article  of  food  for  man  ;  and,  when  cheap, 
is  also  used  to  fatten  cattle  and  feed  horses.  Its  price  falls  very  low  in  years  of  plenty,  but  rises 
again  in  seasons  of  scarcity.  Cultivators  who  have  the  means  of  .keeping  it  often  lay  it  up  in 
store  ;  it  is  well  adapted  for  this  purpose. 

The  straw  of  buckwheat  is  much  esteemed  ;  it  is  nourishing  and  wholesome  for  cattle  of  all 
kinds.     It  should,  however,  be  con.«umed  before  Chri,stmas. 

Indispensable  as  this  plant  may  appear  in  some  countries,  its  cultivation  for  grain  is  so  preca- 
rious in  others,  that  we  can  scarcely  venture  to  recommend  it.  As  a  fodder  plant,  however,  it  is 
excellent;  and,  when  cultivated  for  this  purpose,  may  be  depended  upon  as  well  as  any  other 
plant.  We  may  sow  it  as  late  as  we  please  ;  the  haulm  is  sure  to  be  good,  provided  only  that 
there  be  no  danger  of  frost,  and  that  the  soil  contain  a  moderate  quantity  of  moisture.  It  may 
either  be  given  to  cattle  as  green-meat,  or  else  made  into  hay.  It  dries  but  slowly,  but  does  not 
spoil  when  left  on  the  ground  without  being  turned.  When  treated  by  Klapmeyer's  method,  it 
is  likely  to  turn  out  vei-y  good. 

The  cultivator  who  wishes  to  raise  it  for  this  latter  purpose  should  choose  a  year  in  which  the 
'    plant  has  been  particularly  successful,  in  order  to  obtain  a  good  supply  of  seed  ;  this,  he  will  find, 
will  vield  him  as  good  a  return  as  any  other.     Buckwheat  raised  for  this  purpose  may  be  sown 
on  the  stubble  of  a  corn  crop  ;  or  still  better  after  vetches  which  have  been  mown  early  in  the  sea- 
son to  be  consumed  as  green-meat. 

A  mode  of  proceeding  which  I  have  found  perfectly  successful  is,  to  sow  buckwheat  in  July, 

together  with  St.  John's  day  rye ;  then  to  mow  the  buckwheat  in  the  green  state,  and  reap  the 

rye,  Avhen  the  grain  is  ripe,  the  following  year.     This  may  be  done  verj'^  advantageously  on  land 

which  has  borne  a  crop  of  vetches  cut  in  the  green  state.     Radishes  may  also  be  sown  among 

',   buckwheat. 

This  plant  is  also  well  adapted  for  sowing,  as  a  preservative  crop,  either  Avith  clover,  or,  still 
better,  with  lucerne.     W'e  shall  have  occasion  to  recur  to  this  matter. 

The  produce  of  buckwheat  as  a  fodder-plant  is,  however,  very  different,  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  it  is  gi-own.  I  have  obtained  crops  of  it,  exceeding  in  weight  those  of 
retches  grov^n  on  the  same  soil,  and  to  all  appearance  by  no  means  inferior  in  nutritive  power. 

Some  persons  recommend  a  kind  of  buckwheat  known  by  the  name  of  Siberian  buckwheat 
(polygonum  Tartaricum).  This  variety  has  the  advantage  of  passing  the  winter  under  ground. 
Two  crops  may,  indeed,  be  obtained  fi-om  it;  but,  after  repeated  trials  in  the  open  field,  I  have  i 
found  its  produce  so  insignificant,  and  the  crop,  especially  in  the  secondyear,  so  infested  with 
weeds,  that  I  cannot,  by  any  means,  acquiesce  in  the  elaborate  praises  which  others  bestovif  upon 
it.     In  gardens,  ^vhere  it  can  be  weeded,  its  growth  is  doubtless  very  fine. 

buckwheat  may  be  .successfully  cultivated  as  a  second  crop,  after  wheat  or  rye.  In  these  countiies  the  coni 
is  carried,  and  the  land  plowed  up  with  all  possible  speed  ;  the  seed  is  then  sovni  after  one  plowing,  and 
carefully  covered  up  with  the  hairew.  This  plant  remains  in  the  ground  for  ten  weeks,  or  three  months, 
from  seed  time  to  harvest.  [French  Trans. 

(1066) 


MESLIN. CULTURE    OF    WEEDED   CROPS.  443 

MESLIN.— MIXTURES  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  GRAIN. 

In  many  countries  it  is  cnstomary  to  associate  different  kinds  of  grain,  and  likeTvise  different 
sorts  of  legumes;  and  even  to  cultivate  grain  and  leguminous  plants  together.  Many  practical 
cultivators  say  that  they  have  obtained  a  more  abundant  produce  by  this  method  than  by  the  sep- 
arate cultivation  of  the  same  kinds  of  grain.  This  assertion  is  certainly  not  without  foundation  :  I 
have  frequently  made  experiments,  which  remove  all  doubt  of  its  correctness.  It  often  happens 
that  the  seeds  of  both  the  plants  which  have  been  sown  together  thrive  equally  well,  and  the  quan- 
tities of  the  two  plants  contained  in  the  crop  are  in  proportion  to  the  quantities  of  the  respective 
seeds.  At  other  times  one  kind  will  succeed  remarkably  well,  and  almost  choke  the  other ;  in 
such  a  case  the  quantities  of  the  two  plants  iu  the  crop  are  by  no  means  proportioned  to  those  of 
the  two  kinds  of  seed  :  this  is  particularly  the  case  when  the  state  of  the  weather  has  beeji  pecu- 
liarly congenial  to  one  or  other  of  the  associated  plants.  In  such  case  there  is  this  decided  advan- 
tage, that  when  the  weather  is  unfavorable  to  one  of  the  plants  it  is  by  so  much  the  more  conge- 
nial to  the  other  ;  the  latter  consequently  grows  more  vigorously,  and  obtains  a  better  supply  of 
nouri.shment  on  the  ground  which  it  has  won  by  the  failure  of  its  companion;  moreover,  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  certain  plants  ab.sorb  substances  which  are  not  adapted  for  the  support  of  others. 

It  must,  however,  be  understood  that  plants  thus  associated  must  be  such  as  ripen  about  the 
same  time.  If  the  seasons  of  their  maturity  are  not  exactly  the  same,  the  crop  must  be  gathered 
when  the  plant  which  gi-ows  the  more  vigorously  or  ripens  the  more  quickly  of  the  two  has  attain- 
ed that  stage ;  in  such  a  case  the  other  will  perhaps  ripen  after  it  has  been  cut  down,  or  it  may  be 
useful  although  it  has  not  attained  its  full  maturity.  Many  mixtures  of  this  nature  may  be  separa- 
ted by  the  sieve,  or  by  the  operation  q{  fanning ;  but  the  seeds  are  commonly  used  together. 

It  has,  however,  been  observed  with  some  reason  that  mixtures  of  this  nature  are  peculiarly  try- 
ing to  the  soil,  although  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  admitted  that  they  yield  an  abundant  supply 
of  straw  for  the  production  of  manure.  It  is  said  that  the  cultivation  of  different  plants  together 
preserves  the  soil  from  w^eeds  ;  this  may  be  true  in  certain  cases. 

Tlie  most  usual  mixture  is  that  of  wheat  and  rye  ;  known  by  the  name  of  meslin.  This  mixture 
is  very  common  in  some  countries,  more  so  indeed  than  pure  rye.  It  is  used  to  make  ordinary 
bread,  which  is  said  to  be  particularly  nutritious  and  agreeable  to  the  palate.  In  the  Netherlands, 
on  soils  no  longer  fit  for  the  growth  of  wheat,  this  kind  of  cereal  produce  mixed  with  rj'e  is  said  to 
yield  more  than  it  would  if  grown  by  itself;  and,  moreover,  not  to  diminish  the  quantity  of  ryein  ' 
the  crop.  Meslin  is  usually  sown  alter  a  crop  of  wheat.  In  other  countries  spelt  is  mixed  with 
rye  instead  of  wheat;  these  two  kinds  of  grain  are  easily  separated. 

Flat  barley  and  oats  are  also  grown  together;  and,  from  my  own  experiments,  I  should  say  that 
they  are  well  adapted  for  this  purpose.  If  the  soil  be  favorable  to  barley,  this  plant  growing  more 
vigorously  will  choke  the  other  to  a  certain  extent,  if  at  least  the  weather  be  somewha.t  favorable; 
in  the  contrary  case,  the  oats  being  the  more  hardy  of  the  two  will  usurp  the  place  of  the  barley, 
and  when  threshed  will  yield  perhaps  four  times  as  much  as  the  latter.  Whenever  I  have  grown 
these  two  plants  together  I  have  obtained  better  crops,  as  regards  both  weight  and  value,  than 
from  barley  and  oats  separately  cultivated  and  reaped.  I  must,  however,  confess  that  I  have  nev- 
er made  the  experiment  on  a  soil  peculiarly  well  suited  to  the  former  of  these  plants.  Some  per- 
sons add  spring-rye  to  this  mixture  when  grown  on  light  soils. 

Among  the  mixtures  of  grain  with  leguminous  plants,  the  most  common  is  that  of  oats  and  vetch- 
es. They  are  frequently  cut  with  the  chaff-cutter  without  being  previously  threshed,  not  only 
when  they  are  left  to  ripen  and  used  as  fodder  for  the  cattle,  but  also  when  they  are  mown  while 
green  and  given  to  the  cattle  in  that  state,  or  else  made  into  hay.  Vetches  find  better  support  when 
grown  -with  oats,  than  when  alone.    Barley  and  spring  wheat  are  also  mixed  with  them. 

It  is  not  unusual  to  sow  peas  in  small  quantities  among  spring-wheat;  it  is  said  that  the  quanti- 
ty of  wheat  is  not  thereby  diminished,  and  that  the  peas  are  obtained  in  addition.  This  proceed- 
ing is  usually  resorted  to  on  soils  on  which  it  is  not  thought  safe  to  venture  upon  the  cultivation  of 
peas.  On  sandy  soils,  peas  are  associated  with  spring  rye.  The  peas  thrive  when  scattered  among 
these  grain  crops,  which  they  would  not  do  if  they  were  alone.  By  the  use  of  the  fan,  the  peas 
may  easily  be  separated  from  the  corn. 

On  calcareous,  clayey,  and  meager  soils,  especially  on  declivities,  it  is  usual  to  sow  beans  among 
a  crop  of  oats.  In  many  countries  it  is  not  uncommon  to  meet  with  a  mixture  of  beans,  vetches, 
beans,  and  oats,  sown  at  random  on  the  fallow  of  a  rich  soil.  This  mixture  produces  a  close  mixed 
crop  of  plants,  which,  being  supported  by  the  beans,  maintain  their  erect  position,  and  yield  a 
larger  quantity  of  fodder  than  any  other  plant  that  can  be  sown  for  this  purpose.  The  crop  is  rare-  i 
ly  allowed  to  ripen,  but  is  cut  as  soon  as  the  seed  is  formed.  It  is  not  threshed  ;  or,  if  this  opera- 
tion is  performed,  it  is  done  very  liglitly,  to  separate  the  ripe  seed,  and  the  straw  is  chopped  up 
and  used  to  feed  cattle.  It  is  with  this  kind  of  food  that  horses  are  entirely  fed  in  some  countries : 
it  frequently  goes  by  the  name  of  heans.  The  relative  quantity  of  each  kind  of  seed  to  be  sown 
for  this  mixture  is  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  soil.  In  argillaceous  soils  the  quantity  of  bean- 
seed  sown  is  the  greatest ;  in  soils  of  a  lighter  nature,  more  vetches  are  used.      _ 

Vetches  are  also  mixed  with  buckwheat,  especially  when  the  crop  is  to  be  cut  in  the  green  state.     , 

CULTURE  OF  HOED  OR  WEEDED  CROPS.  i 

This  denomination  includes  a  great  number  of  plants,  which,  though  they  belong  to  different 
classes  as  regards  both  their  nature  and  u.ses,  and  in  a  botanical  as  well  as  in  an  economical  poini 
of  view,  may  yet  be  classed  together,  as  far  as  their  mode  of  cultivation  is  concerned.  To  avoid 
the  necessity  of  repeating  the  same  details  in  what  we  shall  have  to  say  upon  the  cultivation  of 
each  of  these  plants,  it  viall  be  proper  to  begin  by  describing  the  various  operations  belonging  to 
this  department  of  cultivation,  and  the  implements  with  which  they  are  executed.  . 

In  the  latter  stages  of  their  growth,  these  plants  require  a  much  greater  space  than  that  which    ' 
(1067)  J 


444  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

they  occupy  on  first  coming  up  ;  tliey  must,  therefore,  be  sown  or  planted  with  proper  distances 
between  them.  But  the  iuterveuing  spaces  would  be  occupied  by  weeds,  which  would  soon 
choke  the  crop,  or  at  least  deprive  it  of  its  due  supply  of  nutriment,  if  after  the  sowing  or  planting 
both  soil  and  crop  weve  left  to  Nature.  Now,  to  have  all  these  weeds  pulled  up  by  hand  \^■ould 
not  only  be  too  costly,  but,  moreover,  would  not  fulfil  another  condition  which  ought  to  be  kept  in 
I  view,  viz.,  that  of  lightening  the  soil  and  preparing  it  for  subsequently  affording  noui-ishmcut  to 
['  the  plants.  Consequently,  since  the  time  when  Ihese  plants  were  first  cultivated,  particularly  ia 
gardens,  it  has  been  thought  nece.-sary  to  raise  and  lighten  the  soil  with  hand-hoes  and  mattocks  of 
various  kinds,  by  means  of  which  the  light  soil  is  heaped  up  ai-ound  the  plants  as  they  grow.  The 
complete  and  proper  performance  of  this  cultivation,  and  its  frequent  repetition,  have  always  been 
regarded  as  essential  to  the  success  of  the  crops  of  which  we  are  speaking. 

But  the.se  operations,  if  executed  by  manual  labor,  would  require  so  many  hands,  that  the  rais- 
ing of  such  crops  on  a  large  scale  and  in  the  open  field  would  be  impracticable.  Nevertheless,  as 
the  advantages  of  this  mode  of  tillage  became  obvious,  and  especially  as  the  cultivation  of  potatoes 
became  more  and  more  extended,  cultivators  began  to  employ  in  its  execution  the  binot  and  other 
implements  of  the  plow-construction  which  they  had  at  their  disposal.  Manj-  cultivators  made 
modifications  in  the  biuot  to  adapt  it  to  these  operations.  My  own  alterations  in  the  Mecklenberg 
binot,  as  described  in  mj-  edition  of  Bergen's  work  on  the  management  of  cattle,  having  been  ap- 
proved of,  the  instrument  thus  modified  got  into  general  use  under  the  name  of  the  "  potato-hoe." — 
I  have  since  improved  it.  particularly  by  shortening  the  trace-bar,  and  rendering  it  more  independ- 
ent of  the  team,  so  that  the  machine  is  more  under  the  power  of  the  driver.  I  have  since  found  it 
advantageous  to  do  a\\-ay  with  the  iron  point  which  was  placed  in  front  to  enable  the  instrument  to 
penetrate  the  soil,  and  to  substitute  for  it  a  broader  and  less  pointed  share,  by  means  of  which  a  great 
',    er  quantity  of  mould  is  raised  out  of  the  furrow  and  turned  over  on  its  sides. 

This  machine  has  also  been  furnished  with  movable  mould-boards,  which,  bj'  means  of  a  regu- 
lator, may  be  separated  to  a  greater  or  less  distance  at  their  hinder  extremity:  they  are  made  of 
\     cast-iron.'   No  particular  instructions  ai-e  necessary  with  regard  to  this  matter ;  the  machine  having 
[     met  with  general  approbation,  1  have  been  unwilling  to  render  it  more  complicated  for  fear  of  hin- 
dering its  general  adoption. 

The  Engli.<h  implement  known  by  the  name  of  the  "  double  mould-board  plow,"  is  still  better 
adapted  for  the  operation  of  earthing  up.  It  raises  and  heaps  up  a  greater  quantity  of  mould, 
makes  deeper  furrows,  and,  when  its  mould-boards  are  .separated  to  a  greater  distance  at  the  back, 
it  is  more  effective  in  tearing  up  weeds  which  attach  themselves  to  it.  The  cultivation  of  hoed 
crops  may.  by  the  aid  of  this  machine,  be  executed  with  a  degree  of  perfection  unattainable  before 
its  invention. 

This  instrument  is,  hovi'ever,  rarely  used  for  the  first  performance  of  the  operation  of  earthing 
up,  partly  because  there  is  no  necessity  for  executing  this  labor  very  completely  at  first,  and  part- 
ly because  the  machine  requires  two  horses  to  draw  it;  whereas  the  light  horse-hoe  previou.sly 
mentioned  requires  but  one. 

But  there  are  many  plants  which  require  cultivation  before  earthing  up,  not  only  that  they  may 
be  freed  from  weeds,  hut  also  that  the  earth  which  is  to  be  laid  up  to  tl>em  may  be  previously 
lightened,  pulverized,  and  aerated,  and  its  nutritive  parts  rendered  more  soluble.  For  these  pur- 
poses a  swing-plow  is  sometimes  used  to  remove  the  earth  which  lies  close  to  the  plants,  and 
turn  it  over  toward  the  middle  of  the  space  between  the  rows.  In  this  operation  the  plow  is 
passed  with  its  flat  side  as  close  to  the  rows  as  is  possible,  without  injuring  the  roots  of  the 
plants.  To  obviate  the  dangers  of  uncovering  these  roots,  the  operation  is  at  first  performed  on 
one  side  onh-,  and  five  or  six  days  after  on  the  other ;  there  is  thus  formed  a  ridge  of  light  soil  in 
.  the  middle  of  the  iuterveuing  space.  After  the  ridge  has  remained  in  this  state  for  a  certain  time,  ' 
\  it  is  again  turned  up  vs-ith  the  double  mould-board  plow,  which  throws  it  once  more  against  the 
plants;  these  plants  can  then  extend  their  roots  into  the  freshly  turned-up  soil. 

Whatever  may  be  the  efficacy  of  this  operation  when  properly  performed,  we   cannot   deny 
that  it  is  attended"  with  great  difficulties;  particularly  that  it  requires  skillful  plowmen  and  a  judi- 
cious selection  of  the  time  for  its  performance :  for  which  reasons,  especially  if  the  soil  be  moist 
and  tenacious,  and  the  weather  unfavorable,  it  is  very  deUcate,  and  demands  on  the  part  of  the 
*     operator  a  certain  practical  tact  and  a  considerable  degree  of  attention,  without  which  it  may  easi- 
'     ly  be  converted  into  a  source  of  injury.     Besides  this,  it  cannot  well  be  resorted  to  when  the  dis- 
'     tance  between  the  rows  falls  short  of  two  feet;  and  as  the  soil  requires  to  be  removed  at  di&erent 
/    times  from  the  two  sides  of  the  rows,  the  operation  likewise  takes  up  the  double  time. 
,        The  destruction  of  weeds,  and  the  lightening  of  the  superficial  stratum  of  the  soil,  maybe  eflfect- 
(     ed  in  a  manner  less  complete,  perhaps,  but  sufficient  in  most  cases,  and  much  more  easy  of  execu- 
^    lion,  by  the  use  of  implements  which  merely  scarify  the  soil,  but  at  the  same  time  bruise  and  pul- 
verize it.     Various  implements  of  this  kind  are  in  use. 

If  it  be  thought  sufficient  to  rake  up  the  weeds  and  merely  scarify  the  soil,  flat  shares  are  to  be 
<    used  ;  but  if  it  be  necessary  to  turn  up  the  soil  to  a  greater  depth,  and  pulverize  it,  the  -shares  must 
be  convex,  and  the  plow  deeper.     The  former  method  is  adopted  when  the  plants  are  young,  in 
order  to  avoid  the  risk  of  burying  them  under  the  mould. 

There  is  also  used  for  this  purpose  and  inplcment  furaished  with  a  large  rake,  or  sometimes  a 
'    scraper,  similar  to  that  which  is  used  for  raking  garden  walks.    In  case  of  necessity,  such  an  in- 
strument may  be  drawn  by  men. 

Lastly,  a  common  swing-plow,  furnished  with  a  two-edged  share,  but  no  mould-board,  may  also 
be  used  for  this  purpose. 

These  machines  have  received  almost  imiumerable  modifications,  and  have  been  de.signated  by 
a  corresponding  variety  of  names ;  but  there  is  no  essential  diffijrence  between  them.  They  all 
req  aire  to  be  modified  "according  to  the  stiffness  of  the  soil  and  the  state  of  growth  of  the  plants 
which  are  to  be  cultivated  by  them.  For  this  purpose  different  pieces  of  iron  may  be  fitted  to  the 
same  frame-work;  but,  as  the  frequent  shifting  of  the  iron-work  is  trying  to  the  instrument,  and 
(1068) 


CULTURE    OF  WEEDED   CROPS.  445 

occasions  loss  of  time,  I  think  it  better,  at  all  events  when  the  extent  of  ground  to  be  cultivated  is 
Bomewhat  considerable,  to  have  a  number  of  these  implements  ready  tor  use. 

Cultivation  with  implements  of  this  description  bears  the  same  relation  to  that  which  is  per- 
formed by  manual  labor  that  plowing  bears  to  spade  caltivation.  Th'e  use  of  cultivators  or  horse- 
hoes  of  various  kinds  can  alone  render  the  raisuig  of  hoed  crops  practicable  on  the  large  scale  in 
the  greater  number  of  agricultural  undertakings.  With  one  horse  and  an  experienced  driver, 
seven  acres  per  day  may  be  cultivated  without  extraordinary  etibrt,  provided  the  horse  be  well 
trained  to  the  v/ork  ;  for,  since  the  horse-hoe  is  drawn  over  three  plow-furrows  at  once,  the  extent 
of  ground  which  the  horse  and  driver  have  to  go  over  in  cultivating  these  seven  acres  is  not  greater 
than  that  traversed  by  the  plow  in  plowing  two  acres  and  one-third,  and  the  lorce  which  a  horse 
exerts  by  drawing  either  the  small  horse-hoe,-  or  the  horse-scraper  or  rake,  is  scarcely  equal  to 
that  of  one  of  the  pair  employed  to  draw  a  plow.  Frequently,  however,  only  five  acres  are  cul- 
tivated in  a  day  ;  but  this  is  certainly  the  minimum.  As  tins  operadon  requires  to  be  executed 
with  a  certain  degree  of  circumspection,  the  driver  ought  not  to  be  hurried  for  fear  that  he  should 
spoil  his  worK  by  endeavoring  to  do  it  too  quickly.  Moreover,  the  quickness  with  which  cultiva- 
tion with  the  horse-hoe  can  be  executed,  depends,  as  in  plowing,  on  the  length  of  the  furrows,  and 
the  necessity  of  turning  more  or  less  frequently.  If  the  men  and  horses  are  not  accustomed  to  the 
work,  or  if  the  plants  are  not  sown  in  straigiit  lines,  it  is  better  to  employ  two  men.  one  to  guide 
the  horse,  and  the  other  the  machine.  If  a  slightly-made  and  clever  lad  can  be  employed  in  the 
work,  it  is  best  to  let  him  mount  the  horse,  because  he  then  sees  better  before  him,  and  cnn  guide 
the  animal  with  greater  facility.  If  the  machine  be  made  to  pass  a  second  time  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, the  conductor  may  be  dispensed  with,  for  the  horse  is  sure  to  follow  the  track  already  made. 
For  the  large  plow  used  for  earthing  up,  especially  if  it  be  required  to  cut  deeply  into  the  ground, 
two  hor.ses  are,  however,  required  :  they  may  be  harnessed  to  it  by  means  of  a  trace-bar 
long  enough  to  enable  the  two  horses  to  walk  in  the  turrows  on  either  side  of  that  in  which 
the  plow  is  at  work. 

The  smallest  amount  of  work  that  this  machine  will  perform  is  equal  to  that  of  forty  laborers; 
for,  in  order  to  do  the  work  at  the  same  rate,  at  least  eight  laborers  per  acre  would  be  required.     ' 
In  the  cultivation  of  weeded  crops,  it  is  often  of  less  importance  to  obtain  the  greatest  quantity 
\ '   of  produce  that  a  given  extent  of  ground  is  capable  of  yielding,  than  to  obtain  the  quantity  which    , 
i'   is  absolutely  wanted  at  the  smallest  possible  expense.     The  rent  of  land  is  much  less  than  the   / 
/    cost  o|i  labor,  and  as  these  crops  are  intended  to  take  the  place  of  the  fallow,  and  answer  the 
1 1    same  purpose,  they  ought  not  to  be  charged  with  the  ground  rent.     If  I  get  x!00  quintals  from  an 
1 1    acre  of   ground,  at  an  expense  of  twelve  rix-doUars,  and  50  quintals  at  a  cost  of  only  three 
'i   rix-doliars,  the  advantage  may  very  possibly  be  on  the  side  of  the  latter,  especially  if  I  have 
',    plenty  of  ground  ready  for  use,  and  requiring  this  kind  of  cultivation,  but  scarcely  a  sufficient 
I    number  of  laborers  for  sowing  and  cultivating  a  larger  extent  of  surface.     Plants  sown  with 
;   tolerably  wide  spaces  between  them  may  be  cultivated  much  more  etfectually  than  tliose  which 
i'    are  very  crowded. 

I        It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  all  weeds  appearing  above  ground  be  utterly  destroyed  a  short 
I    time  before  the  planting  or  drilling  of  the  vegetables  of  which  we  are  speaking,  in  order  that  there 
(    may  be  no  necessity  for  raking  or  hoeing  before  the  plants  have  acquired  a  certi  in  degree  of 
I     strength      The  soil  must  of  course  be  previously  well  prepared  with  the  plow,  but,  after  the 
'i   last   plowing,  it  is  advisable    to    level  the  surface  with  the  harrow,  then,   in   dry  weather,  to 
^   pulverize  the  clods  with  the  roller,  and  harrow  again  with  consWerable  force.     By  this  treat- 
ment the  w^eeds  are  made  to  germinate  quickly;  and  when  their  germination  has  takin  place, 
the  sowing  or  planting  is  preceded  by  cultivation  with  the  extirpator,  after  which  the  ground 
is  again  harrowed.     Even  if  the  reappearance  of  weeds  cannot  be  entirely  prevented  by  these 
precautions,  it  is  at  all  events  retarded,  and  the  quantity  of  the  weeds  diminished,  so  that  in 
many  cases  the  use  of  the  rake  may  he  dispensed  with,  and  the  operation  of  earthing  up  proceeded 
with  at  once.     The  cost  of  these  preparatory  labors  is  largely  repaid  by  the  saving  which  they  effect 
in  the  after  cultivation. 

An  implement  of  the  greatest  utility  in  the  raising  hoed  crops,  is  the  furrower,  or  marking- 
plow  ;  which,  however,  ought  to  fuiTow  more  deeply  than  the  instruments  of  this  name  in  common 
use.  It  may  be  made  of  iron,  or  of  wood  covered  either  with  iron  plate  or  with  cast  iron,  as 
recommended  by  FeUenberg.  With  this  implement  lines  are  traced  in  a  certain  direction;  and 
by  means  of  a  cord  stretched  across,  the  exact  place  is  marked  which  each  of  the  plants  is 
to  occupy.  In  order  to  vary  the  distance  between  the  rows,  we  must  either  employ  another 
instrument,  the  feet  of  which  are  placed  at  the  required  distance,  or  have  the  former  made 
with  movable  feet,  so  that  the  distance  between  them  may  be  modified  according  to  circum- 
stances. In  the  small  furrows  made  by  this  machine,  the  plants  are  arranged  in  parallel  lines,  and 
at  tlie  same  time  sown  rather  more  deeply  than  they  otherwise  would  be.  They  are  thus,  to  a 
certain  extent,  protected  again.st  drouth,  enabled  to  absorb  a  greater  quantity  of  moisture,  and  ulti- 
mately covered  by  a  greater  quantity  of  light  soil.  When  the  seed  is  small,  it  is  deposited  in 
these  furrows,  either  by  hand  or  with  the  drilling  machine  ;  but  the  furrows  must  be  made  imme- 
diately before  the  sowing,  in  order  that  the  soil  in  them  may  remain  fresh  and  light. 

For  weeded  crops  which  are  sown  far  apart,  and  raised  from  seed  on  the  spot  on  which  they 
are  to  attain  their  full  growth,  it  is  usual  to  employ  simpler  drills,  which  sow  but  one  row  at  a 
time.  Machines  of  this  kind  have  been  invented  for  sowing  two  or  three  rows  at  once.  No  ad- 
vantage has,  hovvever,  been  derived  from  them ;  on  the  contrary,  they  have  been  found  inconvenient 
from  not  admitting  of  any  alteration  of  distance  between  the  rows,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
crop  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

When  seed-beds  are  formed,  from  which  the  plants  are  to  be  removed  after  a  time  and  trans- 
planted to  the  ground  on  which  they  are  to  attain  their  full  growth,  the  seed  is  either  spread  uni- 
formly or  sown  in  close  farrows,  in  order  to  increase  the  facility  of  destroying  the  weeds  which 
grow  up  with  it. 
(1069) 


446  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

If  we  have  made  up  our  mi-'ds  to  cultivate  these  vegetables,  and  chosen  and  prepared  the  land 
on  which  they  are  to  grow,  it  is  very  annoying  to  find  ourselves  short  of  plants.  It  is,  therefore, 
of  tlie  utmost  importance  to  provide  good  seed  :  to  raise  it,  as  far  as  possible,  ourselves;  or,  at  all 
events,  to  pui-chase  it  of  cultivators  upon  whom  we  can  depend,  and  not  of  seedsmen,  who  are 
often  themselves  deceived  in  its  quality.  But  it  sometimes  happens  that,  though  we  have  used  the 
best  seed,  still  the  seed-beds  are  deficient.  Plant-lice  (aphides)  are  very  destructive  to  the  plants ; 
especially  to  those  of  the  radish  and  cabbage  tribe,  at  the  time  of  their  germination.  When  the 
weather  is  warm,  there  is,  perhaps,  no  better  method  than  to  cover  the  beds  with  boughs  of  trees, 
place  straw  upon  them,  to  the  thickness  of  about  an  inch,  and  keep  it  constantly  moist  until  the 
plants  shall  have  put  forth  their  fourtli  leaves  ;  after  that,  the  insects  may,  indeed,  attack  the  plants, 
but  they  will  not  easily  destroy  them. 

It  is  absolutely  neces.sary  to  select  for  the  seed-beds  a  soil  well  prepared,  between  the  wet  and  the 
dry  ;  not  recently  manured,  but  yet  rich  and  fertile. 

There  are  some  plants  that  should  be  sown  as  early  as  possible.     They  may  be  protected  from 

,   frost,  occuiTing  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  by  the  coverings  above-mentioned.     Hot-beds  are 

' ,    certainly  very  convenient,  but  they  can  scarcely  be  used  on  the  large  scale.     The  more  there  is 

to  be  apprehended  from  plant-lice,  the  earlier  should  the  seed  be  sown,  in  order  that  a  second 

or  third  sowing  may  take  place,  if  required.     A  supply  of  seed  should  always  be  kept  for  this 

purpose. 

On  the  average,  we  may  reckon  that,  to  produce  plants  sufficient  to  cover  an  acre  of  ground, 
the  extent  of  the  seed-bed  must  be  four  square  perches.  Sometimes,  indeed,  this  extent  of  ground 
yields  a  superabundance  of  plants  ;  but  the  waste  is  very  trifling,  since  these  plants  may  be  set  in 
other  situations,  or  even  used  as  gi-een-meat. 

If  we  take  the  trouble  to  pull  up  the  weeds  out  of  the  seed-bed,  we  obtain  more  healthy  plants 
as  the  reward  of  our  labor.  I  have  often  contented  myself  with  mowing  down  the  weeds 
which  grew  more  vigorously  than  the  plants  of  the  seed-bed  ;  and,  in  my  opinion,  this  method  is 
sufficient. 

M^hen  the  seedlings  have  attained  a  due  degree  of  vigor  and  hardihood  in  the  seed-bed,  they 
should  be  transplanted  as  soon  as  possible,  to  prevent  their  stems  from  growing  too  long.  If  the 
weather  be  mild  and  damp  at  the  time  of  transplanting,  the  labor  and  difficulty  of  the  operation 
are  greatly  diminished.  Ail  the  available  hands  must  then  be  employed  upon  it,  in  order  to  take 
advantage  of  this  state  of  the  weather  :  it  is  even  advantageous  to  engage  as  many  additjpnal  la- 
borers as  possible,  in  order  that  the  transplanting  may  be  promptly  executed.  The  cost  of  this 
labor  is  much  diminished  by  properly  dividing  it,  so  that  each  man  may  perform  his  part  without 
delaying  or  hindering  the  others.  It  is  true  that  strict  surveillance  is  required  for  the  attainment 
of  tliis  object ;  but  it  is  better  to  institute  this  superintendence,  and  have  the  work  quickly  exe- 
cuted, than  to  allow  it  to  be  uselessly  protracted  for  want  of  proper  management.  A  certain  num- 
ber of  men  should  bo  employed  to  take  the  plants  out  of  the  seed-bed.  If  the  soil  be  hardened, 
though  in  ever  so  slight  a  degree,  the  plants  must  not  be  forcibly  torn  up  ;  but  the  earth  around 
tliem  must  be  loosened  with  a  spade,  and  thrown  on  one  side,  so  that  they  may  be  taken  up  with 
care,  and  without  injury  to  the  fine  filaments  of  their  roots.  A  bucket  is  then  to  be  filled  with  a 
semi-fluid  composition,  consisting  of  marly  clay,  which  mixes  readily  with  water,  cow-dung,  or 
fermented  dung-water,  and  a  quantity  of  water  just  sufficient  to  give  the  mixture  such  a  degree  of 
consistence  ihat  when  the  roots  of  the  plants  have  been  immersed  in  it,  tiiese  roots  and  their 
most  delicate  filaments  maj*  remain  coated,  and,  as  it  were,  completely  enveloped  bj' it.  The 
next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  take  a  handful  of  plants,  and,  afterhavingcut  ofFthe  ends  of  the  leaves, 
^  to  plunge  the  roots  in  the  .semi-fluid  mixture ;  these  plants  are  then  to  be  placed  handful  after 
'  1  handful  in  a  basket,  and  caiTied  to  the  field  on  which  they  are  to  be  planted.  This  mode  of  cov- 
'  ering  up  the  roots  is  both  simple  and  effectual ;  it  completely  protects  the  plants  against  the  injuri- 
ous action  of  the  air,  keeps  them  moi-st,  and  provides  a  proper  quantity  of  nutriment  for  the  most 
delicate  filaments  of  their  roots.  Plants  thus  prepared  may  without  injury  be  leftoutof  the  gix)und 
for  several  days,  if  they  are  to  be  carried  to  a  place  at  some  distance  off:  it  is,  however,  undoubt- 
edly belter  to  plant-  them  immediately.  If  the  ground  be  moist,  and  the  sky  overcast,  the  plants 
which  have  been  put  into  the  ground  will  not  require  watering,  but  will  remain  standing  without 
\    it ;  and  thus  a  great  deal  of  trouble  will  be  saved. 

The  number  of  persons  employed  to  carry  the  plants  to  the  field  must  be  regulated  according  to 
the  extent  and  distance  of  the  plantation.  These  persons  may,  on  ai'riving  at  the  field,  distribute 
the  plants  to  those  who  are  occupied  in  setting  them  :  or  there  may  be  a  man  specially  employed 
in  carrying  the  plants  from  the  basket,  and  distributing  them  as  they  are  wanted. 

In  the  plantation  itself  the  labor  may  be  divided  between  those  who  make  the  holes  in  the 
places  indicated  by  the  marking-plow,  and  trim  the  plant  by  again  thrusting  their  dibbles  into  the 
ground,  and  pressing  the  mould  against  the  roots,  and  those  who  place  the  plants  in  the  holes. 
But  it  is  necessary  that  the  laborers  should  be  well  practiced  in  the  w^ork,  that  they  may  not  bin- 
der or  delay  one  another  :  otherwise  it  is  pi-eferable  to  let  the  same  man  make  the  holes,  and  put 
i.    the  plants  in  them.     Each  laborer,  or  each  pair  of  laborers,  is  employed  on  one  row  only  at  a 
<    time,  unless  the  plantation  is  to  be  very  thick  :  in  that  case  each  takes  two  rows.     The  laborers 
\   work  bias,  following  one  another  both  in  going  down  the  field  and  in  returning :  they  should  always   i 
be  kept  as  much  as  possible  in  these  relative  positions.  ' 

It  is  usual  to  make  the  holes  and  trim  the  plants  with  a  wooden  dibble,  furnished  with  a  proper 
handle  :  but  it  is  better  to  u.se  an  iron  tool,  by  which,  if  a  little  expertness  be  acquired  in  using  it,   ' 
the  operation  of  the  planting  is  greatly  facilitated.     The  planter  cultivates  the  soil  with  it :  he   ' 
shifts  the  instrument  a  little  from  its  place,  introduces  the  plant  into  the  hole,  stirs  the  mould  around   | 
it  to  enable  it  to  shp  into  the  hole,  and  again  thrusts  his  dibble  into  the  ground,  so  as  to  press  the 
earth  again.^t  the  roots  without  injuring  them.     If  the  laborers  are  unskillful  at  this  operation,  it  is 
doubtless  better  to  fit  the  dibble  with  a  straight  handle,  having  at  the  top  a  little  cross-piece  on 
which  the  workmen  can  lean,  in  order  to  thrust  the  implement  more  firmly  into  the  ground.    The 

(:o7o) 


Boil  is  not  so  much  hardened  by  this  instrument,  as  it  would  be  by  a  round  piece  of  wood. 

If  the  soil  is  dry,  the  weather  warm,  and  the  sun  powerful,  no  time  must  be  lost  in  watering  the 
plants  after  they  have  been  placed  in  the  ground :  the  water  for  this  purpose  is  carried  to  the 
plantation  in  buVkmg-tubs.  In  such  a  state  of  the  weather  it  is  advisable  not  to  plant  in  the  early 
part  of  the  day. 

Even  when  the  planting  has  succeeded  as  well  as  can  possibly  be  expected,  there  w^ill  always 
be  a  deficiency  of  a  few  plants,  arising  from  their  not  having  taken  root,  or  having  been  destroyed 
by  accident.  As  soon  as  this  deficiency  is  perceived,  fresh  plants  must  be  pul  into  the  ground 
with  all  possible  expedition ;  for,  if  this  operation  be  delayed,  the  plants  afterward  introduced  to 
fill  the  vacant  spaces  will  not  grow  to  the  same  bight  as  the  others,  but  will,  on  the  contrary,  be 
choked  by  them.  Sometimes,  however,  before  replanting,  it  is  advisable  to  rake  the  ground  with 
a  horserake,  otherwise  the  plants  recently  put  in  might  easily  be  buried  under  the  earth 
turned  up.  Good  and  healthy  plants  must  be  kept  ready  for  this  purpose  :  it  is  useless  to  plant 
tliose  which  have  been  left  behind  on  account  of  their  weakness ;  they  would  have  no  chance  of 
succeeding. 

These  vegetables  are  usually  planted  on  unbroken  and  level  ground,  or  else  on  ridges  or  lands   > 
of  various  widths.     But  it  is  also  the  practice  to  plant,  and  even  to  drill,  on  verynarrow  ridges 
previously  formed  by  the  plow.     The  object  of  this  method  is  to  supply  the  roots  from  the  begin- 
ning with  a  thicker  stratum  of  humus.     The  best  mode  of  forming  the  ridges  is  to  use  the  large   | . 
double  mould-board  plow,  which  does  the  work  very  well.  Sometimes  the  roller  is  passed  length-    | 
wise  over  the  ridge.s,  in  order  to  depress  their  crov/ns  a  little.     This  mode  of  cultivation  is  ofren   ; 
highly  successful,  because  the  roots  meet  with  nothing  but  light  and  fertile  soil  to  a  considerable 
depth,  and  thus  have  more  room  to  spread.     But  the  diflBcuky  of  de.stroying  weeds  is  at  the  same 
time  increased  ;  and  it  becomes  necessary,  either  to  resort  to  the  method  described  at  p.  444,  or   , 
else  to  seize  the  moment  when  the  greater  number  of  weeds  which  show  themselves  at  the  surface   i 
of  the  ground  have  germinated  and  put  forth  their  seed-leaves  ;  and  then  with  the  same  jjIow  that   i 
has  been  used  for  forming  ridges,  care  being  taken  to  separate  the  mould-boards  to  a  somewhat 
greater  distance  at  the  back,  the  fui-rows  are  again  turned  up,  and  the  young  shoots  thus  covered 
with  fresh  mould  brought  up  from  the  bottoms  of  these  furrows.     On  the  tops  of  the  ridges  in  the 
rows  in  which  the  plants  grow,  the  weeds  are  soon  destroyed  with  the  hand-hoe.     But  if  the  favor- 
able moment  be  allowed  to  pass,  the  removal  of  weeds  becomes  very  difficult,  because   it  then 
becomes  scarcely  possible  to  use  either  the  paring-plow  or  the  horse-rake  for  this  purpose.    I  have 
always  obtained  excellent  crops  by  this  method.     It  is  not,  indeed,  applicable  to  dry,  loose  soils ;   , 
but,  oil  the  other  hand,  it  is  excellent  for  those  which  are  moist  and  tenacious.  ' 

The  machine  for  drilHug  at  wide  intervals  may  also  be  used  for  sowing  the  seed  of  these  plants 
in  ridges  ;  and  as  the  thickness  of  the  vegetable  soil  is  considerable,  the  success  of  the  method  is 
as  great  as  can  be  wished  ;  but  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  soil  free  from  weeds  is  even  greater 
than  when  other  methods  are  employed.     According  to  my  own  experience,  indeed,  I  should   ' 
recommend  that  this  method  be  adopted  only  on  soils  which  have  previously  been  well  weeded.   ' 

It  is  recommended  by  some  cultivators  to  place  all  the  manure,  especially  when  tlie  quantity  of  ' 
it  is  insufficient,  exactly  under  the  rov^-s,  in  order  that  the  plants  may  derive  the  greatest  possible   | 
quantity  of  nourishment  from  it.     The  method  pursued  is  as  follows  : — In  the  first  place,  furrows     ' 
are  made  with  the  double  mould-board  plow  as  nearly  as  possible  in  straight  hne.s,  and  at  equal 
distances.     The  dung  is  then  brought  in  a  cart  drawn  by  one  hor.se,  but  wide  enough  to  admit  of 
tne  wheels  running  in  two  furrows,  one  on  each  side  of  that  in  which  the  horse  walks.     A  man  fol- 
lowing tlie  cart  draws  out  the  dung  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  it  fall  into  the  middle  fuiTOw  in    ' 
little  heaps,  at  small  distances  apart,  while  two  others  spread  it  in  the  three  furrows  at  once.     The   ' 
dung  used  for  this  purpose  must  be  free  from  straw.     When  it  has  been  thus  spread  out,  the  inter- 
furrows  are  turned  up  with  the  same  plow,  which  is  now  made  to  enter  as  deeply  as  possit/ie,  and 
the  dung  is  thus  covered  by  the  mould  taken  out  of  the  new  furrow.  Afterward  the  roller  is  pass- 
ed over  the  ground  in  the  direction  of  the  ridges  in  order  to  depress  them,  and  the  vegetables  are 
sown  or  planted  on  them.     The  plants  are  thus  set  exactly  over  the  manure.  ' 

The  advantages  of  this  method  do  not,  however,  appear  to  me  so  great  as  many  persons  assert, 
I  prefer  first  to  carry  all  the  dung  on  to  the  field,  and  then  to  mix  it  with  the  vegetable  soil  by  re- 
peated plowings.     This  method,  even  if  not  more  advantageous  to  the  hoed  crop  \^'hich  immediate-    : 
ly  follows  its  application,  is  certainly  more  beneficial  to  those  which  come  after;  and  it  is  to  these    i^ 
latter  that  attention  should  chietty  be  directed.     When  the  plants  are  earthed  up,  they  always  get    ' , 
access  by  their  roots  to  the  manure  which  is  mixed  with  the  vegetable  soil,  since  the  whole  of  this 
stratum  is  heaped  up  close  to  them.     On  the  other  hand,  although  this  operation  is  not  difficult,  it  is 
very  tedious,  and  causes  considerable  delay.     I  have  tried  it  but  once,  and  I  therefore  hold  my 
opinion  subject  to  correction,  according  to  the  results  of  well-conducted  experiments. 

Finally,  it  must  be  remembered  that  all  these  crops  require  the  land  to  be  deeply  plowed. 

VEGETABLES  FOR  THE  MARKET. 

•  Many  of  these  may,  by  cultivation  with  the  horse-hoe,  be  raised  to  great  advantage. 

The  pecuniary  profit  arising  from  the  culture  of  vegetables  for  the  market  is,  in  some  cases  so 
extraordinai-y,  that  we  cannot  but  wonder  at  the  limited  extent  of  this  branch  of  husbandry,  which 
is,  in  fact,  confined  to  certain  countries,  and  even  there  limited  to  particular  kinds  of  produce.  In 
many  countries  it  is  almost  or  even  entirely  unknown,  although  vegetables  of  this  description  are 
often  very  much  wanted,  and  must  be  procured  from  foreign  countries,  after  having  passed  through 
the  hands  of  several  traders.  In  many  countries,  in  consequence  of  the  practice  of  this  branch  of 
husbandry,  the  value  of  the  soil  or  the  rent  of  landed  property  seems  capable  of  surpassing  the 
highest  rate  that  it  has  ever  yet  attained,  even  at  a  time  when  this  rate  would  otherwise  fall  with 
the  diminished  price  of  grain.  The  greater  the  depression  in  the  price  of  grain,  the  higher  is  the 
profit  derived  from  these  vegetables,  because,  when  the  price  of  corn  falls,  that  of  labor  falls  with  it. 
When  a  naval  war  throws  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  exportation  of  corn,  which  is  always  the  basis 
(1071) 


448  THAER  S   PRINCIPLES    OF  AGRICULTURE. 

of  the  active  commerce  of  Germany,  the  price  of  grain  falls,  while  the  value  of  these  vegetables 
rises,  a  circumstance  which  greatly  increases  the  importance  of  their  cultivation  at  such  a  time.  It 
is,  undoubtedly,  by  this  description  of  produce  that  the  skill  and  energy  of  the  cultivator  are  best 
repaid  Why,  then,  do  not  all  agriculturists  avail  themselves  of  this  source  of  profit,  more  especial- 
ly at  a  time  when  they  have  so  much  reason,  as  they  have  had  from  1809  to  1811,  to  complain  of  the 
low^  price  of  the  more  ordinary  kinds  of  produce  ? 

The  neglect  of  this  branch  o'f  husbandry  arises,  no  doubt,  from  the  various  difficulties  connected 
with  it— difficulties  which  many  cultivators  know  not  how  to  conquer,  and,  in  meeting  which,  they 
follow  the  example  of  other  persons  who  have  met  with  nothing  but  rain  in  the  pursuit  of  this    ' 
branch  of  Agriculture.  „    j-'     .,  , 

Almost  all  plants  of  this  description  require  a  soil  which  is  either  naturally  fertile,  or  has  been 
greatly  improved  by  careful  tiUage.     They  require  abundance  of  manure  for  the  production  of  , 
which  they  do  not,  like  grain  and  fodder-plants,  afford  the  primary  material.     Hence,  the  agricul- 
tural circumstances  of  some  countries  are  directly  oppcsed  to  the  practice  of  this  branch  of  husband- 
ry ;  which  is  consequently  limited  to  particular  districts,  where  natural  fertility  of  soil,  situation,  or    ,  | 
an' improving  system  of  tillage  continued  for  a  long  series  of  years,  has  produced  a  superabun 
dance  of  manure.    ^Vhen,  without  attending  to  the.se  circumstances,  a  cultivator,  led  a\%  ay  by 
the  great  profit  which  the  culture  of  these  vegetables  seemed  likely  to  yield,  has  undertaken  to 
raise  them  in  large  quantities,  the  pi-ofit  at  first  ari.sing  from  them  has,  perhaps,  been  enormous  ;  but 
subsequently,  the  establishment,  taken  as  a  whole,  has  been  exhausted  andweakened  to  such  a  de- 
gree, that  the  final  result  has  been  decided  loss.    Many  cultivators  have  reahzed  as  much  as  thirty  or 
foity'  rix-dollars  per  acre  net  profit  in  this  \\ay,  and  have  afterward  been  utterly  ruined.     The  first 
essentials  toward  the  raising  of  these  vesretables  in  large  quantities  are,  then,  a  soil  in  good  condi- 
tion, and  a  superabundance  of  manure  of  the  kind  required  by  the  very  crops  which  form  the  raw 
material  of  manures.     A  system  of  husbandry  founded  on  the  continued  production  of  a  large 
quantity  of  fodder,  and  the  preservation  of  the  fertility  of  the  scjil,  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
safe  cultivation  of  vegetables  for  the  market,  unless,  indeed,  the  land  be  favored  by  Nature  in  an 
'i    extraordinary  degree.     If  the  soil  can  be  abundantly  replenished  with  the  substances  which  these    ' 
''    plants  take  from  it,  the  greater  number  of  them  will  keep  it  clean  and  light,  either  by  their  own    ' 
/   action  or  in  consequence  of  the  cultivation  which  they  require  ;  they  also  aficDrd  an  excellent  prep-    ' 
'    aration  for  those  kinds  of  produce  which  are  more  commonly  raised  in  the  field  ' 

Moreover,  the  cultivation  of  vegetables  for  the  market  requires  an  exact  knowledge  of  their  na- 
ture, and  of  all  circumstances  connected  with  them.  A  person  not  possessed  of  this  knowledp-e  is 
very  likely  to  neglect  some  point  or  other,  which,  at  first  sight  may  appear  indifferent,  but  -which. 
in  reality,  has  great  influence  on  the  success  of  the  crops.  The  gi-eater  number  of  them  must  not, 
like  cereals,  be  left  to  themselves  during  the  time  of  their  growth':  the  cultivator  cannot  say,  when 
the  seed  tinie  is  over,  "  My  seed  is  sown  :  God  will  give  it  increase:"  on  the  contrary,  plants  of 
this  description  require  continued  attention  and  repeated  culture.  It  is  true  that  the  total  amount 
of  labor  required  for  this  purpose  is  in  many  cases  but  trifling  :  but  the  operations  of  which  we 
are  speaking  are  not  on  that  account  to  be  dispensed  with  ;  and  what  is  more,  they  must  be  exe- 
cuted at  certain  precise  times :  the  delay  even  of  a  single  day  may  often  be  attended  with  the 
most  nii-schievous  consequences,  particularly  if  it  be  necessary  to  take  advantage  of  a  favorable 
I  state  of  the  weather,  and  a  particular  degree  of  humidity  in  the  soil,  which  last  but  for  a  short  time.  \ 
Whoever  undertakes  this  branch  of  husbandry  on  a  large  scale,  must  be  able  to  comprehend  at  a    / 

i    glance  the  whole  space  over  which  his  operations  extend,  as  precisely  as  a  gardener  surveys  the 
hmited  extent  of  ground  on  which  he  works :  he  must  give  to  his  produce  all  the  attention  which 
*\   it  requires,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  remove  from  it  all  that  may  be  hurtful.  / 

'  I  It  is  not  sufficient  to  calculate  the  mere  cost  of  the  operations  which  must  be  perfonned  by  man-  < 
ual  labor  and  with  the  aid  of  horses.  The  time  over  which  these  labors  extend  is  veiy  short. — 
Trifling  as  they  may  be  in  the  sum  total  of  the  labor  required,  they  are,  nevertheless,  very  trouble- 
some at  the  precise  moment  when  they  are  wanted.  They  occur  at  a  time  when  all  the  availa-  ' 
ble  resources  are  required  for  gathering  in  the  ordinary  produce  ;  and  the  cultivator  may,  there- 
fore, be  reduced  to  the  alternative  of  sacrificing  either  the  one  or  the  other.  Hence,  in  the  culture 
of  each  of  these  vegetables,  it  is  necessary  to  calculate  when  this  particular  time  will  arrive,  and 
how  the  operations  then  required  can  be  reconciled  with  those  of  other  parts  of  the  economy.  An 
extraordinary  state  of  the  weather  may  retard  the  proper  period  :  generally,  however,  the  rates 
of  growth  of"  different  plants  appear  to  preserve  the  same  ratio  one  to  another  ;  so  that,  when  one 
is  accelerated  or  retarded  in  its  growth,  the  others  are  affected  in  a  similar  manner.  But  we  must 
know  how  to  calculate  accordingly  the  time  for  sowing  or  planting,  and  always  be  in  advance 
with  each  operation.  A  harvest  as  much  before  the  usual  time  as  that  of  1811  caus»s  a  very 
troublesome  interraptionin  the  regular  succession  of  agricultural  labors. 

The  difficulty  of  this  calculation  increases  with  the  number  of  marketable  vegetables  cultivated 
tcether.  If  a' selection  can  be  made  in  such  a  manner  that  the  operations  required  by  the  differ- 
ent plants  which  are  raised  together  shall  follow  one  another  conveniently,  a  great  variety  then 
becomes  advantageous,  and  accords  well  with  the  general  circumstances  of  the  establishment, — 
The  same  laborers  may  then  be  constantly  occupied  in  the  same  kind  of  work,  and  thus  be  render- 
ed more  skillful  at  it:  and,  moreover,  wherever  there  is  a  continued  supply  of  work,  a  sufficient 
number  of  laborers  may  generally  be  obtained  for  moderate  -wages  ;  but  there  is  always  a  difficul-  ( 
ty  in  obtaining  them  when  they  can  be  employed  but  for  a  short  time,  particularly  if  they  are  of 
that  class  who  may  be  entrusted  with  operations  requiring  particular  attention  and  long  practice. 
A  cultivator  who  does  not  know  how  to  make  a  judicious  selection,  but  is  induced,  regardless 
of  the  preceding  considerations,  to  cultivate  those  vegetables  only  which  yield  the  largest  return 
when  perfectly  successful,  will  not  fail  to  pay  for  his  imprudence  by  serious  losses. 

But  few  of  these  vegetables  can  be  taken  to  market  immediately  after  they  are  gathered  ;  they 
require  store-houses  to  keep  them  in,  as  well  as  particular  implertents  and  modes  of  treatment : 
and  these  store-houses  must  often  be  built  on  a  very  large  scale.    Now,  all  these  things  demand 
(1072) 


considerable  outlay  ;  and  when  such  undertakings  are  limited  to  the  production  of  a  single  species 
of  vegetable,  the  capital  soon  becomes  loaded  with  a  veiy  heavy  interest.  Commercial  fluctua- 
tions, too,  may  reduce  to  nothing  the  profit  anticipated  li-om  the  production  of  this  particular  arti- 
cle, and  then  all  the  capital  invested  in  it  is  dissipated.  Estabhshments  for  the  production  of  veg- 
etables for  the  market  must,  therefore,  be  so  ordered  as  to  admit  of  the  culture  of  different  species, 
either  at  once  or  in  succession. 

A  prudent  cultivator  can  never  be  at  a  loss  for  a  market  to  dispose  of  all  his  useful  produce ; 
but  it  may  happen  that  many  portions  of  it  do  not  admit  of  being  immediately  sold  to  the  consu- 
mer, but  must  previously  pass  through  the  hands  of  the  merchant.  Now,  the  merchant  is  not  to 
/  be  blamed  for  so  far  acting  up  to  the  first  principle  of  his  trade,  viz.,  to  make  the  rnost  of  every 
, '  thing,  as  to  endeavor  to  buy  at  the  lowest  possible  price,  and  to  take  advantage  of  the  cultivator's 
embarrassment,  especially  when  the  latter  is  in  want  of  money.  It  is  therefore  necessary,  before 
we  undertake  to  raise  produce  of  this  description,  particularly  in  countries  where  it  is  not  in  actual 
use,  to  make  ourselves  acquainted  with  the  mercantile  circumstances  of  the  country,  and,  as  far 
as  possible,  to  make  sure  of  a  purchaser  beforehand.  Should  this  be  impossible,  operations  must 
be  restricted  to  the  production  of  those  vegetables  the  sale  of  which  is.  to  a  certain  extent,  fixed 
in  the  country  ;  and  such  are  always  to  be  found. 

The  price  of  this  produce  is  always  fluctuating :  we  can  never  reckon  upon  the  maximum  of  a 
.    series  of  recent  prices  ;  for,  indeed,  it  is  precisely  the  existence  of  a  very  high  price  which  soon    i 
'   brings  on  a  very  great  depre.ssion  ;  because,  all  who  are  able  to  produce  the  article  in  question 
I     are  induced  by  the  high  price  to  devote  themselves  to  its  cultivation,  and,  consequently,  the  mar-    ' 
ket  is  completely  glutted  with  it.     It  is  often  prudent  to  check  the  production  of  one  plant,  in  or- 
der to  increase  that  of  another,  when  the  demand  for  and  price  of  the  former  have  risen  to  such  a 
hight  as  to  induce  every  one  to  speculate  in  it.     On  the  other  hand,  a  prudent  cultivator  will  not 
easily  be  induced  to  abandon  altogether  the  production  of  a  plant  of  first-rate  utility,  and  break  up 
all  the  arrangements  which  he  has  made  for  the  purpose,  even  when  the  price  has  fallen  very  low. 
He  will  rather  wait  patiently  in  the  hope  that  the  price  will  soon  rise  again ;  because,  under  such 
circumstances,  the  greater  number  of  cultivator.s  become  disgusted  with  the  production  of  the  plant 
in  question.     It  is  thus  that  the  great  variations  in  the  price  and  cultivation  of  hops,  madder,  and 
woad  have  risen  in  several  countries  in  which  the  production  of  these  plants  had  been  natural- 
ized :  it  was  entirely  abandoned  when  prices  fell  low,  and  was  not  resumed  until  the  favorable 
moment  for  reaping  the  greatest  advantage  from  it  had  already  passed. 

The  cultivator  who.se  operations  are  conducted  on  a  large  scale  should  choose  from  among  the 
vegetables  of  this  class,  and  especially  from  such  as  are  used  in  hi.s  own  country,  those  in  particu- 
lar which,  by  a  proper  division  of  labor  and  the  use  of  suitable  implements,  can  be  cultivated 
without  much  expenditure  of  manual  labor ;  for  where  mere  labor  is  concerned,  he  will  rarely  be 
able  to  compete  with  the  .small  cultivator  who  executes  such  operations  assiduously  with  the  help 
of  his  family.  The  latter,  content  vvith  a  small  profit,  offers  his  produce  at  a  low  price,  so  that  it 
is  the  merchant,  and  not  the  cultivator,  who  is  enriched  by  it.  . 

We  are  fully  disposed  to  admit  that  the  production  of  vegetables  for  the  market  is  the  highest     | 
aim  that  an  enliglitened  agriculturist  should  have  in  view,  .since  this  branch  of  hu.sbandry  is  really 
more  profitable  than  any  other  ;  but  we  are  also  of  opinion  that  he  should  not  devote  himself  to  it 
without  considerable  caution,  but  take  it  up  by  degrees,  and  assure  himself  beforehand  of  a  plen- 
tiful and  continual  supply  of  manure. 

I  have  thought  it  my  duty  to  define,  by  the  observations  just  concluded,  the  true  limits  between 
the  seductive  praises  which  some  per.sons  have  lavished  on  this  branch  of  Agriculture,  and  the    ' 
discouraging  objections  of  others. 

OIL-PLANTS. 

The  plants  most  commonly  cultivated  for  the  production  of  oil,  belong  to  the  genus  brassica. 
This  race  of  plants  has,  in  the  course  of  cultivation  to  which  it  has  been  submitted  from  time  im-  ' 
memorial,  undergone  such  remarkable  modifications,  and  produced  so  many  varieties  or  degene- 
racies, that  there  is  considerable  difficulty  in  distinguishing  and  separating  its  different  species  ; 
viz.,  those  which  have  acquired  a  certain  permanence  of  character;  and  .still  more  in  investigating 
their  origin,  and  determining  by  what  crossings  they  have  been  produced.  We  shall  here  notice 
only  those  varieties  which  are  cultivated  in  preference  to  others  for  the  production  of  oil ;  though, 
in  fact,  all  plants  of  this  genus  produce  seeds  containing  considerable  quantities  of  oil,  and  are 
sometimes  used  for  obtaining  it. 

All  plants  of  this  family  appear  to  be  biennials  ;  so  that  it  is  not  till  the  second  year  of  their  ex- 
istence that  they  shoot  forth  their  flower-stalks  and  produce  seed.  One  species  only  appears  to 
form  an  exception  to  this  rule,  viz.,  the  spring  colza  or  field-cabbage  (brassica  campestrisj.  This 
plant  is  not,  as  some  suppose,  a  degenerated  variety  of  autumnal  rape,  or  cole-seed,  but  really  a 
distinct  species. 

Colza  and  Rape  [Autumnal  Varieties). 

We  shall  first  notice  the  plants  of  this  kind  which  are  sown  in  autumn.  There  are  two  essen- 
tially distinct  species  cultivated  ;  they  are,  however,  often  confounded,  both  in  name  and  in  mode 
of  cultivation ;  but  it  is  of  importance  to  the  cultivator  to  be  well  acquainted  with  their  differ- 
ences. J 

One  is  the  brassica  oleacea  laciniata,  a  variety  of  the  garden  cabbage.  It  is  commonly  known 
by  the  name  of  colza,  or  large  colza,  from  the  German  word  "  kohl-saat,"  signifying  cabbage-seed. 

The  other  kind  which  is  called  "  rape,"  is  a  variety  of  the  brassica  napus.  It  is  more  common 
in  Germany  than  the  former,  because  it  may  be  sown  later,  and  thrives  on  a  less  fertile  soil ; 
moreover,  many  persons  cultivate  it  because  they  are  unacquainted  with  colza,  which  they  would 
otherwise  find  more  profitable  and  le.':.^  precarious.  _  To  ctihWc  the  practical  cultivator  to  distin- 
guish readily  between  these  plants,  I  shall  here  exhibit  their  distinguishing  characters  side  by  side. 

(;ij:-) '^'^ 


Colza — (Brassica  Campesiris). 
(a)    Belongs  to  ibe  cabbage  tribe,  and  resembles 
le  plants  of  this  family  in  all  its  characters. 
(fc).  Principal  root  cylindrical. 


(c).  Leaves  smooth,  fleshy,  bright,  green,  some- 
times (especially  the  lower  ones)  copper-colored,  and 
covered  with  a  whitish  down. 

(rf).  Stem  strong,  giving  out  no  branches  from  its 
lower  part ;  but,  aboVe  ascertain  hight,  throvs-ing  out 
branches  which  spread  more  in  the  horizontal  thtm 
in  the  vertical  direction 

(e).  Flowers,  bright  yellow,  come  out  and  ripen 
late. 

(/).  Siliquous  and  seeds  large. 

(^).  Requires  early  Bowing,"  that  it  may  take  root 
wefl. 

(/().  Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  strong,  and 
■  well. 


Rape — (Brassica  Napus). 

(a).  Belongs  to  the  radish  tribe,  and  bears  a  greater 
resemblancelo  the  plants  of  that  family. 

(6).  Principal  root?  fusiform,  closely  resembling 
that  of  the  radis'. :  when  the  plant  has  room  to  spread, 
it  sometimes  produces  a  true  radish. 

(c).  Leaves  hairy,  thinner,  less  rounded  at  their 
exti-emities. 

(d).  Stem  not  so  strong,  throwing  out  from  its  low- 
er part  branches  which  form  an  acute  angle  with  it. 

(e).  Flowers  deeper  yellow,  come  out  and  ripen 
earlier. 
(/).  Siliquous  and  seeds  smaller. 
{g-).  May  be  sown  later. 

(h).  More  delicate,  and  easily  destroyed  by  the 
winter. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  these  two  plants  confounded  and  mixed  together,  and,  in  conntines 
where  both  are  cultivated,  to  meet  with  a  hybrid  variety  ;  at  least  I  think  1  have  seen  it.  This 
intermingling  of  the  two  sj)ecies  is  altogether  improjier,  especially  on  account  of  the  difference  in 
their  seasons  of  maturity  ;  no  pains  should  therefore  be  spared  to  procure  the  seed  of  one  species 
or  the  other  unmixed. 

Ill  countries  where  these  plants  are  much  cultivated,  they  are  both  included  under  the  denom- 
ination of  autumnal  plant  .seed,  or  simply  plant-seed,  a  circumstance  which  has  given  rise  to  fre- 
quent misnnderstandiugs  between  cultivators,  both  in  those  countries  and  in  others. 

The.se  two  plants  may  be  perfectly  well  cultivated  on  all  soils  which  are  proper  for  wheat  and 
barley,  but  chiefly  on  those  containing  from  -50  to  60  per  cent,  of  sand,  together  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  lime. 

A  condition  absolutely  necessary  for  the  success  of  these  plants  is,  that  the  soil  be  completely 
purified  and  drained  ;  for  dampness  in  winter  is  always  fatal  to  them.  When  this  condition  is 
fulfilled,  colza  will  also  thrive  on  tlie  light  but  rich  soils  ofalluvialbasins,especially  when  it  issown 
early  in  the  season  and  enabled  to  take  firm  root.  But  rape  absolutely  requires  a  soil  having 
some  degree  of  consi.stence  ;  on  a  lighter  soil,  it  is  easily  uprooted  by  frost. 

A  very  rich  soil  is  required  (or  colza,  more  even  than  for  rape  :  these  plants  must,  therefore, 
be  raised  on  a  soil  which  is  either  naturally  fertile,  or  has  received  more  than  double  the  ordinary 
quantity  of  mann  e.  It  is  also  necessarj'  that  the  manure  be  easily  soluble  ;  and,  consequently, 
that  the  stable  dung  be  in  a  somewhat  advanced  state  of  fermentation,  and  well  mixed  with  the 
soil.  It  is  often  the  practice  to  manure  the  land  with  dung,  bury  the  dung  by  one  of  the  early 
plowiugs,  and  then,  before  sowing,  to  turn  the  sheep  into  the  field. 

It  is  equally  necessary  that  the  soil  he  well  cultivated  and  pulverized.  The  plow  and  the  har- 
row must  be  used  at  least  four  times ;  and  iii  the  plovvings  which  immediately  precede  the  sow- 
ing, the  roller  is  also  brought  into  use  for  the  purpose  of  minutely  dividing  the  vegetable  soil.  In 
treneral.  therefore,  the  cultivation  of  tliese  plants  extends  over  two  years  ;  and  the  rent  of  the  land 
during  all  that  time  must  be  placed  to  their  account.  It  is  true  that  we  not  unfrequently  see  rape 
(with  colza  the  method  would  utterly  fail)  sown  on  the  stubble  of  rye,  after  the  land  ha.s"  been  has- 
tily manured  and  plowed  two  or  three  times.  But  this  method  generally  produces  but  a  very 
poor  crop,  not  amounting  to  more  than  half  the  usual  quantity ;  and  besides  this,  the  soil  is  terribly 
exposed  to  become  infested  with  weeds.  I  have  seen  verj'  good  lands,  which  had  been  treated 
in  this  manner  at  short  intervals,  become  deteriorated  and  exhausted  to  such  a  degree,  that  it  was 
not  till  after  several  fallowings  that  a  satisfactory  crop  of  wheat  was  again  obtained  fi'om  them. 
Every  cultivator,  whose  views  are  ever  so  little  extended,  should  beware  of  adopting  so  ill-advised 
a  method. 

Better  results  have  been  obtained  by  raising  t-wo  successive  crops  of  these  plants  on  the  same 
land  ;  devoting  the  interval  between  harvest  and  seed-time  to  a  careful  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and 
manuring  it  well,  if  it  be  not  already  in  a  state  of  great  fertility.* 

When  a  field  of  clover  has  been  well  covered,  we  may  yet  obtain  a  crop  from  it  in  the  .sowing 
year,  provided  we  mow  early,  so  as  to  be  able  to  plow  the  land  three  times  more.  But  the  soil 
must  be  thoroughly  cleansed" from  dog's-grass.  The  land  may  also  be  made  available  for  raising 
a  crop  of  tares,  to  be  mo\vn  in  the  green  state  ;  provided  it  be  plowed  once  before  sowing  the 
tares,  and  twice  after  they  are  gathered. 

The  usual  time  for  .sowing  colza  is  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  middle  of  August ;  it  may, 
however,  be  safely  sown  at  an  earlier  part  of  the  season,  for  it  never  produces  seed  the  first  year. 
The  time  tor  sowing  rape  is  from  the  middle  of  August  to  the  beginning  of  September. 

The  sowing  should  take  place  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  plowing  intended  as  a  preparation 
for  it  As  .soon,  therefore,  as  this  plowing  is  finished,  the  ground  should  be  harrowed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  leveling  it,  and  afterward  rolled.  The  seed  is  then  to  be  put  into  the  ground,  the  haiTow 
passed  lightly  over  it,  and  also  the  roller,  if  the  soil  be  dry.  If  however,  a  heavy  rain  should  fall, 
either  during,  or  immediately  after  the  sowing,  there  will  be  no  necessitj'  either  for  harrowing  or 
rolling,  since  the  seed  will  then  be  sufficiently  covered  without  these  operations.  If  the  soil  should 
bi  much  clotted  by  the  rain,  it  will  be  useful  to  pass  the  harrow  lightly  over  it  before  the  seed 
comes  up. 

It  is  particularly  important  that  the  seed  be  uniformly  distributed  over  the  land.  The  best  plan 
is  not  to  use  more  than  five  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  and  to  sow^  it  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to 

*  Vide  "  Thagr's  Vermischte  Schriften,"  ler  Band.    S.  486,  A. 


leave  any  vacant  spaces  ;  for  when  the  plants  are  very  close  together,  they  retard  one  another's 
growth,  become  weakened  during  wnter,  and  die  ;  but  when  they  are  farther  apart,  they  be- 
come strong,  and  able  to  resist  the  injurious  effects  of  particular  stat  s  of  the  atmosphere.  Even, 
when  plants  unequally  sown  are  able  to'  live  through  the  winter,  those  which  are  too  close  to- 
gether are,  notwithstanding,  stunted  in  their  gi-owth,  and  rarely  capable  of  ripening  their  seed. 
For  colza  it  is  therefore  of  great  importance  to  employ  a  skillful  sower  ;  if  we  hear  of  one  living 
at  any  distance,  we  ought  by  no  means  to  hesitate  about  engaging  him,  and  paying  him  a  ducat 
per  day  if  he  demand  it.  A  bad  sower  may  cause  the  crop  to  I'ail.  If  v^e  cannot  depend  on  the 
skill  of  the  sower,  it  is  better  to  sow  eight  pounds  of  seed  per  acre. 

The  land  should  be  provided  with  good  ditches  and  drainage  furrows,  for  carrj-ing  off  the 
water.     In  winter,  during  a  thaw,  all  possible  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  drains  clear. 

If,  toward  the  end  of  summer,  a  great  number  of  weeds,  particularly  of  the  wild  mustard  tribe, 
sho-ald  spring  up  among  a  crop  of  early  sown  colza,  they  should  be  cut  while  in  flower:  even  if 
the  leaves  of  the  colza  should  be  cut  at  the  same  time,  the  plants  will  not  be  injured.  In  this 
manner,  a  considerable  quantity  of  fodder  may  be  derived  in  autumn  from  a  field  of  colza. 

If  a  field  sown  with  colza  enter  upon  the  winter  in  good  condition,  the  plants  being  healthy,  of 
a  deep  green  color,  neither  too  crowded  nor  too  far  apart,  and,  lastly,  if  the  arrangements  for 
draining  and  carrying  off  the  water  have  been  judiciously  made,  there  is  every  reason  to  hope 
for  a  good  crop ;  still,  however,  there  is  something  to  be  apprehended  from  the  critical  period  at 
the  end  of  winter.  A  continued  alternation  of  thaw  and  frost  uproots  the  plants  and  kills  them. 
The  melting  of  ice  and  snow  under  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  the  fi-ost  which  follows  in  the  night, 
are  dangerous  to  all  crops  which  grow  during  winter  ;  and  the  more  so  in  proportion  as  the  upper 
layer  of  the  soil  is  more  saturated  with  water,  which  is  unable  to  pass  off  through  the  lower  stra- 
I  turn,  because  that  stratum  is  frozen.  Under  all  these  circumstances,  it  is  impossible  that  the  seed- 
lings may  be  destroyed,  even  though  they  have  been  sown  with  the  utmost  care. 

Besides  the  plant-louse,  which  attacks  it  immediately  after  seed-time,  colza  is  also  subject  to  the 
ravages  of  other  enemies,  viz.,  the  mouse,  the  weevil  (which  lays  its  eggs  in  the  flower,  whence 
there  springs  a  worm  that  feeds  upon  the  seed-vessels),  and  the  glow-worm  (nUidvla  mneaj.  It  is 
said  that  these  insects  multiply  with  peculiar  rapidity  in  districts  where  the  cultivation  of  plants 
of  this  kind  has  long  been  practiced. 

Such  are  the  ordinary  principles  of  the  culture  of  rape  and  colza  ;  for  these  plants  do  not  differ 
in  any  respect  excepting  those  already  pointed  out.  But  in  the  Netherlands,  and  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  Rhine,  and  likewise  in  some  parts  of  England,  the  practice  of  transplanting  has 
been  long  established,  particularly  with  regard  to  colza.  Wherever  the  value  of  a  fertile  soil  is 
great  in  comparison  with  the  price  of  labor,  this  method  appears  to  be  almost  universally  follow- 
ed ;  because  it  admits  of  a  great  part  of  the  land  being  made  available  even  during  the  year  in 
which  the  transplanting  takes  place,  and,  at  the  same  time,  affords  an  opportunity  for  executing 
the  necessary  plowings.  Various  descriptions  have  been  given  of  this  method,  but  the  most  accu- 
rate is  that  of  Schwertz,  in  his  excellent  work  on  Flemish  Agriculture. 

Transplanting  is  performed  either  after  plowing,  or  with  the  spade  or  dibbler.  As  I  cannot 
speak  of  this  method  from  my  own  knowledge,  I  must  refer  my  readers  to  the  work  of  Schwertz  ; 
which  will,  doubtless,  be  in  the  hands  of  every  cultivator  who  wishes  to  adopt  the  method. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  method  which  Schwertz  describes  as  very  successful  in  his  own  hands, 
viz.,  that  of  drilling  in  rows,  separated  by  considerable  intervals,  is  one  with  which  I  have  long 
been  practically  familiar,  aiid  which  I  shall  probably  always  adopt  in  sowing  colza  for  seed.  I 
trace  furrows  for  the  marking-plow,  two  feet  apart,  and  sow  the  colza  with  the  radish-drill.  This 
operation  is  performed  on  a  well  prepared  soil ;  the  tracing  out  of  the  rows  being  preceded  by  ' 
one  more  cultivation  with  the  extirpator  and  leveling  with  the  harrow.  I  have  never  tried 
Schwertz's  method  of  sowing  colza  in  this  manner  on  a  soil  on  which  a  crop  of  ripe  grain  had 
been  gathered  the  same  year ;  but  I  have  done  it  after  a  single  cutting  of  clover,  or  after  tares 
mown  in  the  green  state.    After  seed-time,  the  roller  is  passed  over  the  ground. 

When  the  plants  have  put  forth  their  fourth  leaves,  the  horse-rake,  armed  with  three  horizontal 
knives,  is  passed  between  the  rows ;  and  if  the  plants  are  sufficiently  advanced,  they  are  earthed 
up  with  the  horse-hoe  after  Michaelmas-day.  If  wild  mustard  and  charlock  make  their  appear- 
ance between  the  rows,  they  are  pulled  up  ;  it  is  rarely  that  the  crop  is  infested  with  any  other 
weeds.  I  have  never  found  it  necessary  to  earth  up  twice  before  winter ;  such  a  proceeding 
might,  however,  be  useful. 

The  earth  laid  up  against  the  rows  prevents  the  colza  from  being  uprooted  by  frost ;  for  the 
trenches  formed  by  laying  up  the  earih,  completely  protect  the  plants  from  moisture,  provided  the 
field  have  ditches,  in  good  condition  for  caiTying  off  the  water.  When  this  arrangement  is  ob- 
served, I  do  not  think  that  there  is  anything  to  be  feared  from  the  winter. 

In  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  plants  begin  to  shoot  forth,  the  earth  is  agam  laid  up. 
There  is  ample  time  for  putting  in  the  seed  ;  viz.,  from  the  beginning  of  July  to  the  middle  of  , 
August.  The  land  must  be  kept  in  readiness,  and  the  seed  sown  during  rainy  weather,  in  order  , 
that  the  plants  may  shoot  up  quickly,  and  be  safe  from  the  attacks  of  plant-lice.  However  distant  , 
the  rows  may  appear,  the  plants  spread  out  their  branches  so  widely,  that  the  field  will  always  be  < 
well  covered  by  them.  i 

The  season  of  maturity  of  these  vegetables,  which  is  usually  the  middle  of  June,  should  be  care-   ' 
fully  attended  to.     We  must  not  wait  till  all  the  seed-vessels  are  ripe.     As  soon  as  those  which    ' 
ripen  the  earliest  begin  to  turn  brown  and  transparent,  and  the  seeds  to  acquire  a  blackish-brown 
hue,  the  crop  should  be  gathered  without  delay ;  for  if  the  gathering  be  delayed,  the  plants  will 
shed  a  great  portion  of  their  seed. 

There  are  various  modes  of  gathering  this  crop. 

%Vhen  the  seed  has  been  sown  broadcast,  the  scythe  may  be  used;  but  it  must  be  without  rods 
or  cradles.     The  crop  is  heaped  up,  lifted,  and  made  up  into  bundles  at  once,     All  these  opera- 
tions are  easily  performed  and  without  much  loss  of  seed  ;  but  where  the  sickle  is  in  use,  reaping 
(1075) 


:  452 


THAERS   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


is  preferred.     When  the  weather  is  dry,  both  these  operations  are  best  performed  early  in  the 
morning;  or  even  at  night,  when  the  moon  shines  and  the  dew  is  on  the  ground. 

There  are  two  ways  of  harvesting  this  crop.  One  consists  in  housing  it  in  bams ;  the  other,  in  , 
threshing  it  on  the  field.  If  the  former  method  be  adopted,  it  is  usual  to  tie  up  the  crop  in  bun- 
dles not  exceeding  10  lbs.  in  weight;  and  for  this  purpose  the  several  portions  are  collected,- not 
with  the  rake,  but  by  hand.  This  is  usually  done  the  day  after  mowing,  or  on  the  following  day 
at  the  latest.  The  sheaves  are  then  collected  in  heaps,  of  greater  or  less  magnitude  ;  large  heaps 
are,  however,  preferred,  because  the  seed  is  then  less  in  danger  of  dropping  from  the  pods  and  be- 
ing devoured  by  birds.  If  the  sheaves  are  left  on  the  ground  for  any  considerable  time,  they  are 
covered  with  straw.  Even  if  rain  should  fall,  and  continue  for  some  time,  the  sheaves  are,  never- 
theless, suffered  to  remain  without  being  turned  ;  for  the  seed  is  not  injured,  even  though  the  straw 
should  become  heated  and  give  out  a  peculiar  odor.  But  it  would  be  liable  to  shed  if  the  sheaves 
were  disturbed. 

The  crop  is  usually  housed  after  five  or  six  days.  The  wagon  used  for  carrying  it  must  be  pro- 
vided with  large  sheets  or  cloths,  to  collect  the  seed  which  falls  from  the  sheaves.  These  sheets 
are  fastened  to  the  ladders  in  such  a  manner  as  to  have  their  edges  raised. 

If  the  seed  be  disposed  to  drop  from  the  pods,  a  large  sheet  or  cloth  is  also  placed  before  the 
heap  every  time  that  the  wagon  is  loaded,  and  one  side  of  the  wagon  is  made  to  pass  over  it^  so 
that  all  the  seed  which  falls  may  be  collected.  The  loading  is  performed  with  great  care,  and  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  sheaves  may  project  but  very  little  beyond  the  ladders;  and  the  wagon  is 
drawn  by  two  horses  only,  though  the  team  is  usually  composed  of  four. 

The  crop  is  shot  upon  the  threshing-floor,  unless  there  be  in  the  bam  a  space  boarded  and  per- 
'   fectly  clean,  on  which  it  may  be  deposited. 

('  Tliis  crop  is  usually  threshed  as  soon  as  possible,  in  order  that  it  may  not  interfere  ■with  opera- 
tions at  harvest  time  and  likewise  because  the  gi-ain  is  more  easily  separated  at  an  early  period 
than  after  the  straw  has  sweated  ;  the  straw  is  also  preserved  in  better  condition. 

The  grain  is  separated  from  the  chaft'by  winnowing,  and  the  larger  pods  by  means  of  a  coarse 
sieve.  The  finer  part  of  the  chaff  remains  for  a  time  mixed  with  the  grain,  and  is  not  separated 
till  the  latter  is  perfectly  dry  ;  the  separation  is  then  effected  by  means  of  a  fanning-machine. 

Care  is  taken  to  spread  the  grain  so  that  the  thickness  of  the  layer  shall  not  exceed  four  inches, 
and  at  first  to  stir  it  often  with  the  rake. 

The  other  method  is  much  practiced  in  districts  where  colza  has  for  a  long  time  been  cultivated 
/  on  extensive  tracts  of  land.  In  Marshall's  "  Description  of  the  Agriculture  of  Yorkshire,"  vol.  ii. 
page  103,  there  is  a  very  excellent  description  of  the  ordinary  mode  of  threshing  colza.  I  have 
seen  this  mode  of  threshing  established  in  the  same  manner,  attended  with  the  same  practices,  and 
likewise  regarded  as  a  general  festival,  in  the  provostship  of  Preez  and  Kiel :  it  is  also  practiced 
in  the  western  part  of  the  low  countries  bordering  on  the  Baltic.  But,  if  an  individual  cultivator 
adopt  this  method,  the  treading  out  of  the  grain  by  horses  will  certainly  be  found  advantageous  : 
this  method  is  described  by  Kaehler,  who  has  extracted  it  from  the  diary  of  a  journey  which  he 
made  in  HoLstein.  This  description  is  found  in  a  work  entitled  "  Hanbuch  fiir  Landwirthe."  In 
order  to  make  this  method  known  to  such  of  my  readers  as  are  not  in  possession  of  this  work,  I 
'    cannot  do  better  than  transcribe  the  author's  account.     It  is  as  follows: — 

"  At  nine  in  the  morning,  the  proprietor,  M.  Niemyer,  had  the  kindness  to  go  with  me  to  the 
colza-field.  I  was  struck  with  astonishment  at  sight  of  the  immense  space  of  ground  covered  with 
the  plant;  a  great  part  of  the  crop  was  extended  on  the  stubble:  but  another,  and  much  larger 
portion  which  had  been  mowed,  was  collected  in  little  heaps  of  6  or  7  feet  in  hight. 

"  Evei-ythiug  was  in  full  activity  :  the  colza  was  being  earned,  and  at  the  same  time,  trodden 
out  by  horses  on  the  field.  Sledges  drawn  by  two  horses  were  used  for  carrying  and  collecting 
the  colza.  On  each  sledge  was  placed  a  hand-barrow,  with  two  rods  crossing  in  the  middle,  and 
having  a  large  cloth,  from  32  to  36  square  feet  in  surface,  stretched  over  them.  Three  similar 
sledges  followed  one  another  in  a  line.  One  of  these  files  was  at  work  near  the  colza,  which  was 
lying  on  the  ground  in  breadths.  Eour  women  were  emploj'ed  in  loading  the  sledges  :  they  lifted 
the  oolza  with  a  stick  about  three  feet  in  length,  which  they  held  in  the  right  hand  ;  and  while 
they  kept  it  in  equilibrium  with  the  left  hand,  the  whole  was  placed  on  the  cloth  witliout  the  least 
effort.  Whenever  a  loaded  sledge  moved  off,  there  was  an  empty  one  ready  to  take  its  place, 
and  everything  went  on  without  inteiTuption. 

"  We  arrived  at  the  heaps.  Here  also  was  a  file  of  sledges  employed  in  carrying  the  crop,  the 
operation  of  loading  going  on  much  more  quickly  than  in  the  former  case.  Two  men  were  at 
hand,  with  levers,  from  8  to  18  feet  in  length,  and  very  light,  ready  to  lift  the  parcels  of  various 
sizes  on  to  the  large  cloth.  This  part  of  the  work  went  on  with  great  rapidity.  One  man  took 
hold  of  the  levers,  and  introduced  them  between  the  ground  and  the  heaps;  while  another,  sta- 
tioned on  the  opposite  side,  was  in  readiness  to  seize  the  levers  as  soon  as  he  could  see  them ;  and 
thus  the  whole  heap  was  placed  on  the  sledge. 

"  We  next  passed  on  to  the  floors  on  which  the  crop  was  threshed  :  there  were  two  of  these 
floors  placed  at  some  distance  apart  The  ground  had  previously  been  prepared  by  removing  the 
stubble  and  stones  which  might  be  collected  on  it.  These  floors  were  quadrangular,  each  of  them 
being  48  feet  in  length,  and  36  in  breadth,  and  covered  with  strong  cloths.  These  cloths  were 
raised  at  the  sides  to  the  hight  of  a  few  feet  above  the  ground,  and  attached  to  feet  fixed  for  the 
purpose.     The  entrance  was  on  one  side,  and  there  the  cloth  could  be  lowered  5  or  6  feet. 

"  To  each  file  of  sledges  were  attached  two  men  employed  in  unloading.  This  operation  was 
also  quickly  executed  ;  for,  as  soon  as  a  sledge  arrived,  the  handles  of  the  barrow  were  seized  by 
two  men,  one  in  front  and  the  other  behind,  who  removed  the  whole  to  the  floor,  turned  it  over, 
replacing  the  ban-ow  and  the  large  cloth  on  the  sledge  as  soon  as  they  had  unloaded  it.  In  this 
manner  the  operation  was  continued  till  the  floor  was  covered  with  colza  to  the  thickness  of  about 
6  feet. 

"  The  entrance  was  then  cleared,  and  two  attendants,  each  leading  three  horses,  entered  and 


.(1076) 


OIL-PLANTS.  453 


mounted  on  the  lq,yer  of  colza.     They  led  the  horses  foar  or  five  times  round  the  floor,  and  then 
descended.     The  colza,  thus  trodden  out,  was  then  immediately  turned  over  by  sevei-al  men   ', 
armed  with  forks,  and  then  the  horses  were  led  over  it  again.     After  they  had  again  made  a  few 
turns,  the  operation  was  finished,  and  the  men  who  had  turned  the  colza  removed  the  straw  from 
the  floor. 

"  It  appeared  to  be  scarcely  possible  that  so  trifling  an  amount  of  labor  shooid  suffice  to_  separate 
the  colza  completely  from  the  straw;  but  a  careful  examination  soon  convinced  me  that  it  was  so, 
for  I  found  scarcely  a  grain  left  among  it. 

"  The  sti-aw  having  been  completely  removed,  the  coar.sest  part  of  the  residue  of  the  stems  and 
seed-vessels  which  remained  in  contact  with  the  grain  was  collected  with  the  rake  toward  one  ? 
corner  of  the  large  cloth.  At  this  angle  was  placed  a  board  three  or  four  feet  long  and  several  ,^ 
feet  broad.  It  was  fixed  obliquely,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  its  top  projected  beyond  the  f 
edge  of  the  cloth.  The  coarser  part  of  the  chaff'  was  drawn  along  with  the  rake,  and  fell  be-  . 
yond  the  floor,  cleared  from  the  seed  far  more  eifectually  than  could  possibly  have  been  expected.    , 

"  The  loading,  turning,  and  raking  being  fiui-shed  on  one  ftoor,  the  horses  were  led  to  the  other,  , 
and  vice  versa,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  process  was  constantly  going  on.  .      .        , ' 

"  As  this  part  of  the  work  proceeded,  the  colza  was  conveyed  by  the  team  to  the  repositories,  / 
where  it  was  deposited  on  the  floors  of  the  barn  ;  and  although  the  distance  was  very  short,  the  ; 
team  was  scarcely  equal  to  the  work.  _  .      (| 

"  Thence  we  proceeded  to  the  repositories,  where  the  operation  of  cleansing  the  colza  vi^as  m  i| 
progress.  A  barn  of  great  width  and  length,  with  two  floors  boarded  lengthwise,  and  one_  in  the 
middle-  boarded  across,  was  completely  covered  with  colza.  Ten  laborers  were  employed  in  win- 
nowing the  colza,  after  a  number  of  women  had  passed  it  through  a  sieve  to  separate  the  coarser 
portion  of  the  chaff;  and  while  one  set  of  men  were  employed  in  carrying  the  cleansed  colza  to 
the  granary,  after  it  had  been  arranged  in  separate  heaps,  others  were  engaged  in  unloading  the 
wagon  which  brought  the  grain  from  the  field,  and  depcsiting  it  in  heaps  of  considerable  length, 
but  moderate  bight. 

"  The  gi-ain  is  left  untouched  in  these  heaps  for  about  twenty-four  hours;  during  that  time  it  be- 
comes slightly  heated,  and  acquires  a  fine  black  tinge. 

"  I  was  overwhelmed  with  surprise  at  seeing  so  large  a  quantity  of  colza  in  the  granary.  The 
preceding  year's  crop  still  remained  there  almost  entire  ;  and  as  a  year's  crop  amounts  to  about 
1,500  tous,  the  quantity  then  collected  must  have  amounted  to  3,000  tons. 

"  This  is  all  that  my" journal  contains.  Every  one  must  surely  approve  of  this  mode  of  gather- 
ing a  crop  of  colza.  The  work  goes  on  with  great  rapidity,  which  is  a  great  desideratum  at  a 
time  so  closely  bordering  on  harvest.  But  the  subject  must  be  regarded  in  another  point  of  view. 
Everything  is  done  in  the  open  air,  and  therefore  absolutely  requires  a  continuance  of  fine  weather. 
Shoaid  rain  set  in,  it  might  perhaps  be  advisable  to  take  advantage  of  occasional  fine  da.ys,  to  get 
in  a=!  much  as  possible  of  the  crop.  The  cultivator  must  therefore,  exercise  his  own  judgment 
upon  this  point,  and  take  such  measures  as  will  enable  him,  either  in  fine  or  wet  weather,  to  make 
choice  of  the  method  which  he  thinks  most  conducive  to  his  interest  and  most  in  accordance  with 
exi-stiug  circumstances." 

Schwertz  (vol.  ii.  p.  178)  proposes  as  anew  methed,  invented  by  himself,  but  not  yet  introduced, 
to  stack  the  colza  as  soon  as  it  is  cut,  and  let  it  ripen  in  that  situation.  But  this  method  is  neither 
new  nor  wonderful :  it  was  described  some  time  ago  by  Reichard,  and  is  adopted  in  several  rural 
establishments  in  Westphalia.  Reichard  proposed  to  cover  the  stacks  with  boards  and  load 
them  with  stones,  in  order  to  make  the  temperature  of  the  coiza  rise  still  higher.  This,  however 
is  useless. 

The  grain  is  not  injured  by  this  treatment,  but  ripens  without  dropping  from  the  pods.  The 
straw  is,  however,  deteriorated  when  the  stack  becomes  heated.  The  stacking  is  begun  by  placing 
five  or  six  sheaves  tied  together  in  an  uoright  position,  and  side  by  side ;  a  bundle  of  straw  being 
laid  under  them.  The  bundles  are  then  placed  all  around,  and  carefully  arranged,  with  the  pods 
turned  inward  and  the  stems  outward.  The  stacks,  when  completed,  are  covered  with  straw,  more 
to  keep  off  the  birds  than  to  protect  the  grain  from  moisture ;  and  in  this  maimer  they  are  left  till 
the  time  arrives  for  threshing,  which  is  usually  performed  in  the  field  during  fine  weather. 

Colza  and  rape  are  not  ab.solutely  exempt  from  casualties.  The  tiarmer  is,  howevei-,  less 
exposed  to  them  than  the  latter,  provided  it  be  sown  early.  According  to  my  own  experience, 
the  method  of  drilling  protects  it  from  the  dangers  of  winter ;  the  only  remaining  danger  is  from 
insects. 

When  the  colza  and  rape  are  cultivated  in  the  ordinary  way,  their  produce  varies  from  five  to 
twelve  bushels  per  acre.     On  a  rich  soil,  colza  yields  more  than  rape.     By  the  niethod  of  drilling, 
Schwertz  has  obtained  as  much  as  fourteen  bushels;  and  according  to  trials  which  I  have  myself 
made,  this  quantity  is  by  no  means  extraordinary.  Such  a  crop  must  not,  however,  be  expected  eve- 
ry j'car.     The  price  of  colza  and  rape  is  subject  to  great  variations.     It  has  sometimes  risen  higher 
than  6  rix-doUars  per  bushel,  and  I  have  never  known  it  lower  tlian  2^  ;  four  rix-dollars  may  be 
I     considered  as  the  average  price.     Even  when  maritime  commerce  is  stopped,  the  consumption  of 
I     oil  is  sufficiently  great  to  keep  up  the  price  of  colza,  because  at  such  times  there  is  a  scarcity 
of  whale  oil.     The  price  never  suflers  any  considerable  diminution  excepting  after  a  very  abund- 
ant whale  or  herring  fishery.     Colza  always  fetches  more  than  rape,  because  its  produce  in  oil  is 
' ,    10  per  cent,  greater.  •    v,      i,        -f 

'  I        The  cultivator  who  raises  these  plants  on  a  large  scale  is  much  more  likely  to  gain  by  them  if 
I    he  keeps  his  own  oil-mill;  because  by  so  doing  he  not  only  makes  himself  independent  of  mer- 
chants and  oil-manufacturers,  but  also  preserves  the  cakes,  which  afford  most  useful  nourishment 
for  the  cattle.     Where  oil-plants  are  cultivated  in  large  quantities,  an  oil-press  will  repay  its  cost 
at  a  very  high  interest. 
I        The  straw  of  these  plants  is  not  of  great  value ;  but  when  housed  in  good  condition,  it  deserves 
'    higher  estimation  than  is  given  to  it  by  those  who  only  seek  to  get  rid  of  it,  and  burn  it  for  the 


1  given  to  it  by  those  who  only 
(1077) 


454  THAERS   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

sake  of  spreading  its  ashos  on  the  land,  thereby  confining  its  utility  to  the  very  spot  on  which  it  is 
spread.  Sheep  are  very  fond  of  the  husks  and  the  ends  of  the  branches  ;  the  remainder  may  be 
advantageously  mixed  with  the  dung. 

That  these  p'lants  exhaust  the  soil  to  a  vei-y  great  extent,  and  do  not  in  any  case  restore  to  it  the 
manure  which  they  require  and  absorb,  is  a  fact  respecting  which  no  doubt  can  exist :  all  impar- 
tial persons  who  cultivate  these  plants  in  large  quantities  will  agi-ee  to  it.  whatever  may  be  said 
by  cultivators  who  are  obstinately  prejudiced  in  favor  of  this  branch  of  cultivation.  Even  when, 
as  is  often  the  practice  in  England  and  Belgium,  the  cakes  are  directly  given  to  the  soil  as  manure, 
the  nutritious  matters  absorbed  by  the  crop  are  not  fully  restored  :  and,  moreover,  a  Geimau  culti- 
vator would  not  easily  make  up  liis  mind  to  deprive  the  cattle  of  this  kind  of  food.  The  raising  of 
these  plants  in  very  large  quantities  exhausts  the  land  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  necessary 
the  utter  abandonment  of  this  cultivation,  when  it  has  been  engaged  in  by  those  who  neither  have 
the  means  of  procuring  a  supply  of  manure  from  without,  nor  possess  a  sufficient  quantity  on  their 
own  establishments.  "Those  who  maintain  the  contrary  rest  their  assertion  on  the  fine  crops  of 
autumn  grain  which  are  usually  obt»ned  after  the  cultivation  ofthe.se  plants.  But  it  must  be  re-  ' 
membered  that,  as  a  preparation  for  this  cultivation,  it  is  usual  to  give  the  land  double  the  ordinary  ' 
quantity  of  manure,  to  bestow  the  greatest  pains  on  the  preparatory  fallowing,  and  after  harvest  ' 
to  plow  up  the  land  again  with  the  greatest  care.  These  plants  may  doubtless  be  regarded  as  an 
intermediate  crop,  which  serves  to  keep  the  soil  light,  and  fertilize  it  by  the  shade  which  their 
leaves  atford.  It  is  not.  therefore,  surprising  that  the  succeeding  crop  should  always  be  very  abund- 
ant, since  the  soil  retains  a  sufficient  quantity  of  nutritive  matter ;  and  this  matter  has  been  brought 
within  the  reach  of  the  crop  which  immediately  follows.  But  after  this  crop  fresh  manure  is  al- 
most indispensable,  for  the  success  of  those  which  follow  ;  unless,  indeed,  the  soil  be  naturally  pos- 
ses.sed  of  uncommon  fertility.  "When,  therefore,  colza  and  rape  are  to  be  raised  in  large  quantities, 
it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the  considerations  already  noticed  respecting  the  cultivation  of  vege- 
tables for  the  market  in  general. 

But  colza  may  also  be  made  very  useful  as  a  fodder  plant,  and  in  this  capacity  contribute  as 
much  to  the  welfare  of  the  establishment  in  general,  as  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  particular.  It 
is  true  that  a  rich  soil  is  required  for  this  purpose  ;  otherwise,  the  colza  does  not  grow  to  a  suffi- 
cient hight.  When  colza  is  to  be  raised  as  a  fodder-plant,  it  may  be  sown  in  and  after  the  month  of 
May  :  and,  according  to  the  early  time  of  the  sowing,  and  the  more  or  less  favorable  state  of  the 
weather,  we  may  obtain  two,  three,  or  even  four  plentiful  green  crops  from  it,  even  in  the  seed- 
year  itself  It  will  often  shoot  forth  early  in  the  spring,  affording  the  first  supply  of  green  food 
for  the  cattle.  The  plant  may.  if  desired,  even  be  allowed  to  run  to  seed  ;  it  will  still  yield  a  com- 
plete crop.  If,  in  consequence  of  the  soil  not  being  sufficiently  fertile,  the  colza  should  not  shoot 
Ibrth  in  the  first  year  with  sufficient  vigor  to  furnish  plentiful  green  crops,  it  will  at  all  events  afford  (. 
excellent  pasturage  for  the  cattle  :  it  is  eaten  with  avidity  by  animals  of  all  kinds,  and  soon  shoots 
forth  again  after  having  been  fed  off.  In  England,  colza  is  more  frequently  sown  as  a  pasture- 
plant,  than  for  seed  :  and  this  mode  of  employing'the  land  is  considered  as  equivalent  to  a  plenti- 
ful manuring.  Fields  are  there  met  with  which  are  never  manured,  but  treated  in  this  manner 
every  four  or  five  years. 

Clover  thrives  perfectly  well  among  colza,  whether  the  latter  be  allowed  to  ripen,  or  whether 

it  be  mowed  or  fed  off.  Moreover,  if  colza  be  always  u.sed  as  green  food,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  devote 

a  ceitain  number  of  fields  entirely  to  the  raising  of  fodder  for  a  few  years  ;  a  mode  of  proceeding 

which  is  farther  recommended  by  the  low  price  of  the  seed  of  this  plant. 

',        Rape  is  not  well  adapted  for  fodder  ;  and  spring  colza,  which  grows  up  and  flowers  quickly,  is 

'i    altogether  unfit  for  that  purpose.     Some  persons  by  mistake  have  used  it  in  this  manner ;  but  they 

'  I   have  obtained  a  very  poor  crop,  and  only  one  supply  of  green  food. 

Many  plants  bearing  some  affinity  to  colza  have  been  cultivated  in  its  place:  the  Swedish  turnip, 
or  ruta  baga,  has  been  lately  brought  into  notice  as  sKperior  to  it,  both  in  quality  and  quantity  of 
seed.  This  opinion  has  been  promulgated,  particularly  in  France  and  Germany,  by  Schwertz. 
The  seed  of  colza  was  doubtless  originally  derived  from  the  plant  with  the  fleshy  root,  to  which 
this  name  is  applied  :  but  by  growing  in  fields  ^vhere  it  has  been  crowded,  and  its  root  has  not 
been  able  to  attain  its  natural  size,  the  nature  of  the  plani;  has  at  length  been  so  far  modified  that 
at  present  the  same  seed  no  longer  gives  rise  to  a  root  of  considerable  thickness,  even  when  the 
plant  is  isolated.  I  have  for  some  time  remarked  that  the  Swedish  turnip  yields  an  enormous 
quantity  of  seed,  and  that  the  seed  is  very  rich  in  oil.  The  great  advantages  which  Schwertz  and 
Clemens  have  derived  from  it,  and  the  superiority  over  colza  which  they  assign  to  it,  have  strength- 
.  ened  my  own  conviction,  and  determined  me  to  lose  no  time  in  giving  the  preference  to  the 
Swedish  turnip  in  my  own  cultivation. 

SPRING  COLZA,  OR  SPRING  RAPE. 

These  two  names  are  applied  indifferently  to  the  same  plant ;  and  this  plant  is  totally  distinct  from  \ 
both  colza  and  rape.  It  is  not,  like  various  kinds  of  spring  and  autumn  wheat,  a  mere  variety 
obtained  by  cultivation  :  it  is  the  Brassica  campestris  of  botanists,  the  same  that  grows  wild  in 
many  places,  and  in  that  state  is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  wild  cabbage.  It  is  the  only 
plant  of  this  family  which  possesses  the  property  of  growing  up  and  flowering  rapidly,  like  mus- 
tard and  wild  radish.  It  is,  therefore,  a  spring  plant,  which  may  be  sown  from  the  time  when  all 
danger  of  frost  is  over,  to  the  end  of  June,  without  any  risk  of  its  not  attaining  maturity. 

This  plant  thrives  in  a  soil  which  is  fertile,  rich,  and  not  very  dry ;  it  requires  careful  plowings 
to  clear  the  land  from  weeds.  In  the  three-field  system,  it  is  usually  sown  on  the  fallow;  and,  after 
the  harvest,  succeeded  by  a  crop  of  .some  autumnal  grain.  This  plant  does  not  absoi-b  the  nutritive 
principles  of  the  .soil  so  much  as  colza:  it,  however,  consumes  a  large  quantity  of  them  in  propor- 
tion to  the  time  for  which  it  occupies  the  .ground,  and  commonly  yields  much  less  abundantly 
than  the  oil-plants  which  are  sown  in  autumn. 

The  soil  being  prepared,  the  seed  must  be  sown  when  the  weather  is  fine,  but  rather  damp,  in 
(1078) 


MUSTARD OILY   RADISH GOLD    OF   PLEASURE. 


order  that  it  may  £rerminate  and  spring-  up  quickly,  and  thus  more  easily  escape  the  injurious  ef- 
fects of  weeds  and  the  attacks  of  plant-lice.  The  success  of  the  plant  depends  both  on  the  -wea- 
ther, and  on  the  absence  of  scarabs  and  their  lai-vte  ;  and  likewise  of  certain  black  caterpillars, 
•which  often  attack  it  at  the  time  of  flowering.  Spring  colza  ripens  about  Michaelmas;  that 
which  is  sown  early  ripens  sooner.  It  requires  for  the  most  part  the  same  labor  as  autumnal  colza, 
excepting  that  it  is  rarely  thre.shed  in  the  open  field. 

A  prudent  cultivator  will  lose  no  time  in  plowing  up  the  crop,  as  soon  a*he  perceives  that  it  is 
likely  to  fail :  otherwise  tlie  weeds  will  choke  it,  and  infest  the  soil. 

We  cannot  in  general  reckon  on  a  produce  of  more  than  five  bushels.  It  is  only  on  the  soil  of 
drained  swamps  that  a  greater  product  is  obtained;  and  in  such  situations  the  crop  sometimes 
eqiials  that  of  autumn  colza  :  for  these  soils  it  is  therefore  a  very  advantageous  crop,  on  account 
of  the  rapidity  of  its  growth. 

The  seed  is  also  less  valuable,  because  it  yields  a  smaller  quantity  of  oil.  It  is  only  when  per- 
fectly ripe  that  it  yields  as  much  as  18  or  20  lbs.  of  oil  per  bushel.  Many  persons,  however,  raise 
this  plant  in  preference  to  the  autumnal  oil-plants,  because  it  occupies  the  ground  for  one  summer 
only. 

It  is  said  to  be  not  uncommon,  in  the  Bishopric  of  Paderbom,  to  meet  with  spring  and  autumn 
colza  sown  and  mixed  together :  in  such  cases,  the  former  is  gathered  in  the  year  in  -which  it  has 
been  sown,  and  the  latter  in  the  following  year  :  this  is  certainly  a  curious  method. 


This  plant  has  lately  been  recommended  as  an  advantageous  substitute  for  spring  colza,  to  be 
used  in  the  production  of  oil. 

There  are  two  distinct  species  of  mustard,  differing  from  one  another  not  only  by  their  color,  but 
also  by  other  external  characters. 

White  mustard  produces  siliquas  rough  to  the  touch,  and  terminated  by  a  long  point  or  horn. 
The  color  of  its  seed  is  yellow,  inclining  to  brown.  That  which  is  called  EngHsh  mustard  is  noth- 
ing more  than  a  variety  produced  by  cultivation. 

Black  mustard  has  a  smooth  eiliqna,  which  adheres  firmly  to  the  tongue.  In  Germany  this  spe- 
cies is  preferred  for  making  mustard  for  the  table :  its  busks  are  more  easily  opened  than  those  of 
■white  mustard. 

Both  species  yield  oil  which  is  well  adapted  for  burning ;  and  also,  -when  well  purified,  for  the 
use  of  the  table.     A  quintal  of  mustard  seed  yields  from  36  to  38  lbs.  of  oil. 

The  biting  acridity  of  the  seed  exists  not  in  the  oil,  but  in  the  integument ;  and  the  English  mus- 
tard, w^hich  is  celebrated  for  its  strength,  is  said  to  be  made  from  cakes  from  which  the  oil  has 
been  expressed. 

Mustard  is  said  to  thrive  better  than  spring  colza  on  poor  soils,  and  to  be  less  sensible  to  cold. 
It  may,  therefore,  be  more  advantageously  sown  at  the  end  of  winter.  This  proceeding  is  even 
necessary,  for  mustard  is  particularly  hable  to  be  destroyed  by  plant-lice.     It  suffers  in  a  le.ss  de- 


gree_ 


from  scarabs  and  worms.      It  continues  for  a  long  time  in  flower,  and  affords  excellent  nour- 


ishment for  bees ;  its  siliquas  are  formed  successively  For  cutting  mustard,  especially  the  black 
species,  it  is  necessar}^  to  choose  the  exact  time  when  the  first  siHquas  are  ripe. 

The  produce  of  mustard  is.  on  the  average,  greater  than  that  of  spring  colza.  The  most  advan- 
tageous mode  of  disposing  of  it  is.  perhaps,  to  sell  it  to  those  who  prepare  mustard  for  the  table, 
provided  that  circumstances  will  admit  of  this  course.  It  is,  however,  more  pro.*itable  than  spring 
colza  for  the  preparation  of  oil,  because  it  yields  a  greater  quantity.  It  therefore  deserves  the 
preference  in  every  respect,  excepting,  perhaps,  that  it  requires  to  be  sown  earlier,  and  therefore 
imposes  the  necessity  of  greater  expedition  in  giving  the  necessary  preparation  to  the  .soil. 

The  cakes  which  form  the  residue  in  the  preparation  of  the  oil  are  said  to  afford  a  mild  and 
stimulating  purgative  for  cattle,  and  in  this  capacity  to  be  vei-y  useful :  thej"-  are  ground  and  spread 
upon  tlie  fodder  given  to  the  cattle. 

OILY  RADISH  (RAPHANUS  CHINENSIS  OLEIFERUS.) 

This  is  a  variety  of  the  common  radish  ;  it  has  been  strongly  recommended  on  account  of  the 
simplicity  of  its  culture,  the  abundance  of  its  produce  in  .seed,  and  the  large  quantity  of  oil  which 
it  yields:  it  is,  however,  nowhere  cultivated  for  any  great  length  of  time. 

It  shoots  up  vigorously  in  hight,  and  spreads  out  its  long  branches  with  considerable  force  :  it 
therefore  stands  in  need  of  support.  It  cannot  easily  be  kept  upright,  excepting  on  narrow  beds 
surrounded  -with  sticks  placed  horizontally  at  a  certain  distance  from  the  ground.  Its  .seed-ves- 
sels are  very  liable  to  be  attacked  by  the  larvfe  of  the  weevil.  They  ripen  very  irregularly,  be- 
cause the  plant  flowers  continuously ;  and  sometimes  the  greater  number  of  them  do  not  ripen 
before  %vinter  If  this  plant  could  be  sown  in  autumn,  and  would  Avithstand  the  winter,  as  it  ap- 
pears to  do  according  to  experiments  made  by  some  persons,  it  might  probably  be  cultivated  at 
less  risk :  but  it  does'not  .seem  well  adapted  for  cultivation  on  a  large  scale  in  the  open  field. 

Its  produce  i,s,  to  all  appearance,  extraordinarily  large  ;  indeed,  when  particular  plants  are 
separately  considered,  it  appears  to  e.xceed  that  of  any  other  oil-plant.  It  will  multiply  ten  thou- 
sand fold,  and  is.  therefore,  an  excellent  plant  for  those  whose  main  object  is  a  very  great  multi- 
plication of  seed.  But  the  plant  when  isolated  spreads  to  such  an  extent  that  it  must  be  consid- 
ered doubtful  whether,  in  proportion  to  the  space  of  ground  which  it  covers,  its  produce  in  grain 
is  equivalent  to  that  of  other  oil-plants.  The  seed  is  said  to  yield  50  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  oil ; 
and  the  oil  possesses  an  agreeable  flavor. 

CULTIVATED  GOLD  OF  PLEASURE  (MYAGRUM  SATIVUM). 

This  plant  also  grows  wild,  and  is  sometimes  very  troublesome  among  flax;    it  grows  to  the 
hight  of  one  or  two  feet.      The  stem  is  angular,  hairy,  and  branching  ;    the  leaves  are  lanceolate, 
(1079) 


and  embrace  the  stem  at  their  bases ;  the  flowers  are  yellow,  and  grow  in  large  clusters  at  the 
top  of  the  stem.  The  siliquas  are  obovate,  flattened,  and  terminated  by  the  persistent  filiform 
style. 

The  plant  delights  in  sandy  soils,  provided  they  are  rich  ;  and  it  is  on  such  soils  that  it  is  culti- 
vated ;  but  it  exhausts  tbem  to  a  great  degree. 

It  is  sown  in  April,  and  gathered  about  the  end  of  July  or  the  beginning  of  August.  It  is  less 
subject  than  other  oil-plants  to  the  ravages  of  insects,  and_  seldom  fails  entirely.  Its  produce 
scarcely  exceeds  5  bushels  per  acre.  A  bushel  ought  to  yield  from  20  to  24  lbs.  of  an  oil,  which 
has  a  slightly  bitter  taste,  and  thickens  with  cold. 

COMMON  POPPY  (PAP AVER  SOMNIFERUM). 

Several  varieties  of  this  plant  are  cultivated  ;    they  are  distinguished  from  one  another  by  the    . 
color  of  their  flowers  and  seeds,  and  the  structure  of  their  capsules.  , ' 

The  color  of  the  flower  is  unimportant.  The  seed  is  either  white  or  black.  Some  persons  think 
that  the  black-.seeded  variety  is  the  more  productive  :  others  give  the  preference  to  the  white  in 
tilts  respect.  The  white  seed  is  the  more  agreeable  to  the  taste,  as  is  likewise  the  oil  expressed 
from  it.  That  variety  of  poppy  is  preferred  whose  heads  or  capsules  when  ripe  assume  a  slightly 
bluish  tinge. 

The  structure  of  the  capsules  is  of  more  consequence  ;  for  there  is  a  variety  in  which  the  envel- 
ope of  the  capsules  dehisces  spontaneo-isiy  when  ripe,  so  that  the  seed  is  easily  shed  ;  and  another 
in  which  the  seed  remains  enclosed  within   the  capsules,  which  mu.st  be  opened  in  order  to  ex- 
tract it.      The  former  is  well  adapted  for  ci.'u^ation  on  small  pieces  of  ground,  where  the  heads   , 
,   may  be  cut  off' and  put  into  bags  as  they  ri'vj'-  ;  but  it  is  quite  unfit  for  cultivation  on  a  large  ex-    ' 

tent  of  surface,  where  it  is  desirable  to  gather  the  whole  crop  at  once. 

I       The  poppy  requires  a  rioli  soil,  containing  a  large  quantity  of  humus,  and  well  prepared  for  its 

'   cultivation.     When  it  is  to  be  raised  in  the  ficrlds,  the  soil  selected  for  it  must  be  of  the  be.st  quality, 

'   the  most  completely  manured,  the  cleanest  that  can  be  found,  and,  if  possible,  somewhat  .sheltered 

from  winds.      It  must  be  one  which  has  been  prepared  and  manured  the  year  before,  because 

poppies  thrive  better  the  sooner  they  are  sown.  '  i 

It  is  a  favorite  plan  to  sow  them  in  Mai-ch.  even  on  ground  covered  with  snow,  provided  the    * 
covering  be  of  uniform  thickness.     This  method  is  said  to  be  wonderfully  successful. 

Poppies  are  sown  very  thinly.  To  ensure  the  proper  spreading  of  the  seed,  the  operation 
must  be  entru.sted  to  a  man  well  practiced  in  thin  sowing,  as  gardeners  are.  A  pound  of  seed  is 
too  much  for  an  acre.  If  however,  the  plants  be  subsequently  thinned,  no  injury  will  result  from 
their  having  been  sovro  too  thickly  at  first.* 

The  operation  of  thinning  the  poppies  and  pulling  up  weeds  which  grow  among  them,  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  their  complete  success.  The  spaces  between  the  plants  should  not  be  less 
I  than'six  inches';  and  if  the  soil  be  very  fertile  and  tolerably  well  .sheltered  from  winds,  the  pro-  , 
'  duce  will  undoubtedly  be  greater  when  the  plants  are  even  twelve  inches  apart.  When  pop-  ^ 
pies  are  too  crowded,  they  produce  but  small  capsules,  containing  very  little  seed,  and  that,  too, 
of  inferior  quality.  The  operation  of  thinning  is  performed  much  more  easily,  and  with  far 
greater  benefit  to' the  plants,  by  the  use  of  a  niattock  or  hand-hoe,  than  by  pulling  up  the  weeds 
and  superfluous  plants  by  hand  ;  at  least,  if  the  laborers  are  accustomed  to  this  kind  of  work  ;  for, 
by  the  former  method,  the  earth  is  at  the  same  time  lightened,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  heaped 
up  round  the  plants. 

The  cultivation  with  the  hoe,  or  the  pulling  up  of  weeds,  must  be  repeated,  if  it  has  not  been    v 
properly  performed  the  first  time,  or  if  the  weeds  again  make  their  appearance.  ^ 

Poppies  are  often  sown  among  carrots;  and  as  the  carrots  have  still  two  months  to  grow  after 
the  poppies  have  been  torn  up,  this  method  doubtless  tends  to  make  the  land  yield  as  much  as 
po.-sible.  but  it  interferes  with  the  full  effect  of  the  hoe  cultivation  just  spoken  of  and  hkewise 
with  the  regular  thinning  of  the  poppies  and  carrot?— a  condition  which  must  nevertheless  be  ful- 
filled, if  we  wish  to  obtain  the  best  crop  that  the  land  can  yield. 

It  is  necessary  to  take  advantage  of  the  precise  time  when  the  poppies  are  ripe.      Now,  this  is 
the  very  season  when  the  harvest  labors  are  in  full  operation,  a  circumstance  which  renders  the 
•   cultureof  the  poppy  very  difficult  in  large  rural  establishments.     If  however,  the  poppies  ripen 
'    all  at  once,  which  may  be  effected  by  sowing  early  and  taking  care  to  thin  them  well,  the  labor 
of  gathering  is  not  very  great.     The  crop  must  not  be  suffered  to  stand  too  long,  as  it  will  then  be   ' , 
attacked  by  rook.s,  sparrows  and  mice.     The  mice  gnaw  the  plants  close  to  the  ground  till  the 
stem  falls,  and  the  capsules  ar.e  thus  brought  within  their  reach     Neither  must  the  fruit  be  gath- 
ered before  it  is  ripe,  for  the  seed  will  then  have  a  bitter  and  disgusting  flavor,  and  the  oil  will  not   |  ■ 
be  fully  developed.      The  stems  are  cut  close  to  the  ground ;  or,  if  the  soil  be  light,  the  plants   ^  i 
are  pulled  up.      They  are  then  tied  up  iu  bundles  with  straw  placed  round  them  close  to  the     • 
capsules,  and  hou.sed  as  quickly  as  pos.sible.    The  lower  parts  of  the  stem  are  cut  away  as  far 
as  possible,  and  the  bundles  deposited  in  a  well-covered  and  well-aired  situation  till  they  are 
thoroughly  dried. 

The  poppy-heads  are  then  opened  separately  by  hand,  and  emptied  by  turning  them  over  and 
shaking  them.  If  there  are  no  feeble  old  men  or  children  on  the  establi.shment,  this  operation  is  very 
troublesome,  for  it  must  be  performed  precisely  at  the  time  when  there  is  the  .gi-eatest  quantity 
and  variety  of  work  to  be  done.     Poppies  raised  in  large  quantities  are  usually  threshed!  to  sepa- 

*  The  poppy  cannot  be  transplanted  :  it  would  be  useless  >-  endeavor  to  fill  up  the  vacant  spaces  by  thifl 
method ;  even  in  weeding  it  while  yoiin^,  pi-eat  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  injuring  its  roots. 

t  The  operation  of  bruising  and  pulverizing  the  capsules  a  little,  is  apt  to  leave  a  small  quantity  of  their  sub- 
stance, which  is  bitter  and  narcotic,  among  the  seed.  It  is.  therefore,  essential  to  the  goodness  of  the  oil,  that 
the  seed  be  taken  out  of  the  capsules  by  hand,  and  then  passed  through  a  sieve  fine  enough  to  cleanse  it 
perfectly.  '  •  [French  Trams. 

(1080) 


rate  the  seed  from  the  capsules  ;  or  else  the  capsules  are  cut  open  with  a  machine,  and  the  seed  is 
separated  by  winnowing,  or  by  the  use  of  the  sieve,  or  the  tanning  machine. 

When  the  seed  has  been  cleansed,  it  is  conveyed  to  a  granary  which  has  a  very  close  grating  ; 
or,  if  there  be  no  such  accommodation  at  hand,  it  is  spread  on  a  large  cloth.  At  first,  it  is  fi-equeut- 
ly  stirred,  and  afterward,  when  quite  dry,  put  into  casks,  in  which  it  is  kept. 

The  poppy  may  become  one  of  the  most  profitable  crops  if  we  have  the  means  of  disposing  of 
the  seed,  or  if  we  know  how  to  extract  the  oil.  By  proper  cultivation  it  may  be  made  to  produce 
from  nine  to  ten  bushels  of  seed  per  acre,  and  one  bushel  yields  24  lbs.  of  good  oil.  This  oil,  espe- 
cially the  first  portion,  which  is  cold-pressed  and  mixed  iu  tlie  mill  with  slices  of  apple,  is  doubt- 
less the  purest  kind  of  oil  for  the  table,  and  the  most  agreeable  that  is  known.  It  is  inferior  to  none, 
excepting,  perhaps,  the  finest  Nice  or  Lucca  oil.  It  is  preferable  to  the  second-rate  oils  of  those 
places,  and  the  peculiar  taste  of  olive-oil  may  be  imparted  to  it  by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity 
of  that  oil  of  superfine  quality.  But  the  seed  may  often  be  sold  iu  its  natural  stale,  and  we  can 
readily  obtain  a  Frederick-d'or  per  bushel  tor  it.  But  notwithstanding  thi.s  large  return,  the  culti- 
vation of  the  poppy  is  in  some  establishments  attended  witli  so  many  difficulties,  that  the  great 
cultivator  ought  to  think  more  than  once  before  lie  undertakes  it. 

Tliere  are  other  plants  whose  seed  may  be  u.sed  for  the  production  of  oil,  but  respecting  which 
this  mode  of  application  is  but  a  secondary  consideration.  Of  this  number  are  fiax ,  henip,  and  to- 
bacco, of  which  we  shall  preseutlv  treat.  There  are  others  again  which  are  cultivated  iu  gardens 
only,  such  as  the  sun-flower  (keiiaiUkiis  aumms)  :  tbe.se  I  content  myself  with  mentioning. — 
Their  seed  certainly  produces  a  good  table-oil,  and  the  return  from  it  may  be  considerable  ;  but 
the  gathering  and  preservation  of  them  in  granaries  are  attended  with  so  many  difficulties,  that 
they  cannot  be  recommended  to  the  cultivator,  but  must  be  left  to  the  province  of  the  gardener, 
who  may  sometimes  raise  them  to  advantage  among  his  other  produce;  for  these  plants  always 
thrive  better  -when  isolated,  than  when  crowded  together  in  the  field. 

The  cultivation  of  gourds  has  also  been  recommended  for  the  sake  of  their  seed,  which  indeed 
produces  an  oil  of  very  agreeable  flavor,  though  small  in  quantity  ;  but  the  raising  of  them  must, 
lor  the  most  part,  be  left  to  the  gardener. 

I  shall  also  merely  allude  to  the  wild  mustards,  charlocks,  and  radishes,  which  no  cultivator 
■would  purposely  raise,  but  which  are  too  often  found  in  abundance  on  his  land  ;  and  may,  if  care- 
fully separated,  be  used  for  the  production  of  oil. 

THREAD  PLANTS— FLAX. 

The  culture  of  flax  and  the  manipulation  of  its  thread,  are  treated  in  full  detail,  not  only  in  agri- 
caltural  manuals  and  treatises,  hut  also  in  various  essays  written  expressly  on  the  subject;  and 
the  directions  given  in  these  works  are,  according  to  the  various  degrees  of  merit  of  their  authors, 
sufficiently  exact  to  render  it  superfluous  for  me  to  enter  at  length  into  the  consideration  of  this 
matter.  Moreover,  the  manipulation  of  flax  and  the  preparation  of  the  thread  are  sufficiently  well 
known  to  all  practical  cultivators,  and  all  details  relating  to  the  latter  of  these  objects  are  more  ea- 
sily and  elFectually  learned  by  inispection,  than  by  the  perusal  of  written  directions.  After  the 
seed  has  been  sown,  the  remainder  of  the  work  belong.s  to  the  women's  province,  and  may  be 
most  advantageously  entrusted  to  them  :  they  usually  take  very  great  interest  in  the  success  of 
the  crop.  I  shall,  therefore,  confine  my  observations  to  one  or  two  principal  points,  which,  in  my 
opinion,  have  either  hot  been  treated  so  clearly  and  fully  as  they  deserve  ;  or,  on  the  other  hand, 
appear  to  be  yet  involved  iu  doubt. 

Opinions  are  much  divided  respecting  the  advantages  which  may  accrue  either  to  the  great  or 
the  small  cultivator,  from  extending  the  culture  of  flax.  If  one  person  sees  in  it,  and  with  reason, 
an  interesting  branch  of  industry,  another,  on  the  contrary,  regards  it,  not  without  reason,  as  a 
leading  cause  of  the  decline  of  agricultural  prosperity. 

It  is  certain  that  flax  absorbs  in  a  peculiar  manner  the  old  nutritive  particles  remaining  in  the 
soil  ;  that  it  requires  long  and  tedious  cultivation;  and  that,  too,  at  a  time  when  there  is  a  super- 
abundance of  work  to  be  executed  ;  and,  consequently,  that  it  may  cause  the  neglect  of  some  ope- 
ration of  particular  importance  to  the  welfare  of  the  establishment  in  general.  It  follows,  there- 
fore, that  in  places  where  the  old  system  of  cultivation  is  pursued,  where  economy  is  necessary, 
v/ith  regard  either  to  the  quantity  of  manure  and  the  nutritive  matter  contained  in  the  soil,  or  to 
the  amount  of  manual  labor  and  the  employment  of  time  in  summer,  on  account  of  the  thinness  of 
population,  it  is  impossible  that  advautage  can  result  from  any  great  extension  of  the  culture  of 
flax.  But  on  a  soil  which  has  been  fertilized  by  repeated  ameliorations,  and  in  establishments  in 
which  abundance  of  manure  is  produced,  and  there  are  plenty  of  hands,  especially  women,  the 
cultivation  of  flax  may  be  undertaken  without  inconvenience. 

In  countries  where  spinning  and  weaving  form  the  principal  resource  of  the  people  during  win- 
ter, it  is  particularly  advantageous  to  give  tliis  kind  of  produce  the  preference  before  other  mar- 
ketable plants.  In  such  countries  one  often  has  the  opportunity  of  selling  the  crop  as  it  stands, 
and  thus  clearing  a  con.siderable  net  profit,  without  the  trouble  of  gathering  and  subsequent  treat- 
ment. It  may  be  a  good  speculation  to  establish  spinning-rooms  and  looms  on  an  estate,  for  the 
sake  of  conveniently  employing  during  winter  a  number  of  laborers,  who  may  afterward  be  occu- 
pied for  the  summer  season  in  agricultural  operations.  In  this  manner  we  may  increase  the  num- 
bei  of  well  disposed  people  about  us,  and  also  the  population  in  general.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, it  is,  doubtless,  advantageous  to  extend  the  culture  of  flax  and  the  preparation  of  the 
thread  :  and,  what  is  more,  this  extension  may  be  made  without  inconvenience.  But  if  these  two 
circumstances  do  not  exist,  the  culture  of  many  other  marketable  plants  seems  to  me  to  be  prefer- 
able to  that  of  flax  :  the  latter  should,  I  think,  be  then  restricted  within  such  limits  as  are  prescri- 
bed by  the  wants  of  the  establishment  itself 

Flax  prefers  a  light  soil  mixed  with  sand,  to  a  strong  clayey  soil.  It  is,  however,  necessary  that 
the  deficiency  of  power  to  retain  moisture  which  results  from  the  composition  of  the  soil,  be  made 
up  by  its  situation.  It  is,  moreover,  essential  that  the  soil  be  rich  and  fertile,  either  by  nature,  or 
(1081) 


458  thaer's  principles   of  agriculture. 

from  having  previously  received  an  abundant  supply  of  manure.  The  want  of  this  fertility  can 
not  well  be  sujiplied  by  manuring  the  laud  at  the  time  of  sowiug.  The  soil  must  not,  however,  be 
immoderately  rich  ;  for  the  liax  would  then  be  very  likely  to  be  laid.     A  light,  marly  soil  agrees 

.    with  it  better  than  any  other. 

In  countries  where  the  three-field  system  is  practiced,  it  is  almost  always  the  custom  either  to 

I     sow  iiax  on  the  fallow-field,  or  to  substitute  it  for  fallowing.     This  place  appears  tome  the  mo.st  in 
convenient  that  could  possibly  be  assigned  to  the  plant.     It  is  difficult,  e.specially  in  raising  fa.st 
growing  tiax,  to  give  the  laud  that  complete  cultivation  which  ought  to  precede  the  sowiug  ;  es- 
pecially when  the  soil  has  become  greatly  infested  with  weedsfrom  the  raising  of  several  success- 
ive crops.     Flux  is  regarded  as  a  bad  preparation  for  autumn  grain  ;  and  every  practical  culliva- 
tor  reckons  on  a  sensible  diminution  in  the  produce  of  grain  which  is  immediately  to  follow  a  crop 
of  tiax.     In  the  three-field  system,  I  should  much  prefer  to  put  the  flax  on  the  spring-corn  field, 
which  may  much  more  easily  be  prepared  in  the  manner  required,  especially  if  the  fallow  prece- 
ding the  autumn  grain  has  been  carefully  attended  to.     If  this  fallow-field  has  been  plentifully  ma- 
nured, it  ought  to  possess  considerable  fertility.     In  that  case,  especially  after  the  autumn  grain 
has  been  removed,  it  would  be  necessary  to  clear  oft'  the  stubble  superficially,  or  simply  give  a 
half-plowing,  and  afterward  in  autumn  to  plow  deeply.     If  the  soil  appeared  to  require  tresh  ma- 
nure, I  should  have  a  quantity  of  perfectly  ffesh  stable-dung  carted  on  to  it  during  winter,  and 
spread  over  the  surface,  after  the  harrow  had  been  passed  over  it.     The  dung  would  remain  in    , 
this  state  till  dry  weather  in  spring  would  allow  me  to  have  the  straw  raked,  or,  as  would  be  more 
convenient  on  large  surfaces,  to  have  it  collected  in  little  heaps,  by  means  of  a  large  harvest-rake    , 
drawn  by  a  horse  ;  the  remainder  would  then  be  taken  away,  to  be  used  for  other  purposes.     The    , 
land  would  thus  obtain  the  nouri.shmeut  required  for  the  crop  of  flax,  without  being  too  much    , 
raised  by  the  straw.    Instead  of  this,  it  may,  doubtle.ss,  be  advantageous  to  turn  the  sheep  on  to 

,     the  field.     The  plants  will  then  vegetate  powerfully  :  but,  above  all,  the  soil  will  be  rendered  very 
porous,  and,  after  one  plowing,  will  be  well  prepared  for  the  reception  of  the  seed.     Peas  will   i 
thrive  well  on  land  which  ha.s  borne  flax  in  the  preceding  year;  and  the  autumn  grain  which  fol-    ' 
lows  the  peas  will  .succeed  better  than  it  would  if  sown  immediately  after  the  tiax.     This,  howev- 
er, supposes  that  it  has  not  been  thought  preferable  to  sow  clover  among  the  tiax;  a  plan  by  which 
clover  succeeds  better  than  bj'  any  other,  unless,  perhaps,  among  buckwheat. 

But  flax  is  also  perfectly  successful  when  sown  after  clover  on  a  single  plowing,  especially  if 
the  clover  be  biennial.  The  stubble  of  the  clover  is  plowed  up  either  in  spring  or  autumn,  with 
some  care,  and  not  too  superficially  ;  and  then  the  harrow  and  roller  are  pa.ssed  over  the  ground. 
Before  sowing  flax,  the  haiTow  with  projecting  teeth  is  forcibly  passed  over  the  surlace  ;  or  else 
[and  this  is  the  better  method)  the  extirpator  is  used.  The  llax  is  covered  with  the  harrow,  and 
the  roller  passed  over  the  surface.  The  mode  of  manuring  just  described  may  be  here  adopted  if 
the  tiax  be  thought  to  require  it;  but  a  shght  manuring  with  lime,  soap-boilers'  ashes,  or  the  dung 

i     of  fowls,  especially  pigeons,  scattered  at  random,  will  be  found  more  beneficial. 

On  the  other  hand,  according  to  the  observations  of  the  Belgians,  flax  does  not  succeed  after 
legumes,  especially  peas.  It  is  perfectly  successful  after  weeded  crops  which  have  been  well 
manured ;  it  is  also  cultivated  with  advantage  after  hemp  ;  but  hemp  mustnot  be  sown  after  tiax. 
Flax  never  thrives  better  than  on  a  rich  and  fertile  clearing,  or  land  which  has  for  a  long  time 
been  laid  down  to  grass.  I  think  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  more  profitable  mode  of  employing 
such  land  for  the  first  year  of  its  return  to  cultivation.  It  must  be  scarified  more  or  less  deeply, 
according  to  the  thickness  of  the  layer  of  turf :  the  latter  must  be  carefully  turned  over  ;  and  lor 
this  purpose,  the  fork  or  the  spade  'must  be  used  in  places  where  the  plow  is  insufficient.  This 
operation  should  be  performed  in  autumn,  or  in  early  spring  ;  and  the  ground  harrowed  and  rolled 
immediately  afterward,  to  prevent  the  grass  from  coming  up  between  the  furrows.  At  seed-time 
the  ground  is  strongly  haiTOwed,  then  the  seed  is  put  in  and  buried  with  the  harrow,  after  which 

'  i    the  roller  is  passed  over  the  surface.     I  have  never  seen  flax  growing  more  vigorously  and  firmly, 

' ,  or  with  longer  stem,  than  on  a  clearing  of  this  description  :  a  farther  advantage  is  that  the  ground 
does  not  require  weeding.  At  most,  it  is  only  the  roots  of  a  few  weeds  which  are  hardy  and  dif- 
ficult to  destroy,  tliat  shoot  up  again ;  and  these  are  easily  pulled  up.  The  turf  under  flax  be- 
comes so  light  and  porous  that  a  single  plowing  is  sufficient  for  the  winter  grain.  On  a  clearing, 
the  soil  of  which  was  rich  and  fertile,  I  have  in  this  manner  obtained  a  verj-  good  crop  of  wheat 

'   after  one  of  flax.     I  was  induced  to  give  the  preference  to  this  first  grain,  from  the  circumstance  of 

'    a  crop  of  rye  having  been  laid  the  year  before,  when  sown  after  flax  which  had  been  grown  on  a 

\    clearing.     I  know  of  no  crop  under  which  close  turf  becomes  more  friable. 

[  When  I  have  no  clearings.  I  cultivate  flax  exclusively  in  hollows  situated  in  the  fields,  devoted 
to  the  autumn  grain,  where  I  should  otherwise  fear  that' the  water  would  remain  during  the  whole  ' 
winter,  or  where  this  inconvenience  has  actually  been  experienced  If  the  extent  of  these  hol- 
lows is  but  small,  I  go  to  the  expense  of  having  them  cultivated  w  ith  the  spade  ;  and  a  short  time  ' 
before  sowing,  I  manure  them  with  a  mixture  of  compost  and  lime,  which  together  with  the  seed, 
I  bury  with  the  harrow.  In  this  manner  I  obtain  as  much  flax  as  I  want,  and  even  more  with- 
out devoting  useful  land  to  it ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  I  keep  in  cultivation  portions  of  land  which 
would  otherwise  become  acid,  and  produce  rushes  and  other  marsh  plants. 

Flax  must  not  be  grown  again  tiU  after  a  considerable  interval,  on  land  which  has  once  borne  it.  It 
is  thought  that  a  space  of  at  least  nine  years  ought  to  intervene  between  two  crops  of  this  plant, 
even  m  countries  where  the  soil  appears  best  adapted  for  its  cultivation,  and  where  that  cultivation 
is  most  successfully  carried  on— as  for  example,  in  Belgium. 

It  has  been  laid  'down  as  an  essential  condition  for  ensuring  the  success  of  flax,  that  the  seed 
must  be  renewed  every  three,  or,  at  ah  events,  every  four  years,  by  procuring  Riga  flax-seed, 
which  £n-ows  in  Livonia,  Couriand,  and  Lithuania.     Experience  has  shown  beyond  a  doubt  that 

'  our  heiip-seed  becomes  gradually  bastardized,  and  produces,  year  by  year,  plants  which  grow  to 
a  less  hight,  and  especially  branch  out  too  soon.  We  are,  thereiore,  obliged  from  time  to  time  to 
purchase  this  costly  seed  at  the  price  of  from  18  to  22  rix-dollars  per  tun  of  two  bushels ;  while  we 


THREAD    PLANTS HEMP.  459 

ourselves  sell  it  for  only  3  or  4  rix-doUars.  As  to  our  flaxseed,  it  is  neither  the  climate  nor  the  soil 
that  occasions  its  deterioration,  but  rather  the  scanty  attention  bestowed  upon  the  crop.  We  do 
not  allow  the  seed  to  ripen,  but  separate  it  too  soon  from  the  stalks  ;  and,  consequently,  we  can- 
not prevent  it  from  being  somewhat  burnt,  and  changing  its  color  from  a  yellowish  tinge  to 
brown.  In  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Baltic,  where  the  sale  of  this  seed  constitutes  an  im- 
portant branch  of  commerce,  it  is  treated  with  great  care.  The  flax  intended  for  seed  is  sown  much 
more  thinly  than  that  which  is  designed  for  other  purposes  ;  and  the  soil  chosen  for  it  is  mostly  a 
clearing,  from  the  surface  of  which  the  turf  has  been  peeled  off;  the  flax  is  allowed  to  ripen  com- 
pletely, the  fineness  of  the  thread  being  sacrificed  to  the  quality  of  the  seed  :  the  seed-bearing 
branches  are  then  cut  to  the  length  of  a  span,  and  wound  in  a  spiral  direction  round  a  rod.  The 
rod  is  then  straightened,  and  the  flax-seed  left  till  it  becomes  perfectly  ripe  and  dry  ;  after  which  it 
is  thre.shed.  By  this  process  the  seed  is  made  to  preserve  its  yellow  color,  its  lustre,  and  the  agree- 
.  able  odor  which  is  peculiar  to  it :  in  this  state  it  produces  more  vigorous  plants.  It  is  certain  that 
by  following  the  same  process  we  might  obtain  flax-seed  quite  as  good  as  that  which  we  get  from 
abroad,  and  thus  save  the  high  price  which  we  are  obhged  to  give  for  it.  Experience  shows 
the  uiihty  of  keeping  flax-seed  for  two  years;  according. to  some  persons,  it  continually  improves 
by  keeping. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  flax :  one  bearing  seed-vessels,  which  burst  with  a  report,  when,  after 
ripening,  they  are  powerfully  dried  by  the  sun's  rays :  its  thread  is  fine,  short  and  pliant.  And 
anotlier,  which  requires  threshing  to  separate  the  seed.  In  Germany,  the  latter  variety  alone  is  > 
cultivated,  the  former  not  being  con.sidered  profitable.  The  distinction  of  early,  medium,  and  late  ' 
flax,  depends  entirely'  on  the  time  of  sowing  ;  for  the  seed  is  othervi'ise  the  same.  The  early  and 
medium  varieties  appear  in  general  to  be  the  safest.  In  many  parts,  however,  it  is  only  the  late 
flax  that  is  sown,  merely  because  it  is  not  ready  for  gathering  till  after  harvest ;  and  it  is  desira- 
ble not  to  be  hindered  at  harvest-time. 

I  say  nothing  about  the  remaining  processes  in  the  preparation  of  flax,  because  they  are  suiS- 
cieutly  well-known,  and  I  should  merely  have  to  repeat  that  which  has  been  said  a  hundred  times 
over.  I  must,  however,  notice  the  contradictory  opinions  which  have  been  advanced  respect- 
ing the  comparative  advantages  of  dew-rolling,  and  steaping  or  watering.  The  former  method  is 
the  safer  of  the  two  ;  but  it  takes  up  a  great  deal  of  time,  especially  in  dry  weather.  In  the  dry 
summer  of  1810,  this  method  was  impracticable :  it  then  became  absolutely  necessaiy  either  to 
steep  the  flax,  or,  at  all  events,  to  sprinkle  it  frequently  with  water.  The  process  of  steeping  is 
very  expeditious,  but  it  requires  great  care  and  attention  to  prevent  the  thread  from  being  injured. 
It  is  not  in  all  situations  that  a  sufficiencj'  of  water  can  be  obtained  for  this  operation  ;  it  fills  the  air 
with  putrid  eflluvia,  and  the  water  with  decomposing  vegetable  matter,  which  destroys  the  fish. 
Then  again,  it  must  always  be  performed  by  women,  who  are  usually  unwilling  to  depart  from  , 
established  practices.  It  is,  therefore,  better  to  adhere  to  the  mode  of  management  already  estab-  , 
lished  in  the  country. 

In  separating  the  seed,  the  cultivator  takes  care  to  divide  it  into  seed  of  the  first  quality,  which  he 
keeps  for  sowing ;  the  seed  of  medium  quality,  to  be  used  for  the  extraction  of  oil ;  and  inferior  seed, 
which  may  be  most  advantageously  consumed  as  food  for  the  cattle. 

Perennial  flax  (Linnm  perennej  which  is  a  totally  distinct  species,  has  been  strongly  recom- 
mended by  some  persons,  and  seems  in  fact  to  be  decidedly  superior  in  one  respect,  viz.,  that  it 
lasts  for  several  years  (I  have  myself  kept  it  growing  for  six  years  in  full  vigori,  and  produces 
much  longer  and  firmer  stems  ;  but  its  thread  is  coarse,  brown,  and  not  easily  separated  :  hence,  this 
species  of  flax  has  never  continued  long  in  favor  with  any  one. 

Hemp  [Cannabis  Sativa). 

Hemp  is  one  of  those  plants  in  which  the  sexes  are  separated.  A  remarkable  variety  of  this 
plant  is  that  of  Alsace  or  Strasburg,  the  stem-  of  which  grows  to  the  hight  of  eight  feet.*  This  great 
length  of  stem  is  probably  the  result  of  that  careful  cultivation  doubtless  bestowed  on  those  plants 
which  are  raised  for  the  sake  of  their  seed,  and  of  the  abundant  room  which  they  have  for  growing. 
When  the  plant  attains  this  hight,  it  is  much  exposed  to  injury  from  high  ■winds.  It  is  not  yet 
decided  w-hether  this  variety  would  thrive  in  the  climate  of  the  north-east  of  Germanj-. 

For  hemp,  even  more  than  for  flax,  the  soil  must  be  rich  in  humus,  moist  by  its  situation,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  light  and  movable.  Drained  marshes  not  containing  peat,  and  muddy  ponds  from 
which  the  water  has  been  allowed  to  run  oflf;  ai-e  veiy  well  adapted  for  the  culture  of  this  plant, 
which  yields,  when  grown  upon  them,  a  very  plentiful  crop.  It  is  only  on  the  rich  lands  of  low  coun- 
tries that  hemp  will  thrive  on  the  whole  extent  of  the  fields.  On  high  grounds  its  produce  is  not 
great,  unless  a  large  quantity  of  manure  be  bestowed  upon  it ;  or,  as  already  mentioned,  it  be  con- 
fined to  certain  low  patches  of  ground  more  fertile  than  the  generality  of  the  laud  :  hence  the  cul- 
tivation of  hemp  is  absolutely  unknown  in  some  countries.  On  a  well-adapted  soil,  hemp  may  be 
rai.sed  for  many  j'ears  successively  on  the  same  spot. 

If  the  soil  be  not  naturally  light,  it  will  often  be  necessary  to  prepare  it  for  this  crop  by  four 
successive  deep  plowings. 

Ou  damp  soils,the  dung  of  sheep  and  horses  is  most  beneficial  to  hemp,  on  account  of  the  heat 
which  it  affords :  but  when  this  plant  is  grown  on  a  dry  soil,  it  requires  a  considerable  quantity  of 
well  fennented  cow  dung. 

Hemp  is  sown  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  end  of  Mayt  on  land  recently  plowed.     The 

*  I  have  myself  measured  stems  of  this  plant  growing  on  my  own  land  both  in  Bologna,  and  at  Romagna, 
in  Italy,  which  stood  above-eround  as  high  as  15  ft.  8  in.  Rhine-measure.  A  friend  of  mine  has  measured 
some  that  were  18  ft.  6  in.  Rhine-measure  in  length  ;  and,  nevertheless,  the  thread  of  these  plants  was  re- 
markably beautiful. 

t  As  soon  as  all  danger  of  frost  is  thought  to  be  over.    I  have  seldom  or  never  seen  hemp  injured  by  white 
frosts  happening  after  it  has  come  up.    I  should  recommend  that  it  be  always  sown  as  soon  as  all  fear  of 
frosts,  properly  so  called,  is  past. 
(1083) 


THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


quaiitity  of  seed  is  1  or  1|  bushel  per  acre,  accordingly  as  coarse  or  fine  hemp  is  to  be  raised. 

)    Damp  weather  is  preferred  for  seed-time,  and  the  seed  i.s  buried  with  the  han-ow.  The  last  year's 

/   hemp-seed  is  considered  better  than  that  which  is  older,  and  the  seed  is  never  changed. 

\  Hemp  springs  up  quickly,  and  grows  very  rapidly ;  hence,  it  very  soon  covers  the  whole  of 
the  ground,  and  chokes  the  weeds,  so  that  it  rarely  becomes  necessary  to  pull  them  up  or  hoe  tuo 
crop.  Tills  is  one  great  advantage  of  the  cultivation  of  hemp  as  compared  with  that  of  flax. 
The  greater  broom-rape  (orobancke  viajor)  and  the  branched  broom-rape  (orohanche  ramosa)  are 
the  only  weeds  which  infest  hemp  :  they  may  sometimes  entirely  destroy  it.  They  are  not  found 
anywhere  else.  ■  i 

The  male  hemp  is  pulled  np*  as  soon  as  it  has  discharged  its  pollen,  and  begins  to  turn  yellow   ^ 

'  I  at  the  top.  This  change  usually  takes  place  at  the  end  of  July,  or  the  beginning  of  August,!  and, 
thei-efore,  during  the  most  pressing  occupations  of  harvest.  This  circumstance  greatly  increases 
the  difficulty  of  "cultivating  hemp,  for  the  operation  takes  up  a  great  deal  of  time.  Hemp  pulled 
up  at  this  time  produces  tho  finest  thread,  and,  consequently,  it  is  a  pity  not  to  gather  it  at  that  time  : 
besides,  the  female  plants  which  are  left  standing  have  then  more  room  to  grow  and  gain  strength, 
and,  therefore  yield  a  larger  quantity  of  seed.  , 

The  remaining  part  of  the  gathering  and  preparation  of  hemp,  is  for  the  most  similar  to  the  cor- 
responding part  of  the  treatment  of  flax.  There  are,  however,  different  methods  of  conducting' 
these  proces.'^es,  descriptions  of  which  may  be  found  in  various  manuals  of  Agriculture  and 
essays  especially  devoted  to  the  subject ;  particularly  in  Kahler's  admirable  "  Handbuch  fiir 
Landwirthe." 

The  raising  of  hemp  in  large  quantities  cannot  be  recommended  to  a  cultivator  whose  land  is 
of  very  great  extent,  unless  he  has  particular  pieces  of  ground  peculiarly  adapted  for  raising  this 
plant ;"  and  either  a  sufficient  number  of  hands  for  gathering  and  preparing  the  crop,  or  the  means 
of  selling  it  on  the  ground.  Hemp  is  everywhere  an  object  of  pi'imary  necessity  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  coi'dage  ;+  it  yields  abundance  of  seed;  and  as  it  is  very  rich  in  oil,  the  disposal  of  it  may 
be  regarded  as  certain. 

In  rural  establishments  which  have  only  now  and  then  portions  of  land  fit  for  the  culture  of 
hemp,  such,  for  example,  as  ponds  which  have  been  drained,  it  is  proper  to  provide  in  the  course 
of  one  year  a  supply  of  this  plant  which  shall  suffice  for  several  years  after.  I  have  oftenobtained 
as  much  as  forty  or  fifty  rix-dol!ars  net  profit  per  acre,  although  the  expenses  of  cultivation  were 
higher  than  they  ought  to  have  been. 


OTHER  PLANTS,  THE  CULTURE  OF  WHICH  HAS  BEEN  PROPOSED  FOR  THE 
SAKE  OF  THEIR  THREAD  OR  COTTON. 

Syrian  Swallow   Wort,  or  Virginian  Silk  [Asclepias  Syriaca). 

In  the  years  1790-1800,  this  plant  was  loudly  vaunted  as  capable  of  supplying  the  place  of  cot- 
ton, and  its  produce  was  brought  into  use  at  several  manufactories,  especially  at  Leibnitz.  Since 
that  time  however,  we  have  heard  nothing  of  it,  although  circumstances  have  been  very  favorable 
to  the  production  of  any  plant  that  could  supply  the  place  of  cotton  :  we  may,  therefore,  be  allowed 
to  suppose  that  it  has  not  fulfilled  the  expectations  which  were  entertained  of  it.  Nevertheless,  its 
cultivation  is  extremely  easy,  and  it  thrives  well  in  the  most  arid  soils,  provided  they  are  enriched 
with  a  little  manure. 

Common  Nettle  (Urtica    Dio'ica). 

Of  late  years  the  cultivation  of  this  plant,  both  as  food  for  cattle,  and  for  its  thread,  has  again 
been  stroiigly  recommended.  It  may  be  multiplied  either  by  seed  or  by  the  transplantation  of 
roots  and  .stocks  ;  and  it  is  said  to  possess  the  peculiar  advantage  of  succeeding  on  the  worst  soils 
— on  sand-hills,  among  stones,  and  in  other  places  where  the  ground  could  not  be  used  for  any 
other  purpo.se.  This  assertion  seemed  to  me  rather  astounding,  because  I  had  never  seen  the  nettle 
gro\\-  to  any  considerable  hight,  excepting  in  situation.s  in  which  there  was  plenty  of  humus  ;  but 
my  doubts'^were  removed  upon  finding  it  stated,  in  the  midst  of  a  magnificent  eulogium  of  the 
nettle,  that  it  is  necessary  to  put  a  few  inches  of  good  mould  on  the  places  where  this  plant  is  to  be 
raised. 

The  cultivation  of  the  nettle,  either  as  a  thread  or  fodder  plant,  may  then  be  safely  recommended 
to  those  who  have  no  better  means  of  employing  their  good  vegetable  soil,  and  the  labor  which  tliey 
have  at  their  command. 

There  have  also  been  recommended  as  thread-plants  vai'ious  species  of  mallo^v,  the  Spanish 
broom  fspaj-tiiim  junceiimj,  the  common  broom  fspartinm  scoparinmj,  the  rosebay  willow-herb 
(epilobinvi  ans^nstifoliumj,  the  stem  of  the  hop,  &c.  On  this  subject  I  refer  my  readers  to  the 
work  entitled  "  Her-?ei-s  vollstandige  G-eschichte  der  Benutzung  vieler  bisher  noch  unbenutzter 
deuLsclierWollund  Seeden-gewachse."  Regensburg,  1794.  Meanwhile  we  shall  content om-selves 
with  the  cultu-e  of  hemp  and  flax. 

Fullerh  Teasel  {Depsacus  Fullorum). 

This  plant  must  here  be  introduced  on  account  of  its  great  utility  to  the  woolen  manufac- 
turers, who  are  so  anxious  to  obtain  it,  that  in  many  localities  its  cultivation  may  be  very 
profitable. 

The  teasel  gi-ows  wild  in  Germany  ;  but  the  wild  teasel  cannot  be  used  for  raismg  the  nap  of 
cloth,  because  the  prickles  with  which  its  head  is  armed  have  not  the  crooked  points  which  they 
acquire  by  cultivation. 

*  It  is  much  better,  or  rather  absolutely  necessary  to  reap  it,  in  order  to  obtain  a  fine  thread  ;  for  thflt  af- 
forded by  the  root  is  coarse  and  bad.  [French  Trans. 
t  In  Italy,  about  a  month  after  the  wheat  harvest.  [Frevch  Trans. 
t  In  countries  where  much  rain  falls  in  the  summer  season.                                                [French  Trans. 


(1084) 


:crt  1  ranB» 


COLORING-PLANTS.  461 


It  is  sown  in  spring.  In  the  first  year  the  plants  do  not  grow  to  any  hight.  They  are  usually 
transplanted  in  July  to  the  distance  of  a  foot  or  two.  In  the  following  year  they  put  forth  stems 
from  four  to  six  feet  in  hight.  The  flowers  appear  at  the  extremities  of  the  stem  and  branches, 
forming  ovo'idal  heads,  anued  with  long  elastic  prickles,  between  which  the  purple  flowers 
show  themselves.  When  all  the  flowers  are  blown,  the  heads  are  cut  off,  leaving  about  a  foot 
of  the  stdiii.  They  are  then  dried  in  a  well-aired  barn,  and  tied  up  in  bundles  of  about  a  hundred 
each. 

The  remarks  already  made  on  the  culture  of  marketable  plants  in  general,  are  equally  applica- 
ble to  the  teasel. 

COLORING-PLANTS. 

Dyers^  Madder  [Ruhia   Tincterum). 

The  plant  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe  ;  but  it  is  capable  of  withstanding  a  more  northern 
clime. 

Its  roots,  which  are  used  in  dying,  are  about  as  thick  as  a  goose-quill,  and  often  two  or  three  . ' 
feet  long  ;  they  are  composed  of  portions  united  by  a  kind  of  articulation,  round  which  numerous 
filaments  are  given  off.  They  contain  a  fleshy  substance,  which  is  of  a  deep  red  color  without, 
and  pale  red  within.  Toward  their  upper  parts  they  throw  out  lateral  roots,  which  extend  hori-  ' , 
zontally  under  ground,  and  produce  new  shoots  in  spring.  The  haulm  dies  on  the  approach  of  ' ' 
winter.  The  stems  are  several  feet  high  ;  they  bear  ovate,  or  rather  lanceolate  leaves  arranged  ' 
in  a  whorl.  The  flowers  are  yellow,  and  supported  by  peduncles  united  at  their  bases  in  the  '  ■ 
form  of  a  bouquet.  \ 

This  plant  may  be  reproduced  by  seed  ;  but  the  propagation  may  be  more  rapidly  effected  by   \ ' 
planting  shoots  which  are  thrown  up  from  the  root  in  spring.     It  must  be  observed,  however,  that 
plants,  which  for  some  generations  have  been  propagated  in  this  manner,  lose  their  inclination  to 
produce  seed.     Some  cultivators  think  it  useful  to  renew,  from  time  to  time,  the  production  of    [ 
madder  from  seed. 

Madder  requires  a  light,  humid  soil,  ameliorated  by  repeated  manurings,  and  recently  dunged. 

The  soil  is  turned  up  either  by  the  use  of  the  spade  alone,  or  partly  with  the  spade  and  partly 
with  the  plow ;  or  if  the  plow  alone  be  used,  it  is  made  to  go  as  deeply  as  possible. 

The  plants  are  sown  in  i-ows  two  feet  apart.     After  every  third  or  fourth  row  a  double  space  is 
left.     When  the  plants  are  grown  up,  the  mould  is  removed  with  a  shovel  from  this  last-mentioned 
space  and  spread  out  among  the  plants,  so  that  the  field  then  presents  the  appearance  of  raised     ' 
beds,  separated  by  deep  furrows.  ' 

The  planting  usually  takes  place  in  May  ;  and,  as  the  plants  Jo  not  grow  much  the  first  year,     ' 
many  cultivators  avail  themselves  of  this  interval  for  sowing  other  vegetables  on  the  land.  , ' 

On  the  arrival  of  v/iuter,  the  beds  are  covered  with  dung ;  \\-hicli  is  again  removed  with  the     ' 
rake  at  the  beginning  of  spring,  and  superficially  buried  in  the  furrow.  ' 

The  plants  then  put  forth  vigorously  ;  the  hollow  spaces  or  farrows  are  carefully  lightened  with 
the  hoe,  and  cleared  of  weeds.  In  the  spring  of  the  third  year,  the  intervals  are  again  hollowed 
out,  and  the  mould  thus  withdrawn  from  them,  which  has  been  enriched  by  the  remainder  of  the 
dung  put  upon  the  beds  in  the  autumn  of  the  first  year,  is  again  spread  oat  among  the  plants. — 
This  operation  is  performed  in  the  same  manner  as  upon  asparagus  beds. 

The  roots  are  gathered  before  winter.  Some  cultivators  pull  them  up  in  the  second  year;  but 
this  is  allowable  only  when  the  soil  is  uncommonly  rich,  and  even  then  the  roots  do  not  attain  the 
size  or  quality  of  those  which  have  been  in  the  ground  for  three  years,  and  hence  they  are  not  ea- 
sily disposed  of 

Such  is  the  method  which,  Mnih  some  modifications,  is  usually  followed  in  the  cultivation  of 
madder. 

Some  time  ago  I  recommended  to  several  cultivators  of  madder  the  method  proposed  by  Schwertz, 

\   in  the  second,  volume  of  his  "Agriculture  of  Belgium."  page  213,  and  they  appHed  it  with  great   ' ' 

I    success  ;  but  neither  Schwertz  nor  myself  can  be  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  this  method,  which    ' 

had  been  previously  recommended  by  a  clergyman  named  Christ,  in  his  "  Unterricht  von  der   \ 

<    Landwerthschaft,"  Frankfort  am  Main,  1781.     His  words  are  (p.  464),  "When  we  consider  the 

advantages  presented  by  the  method  of  TuU,  we  shall  immediately  see  that  there  is  no  plant  to   , 
'   which  that  method  is  more  readily  applicable  than  to  madder."     I  cannot,  however  help  think-   i 
'   ing  that  it  is  dangerous  in  a  first  cultivation  to  remove  the  mould  near  the  rows,  according  to  Tail's   i 
method. 

If  I  were  to  cultivate  madder,  I  should  proceed  as  follows : — The  soil  having  been  perfectly 
prepared  and  cleared,  I  should  make  furrows  with  the  double  mould-board  plow  at  intervals  of 
<  three  feet,  and  set  the  plants  on  the  summit  of  the  ridgelet  formed  in  this  manner  with  the  earth 
I  turned  over  by  the  plow.  V^hen  the  plants  had  grown  to  a  certain  hight,  I  should  again  pass  the 
plow  along  the  furrows,  after  having  separated  the  two  mould-boards  to  a  somewhat  greater  dis- 
tance. The  plow  then  penetrating  to  a  greater  depth,  would  convey  to  the  plants'the  mould 
which  it  raised  put  of  the  farrow.  This  operation  I  should  repeat  once  more.  Before  winter, 
if  the  soil  were  not  naturally  very  fertile,  1  should  spread  all  over  the  surface  a  quantity  of  dung 
somewhat  fermented  ;  some  of  which  would  certainly  fall  into  the  furrows.  In  the  following  year 
I  should  again  pass  the  same  plow  along  the  furrows  so  as  to  bury  the  dung,  and  again  earth  up 
the  plants.  This  method  would  not  entirely  save  manual  labor,  but  would,  at  least,  diminish  it  to 
a  considerable  extent.  It  would  be  necessary  to  hoe  and  scarify  between  the  rows  ;  and  these  op- 
erations heaping  up  the  earth  in  the  furrows,  the  plow  would  again  throw  it  upon  the  beds.  In 
the  third  year,  if  the  furrows  were  broad  and  the  plants  sufiBciently  grown,  the  farther  cultivation 
of  the  soil  might  be  performed  with  the  scarifier  or  horse-rake. 

No  one  who  has  observed  the  effect  of  this  mode  of  culture  on  other  plants,  will  doubt  that  its 

Buccess  will  be  as  great  as  that  which  Christ  promises  and  Schwertz  announces.     It  hag.  the  ad- 

(108.5) 


vantage  of  greatly  facilitating  the  gathering  of  the  roots,  which,  according  to  Schwartz's  observa- 
tions, beiui?  all  in  the  same  direction,  may  easily  be  taken  up  by  the  plovr. 

Madder  "should  be  exposed  in  a  well-aired  but  shady  situation  to  dry  it.  The  best  mode  is  to 
spread  it  upon  hurdles  as  in  a  tile-kiln. 

Its  final  preparation  is  not  the  business  of  the  cultivator,  unless  he  is  at  the  same  time  a  manu- 
l  facturer.  If  he  is  not  sure  of  a  market  for  his  madder  when  dried,  and  before  it  is  bruised,  he 
'     should  not  cultivate  it  unless  he  has  a  mill  to  grind  it  in. 

Whoever  wishes  to  plant  madder  in  large  quantities,  ought  to  have  seed-beds  of  his  own.  It 
\    would  be  too  costly  to  purchase  the  necessary  quantity  of  plants. 

/       However  advantageous  the  cultivation  of  madder  may  be  when  properly  organized,  it  is  neces- 
I     sary,  before  undertaking  it,  to  consider  maturely  all  that  has  been  said  on  the  culture  of  market- 
i     able'  plants  in  general.     The  culture  of  this  plant  is  practicable  only  where  there  is  a  snpcr abund- 
ance of  manure.     Moreover,  it  cannot  enter  into  any  ordinary  rotation,  on  account  of  the  length  of 
time  during  which  the  crop  remains  in  the  ground  ;  viz.,  for  three  years,  or  two  at  the  least. 

Dyers''  Woad  {Isatis  Tinctoria). 

The  culture  of  this  plant  was  at  one  time  very  common  in  Germany,  especially  in  Thuringia  :  in 

the  thirteenth  century  it  was  principally  cultivated  in  the  environs  of  E rfurt.     It  then  formed  a- 

very  considerable  branch  of  commerce,  and  was  a  source  of  prosperity  to  many  provinces  and 

towns.     But  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  indigo  was  introduced  from  the  East  Indies  ; 

and  in  the  seventeenth  century  its  use  became  extended,  and  supplanted  that  of  woad.     The  evil 

which  ensued  soon  became  apparent,  and  pecuniary  pains  and  penalties  were  enacted  against  the 

use  of  this  devil's  color,  as  indigo  was  called.     But  these  measures  of  commercial  policy  shared 

i   the  faie  of  ail  similar  proceedings— they  increased  the  evil.     Manufacturers  and  dyers  declared 

)   that  they  could  not  exist  without  the  use  of  indigo ;  and  that  a  pound  of  the  latter  yielded  as  much 

)   color  as  three   quintals  of  woad.     So  bad  a  character  was  given  to  woad,  that  dyers   became 

<    ashamed  to  use  it.  and  pretended  to  make  use  of  nothing  but  indigo  ;  although  it  is  said  that  they 

employed  woad  in  secret.     From  that  time  the  culture  of  woad  has  become  rare,  and  confined  to 

particular  localities.  ,       ,  .  ,      .     • 

But  now  that  we  are  again  obliged  to  make  use  of  woad,  cultivators  are  begmnmg  to  pay  great 
attention  to  it ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  art  of  preparing  from  this  plant  an  indigo  equal  to  that  of 
the  East  will  be  realized  and  generally  diffused.  In  that  case,  the  culture  of  woad  may  again  be- 
come profitable  ;  always,  however,  under  the  conditions  which  we  have  laid  down  as  binding  on 
the  culture  of  marketable  plants. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  the  plant  called  dyer'x  uwad  ;  one  cultivated  m  Germany,  and  the 
other  in  Languedoc.  The  latter  is  said  to  be  greatly  superior  to  the  former,  and  also  capable  of 
succeeding  in  Germany.*  -,     ■,    ^r  r         ■   ■      ,  ,-, 

The  stem  of  woad  grows  to  the  hight  of  three  feet,  or  three  and  a  halt  leet ;  it  is  about  as  thick 
as  a  finf^er,  and  divides  into  several  branches  clothed  with  leaves.  The  leaves  of  the  stem  are  am- 
plexicaT,  sagittate,  pointed,  slightly  crenate,  and  tinged  with  blue.  The  flowers  are  yellow,  and 
grow  at  the  top  of  the  stem. 

Woad  requu-es  a  good  soil,  either  naturally  feriile  or  well  supplied  with  manure;  carefully  cul- 
tivated, and  in  good  condition.  The  seed  is  sown  in  spring,  or  more  advantageously  in  autumn, 
about  the  end  of  August  or  the  beginning  of  September.  The  quantity  is  about  four  or  five  raet- 
zen  per  acre.  Woad  sown  in  autumn  suffers  occasionally,  though  not  often,  from  the  effects  of 
winter  ;  but  its  produce  is  much  greater  than  that  of  woad  sown  in  spring.  If  the  plants  shoot  up 
considerably  in  the  autumn,  they  are  mowed ;  and  the  crop  so  obtained  is  used  as  fodder  for  cat- 
tle. In  the  spring  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  destroy  weeds  by  hoeing,  but  also  to  thin  the  plants 
in  the  rows,  so  that  they  may  be  at  least  a  foot  apart. 

A  gi-eat  saving  both  "of  labor  and  of  seed  would  be  obtained  by  drilling  and  cultivating  with  the 

W^hen  the  leaves  are  about  a  span  long,  and  the  flowers  ready  to  burst,  the  stem  is  cut  off  close 
to  the  root,  and  the  largest  leaves  are  stripped  off.  Some  weeks  after  this,  new  leaves  are  put 
forth,  and  these  are  gathered  in  the  same  manner.  This  operation  is  repeated  as  long  as  the  plant 
continues  to  grow.  In  this  manner  four  crops  are  often  obtained  from  autumn-sown  woad.  Some 
persons  content  themselves  with  three  crops,  in  order  to  allow  tlie  leaves  time  to  grow  to  a  larger 
size.     On  a  good  soil,  the  average  produce  is  about  150  quintals  of  leaves,  weighed  in  the  green 

The  portions  of  the  plants  thus  gathered  are  washed  ;  and  as  quickly  as  possible  exposed  to  the 
sun  till  they  are  dried,  or  rather  merely  withered.     It  is  then  immediately  transferred  to  the  woad-   ^ 
mill,  a  troush  in  which  s.  wheel,  armed  with  teeth  either  of  wood  or  iron,  turns  round  and  crushes    ' 
the  woad.  "When  the  trituration  is  completed,  the  woad  thus  ground  is  formed  into  heaps  in  the 
open  air,  and  covered  up  to  keep  it  from  the  rain.     A  week  or  twelve  days  afterward  the  heaps 
are  uncovered,  the  woad  broken  up,  and  the  interior  of  the  heap  mixed  with  the  cnist  formed  on   ■ 
the  outside.     The  woad  is  then  made  up  into  balls,  which  are  usually  placed  to  dry  on  hurdles,    ' 
\     exposed  to  the  wind  but  not  to  the  sun.     The  balls,  when  dry,  are  ready  for  sale.     Such  is  the   | 
I     common  process ;  but  a  better  might,  doubtless,  be  devised.  ' 

A  circumstance  connected  with  the  cultivation  of  this  plant,  which  will  always  alarm  the  culti- 
vator, is  that  he  is  obliged  to  undertake  the  manufacture  as  well  as  the  culture.  Now  this  opera- 
tion must  necessarily  be  performed  immediately  after  gathering,  while  the  leaves  are  yet  fresh, 
and  at  a  time  when  in  all  rural  establishments  there  is  plenty  of  work  for  all  hands.t 

*  See  the  work  called :  "  Entdeckung  der  in  Deutschland  noch  unbekannten  achten  zahmen  Wardpflanze, 
nebst  Nachricht  uber  den  Unterechied  dieeer  und  der  Thdringschen  (Von  Otto>  "—Frankfort,  1794.  A. 

t  "  Vom  Anbau  des  Wardkrautes  dessen  Zubereitung  und  Anleitung  Indigo  daraus  zu  machen."— Vien.    . 
1788.     Schreber's  "  Hisloriscbe-physische  undoeconomiEche  B&schreibung  des  W aides."— Halle,  1752.  / 

(1086) 


Dyer^s   Weld  [Rsseda  Lufeola). 

This  coloring-plant  presents  to  the  cultivator  the  great  advantage  of  being  salable  without  any- 
other  preparation  than  drying. 

It  thrives  best  on  a  sandy  soil,  inclining  to  the  argillaceous  character,  highly  manured,  ^vell  cul- 
tivated and  weeded.  The  seed,  which  is  small,  should  be  sown  in  August,  in  quantity  about  eight 
pounds  per  acre ;  it  will  not  bear  to  be  covered  with  a  large  quantity  of  earth.  In  the  month  of 
August  of  the  following  year,  the  seed  ripens,  and  the  plant  begins  to  turn  yellow ;  it  is  then  pulled 
up,  dried,  and  tied  up  in  bundles,  which  are  sold  by  the  quintal.  The  seed  may  also  be  used  for 
extracting  oil. 

The  culture  of  weld  requires  but  few  details  ;  and  as  an  acre  produces  from  six  to  eight  quintals, 
each  of  which  may  frequently  be  sold  for  eight  rix-dollars,  the  crop  is  very  profitable,  provided  we 
have  the  means  of  disposing  of  it.  Marshall,  however,  advises  those  who  let  laud  to  farmers,  to  in- 
troduce a  clause  into  the  lease  prohibiting  the  culture  of  this  plant,  because  it  is  very  exhausting 
to  the  soil. 

Bastard  Saffron  (Carthamus  Tinctorius). 

This  plant  requires  a  soil  in  a  state  of  cultivation  equal  to  that  of  garden  ground.  The  seed  is 
sown  early,  at  intervals  of  two  feet ;  several  grains  being,  however,  sown  together,  in  order  that 
those  plants  which  present  the  best  appearance  may  be  afterward  left  to  grow,  and  the  rest  pulled 
up.  The  interspaces  are  kept  free  irom  weeds  by  cultivations,  for  which  the  horse-hoe  is  the 
most  appropriate  implement.  When  the  flowers  turn  yellow,  or  assume  a  somewhat  darker  » 
hue,  which  they  do  in  August,  they  are  plucked  with  a  blunt  knife,  and  afterward  dried  under  * 
cover.  This  operation  of  plucking  the  flowers  should  be  performed  in  the  forenoon,  and  never 
during  the  hottest  part  of  the  day.  The  gathering  takes  up  more  time  than  any  other  part  of  the 
culture  of  this  plant.  • 

The  plant  is  left  standing  till  it  ripens  ;  it  is  then  pulled  up,  dried,  and  threshed  for  the  purpose 
of  separating  the  seed.     This  seed  yields  a  good  oil,  but  only  in  small  quantity.* 

THE  HOP. 

This  kind  of  produce  is  become  an  object  of  almost  primary  necessity  :  its  sale  may  always  be 
regarded  as  certain,  and  the  price  which  it  fetches  is  sufficient  to  pay  the  interest  of  any  sum  that 
may  have  been  expended  on  its  cultivation,  at  the  rate  of  cent,  per  cent.  The  culture  of  the  hop 
ought,  therefore,  to  engage  the  attention  of  every  cultivator  who  is  able  to  advance  the  necessary 
capital,  and  has  brought  his  system  of  rural  economy  to  such  a  degree  of  perfection  as  to  furnish 
him  with  the  very  large  quantity  of  manure  which  this  cultivation  requires. 

There  ai-e  two  species  of  the  hop  ;  the  wild  and  the  cultivated.  The  former  is  in  every  respect 
smaller  and  weaker  than  the  latter  ;  and  though  it  might  be  improved  by  cultivation,  no  one  thinks 
of  making  the  trial,  because  the  cultivated  hop  is  always  easily  procured.  Of  this  latter  species 
there  are  two  varieties,  the  early  and  the  late ;  the  panicles  of  the  former  are  larger  and  more 
aromatic  than  those  of  the  latter.  On  the  other  hand,  the  latter  produces  a  gi-eater  number  of 
panicles,  and  is  said  to  be  much  less  liable  to  diseases  and  casualties.  In  general,  however,  all 
well  informed  cultivators  give  the  preference  to  the  early  variety,  especially  those  who  can  usually 
obtain  the  requisite  number  of  laborers  for  gathering  it  when  ripe  ;  that  is  to  say,  toward  the  end 
of  harvest  time,  at  the  end  of  August  or  the  beginning  of  September. 

Less  carefal  cultivators  are  in  the  habit  of  mixing  the  two  species  indiscriminately  in  the  same 
garden  :  a  practice  which  is  mischievous  in  every  respect,  and  greatly  interferes  with  the  gathering 
of  the  crop.  In  planting  a  hop  ground,  especial  care  should,  therefore,  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
mixture  of  the  two  species. 

The  hop  is  a  dioecious  plant;  that  is  to  say,  its  male  and  female  flowers  grow  upon  different 

stocks.     The  plants,  have,  however,  almost  the  appearance  of  undergoing  a  change  of  sex  ;  for 

the  females  being  alone  available  for  use,  are  likewise  the  only  ones  from  which  shoots  are  taken. 

The  males  are  always  destroyed,  except  when  the  seed  is  intended  to  ripen.     A  few  male  plants, 

may,  however,  always  be  found  in  hop  plantations  :    their  existence  is  not  easily  accounted 

for,  except  upon  the  supposition  that  some  of  the  plants  have  ripened  their  seed  before  the  usual 

time. 

'        The  spot  chosen  for  the  hop-ground  should  be  in  an  open  situation,  but  somewhat  sheltered  from 

the  north  wind.     Hop-grouuds  which  have  not  a  free  circulation  of  air,  are  precarious.     The  best 

'     mode  of  enclosing  the  ground  is  to  surround  it  with  a  ditch  ;  a  hedge  may,  for  greater  security,  be 

\    planted  by  the  side,  but  it  must  be  kept  low.    Very  dusty  situations,  such  as  the  neighborhood  of 

'     great  roads,  should  be  avoided. 

'        The  soils  best  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  hop,  are  clayey  sands  and  saudy  clays,  provided 

\    that  they  are  in  a  proper  state  of  fertility  at  the  time  of  planting,  and  are  afterward  supplied  with 

the  quantity  of  manure  required  for  continuing  and  increasing  their  fertility.  On  moist,  argillaceous 

and  heavy  soils,  the  success  of  the  plant  is  more  precarious  ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  its  produce  is 

greater  when  it  does  succeed.     Where  the  lower  stratum  of  the  soil  is  mixed  with  calcareous 

stones,  but  the  vegetable  stratum  is  of  considerable  thickness,  the  hop  is  sure  to  thrive  well. 

'    Fertile  soils,  which  have  been  long  used   as  grass  lands,  kitchen-gardens,  or   orchards,  and 

,  I    have  always  been  plentifully  dunged,  are  the  best  that  can  be  chosen  for  the  formation  of  hop- 

i  \    grounds. 

W'^s'^^P^sceof  landisto  be  pi-epared  for  growing  hops,  it  is  a  e-ood  plan  to  cultivate  ahoedcrop 
on  it  the  year  before,  unless  we  intend  to  plow  it  often  and  carefully  during  summer.  Even  if  the 
land  has  been  manured  for  the  hoed  crop  with  eight  four-horse  wagon-loads  of  stable-manure  per 
acre,  it  will  still  be  necessary,  after  gathering  that  crop,  to  manure  again  with  at  least  ten  wagon 

*  Dallinger'a  "  (Economisclie  technologische  Abhandlung  uber  den.Satier  und  Waidbau."  Nnue  Au- 
flage,  1605. 

(1087) 


464  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

loads  per  acre  :  this  latter  quantity  may  be  either  spread  over  the  surface  and  left  there,  or  buried 
with  the  plow.  At  the  beginning  of  spring  as  soou  as  the  soil  is  somewhat  dried,  it  must  be  turn- 
ed up  to  a  considerable  depth,  either  with  the  plow  or  the   spade. 

The  hillocks  on  which  the  plants  are  to  grow,  should  be  at  least  four  teet  square  :  some  persons 
place  them  six  or  eight  feet  apart.     A  pole  is  set  up  in  the  place  which  each  of  these  hillocks  is  to 
occupy;  a  circular  trench,  four  inches  wide  and  five  deep,  is  dug  around  it  at  the  distance  of  six 
inches,  and  the  plants  are  set  on  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  from  three  to  five  of  their  eyes 
above  ground.     Strong  and  healthy  plants  must  be  selected  for  the  purpose.     The  trench  is  then    | 
filled  up  with  the  mould  taken  out  of  it,  care  being  taken  to  press  the  earth  close  to  the  plants,  and   , 
I    form  a  little  mound  of  earth  round  them,  so  that  that  the  buds  may  be  completely  covered.     At  the 
end  of  a  few  weeks,  sooner  or  later,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather,  the  young  plants  will   . 
begin  to  grow.     As  soon  as  weeds  make  their  appearance,  the  whole  ground  must  be  hoed,  and 
the  spaces  between  the  plants  weeded.     This  is  the  time  for  fixing  the  poles  which  are  set  in 
holes  previously  made  for  them  with  an  iron  fore-stake.    To  these  poles  the  young  plants  are 
tied ;  only,  however,  the  principal  shoots  ;  the  others  are  cut  off.     The  former  soon  begin  to  climb 
up  the  poles,  twisting  themselves  round  in  a  spiral  direction.     If  necessarj',  the  fal^e  shoots  are 
again  cut  off. 

If,  instead  of  forming  the  plantation  with  young  plants  which  have  just  taken  root,  we  make 
use  of  grown  plants  taken  from  an  old  hop-ground,  the  planting  may  be  deferred  till  autumn.  A 
tolerably  good  crop  will  then,  in  all  probability,  be  obtained  in  the  following  year. 

The  hop  is  earthed  up  on  St.  John's  day,  the  mould  being  taken  from  the  interstices  and  a  little 
hillock  formed  round  each  pole.  In  performing  this  operation,  particular  care  must  be  taken  not  , 
to  touch  the  roots  of  the  hop.  As  the  produce  is  very  trifling  in  the  first  year,  many  cultivators 
plant  other  vegetables,  such  as  cabbages  and  beet  root,  in  tlie  interstices.  The  first  year's  crop  is, 
indeed,  so  inconsiderable,  that  many  pei-sons  abandon  it  altogether,  and  cut  oft'  the  tops  of  the 
plants  to  strengthen  them.  * 

The  hillocks  are  manured  after  this  first  crop  ;  five  large  wagon-loads  of  dung  per  acre  are  u.sed  , 
'  for  this  purpose.  The  earth  forming  the  hillocks  is  depressed  a  Httle,  and  the  dung  then  placed  ; 
upon  it.  In  March,  the  portion  of  dung  remaining  on  the  hillocks  is  removed,  and  buried  in  the  \ ' 
intervals:  the  poles  are  also  restored  to  their  places.  The  quantity  of  dung  must  be  regulated  ac-  ' 
cording  to  the  wants  of  the  soil:  an  excess  of  it  might  induce  di.sease  in  the  plants.  The  supera-  ,' 
bundani  germs,  which  in  spring  foi-m  a  very  agreeable  dish,  are  removed.  Six  or  seven  stems  only 
are  allowed  to  shoot  up,  and  are  again  tied  to  the  poles  ;  in  other  respects  the  mode  of  proceeding 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  preceding  year. 

The  principal  dilBculty  which  some  cultivators  have  to  contend  with,  is  that  of  procuring  poies. 
These  poles  must  be  froin  fourteen  to  eighteen  feet  long  at  the  least ;  for  the  first  year,  however, 
shorter  ones  may  be  used. 

Some  persons  set  up  two  or  three  poles  on  each  hillock,  and  distribute  among  them  the  stems 
of  the  plants  which  grow  upon  it.  The  cost  of  the  poles  forms  the  principal  part  of  the  expense 
of  forming  a  hop-ground ;  and  various  methods  have  been  devised  for  reducing  it.  Thus,  it  has 
been  recommended  to  make  the  hop  climb  round  poplars  with  their  heads  lopped,  as  vines  grow 
in  some  parts  of  Italy.  Hops  will  certainly  be  obtained  by  this  method,  but  the  crop  wiU  be  inferior 
both  in  quantity  and  quality ;  moreover  the  plants  will  be  more  subject  to  disease;  so  that  the 
cultivation  of  the  hop  hj  this  method  will  not,  in  the  end,  be  more  profitable  than  when  poles  are 
used.  The  trellis  work  which  has  been  proposed  as  substitute  for  poles,  is  likewise  not  more  ad- 
vantageous. 

As  soon  as  the  hop  is  ripe,  which  may  be  known  by  its  assummg  a  brownish  tinge,  becoming 
hard  and  firm,  and  acquiring  a  pleasant  aromatic  odor,  the  gathering  should  be  commenced  with- 
out delay.  The  early  hop  is  usually  gathered  about  the  beginning  of  September ;  and  the  late, 
toward  the  end.  The  stems  are  cut  close  to  the  ground,  and  earned  away  vrith  the  hops  which 
grow  upon  them.  The  picking  is  perfoi-med  either  on  the  ground  or  under  cover.  The  former 
method  requires  dry  weather ;  and  in  order  to  profit  by  such  weather,  the  greatest  possible  num- 
ber of  laborers  must  be  employed.  The  poles  are  placed,  two  at  a  time,  on  a  kind  of  scaffolding, 
and  under  them  is  hung  a  cloth  to  collect  the  hops  as  they  are  picked.  The  work-people  occupied 
in  picking  the  hops,  chiefly  women  and  children,  are  scattered  round  the  scaffolding ;  while 
others  at  the  same  time  bring  new  poles,  and  remove  those  which  have  been  picked.  When  the 
cloth  is  full,  the  hops  are  thrown  into  a  large  sack,  in  which  they  are  earned  to  the  drying  place.  If 
they  were  left  in  the  sacks  they  would  soon  become  heated. 

If  the  hop  is  to  be  dried  within  doors,  the  poles  are  drawn  out  of  the  bundles  of  hop  plants 
which  enclose  them  ;  the  plants  are  then  tied  lightly  together  and  carried  under  cover,  where  they 
are  picked  as  quickly  as  possible.  The  former  method  is  doubtless  to  be  preferred,  when  a  sufii- 
cient  number  of  hands  can  be  obtained  ;  for  hops  which  are  housed  before  they  are  picked,  are 
apt  to  acquire  a  bad  taste. 

The  hops,  when  picked,  should  be  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer  on  the  floor  of  an  airy  barn,,  and 
turned  every  day  till  they  are  perfectly  dry  ;  or  they  may  be  placed  on  a  stove  which  is  well  set  and 
burns  without  .smoke.  The  latter  method'is  the  more  expeditious,  guards  against  all  loss,  and  is 
beneficial  to  the  hops.  The  stove  is  covered  with  a  horse-hair  cloth,  on  which  the  hops  are  placed 
in  a  layer,  varying  in  thickness  from  six  to  twelve  inches,  according  to  their  greater  or  less  degree 
of  moisture  and  ripeness.  The  heat  of  the  stove  must  be  well  regulated,  constant  care  being  taken 
not  to  keep  it  too  high.  When  the  peduncles  of  the  hop  break  with  facility,  and  the  follicles  fall 
off;  the  drying  is  complete ;  eight  or  ten  hours  are  required  for  bringing  the  hops  to  this  state. 
This  mode  of  drying  doubtless  requires  some  experience  and  practice  to  enable  the  person  who 
conducts  it  to  adopt  and  maintain  the  exact  temperature  required.  It  is  indispensable  to  keep  a 
man  constantly  engaged  in  this  work.  The  hops  having  been  thus  dried,  are  carried  to  a  room  pre- 
pared for  them,  and  there  left  for  six  or  seven  days,  in  order  that  they  mayregain  a  small  quantity 
of  moisture  before  they  are  jiacked  up. 
(1088) 


TOBACCO. 


465 


After  the  hops  have  been  dried  by  either  of  these  methods,  the  cultivator  either  has  them  carried 
to  the  vs'arehouse  intended  for  keeping  them,  and  there  packed  closely  by  treading  them  under 
foot ;  or  they  are  put  into  bags  for  sale.  _  jijfiru-* 

In  order  to  bag  the  hops,  the  mouth  of  the  bag  is  attached  to  a  frame,  and  a  handful  of  hops  is  at- 
tached to  each  of  its  lower  corners  to  give  greater  hold.  The  hops  are  then  put  into  the  bag  by 
degrees  and  pressed  closely,  either  with  the  feet,  or  with  a  heavy  pestle.  When  the  bag  is  lull  it 
is  detached  from  the  frame,  a  handful  of  hops  is  attached  to  each  ot  the  upper  m  the  same  manner 
as  to  the  lower  corners,  and  the  mouth  sown  up  with  pack-thread.  The  quantity  put  into  the  bag 
may  varv  from  150  to  200  lbs.  Hops  packed  in  this  manner  will  keep  tor  a  long  time ;  whereas, 
if  thev  are  left  unpacked,  they  wiU  lose  their  glutinous  surface  and  aroma.  . 

The  quality  of  the  hop  is  judged  of  according  to  the  glutinous  character  of  its  surface,  its  aroma- 
tic odor,  the  farinaceous  substance  with  which  it  is  speckled,  and  its  color,  which  should  be  a 

"Is "soon  aT the  gathering  is  over,  the  poles  must  be  taken  care  of  by  placing  them  under  cover, 
or  tvin''  them  up  in  bundles,  30  or  40  together,  and  leaving  them  in  the  open  air. 

The  produce  and  value  of  hops  are  very  variable.  The  best  hop-ground  sometimes  yields 
scarcely  a  quintal  per  acre  ;  while  in  other  seasons,  it  will  produce  from  htteen  to  eighteen  quintals. 
The  price  someti:nes  falls  to  12  rix-dollars  per  quintal ;  at  other  times,  rises  to  70  or  80  nx-doilars. 
Hops  >ield  a  very  large  proHt  when  kept  from  a  year  of  plenty  to  one  ot  scarcity :  but  this  is  the 
business  of  the  speculator,  rather  than  the  cultivator.  ,      ,        ,  ^  ,     ■       r 

The  expenses  of  cultivation  are  no  less  difficult  to  estimate  ;  for  they  depend  upon  the  locahty  : 
nothino-  tlieretbre,  can  be  said  with  regard  to  the  average  net  profit  and  advantages  ot  this 
branclfof  cultivation.  Particular  cases  are  known  in  which  the  net  profit  per  acre  has  amounted 
to  two  or  three  hundred  rix-dollars  in  a  year ;  while,  in  other  cases,  the  receipts  have  been  tar 
from  sufficient  to  meet  the  expenditure.  ,   ,       ,  r  ■ 

In  fact  the  success  of  the  hop  is  mainly  dependent  on  the  weather,  and  the  absence  of  certain 
'  accidents  to  which  the  plant  is  exposed.  The  care  bestowed  on  the  formation  and  culture  of  the 
''  hop-eround  may  indeed  obviate  casualties  to  a  certain  extent,  but  cannot  uttterly  remove  them.— 
A  warm  summer,- with  moderate  winds  from  the  south  and  south-west,  and  not  much  rain,  is  fa- 
vorable to  the  hop  :  but,  in  wet  seasons,  particularly  when  the  wind  blows  much  in  summer  from 
the  east  and  north,  the  hop  is  sure  to  fail.  When  a  hot  sun  follows  ram  or  tog,  or  sultry  days  al- 
ternate witli  cold  niirhts,  the  hop  suffers  considerably,  even  when  these  occurrences  take  place  on- 
ly at  the  latter  end  of  the  summer.  In  spring  the  hop  suffers  from  the  attacks  of  an  insect  of  the 
flea  kind;  in  summer,  from  various  kinds  of  flies  and  lice,  but  especially  from  Iwney-dew,  which, 
at  this  time  shows  itself  after  cold  nights,  and  attracts  insects  :  nothing  but  a  heavy  thunder-shower 
can  save  the  hop  from  these  enemies.  In  the  last  stage  of  its  growth  it  is  exposed  to  mould  and 
honey-dew,  especially  when  the  hop-ground  is  in  a  low  and  confined  situation.  In  the  midst  ot 
all  the  dangers  and  enemies  with  which  tlie  hop  is  surrounded,  its  success  is,  in  a  great  measure, 
a  matter  of  chance. 

TOBACCO. 
The  extensive  use  which  is  made  of  this  plant  in  all  countries  of  Europe,  where  it  is  not  prohib- 
ited or  restricted  from  financial  motives,  has  caused  its  cultivation  to  be  preferred  to  that  of  other 
marketable  vegetables  ;  the'profit  arising  from  it  varies  according  to  the  influence  exerted  by  na- 
val warfare  upon  commercial  transactions. 

It  has  been  found,  however,  that  proprietors  of  large  estates  derive  greater  advantage  from  trans- 
ferring tlie  actual  cultivation  of  the  plant  to  smaU  cuhivators  of  active  and  industrious  habits,  than 
by  having  these  operations  executed  at  their  own  expense.     Accordingly,  when  the  soil  has  been 
completely  prepared  and  properly  manured  for  the  growth  of  tobacco,  it  is  sometimes  let  out  to 
these  cultivators  either  at  a  fixed  price,  or  with  an  understanding  that  they  are  to  have  part  of  the 
produce      This  last  method  is  the  one  most  generally  approved,  because  it  induces  both  planter 
and  proprietor  to  take  equal  interest  in  the  success  of  the  crop.     Hence,  in  all  districts  where  the 
culture  of  tobacco  is  known,  there  has  arisen  a  class  of  persons  called  planters,  who,  during  the 
summer  months,  employ  themselves  solely  in  the  cultivation  of  this  plant.     Where  the  soil  is  bad, 
*    the  proprietor  and  the  planter  share  the  produce  equally  between  them  :  but  when  it  is  very  good, 
the  proprietor  gives  up  only  two-fifths  of  the  produce.     The  proprietor  furnishes  the  soil,  manure, 
preparatory  plowings.  and  drying-shed  :  the  planter  performs  all  the  rest  of  the   labor,  and  rears 
the  plants;  the  proprietor  supplying  wood  and  dung  for  the  seed-bed,  and  lending  his  teams  tor 
housing  the  crop.     The  expenses  of  sale  and  carriage  to  market  are  borne  in  common.     But  the 
families  of  planters  who  engage  in  these  undertakings  must  be  possessed  of  some  little  property, 
and  be  able  to  maintain  themselves  till  the  time  arrives  for  disposing  of  the  crop.     The  planter 
must  also  derive  some  profit  from  the  undertaking,  in  addition  to  the  remuneration  for  his  labor.        ,| 
The  average  produce  of  tobacco  may  be  reckoned  at  about  8  quintals  per  acre  ;  and,  as  a  quin-    , 
tal  sells  for  5  rix-dollars,  the  produce  of  an  acre  may  be  valued  at  40  rix-dollars  :  of  these  the  pro-    i 
prietor  takes  24,  and  the  planter  16.    A  clever  and  industrious  planter  can,  with  the  help  of  his    ( 
family,  cultivate  12  acres :  he  can,  therefore,  gain  192  rix-dollars  during  the  time  that  he  devotes    ' 
to  the  planting,  culture,  and  drying  of  the  plant :  he  is,  however,  obliged  at  the  time  when  there  is 
the  greatest  quantity  of  work  in  hand,  to  employ  a  few  assistants,  whom  he  pays  out  of  his  own 

Tobacco  leaves  the  soil  in  a  good  state  of  preparation  for  other  produce:  it  completely  supplies 
the  place  of  fallowing.  According  to  general  observation,  the  crop  which  succeeds  it  is  in  no  res- 
pect inferior  to  that  which  comes  after  a  dead  fallow,  provided  the  tobacco-soil  has  received  four 
wagon-loads  of  dung  per  acre  more  than  the  fallow.  This  dung  forms  the  chief  item  of  expen- 
diture that  must  be  laid  to  the  charge  of  the  tobacco-crop  ;  and  for  this  reason  the  culture  of  tobac- 
co is  most  practiced  in  places  where  dung  can  be  obtained  at  a  low  price. 

A  point  of  groat  importance  for  carrying  on  this  cultivation  on  a  large  scale  is  the  possession  of 
(1089) 30 


spacious  drying-sheds.     Every  barn,  cart-shed,  and  stable  is  made  available  for  this  purpose.     To- 
bacco does  not  even  suffer  in  quality  by  being  hung  up  in  stables  above  the  cattle. 

Many  operations  in  the  culture  of  tobacco  might,  doubtless,  be  greatly  expedited  by  the  nse  of 
the  horse-hoe ;  but  as  there  are  al.^^o  many  parts  of  it  which  must  be  performed  by  manual  tibor,  at 
stated  times,  and  with  considerable  accuracy,  it  seems  best,  on  the  whole,  for  the  great  cultivator 
to  leave  the  entire  course  of  operations  in  the  hands  of  the  planter. 

I  shall  not,  therefore,  describe  the  minor  operations  in  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  which  are  the 
business  of  the  planter,  but  only  those  which  are  within  the  province  of  the  great  cultivator. 

Various  species  of  tobacco  have  been  recommended  for  cuUivatiou  ;  but  the  ordinary  Virginian 
tobacco  (nicotiana  l.ahacum  )  has  obtained  the  preference  before  all  others.  That  which,  under  the 
name  of  common  green  tobacco  (mcotiana  ruatica  j,  has  been  so  much  extolled  by  some  persons, 
has  not  been  found  successful  in  the  long  run.  Cultivation  has,  however,  produced  several  varie- 
ties of  the  former  species,  particularly  one  which  grows  to  a  large  .size,  and  another  much  smaller,    i 

Tobacco  prefers  a  light  soil ;  it  thrives  better  on  a  sandy  than  on  an  argillaceous  .?oil.     Sandy    ' 
clays  agree  with  it  best :  but  it  is  also  .successful  on  soft  clays,  -which  contain  a  large  quantity  of 
humus.  °  But  to  produce  a  perfect  and  plentiful  crop,  the  land  must  be  rich  in  ancient  hnmus  ;  and 
must,  besides,  have  been  recently  fertilized  with  some  sort  of  manure.     The  best  tobacco  is  that     r 
which  throws  on  clearings,  especially  if  the  turf  which  covered  their  surface  has  been  burned  up-  • 
on  thein ;  and  still  better  if  the  wood  which  grew  upon  them,  or  wood   brought  for  the  purpose, 
has  also  been  consumed  on  the  spot  and  reduced  to  ashes.     It  is.  certainlj-,  to  this  treatment,  rather 
than  to  ditference  of  climate,  that  we  must  attribute  the  great  superiority  of  the  American  tobac- 
co, which  is  grown  not  on  land  recently  dunged,  but.  on  the  contrary,  after  ten  or  twelve  crops,  all 
obtained  without  the  use  of  dung,  on  the  rich   and  burnt  clearings  of  Rhode  Island.     Our  manu- 
facturers are  also  aware  that  the  leaves  of  tobacco  grovi^n  on  land  of  this  description  are  far  prefera- 
ble, both  for  sweetness  and  scent,  to  those  produced  from  land  recently  dunged.     In  commerce, 
hovs-ever,  they  will  not  admit  this  fact,  from  fear  of  having  to  pay  a  higher  price  for  the  Ibrmer— a 
price  which  certainly  ought  to  be.  and  will  be  obtained  as  soon  as  the  superiority  of  that  descrip- 
tion of  tobacco  becomes  generally  known. 

The  tobacco  next  in  value  to  tliat  just  znentioned,  is  that  grown  on  a  soil  rich  in  humns,  after  ma- 
nuring w^ith  lime,. marl,  or  ashes;  manures  which  would  have  but  little  effect  on  the  plants  if  the 
i  were  poor  and  exhausted.  The  growth  of  tobacco  is  usually  forced  with  dung,  a  mode  of 
treatment  which  always  produces  that  acrid  taste  and  unpleasant  odor  which  manufactureis  have 
S(3ught  in  vain  to  remove  by  various  modes  of  preparation.  But  as  this  kind  of  tobacco  is  most 
commonly  met  with  in  commerce,  it  mu-st  certainly  find  purchasers  in  the  market. 

Land  is  prepared  for  tobacco  in  the  same  manner  as  for  other  weeded  crops.  The  .stubble  is 
cleared  off  in  autumn.  The  dung  is  carted  and  spread  as  much  as  possible  before  winter.  In 
spring,  this  dung  is  buried  by  a  supei-ficial  plowing  ;  and  then,  a  little  before  planting,  the  land  is 
plowed  deeply  ."in  order  to  lighten  the  upper  stratum  of  the  soil. 

The  success  of  tobacco  mainly  depends  on  planting  as  soon  as  pos.sible  :  in  the  month  of  May,  if 
circumstances  permit.  For  this  purpose  plants  of  sufficient  strength  must  be  ready  at  hand,  and 
the  soil  must  previously  have  been  prepared  in  the  manner  required. 

The  remaining  treatment,  which  is  the  business  of  the  planter,  does  not,  as  already  observed, 
come  under  our^pre.sent  observations.  It  may  be  found  described  at  length  in  various  manuals  of 
Agriculture.* 

In  countries  where  the  practice  of  committing  the  plantation,  after  culture  and  gathering  of  to 
bacco,  to  the  hands  of  planters,  in  consideration  of  their  receiving  a  part  of  the  produce,  is  gene- 
rally adopted,  the  conditions  of  this  compact  are  already  defined.  More  detailed  instructions  on 
thi.s"  matter  may  be  seen  in  the  work  of  Count  Podeivils,  entitled,  •' "Wirthschaft.?erihlirangen." 
part  i.  page  75'.  In  countries  where  this  custom  is  not  already  established,  the  proprietor  must  be 
content  at  first  with  making  a  somewhat  disadvantageous  agreement :  but  planters  will  soon  be- 
come more  moderate  in  their  demands  when  they  learn  by  experience  the  advantage  which  they 
may  derive  from  such  an  undertaking,  on  a  soil  adapted  for  the  growth  of  tobacco,  and  properly  . 
manured. 

As  the  cairiage  of  tobacco  is  easy,  it  is  unwise  to  allow  a  long  road  to  deter  us  from  taking  it  to  \ 
a  market  where  a  large  assemblage  of  buyers  will  ensure  high  prices.  The  price  of  tobacco  usu-  J 
ally  rises  in  .spring  and  summer ;  but  as  it  then  contains  a  .smaller  (juantity  of  moisture,  its  weight  \ 
is  likewise  diminished.  ) 

The  stems  of  the  tobacco-plant  have  been  advantageou.=ly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  pota.sh  ;  ) 
for  they  contain  a  large  quantity  of  alkali.  If  the  ground  is  to  be  sovs-n  in  autumn,  these  stems 
mu.st  be  taken  up  ;  but  if  the  tobacco  is  to  be  followed  by  a  spring  crop,  they  will  be  sufficiently 
decomposed  during  the  winter  to  prevent  them  from  interfering  with  the  spring  plowing:  and  it 
is  certain  that  they  restore  to  the  land  a  portion  of  the  nutritive  matter  which  the  tobacco  has  ab- 
sorbed from  it. 

Some  cultivators  have  thought  it  advisable  to  leave  standing  a  larger  number  of  stems  than  they 
require  for  obtaining  the  necessary  quantity  of  seed,  and  to  employ  the  surplus  seed  for  obtaining 
oil.     The  seed  of  tobacco  yields  a  fair  proportion  of  oil,  of  tolerably  good  quality. 
CHICCORY. 
wf  all  the  plants  which  have  been  proposed  as  substitutes  for  coffee,  and  which,  when  roasted 
and  steeped  in  boiling  water,  yield  an  infusion  resembling  coffee,  chiccory  is  the  only  one  which   , 
has  maintained  its  ground.     It  has  been  used  in  this  manner  for  thirty  years,  even  when  the  price    i  \ 

Ali'O  in  the  followins  works :     "  Klint.  ;  der  Tabaksbau  fur  den  Pffilzischen  Landsmann,"  1798.  "  Korge  ; 
Unterricht  zsm  Anbau  des  Tabaks,"  Breslau.  1773.     "  Rieben;  Anleitimg  zum  Tabaksbau,"  Dresden,  1789.— 
'•Christ;  Anweisung  zum  einti-agbchsten  Tabaksbau,"  Frankfort,  1799.     "Traite  ;  complet  de  la  culture,  tah- 
•rioation  et  vente  du  Tabac,"  Paris,  1791.  A. 
(1090) 


:offee  has  been  low ;  and  has  always  yielded  considerable  profits,  both  to  manufacturers  who 
prepare  it  in  large  quantities,  and  those  who  cultivate  it  in  their  neighborhood.  In  countries 
where  this  plant  has  been  cultivated,  land  on  which  it  is  grown  has  been  known  to  give  a  return 
of  16,  20,  or  24  rix-dollars,  without  previous  manuring  or  preparation. 

Chiccory  requires  an  argillaceous  soil  mixed  with  sand  ;  light,  deep,  and  rich.  The  soil  must 
also  be  turned  up  to  a  considerable  depth  ;  an  operation  which  is  performed  with  the  spade  in 
di.stricts  where  there  are  no  plows  made  to  go  deep  into  the  ground.  It  is  usual  to  manure  for 
this  crop  with  very  rotten  cow-dung:  a  small  quantity  only  is  used,  as  too  much  manure  causes 
the  roots  of  the  chiccory  to  throw  out  a  great  number  of  filaments,  and  to  acquire  an  unpleasant 
flavor.  Chiccory  is  sown  in  the  spring— generally  broadcast,  like  carrots.  Some  persons,  how- 
ever, who  raise  the  plant  in  large  quantities,  have  obtained  very  good  results  by  drilling  it  and 
cultivating  with  the  horse-hoe  ;  they  have  thus  saved  a  great  part  of  the  expense  of  weeding  and 
thinning  the  plants. 

The  haalm  may.  according  to  some  persons,  be  cut  at  the  end  of  July  or  the  beginning  of  August, 
without  injury  to  the  roots.     A  plentiful  supply  of  fodder  is  thus  obtained. 

The  roots,  carefully  taken  up  with  the  spade  or  fork,  may  be  sold  while  fresh  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  chiccory  works ;  otherwise  it  is  necessary  to  cut  and  dry  them. 

It  is  of  importance  that  all  the  roots  be  carefully  removed  from  the  soil ;  as  they  will  otherwise 
shoot  up  again  like  weeds,  spread  very  rapidly,  and  be  diflacult  to  eradicate.     It  has  also  been  re- 
marked that  chiccory  exhausts  the  soil  to  a  great  degree  ;    and  that  good  lands  have,  by  the  pro-    ^ 
diiction  of  repeated  crops  of  this  plant,  been  so  much  impoverished  that  a  large  expenditure  of 
labor  and  manure  has  been  required  to  re.store  them  to  their  pristine  fertility. 

Chiccory  has  been  also  cultivated  as  a  fodder-plant,  first  in  France  and  afterward,  upon  Arthur 
Young's  recommendation,  in  England.  The  principal  crop  is  not  obtained  till  the  second  year  : 
it  is  said  to  be  more  abundant  than  that  aflPorded  by  any  other  herbage-plant.  In  the  trials  which 
I  have  make  of  this  plant,  I  have  certainly  obtained  a  "very  plentiful  crop,  which  was  eaten  with 
avidity  by  horned  cattle,  and  had  a  good  effect  on  the  quality  of  their  milk.  The  chiccory  after- 
ward put  forth  its  flower-stalks  with  great  vigor,  without  producing  new  radical  leaves.  The 
stalks  yielded  but  an  insignificant  produce,  which  was  rejected  by  the  cattle  :  I  am,  therefore,  of 
opinion  that  chiccory  is  not  adapted  for  this  purpose-  The  English,  and  particularly  Arthur 
Young,  have  usedit  chiefly  as  pasturage  for  sheep,  and  found  it  very  useful  in  this  respect ;  for  a 
small  extent  of  chiccory  ground  will  fatten  a  large  number  of  sheep.  "When  the  plant  is  contin- 
ually cropped  by  the  sheep,  it  must  necessarily  shoot  forth  close  to  the  ground  ;  it  will  then,  un- 
doubtedly, go  on  for  a  longer  time,  producing  radical  leaves.  The  high  stems  would  certainly  not 
afford  proper  nourishment  for  these  animals.  Chiccory  may  be  used  in  this  manner  for  a  number 
of  successive  years.  I  can  say  nothing  about  the  manner  of  ridding  the  soil  of  it :  I  have  always 
found  it  very  troublesome  in  this  respect.  The  preceding  observations  must,  therefore,  be  re- 
garded rather  as  a  notice  than  a  recommendation  of  chiccory. 

CARRAWAY  (CARUM  CARUI). 

This  is  a  biennial  plant ;  it  mu.st  be  sown  early  in  spring,  and  does  not  produce  seed  till  the  fol- 
lowing year.  It  therefore  occupies  the  ground  for  two  years ;  and  as  it  cannot  be  successfully 
cultivated  excepting  on  the  richest  soils,  the  rent  of  the  land  for  two  years  must  be  laid  to  its  ac- 
count, unless  some  other  plant  can  be  cultivated  on  the  same  ground  during  the  first  year,  and 
thus  made  to  pay  part  of  the  rent. 

Where  the  culture  of  carraway  is  pursued  according  to  the  most  approved  method,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  neighborhood  of  Halle,  the  plants  are  raised  in  a  seed-bed,  which  is  often  made  and 
sown  in  autumn,  but  more  generally  at  the  beginning  of  spring.  The  land  is  prepared  for  this 
crop  in  the  same  manner  as  for  -weeded  crops. 

The  planting  takes  place  on  St.  John's  day.  Rows  of  carraway  are  planted  aliemately  with 
rows  of  cabbage,  turnips,  or  beet-root :  the'  after-culture  is  performed  with  the  hoe.  The  last- 
mentioned  plants  are  pulled  up  in  autumn,  and  carraway  left  alone  in  the  ground.  In  the  follow- 
ing spring,  one  or  two  cultivations  are  performed  with  the  hoe.  The  seed  ripens  about  St.  John's 
day.    The  plants  are  then  eiiher  reaped  or  pulled  up. 

Some  cultivators  sow  carraway  on  the  ground  on  which  it  is  to  remain,  after  having  prepared 
the  soil  in  the  proper  manner:  they  sow  the  caiTaway  either  alone,  or  alternately  with  carrots, 
poppies,  flax,  or  even  spring-corn:  they  then  weed  and  thin  the  plants.  In  autumn,  or  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  they  manure  the  land  either  with  compost  or  poultry  dung,  and  gather  the  crop 
without  transplanting. 

I  cannot  pretend  to  decide  upon  the  comparative  merits  of  these  two  methods  :  this  can  be  done 
only  by  cultivators  who  have  tried  both  for  a  series  of  year.s,  and  have  been  at  the  pains  of  calcu- 
lating the  outlay  and  return.  The  method  of  transplanting  has  the  advantage  of  allowing  a  longer 
time  for  cleaning  the  land  well. 

Carraway  cannot  be  grown  successfully,  excepting  on  .strong  first-class  wheat  land,  very  rich 
black  clay,  or,  at  all  events,  on  land  of  average  fertility,  w^ell  situated,  and  cultivated  like  a  gar- 
den.    On  such  lands  it  rarely  fails,  and  always  stands  the  winter  well. 

In  gathering  carraway,  the  same  precautions  are  necessary  as  in  gathering  colza,  to  prevent 
the  seed  from  being  shed.  It  is  either  reaped  or  pulled  up,  and  then  carefully  removed :  some- 
times, however,  it  is  thieshed  on  the  ground. 

The  price  of  carraway  is,  in  almost  all  countries,  high  enough  to  render  its  cultivation  profitable. 
But  the  cultivator  cannot  trouble  himself  with  the  minute  details  of  sale  ;  he  must,  therefore,  give 
up  the  greater  part  of  the  profit  to  the  dealer. 

A  large  consumption  in  the  brandy  distillery  might  render  the  culture  of*  carraway  very 
profitable. 

(1091) 


COMMON  FENNEL  (FCENICULUM  VULGARE). 

Fennel  is  cultivated  and  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  cairaway.  Its  principal  use  is  in  phar- 
macy ;  but  confectioners  and  liqueur  merchants  also  employ  it. 

ANISE  (PIMPINELLE  ANISUM). 

This  plant  is  an  annual ;  it  is  sown  in  spring,  and  ripens  at  the  begimiing  of  autumn  ;  it  is  nsn- 
ally  gi-own  among  carrots,  and  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

i  say  nothing:  about  the  culture  of  other  plants  whose  roots  are  used  in  pharmacy,  partly  be- 
cause I  have  no  actual  knowledge  either  from  my  own  experience,  or  from  observation  of  the  cul- 
ture of  many  of  them,  such  as  Saffron,  JJqnorire,  Camomile,  and  Mint,  all  of  which  are  but  lit- 
tle suited  to  our  climate  ;  partly  becaase  I  consider  that  many  plants  of  the  same  class,  such  as 
Rhubarb,  the  Rose,  and  Laveiider,  belong  more  properly  to  the  province  of  the  gardener.  The 
raising  of  these  plants  as  field-crops  may,  however,  be  advantageous  on  good  soils  and  under  fa- 
vorable circumstances.  In  caiTyiug  on  the  cultivation  of  such  plants,  the  safest  plan  is  to  make 
bargains  beforehand  with  wholesale  druggists,  and  to  a.ssnre  ourselves,  by  trials  on  a  small  scale, 
of  the  success  and  quality  of  the  plant,  the  cultivation  of  which  we  are  about  to  undertake.  We 
now  proceed  to  the 

CULTURE  OF  FODDER-PLANTS. 

Under  this  denomination  we  shall  include  vegetables  which  are  also  used  as  food  for  man,  but 
are  grown  on  large  extents  of  land,  chiefly  to  be  employed  in  feeding  cattle. 

We  shall  first  speak  of  those  which  are  most  advantageously  cultivated  with  the  horse-hoe,  pro^ 
vided  attention  be  paid  to  what  has  been  previously  said  of  this  mode  of  euitivation. 

The  Potato, 

It  is  about  265  years  since  this  plant,  now  so  completely  a  necessary  of  life,  was  first  introduced 
into  Europe.  It  was  brought  from  Santa  Fe,  by  .John  Hawkings,in  1565.  At  that  time  it  was 
solely  cultivated  in  gardens,  as  sxi  object  of  curiosity,  and  eaten  as  a  luxury. 

It  ■was  not  till  1623  that  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  introduced  into  Ireland  the  use  which  was  already 
made  of  it  in  Virginia.  It  was,  however,  pretty  well  known  in  Italy  as  early  as  the  year  1583, 
and  was  probably  introduced  at  that  time  into  Germany,  though  it  did  not  become  well  known  in 
\  the  latter  countiy  till  about  the  j'ear  1710.  After  that  time  it  was  regarded  as  a  common  plant, 
and  cultivated  in  gardens ;  it  -was,  however,  more  frequently  seen  on  the  tables  of  the  rich  than 
on  those  of  the  poor.  In  1760,  toward  the  end  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  the  use  of  the  potato  be- 
came more  general ;  but  in  most  countries,  its  cultivation  in  the  open  field  was  still  regarded  as 
extraordinary,  extravagant  and  inconsistent.  It  was  not  till  1771  and  1772  that  the  practice  of 
cultivating  the  potato  as  a  field  crop  began  to  acquire  supporters  ;  but  at  that  time  all  the  grain 
crops  failed,  and  the  famine  which  ensued  led  to  the  discovery  that  proper  and  sufficient  nourish- 
ment might  be  derived  from  those  very  potatoes  which  had  hitherto  been  regarded  only  as  a 
luxur}-,  just  as  well  as  from  bread.  Still  the  cultivation  of  this  plant  did  not  exceed  the  wants  of 
man  himself.  It  was  not  till  a  later  period  that  the  practice  of  giving  the  refuse  and  surplus  to  the 
cattle  began  to  creep  in.  But  it  -was  thus  gradually  discovered  that  potatoes  might  be  advan- 
tageously cultivated  as  food  for  live  stock.  Bergen,  in  his  "Introduction  to  the  Management  of 
Live  Stock,"  ("  Anleitung  zur  Viehzuct"),  was  the  fir.st  to  recommend  the  practice  of  this  culti- 
vation on  a  large  scale,  and  the  use  of  a  kind  of  horse-hoe  to  save  manual  labor.  At  the  present 
day  it  appears  scarcely  credible  that  the  extreme  utility  of  this  plant  should  have  so  long  remained 
unknown,  and  that  so  much  difference  of  opinion  should  have  existed  on  the  propriety  of  raising 
it  on  extensive  tracts  of  land. 

There  is  no  plant  to  which  I  have  paid  greater  attention  than  to  the  potato.  Even  before  I  en- 
tered upon  the  practice  of  Agriculture,  my  attention  was  excited  by  the  innumerable  varieties 
-which  were  produced  by  raising  it  from  seed.  I  treated  it  in  various  ways  at  that  time,  merely 
with  a  view  to  vegetable  physiology,  my  object  being  to  discover  whether  the  distinguishing 
characters  of  these  varieties  were  due  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  or  to  the  mode  of  fertilizing  it. 
Since  that  time  I  have,  in  raising  the  potato,  tried  all  the  methods  proposed  by  others,  as  well  as 
those  which  I  have  myself  devised.  As  far  as  the  quantity  of  produce  is  concerned,  the  results  of 
various  modes  of  planting  and  cultivating  have  shown  but  little  diflference,  unless,  indeed,  the  cul- 
tivation were  altogether  badly  an-anged  or  neglected.  The  quantity  of  produce  was  found  to  de- 
pend on  the  soil  when  the  species  cultivated  was  the  same.  But  the  manual  labor  required,  and, 
consequently,  the  net  profit,  varied  considerably.  I  have  done  my  utmost  to  reduce  this  manual 
labor  to  the  smallest  possible  amount  without  sen.sibly  diminishing  the  produce  ;  for.  in  the  raisins 
of  potatoes,  the  rent  of  land  is  much  less  considerable  than  the  expenses  of  cultivation.  I  will 
venture  to  assert  that  I  have  attained  this  object  more  nearly  than  any  one  else,  and  that  I  have 
found  myself  nearer  and  nearer  to  it  at  the  end  of  almost  every  successive  year.  I  therefore  beg 
tho.se  persons  who  have  read  my  former  works,  and  the  observations  which  I  have  made  on  tiie 
culture  of  the  potato  in  the  first  and  third  volumes  of  my  "English  Agriculture,"  in  my  "  Anmer- 
kurgen  zu  Bergen's  Viechzucht,"  and  in  the  "  Annals,"  to  consider  such  observations  as  the  rf 
suit  of  my  apprenticeship,  and  those  which  I  am  now  about  to  make,  as  more  complete  and 
matured. 

In  order  to  make  some  sort  of  classification  of  the  innumerable  varieties  of  the  potato,  we  must 
confine  our  attention  to  the  most  useful  part — the  tuber.  It  is  true  that  the  leaves  and  flowers  ap- 
pear to  bear  some  relation  to  the  form  of  the  tuber  ;  but  the  particular  examination  of  them  belongs 
more  properly  to  the  botanical  cultivator.  We  cannot  expect  that  this  examination  will  be  - 
dertaken  either  by  the  mere  botanist  or  the  mere  cultivator. 

The  skin  of  the"  potato  is,  in  some  varieties,  of  a  dark  color,  approaching  almost  to  blackness  ; 
(1092) 


THE    POTATO.  469 


otliei-s.  of  a  reddish  violet,  which  varies  to  pale,  brownish  or  yellowish  red ;  in  others,  again,  of  a 
whitish  yellow. 

The  color  of  the  flesli  is  sometimes  yellow  ;  sometimes  whitish,  or  perfectly  white ;  and  some- 
times slightly  tinged  with  red. 

The  several  varieties  of  the  potato  have  dilFereut  times  of  arriving  at  maturity;  that  is  to 
say,  at  tlie  state  in  which  the  tubers  are  detached  from  the  maternal  plant,  and  the  latter 
dies.  There  are  some  that  can  be  cultivated  more  than  once  in  the  same  summer,  and  on  the  same 
land. 

But  the  points  of  difference  which  we  have  chiefly  to  consider,  relate  to  the  consistence  of  the 
potato  and  the  quantity  of  starch  contained  in  it.  Some  varieties  are  very  spongy,  their  interstices 
are  filled  with  water,  their  specific  gravity  is  small,  and  they  contain  but  a  small  quantity  of  nutri- 
ment in  a  given  bulk. 

The  flavor  of  some  potatoes  is  very  agreeable  ;  of  others,  very  disagreeable.  Some  improve  by 
keeping;  others  ai'e  best  when  fresh  gathered. 

Some  cook  speedily  and  burst ;  others  resist  the  action  of  steam  and  hot  water  for  a  long  time. 

Some  varieties  require  a  dry  soil,  becoming  quite  watery  and  hollow  in  the  middle  when  grown 
on  laud  which  contains  much  moisture  ;  they  also  secrete  water  in  their  cavities.  Others,  ou  the 
contrary,  remain  very  small,  and  are  scarcely  worth  the  expense  of  cultivation  when  sown  on  a 
dry  soiL 

Some  put  out  long  filaments  into  the  soil ;  others  press  their  tubers  so  closely  together,  that  they 
show  themselves  above  ground. 

Some  potatoes  thrive  particularly  well  on  marshy  land  ;  others  perish  on  it,  and  thrive  on  an  ar- 
gillaceous soil. 

All  these  particulars  must  be  taken  into  account,  when  a  selection  is  to  to  be  made  of  varieties 
for  cultivation.  The  culture  of  a  new  variety  should  never  be  undertaken  on  a  large  scale,  till  a 
proper  trial  has  been  made  of  it. 

The  amount  of  produce  of  each  variety  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  but  the  value  calcula- 
ted according  to  the  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  cotiraiued  in  it.  This  maybe  judged  of 
approximately  by  the  sensation  which  the  fleshy  part  of  the  tuber  produces  when  applied  to  the 
tougue ;  or  more  accurately,  by  cutting  the  tubers  in  pieces,  drying  them,  and  comparing  their 
weight  in  the  dried  state  with  what  it  was  before  ;  but  an  accui-ate  estimate  is  only  to  be  obtained 
by  chemical  analysis.  Great  bulk  is  by  no  means  desirable,  if  it  be  not  attended  with  increase 
iu  the  quantitj'  of  starch  ;  for  the  potatoes  then  take  up  more  room,  although  their  intrinsic  value 
remains  the  same  ;  and  they  are  more  likely  to  be  spoiled.  In  other  respects,  -when  potatoes  are 
cultivated  for  sale,  the  choice  must  be  directed  by  the  taste  of  purchasers,  and  the  price  which  they 
will  fetch  in  the  market. 

As  to  the  nomenclature  of  potatoes,  the  contusion  w^hich  exists  both  in  England  and  Germany, 

in  the  names  even  of  the  most  ordinarj-  varieties  is  so  great,  that  to  avoid  misunderstanding  I  must    t 

'   altogether  refrain  from  speaking  of  it.    Under  the  denominations  of  English,  Dutch,  Rhenish,  Hoi-    i 

stein,  and  Polish  potatoes,  varieties  totally  different  are  indiscriminately  designated  in  different 

places. 

[  used  formerly  to  make  frequent  attempt  to  raise  potatoes  from  seed.  This  method  is  interest- 
ing to  an  amateur  gardener.  He  may,  perchance,  obtain  the  merit  of  giving  rise  to  a  new  variety 
of  good  quality;  but  it  is  not  economical;  for,  unless  it  be  tried  on  hot-beds,  the  tubers  will  take 
too  long  a  time  to  attain  their  full  size  ;  and,  what  is  more,  the  result  will  almost  always  be  a  mix- 
ture of  varieties  difficult  to  distinguish;  and  even  if  it  preserve  its  identity,  presenting  an  inconve- 
nient assemblage  of  different  qualities.  The  different  varieties  may  be  kr-pt  separate,  because  ttey 
germinate  and  ripen  at  different  times.  These  observations  are  not  meant  to  apply  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  potato  in  gardens. 

Potatoes  will  grow  ou  soils  of  all  descriptions,  and  in  favorable  weather  w^ill  yield  a  good  crop, 
even  on  moving  sand,  provided  that  it  has  been  well  manured.  On  a  stony  soil,  w^ell  prepared, 
and  lightened  with  dung,  containing  straw,  the  success  of  the  potato  is  certain ;  though  a  sandy 
soil  is  best  adapted  to  it. 

Ou  clearings  and  marsh  lands,  provided  the  soil  has  been  well  drained,  and  especially  if  the 
turf  has  been  burnt  upon  it,  potatoes  thrive  particularly  well,  and  sometimes  yield  a  very  large 
produce. 

The  cultivation  of  the  potato  ag  a  field  crop  has  hitherto  taken  place  chiefly  on  the  fallow-field, 
and  it  has  been  proved  that,  when  properly  executed,  this  cultivation  fulfils  all  the  advantages  of 
fallowing.  The  produce  of  the  autumn  grain  which  follows  the  potato  crop  is.  however,  some- 
what diminished  ;  this  fact  has  been  established  by  conclusive  experiments,  and  is  uncontradict- 
ed, excepting  by  a  .small  number  of  particular  cases.  As  there  is  usually  an  objection  to  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  autumn  grain  which  succeeds  tlie  fallow,  many  of  the  ablest  followers  of  the  three-field  \ 
system  have  resorted  to  the  method  of  setting  their  potatoes  on  the  spring  corn  field,  giving  them 
perhaps  a  little  dung,  following  a  crop  of  peas,  which  doubtless  thrive  remarkably  well  in  that  sit- 
uation: the  rotation  is  then  recommenced. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  potatoes  grow  larger  after  recent  manuring ;  they  will,  however, 
yield  a  good  crop,  even  when  raised  as  a  second  or  third  crop  :  but  the  soil  will  then  be  greatly 
exhausted.  I  have  never  even  thought  of  asserting  that  potatoes  do  not  impoverish  the  soil ;  on 
the  contrary,  I  have  stated  that  they  do  so  (English  Agriculture,  vol.  ii-  p.  237) :  they  do  not,  how- 
ever, exhaust  the  resources  of  the  establishment  in  general,  but  increase  those  resources  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  if  they  are  given  as  food  to  the  cattle. 

On  strong  land,  fresh  dung  mixed  with  straw  is  most  beneficial  to  potatoes,  and  the  more  so  in 
proportion  to  the  closeness  of  its  contact  with  them  :  it  should,  therefore,  not  be  carted  and  put 
into  the  ground  till  just  before  the  seed-time  plowing.  But  for  light  soils,  the  dung  must  either 
be  in  a  more  advanced  stage  of  decomposition,  or  it  must  be  mixed  with  the  earth  by  several 
plowinge. 


470  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

Verj'  healthy  potatoes  are  also  produced  by  the  use  of  other  active  manures,  such  as  scrapings    , 

of  horn  spread  in  the  furrows  at  the  seed-time  plowing,  rags  of  wool,  and  the  refuse  of  the  tan-    , 

yard.     Turning  sheep  on  to  the  field  after  the  potatoes  have  been  set,  is  likewise  very  efficacious   / 

in  promoting  their  growth,  but  it  gives  the  tubers  a  bad  flavor.     There  is  also  a  limit  to  the  degree    i 

'   of  cultivation  proper  for  pofatoes  :  if  it  be  surpassed,  the  haulm  becomes  excessively  large,  and  falls   '  | 

i'    upon  the  ground  ;  the  number  of  tubers  is  then  much  diminished.  \ 

In  setting  potatoes,  it  is  necessary  to  select  the  most  healthy  and  vigorous  tubers;  not  such  as 
have  already  been  deprived  of  two  or  three  of  their  buds,  because  the  most  vigorous  buds  are  al- 
ways the  first  chosen.  Especially  must  those  be  rejected  which  have  been  much  exposed  tocold, 
even  though  they  should  not  have  been  injured  hj  frost.  Potatoes  grown  in  pits,  mounds,  or  hol- 
lows, where  frost  has  penetrated  and  destroj^ed  a  portion  of  the  tubers,  are  very  uncertain  in 
plantations  :  I  am  sure  of  this  from  my  own  experience.  They  either  do  not  shoot  up  at  all,  or 
produce  but  feeble  plants;  great  care  should,  therefore,  be  taken  to  preserve  those  which  are  in- 
tended for  setting. 

I  am  aware  that  many  cultivators  have  obtained  abundant  crops  of  large  potatoes  by  planting 
none  but  small  tubers:  nevertheless,  I  prefer  setting  those  of  large  and  average  size,  especially 
ibr  certain  varieties.  Small  tubers  have  not  the  same  power  of  gennination  as  large  ones,  and  of- 
ten do  not  germinate  at  all;  whereas,  those  of  large  size  may  without  injury  be  cut  in  haives.  . 
When  circumstances  are  otherwise  favorable,  very  strong  plants  are  often  obtained  by  setting 
mere  cuttings  of  potato  containing  a  single  eye ;  or  even  the  eye  by  itself ;  or.  lastly,  the  mere  skin. 
But  on  heavy  land  which  has  not  been  well  pulverized,  as  well  as  on  a  sandy  soil,  there  is  great 
danger  of  failure,  if  after  setting  or  during  germination,  the  weather  should  be  unfavorable  to  the 
formation  of  the  plant.  To  ensure  .success,  this  plant  must  by  means  of  its  feeble  roots  immediately 
seek  for  nourishment  in  the  soil.  It  must  not  encounter  a  hard  piece  of  ground  ;  for,  as  it  derives 
no  nourishment  from  the  maternal  plant,  it  would  then  diy  up  and  perish.  I  therefore  abandon  this 
method  altogether,  although  I  formerly  recommended  it:  it  succeeds  very  well  in  gardens,  but  is 
very  uncertain  for  potato  crops  grown  in  the  open  field.  The  same  may  be  said  of  shoots  planted 
alter  having  been  cut  from  growing  plants. 

There  will  always  be  a  difference  of  opinion  touching  the  expediency  of  setting  potatoes  close 
together,  or  far  apart ;  for  the  decision  of  this  matter  depends  upon  adventitious  circumstances : 
but  repeated  trials  accurately  described  by  the  estimable  .1.  N.  Schwertz,  in  the  "  Germaii  Agri- 
cnlLnral  Gazette."  seem  to  .show  that  the  iiuantity  of  produce  is,  to  a  considerable  extent,  in  propor- 
tion to  that  of  the  sets.     The  practical  results  of  these  trials  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  amount  of  net  produce,  deduction  being  made  for  the  quantity  of  potatoes  used  for 
setting,  bears  a  tolerably  exact  proportion  to  the  hitter  ijuantity — that  is  to  say,  that  one  who  sets 
a  larger  quantity  of  tubers,  will  usually  obtain  a  more  abundant  crop,  than  one  who  sets  a  smaller 
quantity. 

2.  Fine  large  tubers  produce  not  only  larger  potatoes,  but  also  a  gi-eater  number  of  them. 

3.  The  degeneracy  often  observed  in  potatoes  apparently  results  from  the  use  of  unhealthy 
plants  for  setting. 

4.  Small  tubers,  and  those  which  are  destitute  of  of  buds,  cannot  by  any  means  be  recommended 
for  setting. 

5.  When  potatoes  of  medium  quality  are  planted,  it  is  better  to  set  them  whole :  but  when  the 
tubers  are  very  large,  the  halves  will  be  found  sufficient,  provided,  however,  that  they  are  set 
rather  closely  in  the  rows. 

6.  It  is  not  advisable  to  cut  a  potato  into  more  than  two  pieces. 

7.  It  is  better  to  set  the  tubers  one  by  one  and  close  together,  than  to  put  a  number  of  them  into 
the  ground  together,  particularly  when  all  the  labor  is  performed  with  the  plow,  and  no  cultivation 
is  given  with  the  hand-hoe. 

8.  It  is  not  advisable  to  plant  mere  buds  ;  they  often  fail.* 

I  give  the.se  principles  as  being  in  an  accordance  with  my  own  experiments  made  on  the  large 
scale,  with  the  exception,  however,  of  the  first.  It  does  appear,  from  actual  experiment,  that  the 
quantity  of  produce  is  in  proportion  to  that  of  the  potatoes  put  into  the  ground.  The  author  de- 
duces a  result  by  dividing  his  plantation  into  two  parts.  In  one  of  these  he  places  the  trials  in 
which  the  quantity  set  amounted  to  more  than  1.2.^4;  and  in  the  other,  those  in  which  this  quan- 
tity was  less.  In  the  former,  the  net  produce  of  each  row  was  16-81 ;  in  the  latter,  only  15-41. 
'i  These  two  results  are  in  the  proportion  of  1000  to  917.  The  loss  in  the  latter  is,  therefore,  8^  per 
cent :  but  the  difference  in  the  relative  quantity  of  the  sets  is  much  greater.  Then  again,  among  the 
trials  included  in  the  latter  division,  there  are  several  which  ought  not  to  be  included  in  the  compa- 
rison: where,  for  example,  the  sets  consisted  of  buds,  or  mere  eyes,  or  handsful  of  very  small  scat- 
tered shoots,  all  of  which  gave  but  a  very  insignificant  produce.  If  we  take  into  account  those 
trials  only  in  which  good  potatoes,  or  cuttings  of  them,  were  set  at  intervals  of  1,  2,  3,  or  4  decime- 
tres, it  \vill  be  found  that  the  difference  is  very  small,  not  exceeding  2^  per  cent. 
',  I  am  willing  to  admit  the  existence  of  this  difference,  and  even  of  one  of  five  per  cent.,  if  the  po- 
'  tatoes  are  set  in  one  part  of  the  rows  at  eight  inches  and  in  another  at  twenty-four  inches  distance ; 
so  that  the  quantity  of  sets  used  for  the  former  sliall  be  three  times  as  great  as  that  used  for  the  lat- 
ter. The  quantity  obtained  from  the  half  in  which  the  potatoes  are  at  the  greatest  distance  apart 
will  not  amount  to  more  than  ninety -five  bushels  beyond  that  of  the  sets,  while  the  produce  of  the 
other  half  will  amount  to  one  hundred  bushels. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  practice  of  setting  at  greater  distances  is  attended  with  the  following  ad- 
vantages, in  field-cultivation. 

1.  Potatoes,  especially  those  fit  for  setting,  fetch  a  much  higher  price  in  spring  than  in  autumn, 
which  is  the  time  for  gathering;  the  keeping  of  them  occasions  both  trouble  and  risk,  and  there  is 
always  a  portion  spoiled.     Suppose  that  the  difference  in  the  two  prices  amounts  to  one-third  only 

*  "  Landwirthschaftliche  Zeitung."    1809.    Seite,  568. 


of  the  greater,  or  that  a  scheffel  which  in  autumn  is  worth  eight  groschen  costs  only  twelve  in 
spring.  The  increase  in  price  of  these  eight  scheli'els  amounts  to  thirty-two  groschen.  The  five 
scheffels  obtained  from  the  crop  amount  to  forty  groschen,  so  that  the  profit  is  reduced  to  eight  gro- 
schen. 

2.  Setting  at  greater  distances  occasions  saving  of  manual  labor. 

3.  When  the  plantations  are  laid  out  in  rows  in  all  direction.s,  and  the  distances  between  the 
rows  wide  enough  to  allow  the  plow  to  pass  crosswise,  almost  all  the  manual  labor  which  would 
otherwise  be  required  to  weed  the  interspaces  is  saved. 

4.  These  plowiugs  are  much  more  efficacious  in  cleansing,  pulverizing,  and  aerating  the  land, 
than  they  would  be  if  perlbrmed  in  one  direction  only.  Dog's-grass  in  particular,  which  multi- 
plies so  rapidly  between  continued  lines,  is  entirely  destroyed  by  this  treatment ;  so  that  the  ob- 
ject of  fallowing,  one  of  the  principal  ends  of  the  culture  of  weeded  crops,  is  completely  attained. 
I  say  nothing  about  the  effect  produced  on  the  potatoes  themselves  by  cultivation  on  all  sides, 
since  we  have  admitted  for  argument's  sake,  that  those  which  are  cultivated  on  one  side  only 
yield  the  greatest  increase. 

5.  The  gathering  of  potatoes  is  performed  with  far  greater  ease  and  dispatch  when  they  grow 
on  separate  hillocks,  than  when  they  are  arranged  in.  continuous  lines.  My  laborers  are  more 
willing  to  raise  potatoes  planted  singly,  for  the  fourteenth  part  of  the  produce,  than  for  the  tenth, 
when  they  are  planted  in  rows ;  for  a  man  can  raise  eighteen  scheffels  of  t!ie  former  in  a  day, 
whereas  he  will  not  be  able  to  raise  more  than  ten  of  the  latter,  even  though  tliey  may  have  been 
cultivated  with  the  same  care.     This  saving  of  time  in  taking  the  crop  is  of  gital  importance. 

Such  are  the  reasons  which  induce  me  to  prefer  the  method  of  setting  potatoes  at  moderate  dis- 
tances, and  arranging  them  in  lines  in  all  directions.  I  admit  that  when  this  method  is  adopted, 
a  somewhat  larger  extent  of  surface  is  required  for  the  production  of  a  given  quantity  ;  but  the 
gi-eat  saving  of  labor,  and  the  excellent  preparation  of  ihe  land  which  it  affords,  are  of  much  great- 
er importance.  Nevertheless,  the  case  may  be  different  with  regard  to  those  who  have  but  a 
small  quantity  of  land  to  devote  to  this  description  of  produce. 

In  adopting  this  method,  it  is  also  necessary — 

1.  To  employ  in  setting  the  potatoes  none  but  steady  and  intelligent  laborers,  who  will  not  omit 
to  set  them  in  any  place  where  they  ought  to  grow. 

2.  To  set  none  but  very  healthy  potatoes. 

3.  To  prepare  the  soil  in  such  a  manner  that  the  germination  of  the  plants  shall  not  be  hindered. 
Any  one  who  is  either  unwilling  or  unable  to  get  these  conditions  fulfilled,  will  do  better  toset 

his  potatoes  more  thickly,  or  in  pairs ;  otherwise,  a  plantation  thus  formed  will  be  likelj'  to  contain  a 
great  many  vacant  spaces,  and  considerable  loss  will  be  the  result. 

In  setting  potatoes  regard  must  be  had  to  the  state  of  the  weather.  In  this  country  I  never  plant 
them  till  the  soil  has  become  heated;  and  1  have  always  observed  that  the  potatoes  set  last  were 
the  first  to  come  up.  I  have  planted  them  with  success  till  the  beginning  of  June  ;  but  I  endeavor 
to  get  the  setting  finished  toward  the  middle  of  May.  If  it  be  desired  to  plant  them  later,  they 
may  be  previously  made  to  germinate  in  a  warm  place.  If  the  soil  contain  ever  so  small  a  quan- 
tity" of  clay,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  defer  the  planting  tUl  it  is  perfectly  dry,  and  no  longer  ad- 
heres to  tiie  implements. 

As  early  as  possible  in  autumn  I  bi-eak  up  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  two  inches  lower  th^in  before, 
and  then  pass  the  harrow  over  it.  In  winter  the  dung  is  carted  and  uniformly  spread.  At  the  be- 
ginning ot  spring,  this  dung  is  buried  by  a  light  plowing ;  and  the  harrow  passed  over  belbi-e  the 
seed-time  plowing.  Hike  to  have  a  portion  of  the  manure  brought  up  to  the  surface  by  this  ope- 
ration, because  a  greater  quantity  is  then  collected  around  the  roots  of  the  potatoes. 

I  have  only  once  tried  planting  with  the  spade,  along  a  cord  on  which  the  distances  were  marked 
by  knots;  this  was  my  first  essay  of  the  mode  of  planting  in  squares.  If  I  had  not  found  out  an- 
other method,  the  tediousness  of  this  one  would  have  wearied  me. 

The  potatoes  are  set  in  furrows  traced  with  the  plow,  and  the  mode  of  proceeding  is  as  fol- 
lows :- 

By  means  of  the  marking-plow  or  furrower,  already  noticed,  lines  or  small  furrows  are  traced  at 
right  angles  or  obliquely,  to  the  direction  which  the  plow  is  to  take.  Five  persons  are  then  sta- 
tioned at  equal  distances  on  the  line  of  the  plow,  each  having  assigned  to  him  the  space  which  he 
is  to  plant.  One  plow  traces  the  first  furrow,  which  is  immediately  set  with  potatoes.  Two  oth- 
er plows  then  follow,  and  the  potatoes  are  set  in  the  furrow  traced  by  the  third.  It  will  be  under- 
stood that  the  per.sons  who  set  them  have  to  go  from  one  side  to  the  other,  each  one  keeping  within 
his  allotted  space.  Each  potato  is  set  at  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  line  traced  by  the  marker, 
witii  the  furrow  fonned  by  the  plow.  It  is  of  importance  that  the  potatoes  be  .set  as  close  as  possi- 
ble to  the  perpendicular  side  of  the  furrow,  and  not  on  that  where  the  slice  has  been  turned  over ; 
for,  in  the  former  position,  the  potato  is  more  likely  to  remain  in  its  place,  and  not  to  be  disturbed 
by  tlie  horse's  toot. 

The  best  plowman  must  be  employed  to  trace  the  furrow  in  which  the  potatoes  are  set;  first,  to 
ensure  that  the  furrow  may  be  of  a  proper  and  uniform  depth,  three  inches  on  a  heavy,  and  ibur 
or  five  on  a  sandy  soil ;  secondly,  to  enable  him  to  correct  any  errors  which  the  others  may  have 
made  in  the  width  of  their  furrows.  This  first  plowman  always  traces  the  first  furrow  in  com- 
mencing a  new  bed.  The  width  of  the  beds  must  be  measured  at  the  two  extremities,  and  poles 
set  up  there,  in  order  to  preserve  as  much  as  possible  the  parallelism  ol  the  beds. 

If  the  laborers  are  well  practiced,  three  plows  and  five  planters  v.ill  finish  eight  acres  p.r  day, 

or  six  at  the  least.     Each  planter  must  have  his  sack  of  potatoes  within  his  reach. 

'         A  week  after  the  setting,  the  ground  is  harrowed,  an  operation  by  which  a  few  weeds  are  de- 

'     stroyed.     Great  numbers  of  them  afterward  spring  up.     Nothing  more  is,  however,  done  to  get  rid 

of  them  till  the  potatoes  are  about  to  spring  up,  and  some  of  them  just  beginning  to  show  their 

leaves  above  ground.     The  extirpator  is  then  passed  lightly  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  field. — 

This  may  be  done  without  fear  of  hurting  the  potatoes.    The  whole  of  tlie  weeds  are  thus  de- 

(1095) 


stroyed.  The  soil  is  left  in  this  state  till  all  the  potatoes  have  come  up,  and  is  then  han-owed  to 
level  it.  After  this  harrowing  the  potatoes  are  as  clean  as  if  they  had  been  carefully  weeded,  so 
that  it  only  remains  to  pass  the  scarifier  or  horse-rake  over  them. 

No  injury  will  result  from  the  plants  not  having  been  originally  set  in  rows  in  all  directions,  for 
the  first  cultivation  with  the  horse-hoe  will  place  them  so.  It  seems,  indeed,  as  if  they  were  ben- 
efited bv  a  little  compression  on  one  side. 

The  first  cultivation  is  performed  with  the  small  hoe,  and  should  be  given  in  tlie  direction  fol- 
lowed by  the  marking  plow  or  furrower ;  the  second  must  be  performed  with  the  hor,sehoe,  and 
in  the  direction  of  the  plow.     This  will  be  sufficient  in  the  greater  number  of  cases.     The  haulm 

11  then  recover  itself  and  .shade  the  whole  field.     If  a  few  weeds  should  have  escaped  here  and   (| 

but  little  labor  to  null  them  up  while  yet  in   ', 


there  by  growing  close  to  the  potatoes,  it  will  cost 
flower. 

If  a  third  cultivation  be  thought  necessary,  it  is  performed  in  the  same  direction  as  the  last.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  recut  the  sides  and  edges  formed  by  this  last  cultivation,  especially  if  the  po- 
tatoes be  somewhat  advanced  in  their  growth. 

By  these  operations,  the  cultivation  of  the  potatoes  is  completely  finished  before  harvest  time  ; 
and  nothing  remains  to  be  done  to  them  till  they  are  ready  for  taking  up. 

When  the  soil  is  tenacious  and  exposed  to  humidity,  I  prefer  the  following  method  of  culti- 
vation : — 

The  soil  having  been  well  prepared,  lines  crossing  transversely  are  traced  with  the  marking- 
plow,  and  a  potato  set  at  each  intersection.  The  planting  goes  on  much  more  quickly  in  this  way: 
one  man  can  easily  plant  three  acres  per  day.  The  small  horf?e-hoe  is  then  pa.ssed  clo.-e  to  each 
row,  and  covei-s  it  completely  with  earth.  When  weeds  spring  up,  they  are  destroyed  by  fiass- 
ing  the  large  hor.se-hoe  in  the  same  direction,  an  operation  which  is  performed  whether  the  jiota- 
,  toes  have  come  up  or  not.  When  the  potatoes  have  grown  up  to  a  certain  hight,  the  banks  or 
edges  foi-med  hy  the  hoe  in  the  last  cultivation  are  cut  transversely  with  the  large  hoe.  Another 
and  final  cultivation  is  perhaps  given  in  the  direction  of  the  first. 

The  advantaires  presented  bv  this  method  when  applied  to  an  argillaceous  soil,  are  very  striking. 
The  potato  is  suiTounded  on  all  sides  by  light  earth,  and  dung  heaped  round  it.  It  is  completely 
preserved  from  any  excess  of  moisture  that  might  injure  the  crop,  because  it  is  placed  above  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow,  by  which  the  water  drains  off.  The  soil  in  which  it  rests  is  also  thoroughly 
warmed  by  the  sun  „  .  . 

But  the  use  of  the  extirpator,  by  which  so  much  good  is  effected,  is  entirely  precluded  by  this 
method ;  neither  can  the  paring-plow  be  used.  The  difficulty  of  keeping  weeds  under  is  thereby 
increased  ;  and  it  therefore  becomes  of  great  importance  to  perform  the  citltivation  at  the  exact 
time  when  the  soil  is  in  the  proper  condition,  otherwise  we  shall  be  reduced  to  the  necessity  of 
weeding  and  cultivating  with  the  hand-hoe.  This  method  is,  however,  by  no  means  proper  for 
dry  and  sandy  soils ;  for  it  would  cause  the  plants  to  suffer  in  dry  weather.  And,  lastly,  a  sharp- 
ish frost  attacking  the  potatoes  before  they  were  gathered,  might  penetrate  too  deeply  into  the 
ridges.  1  therefore  recommend  this  method  for  those  soils  only  in  which  potatoes  might  suffer 
from  excess  of  moisture. 

As  to  the  other  methods  in  use.  I  refer  to  my  observations  on  them  in  the  first  and  third  vol- 
umes of  my  "  English  Agriculture."  For  my  own  part,  I  confine  myself  to  the  two  methods  just 
described. 

When  the  earth  has  been  laid  up  for  the  last  time,  and  the  potatoes  begin  to  blo&som,  they  must 
be  left  quiet ;  for  it  is  then  that  the  young  tubers  are  formed.  Some  persons  have  recommended 
that  the  fiowers  be  cut  off,  in  order  to  increase  the  growth  of  the  tubers;  but  the  recommendation 
is  absurd.  Cullen,  of  Edinburgh,  observed  some  time  ago  that  the  development  of  the  tubers 
keeps  pace  with  that  of  the  flowers  ;  and  experiments  specially  directed  to  this  point  have  uni- 
formly shown  that  the  crop  is  much  injured  by  the  removal  of  the  flowers. 

Cullen  also  tried  the  effect  of  cutting  off' the  leaves  as  fast  as  they  grew  ;  the  consequence  v\-as, 
that  the  potatoes  produced  no  tubers,  but  merely  filamentous  roots.  The  experiments  of  Ander- 
son, showing  the  injury  occasioned  to  potatoes  by  the  hasty  removal  of  their  leaves,  are  recorded 
in  the  first  volume  of  my  "Engli-sh  Agriculture,"  p.  403. 

The  digging  the  crop  has  always  been  looked  upon  by  great  cultivators  as  the  most  difficelt 
(  part  of  this  branch  of  husbandry,  and  has  been  the  main  cause  of  their  unwillingness  to  under- 
'  take  it  on  the  large  scale.  Since  the  year  1798,  however,  when  I  first  took  upon  my.self  to  recom- 
mend the  cultivation  of  potatoes,  this  "fear  has  greatly  diminished  ;  it  has.  indeed,  been  found  that 
the  getting  in  may  be  performed  with  greater  facility  and  expedition  than  was  formerly  thought 
possible.  It  takes  place  at  a  favorable  lime,  when  the  women  and  children  have  nothing  else  to 
do,  and  the  weather  is  commonly  fine.  It  is  a  labor  which  they  willingly  undertake,  being  en- 
couraged in  it  by  the  idea  that  they  are  earning  their  subsistence  for  the  winter.  ¥ov  my  part,  1 
know  no  method  more  appropriate  than  that  of  paying  them  with  part  of  the  produce  :  if  the  po- 
tatoes are  planted  according  to  my  method,  they  do  it  cheerfully  for  a  twelfth  of  the  produce  ; 
sometimes,  when  my  potatoes  have  been  very  successful  and  those  of  other  persons  are  not  par- 
ticularly fine,  even  for  the  fifteenth.  If  they  get  more  than  they  can  either  consume  or  preserve, 
the  .surplus  is  purchased  of  them  at  a  fixed  price.  The  work  goes  on  very  quickly  :  those  who 
perform  it  employ  their  children  to  help  them  ;  whereas,  if  executed  by  day  labor  it  would  be 
very  tedious. 

Potatoes  are  taken  up  by  means  of  a  vine-dres.ser's  mattock,  which  has  two  points,  after  they 
have  been  cut  and  stripped  of  their  haulm.  When  they  are  planted  according  to  my  method,  one 
man  can  with  such  an  instrument  easily  prepare  work  for  twelve  pickers.  In  this  manner  pota- 
toes may  be  taken  up  at  less  cost  than  with  the  plow.  The  latter  method  is,  moreover,  attended 
with  various  inconveniences,  especially  that  of  not  enabling  us  to  determine  beforehand  the  quan- 
tity that  will  be  raised  in  a  day  ;  in  coii.seciuence  of  which  a  portion  may  be  left  unhou.sed  at  night, 
and  injured  by  frost.  The  niattock  just  spoken  of  lakes  up  all  the  tubers  so  completely,  that  I 
(1096) 


asi  more  than  a  vcar. 

I 

waijoi 

.«-     In  one 

sKie 

of 

\  \wu 

lu'  boxes  a 

rive 

at 

Hi,',  ai 

il  alona-  ihis 

fi  utter 

iikow 

so  u.selul  io 

oil 

or 

have  never  thought  it  worth  wliilo  to  go  over  the  ficlil  a  secfliid  time  for  ilio  purpose  of  collccliiig 
any  which  might  have  been  left  bcliiml. 

It  is  vei-y  extravagant  to  use  saciis  in  gailicring  potatoes  :  they  nov 
make  use  of  boxes  wliich  hold  about  thirty  bushels,  and  are  placed  ( 
these  boxes  is  an  opening,  which  shuts  by  means  of  a  slidijig  door. 
the  barn,  the  door  is  opened,  and  a  kind  of  gultei'  adapted  lo  llie  o[ 
the  potatoes  descend  to  the  place  intended  for  them.  These  boxes  i 
purposes. 

Potatoes  dug  in  dry  weather  may  with  safety'  be  r'accd  innnodiately  in  a  cclNii-.  or  storehouse 
protected  from  frost;  but  the  place  in  which  ilicy  are  kept  must  be  leit  open,  to  alliMil  a  fre^i  cir- 
culation of  air.  till  cold  weather  comes  on.  IJut  if  the  [loialoes  are  rais<,-d  in  damp  weather,  it  is 
better  to  spread  them  out  on  a  floor,  and  let  them  dry  iJii'rc. 

Cellars  or  houses  protected  from  frost  by  double  walls,  arc  certainly  the  best  places  in  w  liieh 
potatoes  can  be  kept.  These  vegetables  may,  however,  bo  perl'eetly'well  preserved  in  heaps, 
covered  with  straw  :  when  packed  in  this  way  they  arc  (juito  out  of  the  reach  of  danger  IVom 
fro.st,  and  keep  better  than  in  pits.  Heaps  of  potatoes'may  be  formed  containing  'JU  winsjiels  (480 
scheftels)  and  more  ;  but  it  is  better  to  proi)ortion  their  size  to  the  room  v\i)ieh  can  be  given  to 
them  in  the  buildings,  so  that  an  entire  heap  may,  when  wanted,  be  carried  thither  at  once  ;  a  day 
on  which  there  is  no  frost  being  chosen  for  the  purpose. 

It  is  best  to  give  these  heaps  an  elongated  form,  like  a  roof,  especially  when  they  are  large;  but 
a  point  of  greater  importance  is  to  .cover  them  all  over  with  a  layer  of  straw,  at  lea.st  six  inches 
thick.  Tliis  layer  of  straw  .should  be  thickest  near  the  ground  :  "it  should  there  extend  beyond 
the  heap  of  potatoes,  so  as  completely  to  prevent  the  access  of  frost.  The  straw  ;?houl<l  be  well 
trimmed  at  the  summit  and  angles,  and  the  whole  covereil  up  with  earth.  It  is  not,  indeed,  the 
earth  which  protects  the  potatoes  from  frost :  this  effect  is  produced  by  the  straw,  which  prevents 
the  radiation  of  heat  from  them:  but  the  earth  should  be  clo.sely  pres.sed  to  prevent  the  air 
getting  through  the  straw.  Earth  which  has  no  consistence  and  easily  crumbles  is,  therefore,  un- 
lit for  the  purpose  ;  if  no  other  can  be  obtained,  some  kind  of  covering  must  be  placed  over  it. 
For  this  purpose  we  may  use  the  haulm  of  the  potatoes,  taking  care  to  protect  it  from  wind  by 
means  of  the  hurdles  used  for  penning  sheep,  or  in  any  other  convenient  way.  If  plastic  earth 
can  be  obtained,  these  precautions  will  not  be  required  :  it  will  then  be  sufficient  to  spread  the 
earth  equally  over  the  whole  surface  ;  beat  it  carefully,  in  order  to  make  it  even  and  .solid  ;  and 
examine  it  now  and  then  to  see  whether  any  holes  have  been  made  by  the  mice,  by  which  frost  \ ' 
may  gain  access  to  the  heap.  [i 

A  precaution  very  necessary  to  be  observed,  is  not  to  clo.-^e  the  heaps  completely  in  autumn  so 
long  as  the  weather  continues  warm.  A  .small  quantity  of  air  must  be  allowed  access  through 
the  top  till  frost  conies  on  ;  a  vent  wiJl  thus  be  aflbrded  for  vapors  which  rise  frc-ni  the  heap.  An 
aperture  is  then  left  in  the  straw  at  the  top  of  the  heap,  and  frequently  examined  in  order  to  dis-  ' 
cover  whether  any  odor,  indicative  of  fermentation,  is  given  olT:  should  such  be  the  case,  a  great-  \ 
er  quantity  of  air  must  be  immediately  admitted.  It  is  only  when  continued  frosts  come  on  that 
the  covering  must  be  completely  closed. 

Potatoes  remained  uninjured  in  heaps  of  this  description  du.ring  the  winter  of  1802-3,  when 
the  frost  penetrated  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  three  feet,  and  injured  all  potatoes  kept  in  pits  which 
were  not  well  protected  on  all  sides  with  straw,  and  many  that  were  kept  in  cellars.  Covering 
the  heaps  with  dung  is  always  u.seless,  and  often  mischievous. 

When  a  thaw  comes  on,  it  is  prudent  to  open  the  heaps  a  little  at  the  top,  to  permit  the  escape 
of  vapor. 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  add  any  observations  on  the  use  of  the  potato.  Let  us  merely  pause  (* 
for  a  moment  on  the  value  which  it  bears  in  proportion  to  that  of  other  plants,  according  to  its  <' 
nature  andthe  quantity  of  nutritive  matler  contained  in  it.  i' 

V,  To  compare  potatoes  with  rye.  Good  potatoes  contain  by  weight  24  per  cent,  of  nutritive 
j  matter,  and  rye  70.  If  a  schefFel  of  rye  weighs  82  lbs.  and  a  scheffel  of  potatoes  100  lbs.  64  J  schef- 
S  "fels  of  potatoes  will  be  equivalent  to  24_of  rye.*  Consequently,  2  schetFels  12  metzen  of  potatoes  ) 
)  will  be  nearly  equivalent  to  1  scheflel  of  rye.  But  this  estimate  suppoi?es  that  the  tubers  are  good,  i 
)  solid,  full  of  starch,  and  grown  upon  dry  land,  as  was  the  case  witli  those  which  Einhof  selected  / 
)  for  analysis.  For,  as  later  analyses  have  shown,  the  difference  between  the  several  varieties  of  i 
)  the  potato  is  much  greater  than  Eiuhof  then  admitted,  since  the  inferior  varieties  cannot  be  admit-  / 
^  ted  to  contain  more  than  20  per  cent,  of  nutritive  matter;  and,  consequently,  3  scheffbls  of  them  / 
/    will  be  required  to  give  the  same  result  as  1  scheffel  of  rye.  i 

'  The  results  obtained  in  brandy  distilleries  where  the  potatoes  are  not  of  the  best  quality,  cor- 
roborate the  assertions  just  made.  According  to  the  rao.st  skillful  practical  distillers,  3^  sc'heffels 
of  potatoes  do  not  yield  more  brandy  than  1  scheffel  of  rye;  but  that  obtained  from  potatoes  is  the 
stronger  of  the  two. 

It  is  universally  admitted,  that  for  feeding  cattle  2  scheffels  of  potatoes  are  equivalent  to  more 
than  a  quintal  of  hay,  and  that  1  scheffel  of  these  tubers  is  worth  at  least  half  a  quintal  of  hay  ;  it 
must  be  understood,  however,  that  part  of  the  food  given  to  the  cattle  must  consist  of  hay  or  straw, 
in  order  to  facilitate  digestion.^ 

In  establishments  in  my  neighborhood  in  which  cattle  are  fattened  in  large  numbers,  it  is  per- 
fectly agreed  th.at  an  ox  fed  with  half  a  scheffel,  or  50  lbs.  of  potatoes,  and  5  lbs.  of  hay  per  day, 
fattens  as  quickly  as  if  he  con.sumed  3.5  lbs.  of  hay ;  and  cattle-dealers  prefer  putting  oxen  on  this 
potato-food,  to  giving  them  hay  alone.  Theoretically,  we  are  unable  to  decide  on  the  value  of  po-  i 
tatoes  in  comparison  with  hay,  as  positively  as  we  can  on  their  value  relatively  to  grain,  because  | 
their  constitution  is  very  similar  to  that  of  grain,  and  very  different  from  that  of  hay.  We  must, 
therefore,  appeal  to  experience  for  information  on  this  matter. 

VidR  "F:inhof  on  den  Annalon  des  Ackerbaues."    Bd.  iii.  S.  356.  and  Bd.  iv.  S.  627.    A. 
(1097) 


THAERS   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTLilE. 


In  Eiis-lai'-d,  endless  disputes  have'becu  raised  about  the  utility  of  potatoes  in  comparison  with 
turnips,  for  foeiling  cattle.  As  a  result  of  this  controversy,  the  gi-eat  cattle-feeder,  Campbell,  de- 
clares most  positively  that  he  cannot  get,  out  of  his  own  estate,  1  bushel  of  potatoes  for  2  lbs.  of 
beef,  indepftu-.lently  even  of  the  dung  which  they  would  afford.  Now.  a  bushel  is  equal  to  0-645, 
or  nearly  j  scliefiel.  Consequently,  for  the  nourishment  of  cattle,  a  scheffel  of  potatoes  is  equiva- 
leot  to  .?  lis  of  beef  (free  of  expense). 

We  shall,  hereafter,  speak  of  the  use  of  potatoes  for  feeding  milch  cows,  a  mode  of  application 
on  V  lii'jii  the  results  of  different  trials  are  very  discordant :  and  also  of  their  use  for  feeding  sheep. 

A--  potatoes  rarely  constitute  an  object  of  wholesale  trade,  it  is  important  to  form  an  exact  es- 
timate of  relative  value  for  consumption,  and  of  the  price  which  they  return  to  the  cultivator  who 
raises  them  for  his  own  u.se — a  price  v/hich  must  not  be  confounded  with  that  of  the  markets. 

According  to  the  produce  which  I  formerly  obtained  from  land  of  average  quality,  well  and 
deeply  cultivated,  and  strongly  manured.  J  was  in  the  habit  of  considering  140  schetfels  per  acre 
of  Calenberg  (which  exceeds  that  of  Magdeburgh  by  about  4  perches)  as  an  average  produce: 
but  in  this  part  of  the  country  I  have  not  yet  obtained  the  same  amount.  The  largest  jiroilaee 
that  I  have  here  obtained  is  120  schefTe'ls  per  Magdeburgh  aci-e  :  this  was  in  1809.  In  isio, 
■which  was  a  year  of  scarcity,  I  obtained  but  78  scheilels  ;  the  usual  amount  has  been  between  80 
and  90  sclieffels.  I  therefore  take  80  scheffels  per  acre  above  the  sets,  as  the  basis  of  my  calcula- 
tions ;  the  quantity  which  I  usually  employ  for  sets  amounts  to  5  or  6  scheftels  per  acre. 

Taking  very  moderate  data,  such  as  may  always  be  realized,  for  basis  of  the  calculation,  the 
labor  of  cultivating  potatoes  may  be  estimated  as  follows,  for  50  acres: — 


Deep  plowing  in  autumn,  at  the  rate  of  i  acre  per  day's  work  of  the 
plow 

Light  harrowing,  a  team,  16  acres 

Carrj-ing  400  wagon-loads  of  dung ;  10  loads  per  day  by  team,  re 
quiring  IGO  horses  and  40  men,  of  which  one-third  is  to  be  charged 
to  the  prjtatoes -  - 

Loading  and  spreading  by  team,  one  man  and  one  woman  ;  one-third 
charged  to  the  potatoes  . . 

Burying  dung,  St-  acres  per  c 

HaiTOwing  1()  acres  by  team 

This  preparatory  labor  amounts,  according  to  the  valuations 
subseqnontly  given,  to  the  sum  of  47  rix-dollars  37  gros.  2  den. ; 
or  2U  gros.  per  acre. 

Pa-ssing  the  mark-plow  twice  crosswise.  10  acres  per  day 

Putting  tubers  in  the  ground,  with  3  plows  and  5  women,  6  acres  per 
day. 


DAYS'  LABOt 


Of  a 
Horse. 


One  porter  and  superintendent 

Light  hari-dwiag,  16  acres  per  day  by  team 

Pais?iDg  tht^  extuiiator  by  team,  12  acres  per  day - 

Giving  the  tirst  cultivation  with  the  horse-hoe,  and  one  horse,  tive  acres 
per  day 

Giving  second  culrivation  with  the  large  hne  and  two  horses 

Pulling  up  weeds  which  may  have  escaped  the  cultivations 

Taking  the  crop,  if  performed  by  day  labor,  1  man  and  8  women  per 


Carting  by  team.  3  acres,  or  12  ' 
One  laborer,  to  aid  in  housing  . 


spels. 


Totn 


665 
"216^ 


Of  an  Ox      Of  a  Of  a 

for  relay      Man.      Woman. 


156? 


13i 


According  to  our  average  proportions,  if  a  scheffel  of  rye  be  worth  one  rix-dollar,  we  must 
reckon — 

A  day's  labor  of  a  horse  at 5  groschen  I  A  day's  labor  of  a  man 4  groschea. 

anoxforrelay 3        "         |  "  awoman 3 

Hence  2161  days' labor  of  a  horse 1083J  groschen. 

15fi2  "  an  ox 470 

266i  »  aman 1065 

480  "  awoman 1440  " 

50  acres  cost,  therefore 4058i  groschen. 

consequently  one  acre  costs  three  rix-dollars,  nine  groschen  and  two  deniers.  ,    a. ,      .„ 

If  the  crop   amount  to  eighty-one  scheifels  over  and  above  the  sets  per  acre,  each  scheftel  will 
cost  one  grosch.en.  ... 

Every  one  must,  however,  make  his  own  calculation  according  to  the  particular  circumstances 
of  his  locality.**  .       r  v         •         j 

Let  us  now  inquire  at  what  amount  the  ground-rent  and  price  of  manure  must  be  esUmated. 

If  the  land  require  from  time  to  time  a  complete  summer  fallow,  and  if  it  be  also  necessarj'  in  the 


This  i 


fai-  true,  that  ( 


i  „^  .=  ov.  ,=^  .  ^-^  ...--  «..  my  property  at  Genthod,  on  the  borders  of  the  lake  of  Geneva,  the  averago 
con  of  a  horse's  day's  'labor  in  the  interval  between  the  1st  of  March  and  the  1st  of  November  amounts  to  3 
franco  iQdependentIv  of  the  driver.  In  ray  Italian  estates  it  is  the  same.  Dunng  winter,  I  reckon  these 
davs'  labor  at  one-fouilh  less,  because  they  are  then  less  useful.  The  average  pnce  of  a  man  s  day  6  labor  m 
summer  is,  at  Genthod,  2  francs  :  and  on  my  Italian  estates,  1  franc  50  cents  :  that  of  a  woman,  about  half.  - 
1815.  Frfnrh.  Trans.  These  averages  have,  since  that  time,  considerably  dimimshed,  at  least  on  my  Itahan 
states.-1829.  t-^^^^"^''  ^'■'''"■ 

(1098) 


THE   FIELD-BEET.  475 


couis^e  of  cultivation  o!'  potatoes,  or  any  other  weeded  crop,  to  give  a  dead  fallow,  the  potaloe;?  ma?t 
certainly  not  be  charged  with  rem  ;  they  ought  rather  to  claim  a  bonus,  inasmuch  as  they  save  or 
rather  eliect  the  costly  operation  of  this  fallowing. 

The  dung  and  nutritive  matters  absorbed  by  potatoes  must  undoubtedly  be  laid  to  their  aocoaui, 
if  they  are  to  be  sold  olf  the  establishment;  but  if  they  are  intended  for  home  coustimption..  they 
scarcely  absorb  as  much  as  they  afterward  afford  in  the  shape  of  manure.     The  least  result  gluwi 
by  experiments  on  the  quantity  of  manure  produced  by  potatoes  shows  that  100  lbs.  ol^Lliese  vege- 
tables  given  as  food  to  the  cattle  yield  66  lbs.  of  dung ;  consequently,  80  scheSels  of  potatoes  will 
yield  5,^80  lbs.  of  dung:  but  80C  lbs.  of  the  straw  of  these  plants  will  also  produce  1,840  lbs  of 
dung  ;  therefore,  the  quantity  of  potatoes  grown  on  an  acre  of  ground  will  yield  three  good  wagon- 
loads  of  dung,  that  is  to  say,  at  least  as  much  as  they  consume.     But  how  I'ar  superior  is  this  dung 
'    to  that  produced  by  the  ordinary  nourishment  on  dry  fodder !     This  fact  is  well  known  to  every 
/    one,  and  has  been  very  judiciously  noted  by  Kahler.     (Vide  Annalen  des  Acherbaues,  bd.  xii. 
/    s.  2i8.)     We  cannot,  then,  charge  potatoes  with  the  consumption  of  any  quantity  of  manure,  for 
f    they  really  furnish  a  large  additional  supply  of  that  material,  inasmuch  as  the  animal  life  which 
{    they  support  constitutes  a  new  and  active  element  for  its  formatioD. 

<  But  laud  is  often  let  to  poor  people  for  growing  potatoes.  If  the  land  thus  disposed  of  has  been 
\  properly  prepared  and  dunged,  the  produce  of  each  perch  of  12  feet  square  (or  144  square  feet  of 
(  surface)  will  be  worth  1  groschen,  making  that  of  au  acre  worth  11  rix-dollars  6  groschen.  From 
\  this  we  must  deduct  tiie  cost  of  preparatory  labors,  which  has  been  already  estimated  at  23  gro- 
■    schen  ;  the  remainder  is  therefore  10  rix-dollars  7  gi-oschen. 

If  now  -we  add  this  net  profit  in  money  to  the  cost  of  the  potatoes  cultivated  for  our  own  use,  as 
a  balance  for  rent  and  price  of  dung,  the  total  cost  will  amount  to  10  r.-d.  7  gr. +  .3  r.-d.  9  gr.  2 
den.^  13  r.-d.  16  gr  2  den. ;  consequently,  1  schelt'el  of  potatoes  costs  4  1-10  groschen.  Such,  then, 
would  be  the  price  of  the  potatoes  ;  it  might  be  increased  to  5  gr.  to  ensure  a  fair  profit ;  potatoes 
have  never  been  sold  at  a  price  lower  than  this.  But  the  nutriment  consumed  by  the  potatoes  is 
loAl  by  this  system;  and  if  80  scheffels  grown  on  an  acre  yield  16  r.-d.  16  gr.,  which,  after  deduct- 
ing 3  r.-d.  9  gr.  for  expenses  of  cultivation,  leave  10  r.-d.  7  gr.  net  profit,  it  remains  to  be  seen 
whether,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  rural  establishment,  this  profit  is  a  sufficient  indem- 
nity for  the  quantity  of  manure  consumed 

But  if  the  potatoes  be  consumed  at  home,  the  cost  of  their  production  cannot  exceed  1  gr.  per 
schefi'el,  or,  making  the  fullest  allowance  for  casualties,  1  gr.  4  den.  But  potatoes  used  for  feeding 
cattle  fetch  6  gr.,  when  a  pound  of  meat  is  sold  for  2  gr. 

!For  information  raspecting  the  remarkable  separation  of  the  fecula  of  the  potato  by  the  action  of 
frost,  by  means  of  which  the  essential  part  of  these  vegetables  may  be  preserved  for  a  long  time, 
J    and  exported  more  easily  than  the  seed,  I  refer  to  the  Anniiien  des  Ackerbaiies,  bd.  iii.  s.  389,  and 
(    bd.  xi.  s.  1.     This  property  of  the  potato  has  not  hitherto  been  turned  to  much  account. 

The  Field-Beet. 

I       This  plant,  also  called  mangold-wurzel,  and  sometimes  root  of  scarcity,  f  mangel-wurzel)  is,  with 
all  its  varieties,  either  a  descendant  of  the  beta  vulgaris  alone,  or  the  result  of  the  mixture  of  this 
plant  with  the  beta  cacla.     I  regard  the  difference  pointed  out  by  botanists  between  these  two 
plants  as  too  insignificant,  and,  as  far  as  my  observations  go,  too  vague  to  serve  as  the  foundation 
of  au  absolute  distinction.     It  appears  to  ine  that  the  crossing  of  the  deep-red  colored  garden-beet   ,' 
and  the  white  beet  has  given  rise  to  all  the  existing  varieties  of  this  plant,  some  approaching  to  the    , ' 
former,  and  others  to  the  latter  species  ;  and  that  from  these  again  new  varieties  ai'e  continually     * 
produced,  among  which  we  now  and  then  meet  with  individuals  belonging  to  one  or  other  of  the 
original  species.     It  is,  therefore,  impossible  to  distinguish  precisely  between  the  various  kinds  of 
beet  any  more  than  between  the  several  kinds  of  other  cultivated  plants,  the  varieties  of  which  pass 
one  into  the  other  by  insensible  gradations. 

The  two  kinds  of  beet  which  occupy  the  extremities  of  the  series  are  the  deep-red  beet  which 
has  long  been  cultivated  in  our  kitchen  gardens,  and  that  which  is  perfectly  white.  Between 
these  there  are  the  large  scarlet  beet ;  the  fiesh-colored  beet,  which  is  sometimes  marked  with 
rings  of  that  color ;  the  variety  which  is  red  without  and  perfectly  white  within ;  the  yellow  beet ; 
and  that  whose  color  is  a  mixture  of  yellow  and  white.  The  color  of  the  root  commonly  resem- 
bles that  of  the  leaves  or  rather  of  their  edges,  which  are  either  quite  green*  or  tinged  with  red. — 
Even  seed  taken  exclusively  from  one  plant  always  produces  several  different  varieties.  The  un- 
mixed red  and  white  are,  however,  the  most  constant. 

The  pale-red  beet  is  the  largest  and  most  productive  of  all,  and  is,  therefore,  usually  cultivated  ' ; 
as  foci  for  cattle.  There  are  two  varieties  of  this ;  one  whose  root  buries  itself  under  ground,  and 
another  which  shows  a  disposition  to  rise  above  the  surface.  My  own  observations  lead  me  to 
I  consider  these  dispositions  as  essentially  belonging  to  the  varieties  in  question  ;  but  the  nature  of 
the  soil  has  also  considerable  intiuence  upon  them.  I  once  divided  with  a  friend  a  quantity  of  seed 
wrhich  had  been  given  to  me  as  belonging  to  the  variety  which  rises  above  ground  ;  my  plants 
plunged  deeply  into  the  soil,  w^hile  those  of  my  friend  grew  chiefly  above  the  surface.  My  land 
was  plowed  to  the  depth  of  ten  inches,  and  his  to  a  small  depth  only. 

On  a  soil  of  small  depth,  the  variety  which  grows  above  ground  is  certainly  to  be  preferred,  as 
on  such  a  soil  it  produces  a  heavier  crop  than  the  other  ;  but  on  a  deep  soil  the  underground  vari- 
ety is  preferable,  if  only  from  being  less  exposed  to  injury  from  frost  in  autumn. 

The  yellow  and  white  beets,  on  the  other  hand,  have  the  advautaije  of  possessing  greater  cousis- 
teuee,  and  resisting  cold  rather  better;  but  chiefiy  because  they  contain  a  larger  quantity  of  sugar 
— a  tact  which  is  asserted  by  all  those  who  have  made  experiments  on  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
from  beet-root ;  they  are,  therefore,  commonly  preferred  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar  and  syrup, 

*  Rather  whitish.  {French,  Trans. 


476  THAER  S   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

\    pt-rbp.'.'S  also  for  viift  distillation  of  brandy.     But  for  agricultural  purposes,  tfeese  qualities  do  not 
',    rx'Tioc-.Q.'^dVc  tb.e  greater  volume  obtained  from  the  reddish  varieties. 

Bk'-.i  -^vows  on  all  soils  which  contain  a  moderate  quantity  of  moisture,  and  a  large  proportion 

of  lir 'j-i'jve  i-:i;Uter;  but  on  sandy  soils  its  size  is  small,  unless,  indeed,  a  large  quantity  oi  rain  fall 

durijig  the  period  of  its  growth.     On  a  light  soil,  rich  in  humus  and  moist  by  situation,  it  becomes 

\vat<vry  and  very  thick,  but  hollow  in  the  middle,  and  difficult  to  preserve  from  rafting  quickly. — 

I     The  soil  beft  adapted  for  beet  is  an  argillaceous  soil  possessing  moderate  tenacity;  on  land  of  this 

I     description  it  always  succeeds,  and  acquires  more  consistence  than  on  any  other  kind  of  soil.     1    ' 

!     therclofc  make  it  anile,  in  the  cultivation  of  weeded  crops,  to  sow  the  greatest  quantity  of  beet 

oil  tenacious  soils,  and  of  Swedish  turnips  on  those  which  are  sandy. 

To  produce  beet  of  large  size,  the  soil  must  be  well  manured';  but  it  matters  not  whether  the 
manuring  has  been  peribrmed  expressly  for  the  beet  or  lor  a  preceding  crop,  provided  that,  in 
the  laitei'case,  the  soil  still  remain  in  good  condition.  Fresh  manure  should  be  mixed  wiih  the 
vegetable  soil  by  two  plowings  at  the  least. 

The  deeper  the  soil  the  better  is  it  adapted  for  the  growth  of  beet;  to  obtain  a  good  crop  of  this 
vegetable  on  a  soil  of  small  depth,  it  is  better  to  sow  or  plant  it  on  beds  or  ridges. 

The  seed  may  be  then  sown  on  the  spot  where  the  plant  is  to  grow.  The  individual  grains 
may  be  placed  in  separate  holes,  or  the  seed  may  be  drilled  at  least  twice  as  thickly  as  the  plants 
are  to  remain  ;  but  this  latter  method  is  practicable  only  on  a  warm,  light  soil,  which  is  tolerably 
free  from  weeds ;  for  the  germ  has  some  difficulty  in  opening  the  hard  skin  in  which  it  is  enclosed. 
It  is  a  considerable  time  before  the  young  plants  display  their  seminal  roots,  and  by  that  lime  the 
field  is  covered  with  weeds  of  considerable  hight.  The  germination  is  often  interrupted,  eillier 
because  the  seed  is  too  near  to  the  surface,  and  cannot  find  a  proper  supply  of  moisture,  or  because 
.  it  is  too  deep  in  the  ground,  and  development  becomes  impossible.  The  only  way  of  getting  rid 
I  of  weeds  is  to  mark  die  lines  on  which  the  seed  has  been  sown,  in  order  to  destroy  them  with  tlie 
horse-rake  before  the  beet-plants  come  up  ;  thi.s,  however,  requires  extraordinary  attention.  Beet 
has  al.^o  been  sown  broadcast,  and,  subsequently,  thinned  by  weeding  and  hoe  cultivation  ;  so  that 
the  phiiits  are  ultimately  isolate. 1 :  but  this  method  is  the  most  troublesome  and  expensive  of  all. 
,'  On  ordinary  soils,  transplantation  is  usually  the  preferable  plan,  as  it  leaves  time  for  giving  the 
requisite  preparation  to  the  soil.  But  as  the  vegetation  of  the  plant  is  disturbed  by  transplanta- 
tion, it  is  important  to  procure  the  seedlings  in  good  time,  and,  therefore,  to  sow  as  early  a.s  po.s.-3i- 
ble,  in  a  very  warm  situation,  and  on  a  light  garden  soil.  The  seed  may  also  be  committed  to  tlie 
ground  at  the  end  of  autumn  ;  it  will  then  remain  dormant  during  the  cold  season,  but  the  husk 
will  become  somev\  hat  softened.  But  the  trifling  advance  in  point  of  time  which  this  method  af- 
fords, does  not  compensate  for  the  danger  to  which  the  seed  is  exposed  while  in  the  ground,  from 
the  attacks  of  mice  and  insects:  this  circumstauQe  has  caused  the  plan  to  be  almost  universally 
abandoned.* 

The  plants  require  careful  cultivation  duiing  their  growth  ;  it  is  upon  this  indeed  that  their  suc- 
cess mainly  depends.  The  cultivation  is  performed  with  the  horse-hoe  ;  but.  in  spite  of  the  opin- 
ion of  some  agriculturists,  a  slight  earthing  up  is  very  useful,  even  to  the  variety  which  grows 
chieily  above  ground.  The  large  fleshy  leaves  of  the  plant  attain  their  greatest  size  in  August; 
many  cultivators  set  gi'eat  value  on  the  green  fodder  furnished  by  these  leaves.  According  to  ap- 
proximate calculations,  if  the  leaves  be  stripped  early  and  frequently,  the  produce  which  they  af- 
ford is  greater  than  that  of  the  roots;  but  it  is  obtained  at  the  expense  of  the  latter:  for.  if  the 
leaves  be  stripped  early  and  to  excess,  the  roots  remain  very  poor.  Cattle  eat  these  leaves,  but 
are  not  very  tbud  of  them;  and.  though  large,  they  appear  to  contain  but  a  small  quantity  of  nu- 
triment. Whatever  is  gained  in  real  value  on  the  leaves,  is  lost  upon  the  roots :  moreover,  the 
gatiiering  of  the  leaves  is  troublesome  ;  and,  on  the  whole,  I  think  that  nothing  but  a  scarcity  of 
other  kinds  of  fodder  can  justify  this  operation  in  an  economical  point  of  view.  It  is  only  in  au- 
tumn, wlien  the  plants  have  attained  their  full  growth,  and  the  crop  is  soon  to  be  taken  ofi;  that 
the  leaves  can  be  properly  cut  close  to  the  root,  and  given  to  the  cattle. 

The  roots  are  easily  pulled  up  ;  but  the  removal  of  the  filauieuts  which  is  necessary  to  the  pre-  j 
servatioii  of  the  roots,  is  not  so  easy.  Beet-roots  grown  in  an  argillaceous  soil  have  not  so  many  ' 
of  these  iilameuts. 

It  is  difficult  to  preserve  the  roots  to  an  advanced  period  of  the  winter,  for  they  are  very  sensible 
of  cold,  and  soon  destroyed  by  it.  In  warm  cellars  they  are  very  liable  to  rot,  so  that  they 
require  to  be  placed  in  beds,  and  separated  by  straw  or  sand.  The  best  mode  of  keeping  them 
is  to  place  them  in  heaps  of  moderate  size,  and  cover  them  with  straw,  in  the  same  manner  as  po- 
tatoes are  kept. 

My  own  experience  has  shown  me  that  the  produce  of  beet  may  amount  to  300  quintals  per  ' 
acre;  this,  however,  is  an  extraordinary  quantity:  even  on  a  soil  especially  adapted  to  the  plant, 
we  cannot  reckon  on  an  average  crop  of  more  than  180  quintals  per  acre.  In  the  duchy  of  Magde-  ' 
burgh,  it  is  calculated  that  a  square  foot  of  land  will  produce  a  pound  of  beet-root :  this  would  make 
235  quintals  per  acre.  But  from  this  we  must  deduct  one-fourth  for  accidents  which  may  injure 
the  crop.  The  quantity  of  nutriment  contained  in  beet  cannot  be  estimated  at  more  than  10  per 
cent. ;  compared  with  that  contained  in  hay,  it  is  as  10  to  46  ;  with  that  of  potatoes,  as  28   to  46. t 


*The  method  which  is  found  to  be  most  advantageous  on  my  estates,  consists  in  advancing  the  germian- 
tlon  a  few  days  before  sowing,  by  moistening  the  seed  with  water  from  the  dunghill,  and  then  setting  it  in 
rows,  two  or  three  grains  at  a  time,  along  a  cord  on  which  equal  distances  are  marked.  The  seed  is  placed 
in  little  holes,  about  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  in  depth,  and  formed  with  adibbler:  it  is  covered  with 
mould  taken  from  the  preceding  hollow  ;  or,  if  the  soil  be  very  light,  the  earth  is  pushed  over  the  seed  by 
the  foot  of  the  sower  as  he  advances.  When  this  plan  is  pursued,  germination  takes  place  quickiy.  and  the 
weeiis  do  not  get  the  start  of  the  beet-plants.  Care  must  be  taken  to  uproot  the  superfluous  plants  as  scon 
as  those  which  are  to  remain  have  put  forth  three  or  tour  leaves.  [Frtnck  Trans. 

tl  am  inclined  to  think  that  either  the  northern  climate,  or  the  soil  of  our  learned  authors  estates,  im- 
parts to  the  beet-root  properties  dilferent  from  those  which  distinguish  ours.  With  regard  to  the  leaves,  our 
opinions  ai-ein  accordance ;  but  as  to  the  root,  I  am  disposed,  from  the  result  of  various  expeifments,  to  bs- 
(1100) 


The  large  proportion  of  sugar  which  beet-root  contuns  renders  it  particularly  agreeable  aiad 
benefieial  to  cattln.  When  given  to  cows  it  contributes  greatly  to  the  formation  of  milk,  to\vhI..i  U 
imparts  au  agreeable  flavor ;  and,  when  mixed  with  potatoes,  it  appears  to  improve  tlie  milk  in  <»n 
extraordinary  degree. 

Beet  possesses  the  advantage  of  being  almost  exempt  from  the  attacks  of  insects. 

As  the  culture  of  beet  for  the  manufactm-e  of  sugar  has  lately  excited  particular  attention,  I  shall 
here  add  a  few  observations  on  that  subject. 

The  best  variety  of  beet  for  this  purpose  is  the  perfectly  white  ;  next  to  that,  the  yellov/ :  the 
reddish  variety  is  inferior  to  all  others.  The  former  have  been  found  to  be  richer  in  saccharine 
matter,  but  their  produce  is  much. less  than  that  of  the  latter.  Although,  thtiefore,  in  the  former  the 
separation  of  the  sugar  is  easier,  the  rough  produce  which  they  yield  is  less  in  quantity,  so  that 
the  cultivator  cannot  obtain  them  at  the  same  price.  Moreover,  beet-root  raised  for  the  extraction 
of  sugar  should  not  be  gi-own  on  a  very  rich  and  strongly  manured  soil,  for  it  will  then  contain  a 
great  deal  of  saltpetre,  and  but  little  sa.;;ar.  Finally,  it  is  .«aid  that  the  roots  must  be  preserved 
from  the  influence  of  light ;  tliey  must,  therefove.be  covered  up  with  earth.  The  variety  least 
adapted  for  this  purpose  is  that  which  grows  chiefly  above  ground.  The  beet-plants  must  be 
placed  as  close  together  a.a  possible,  which  greatly  increases  the  expense  of  cultivation,  and  dimin- 
ishes the  produce.  Lastly,  they  must  not  be  stripped  of  their  leaves  before  gathering,  but  allowed 
to  grow  covered  with  their  leaves,  which  appears  a  great  sacrifice  to  some  cultivators. 

According  to  calculations  made  upon  large  quantities  of  these  roots,  it  appears  that  to  render  the 
manufacture  of  sugar  profitable,  the  quintal  must  not  cost  more  than  6  groschen.  The  cultivation 
of  beet  may  be  advantageous  even  at  this  price  in  localities  whei-e  manure  can  be  procured  from 
without,  even  though  a  wagon-load  of  dung  should  cost  2  rix-dollars.  Where  this  facility  is  unat- 
tainable, the  culture  of  beet  in  large  quantities  is  attended  with  difficulties,  because  it  "certainly 
consumes  a  portion  of  the  nutritive  matter  contained  in  the  soil,  and,  if  sold,  yields  little  or  no 
manure.  When  a  cultivator  can  realize  3  groschen  per  quiuial  for  his  beet,  by  using  it  to  feed 
his  own  live  stock,  he  ought  certainly  to  pi-efer  this  mode  of  employing  his  crop,  in  order  not  to  < 
diminish  his  supply  of  manure.  Hence  there  will  always  be  considerable  difficult}'  in  keeping 
large  factories  constantly  supplied  with  a  proper  quantity  of  this  raw  material.  The  great  ques- 
ticu  respecting  the  advantage  of  extracting  sugar  from  beet-root  canuct  remain  long  undecided, 
nc'.Y  that  establishments  for  the  purpose  have  been  erected  in  so  many  countries.  The  possibility 
of  this  mode  of  preparation  is  beyond  all  doubt. 

The  Turnip  {Brassica  rapa). 

V  arious  kinds  of  iTirnips  are  cultivated  :  and,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  culture  be- 
stowed upon  them,  perhaps  also  by  the  mixture  of  their  pollen  with  that  of  other  species,  new  varie- 
tieu  are  produced  almost  without  number.  It  is  probably  by  cultivation  that  the  varieties  to  which 
■we  give  the  preference  for  field  culture  have  acquired  their  present  form  and  size,  and  that  these  pro- 
petdes  are  transmitted  by  seed  from  one  generation  to  another,  provided  no  degeneracy  is  ooca- 
sioi;ed  by  neglect  of  culture. 

In  a  botanical  point  of  view,  some  turnips  appear  to  spring  from  the  Brassica  rapa,  others  fro-Ji 
tlie  Brassica  olcracea,  or  perhaps  from  crossing,  to  vrhich  the  Brassica  family  seem  very  much  iu- 
.  dined. 

In  an  economical  point  of  view,  turnips  are  chiefly  distinguished  into  two  classes,  viz.,  those 
which  require  to  be  sown  where  they  are  to  grow,  and  will  not  bear  transplanting  (at  least  not 
■without  a  large  ball  of  earth  adhering  to  them),  and  those  which  are  usually  transplanted,  or  will 
at  least  bear  such  treatment. 

Turniips  which  ivill  not  hear  transplanting — Turnips  properly  so  called. 

Tarnips  of  this  class  are  derived  from  the  Brassica  rapa.  and  are  much  more  watery  than  those 
which  will  not  bear  tran-iplanting.  They  exhibit  endless  diversities  of  fonn  and  color.  They  have 
an  enlargement  in  the  root,  which  in  some  is  large,  round,  more  or  less  compact,  and  is  shaped 
like  an  onion  with  a  tap-root  at  its  lower  part :  others  have  rather  a  fusiform  root,  terminating  in  a  \ 
pciint  at  its  lower  extremity,  and  changing  by  degrees  into  a  tap-root.  Both  varieties  are  some- 
timet;  white,  sometimes  inclining  to  yellow^,  sometimes  tinged  with  red  or  green.  Sometimes  they 
stand  with  the  greater  part  of  their  bulk  above  ground,  sometimes  belew.  Their  size  is  infinitely 
divertfified.  and  appears  to  depend  chiefly  en  cultivation.  But  the  disposition  to  attain  a  ls,rge  .size 
is  transmitted  by  seed  through  several  generation.s.  The  turnips  which  in  England  .sometimes 
attain  the  weight  of  60  or  70  lbs.,  appear  to  be  absolutely  identical  with  those  which  in  our  e!?uu- 
try  usually  weigh  about  |lb.  ;  indeed,  1  have  already  increased  the  weight  of  some  of  the  latter 
to  14  lbs.  Large  turnips  are  not  indeed  a  particular  variety;  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  important  to 
preser  ve  their  seed,  when  we  intend  to  cultivate  these  plants.  : 

In  Germany  we  have  long  been  familiar  with  the  difterence  between  turnips  sown  on  the  fallow- 
field  and  those  which  are  sown  on  stubble-land  ;  the  former  are  known  to  grow  to  a  much  greater 
size.  But  we  do  not  here  pay  the  same  attention  to  turnips  sowti  on  the  fallow  that  they  do  in  Eng- 
land, where  these  turnips  fona  the  principal  source  of  food  for  their  live  stock,  and  are  the  cor- 
ner stone  of  thir  system  of  husbandry.  In  England,  too,  turnips  are  the  crop  usually  selected  to 
supply  the  place  of  fallowing  ;  and  the  system  now  known  by  tlie  name  of  alternate  cultivation  is 

lieve  ^liul  it  contributes  as  much,  and  even  more,  to  fatten  animals,  than  io  increase  their  milk  :  it  is  trus, 
howi  vex,  that  the  roots  impart  an  agreeable  flavor  to  the  milk,  according  to  an  experiment  mads  upoa 
sheeir  during  the  winter  of  1809-]  0,  to  which  I  paid  cloae  attenrion  for  more  than  a  month.  I  believs  C52  lbs. 
of  beet-root  to  be  equivalent  to  100  Ib.s.  of  natural  hay.— 1815.  French  Trans.  This  proportion  has  been  con- 
firmed in  my  establishment,  not  only  by  a  second  direct  experiment  very  carefully  conducted,  but  likcwiGS 
by  aU  the  results  of  my  rural  economy,  in  which,  as  is  well-known,  everything  is  submitted  to  the  mc 
rigorous  computation;  and  to  that  which  is  the  basis  of  aU  computation,  viz.,  weight  and  measure. — 1829. 

[Fri'^ch  Trans. 
(1101) 


al3C  tled^atcd  as  turnip  cvUivation.  and  somctimea  as  the  Norfolk  ayid  Suffol'k  xystem.  For 
inib-3i!it'oi;  on  this  system,  I  refer  my  readers  to  tho  1st  and  3d  volumes  of  my  "  English  Agri- 
CDii.:rc."  eupjiosing  that  all  who  wish  to  adopt  thi.s  mode  of  culture  will  have  tLat  work  in  their 
L'lr^s.  I  have  nothing  to  add  to  what  I  have  thcie  saiil,  excepUig  that  the  annoyance  of  plant- 
lice  and  caterpillars  has  given  mo  a  great  dislike  to  the  system. 

Til  (Germany  turnips  are  sown  on  the  fallow  at  ihe  end  of  June  or  the  beginning  of  July,  after  tbo 
land  L;ls  been  plowed  three  times  and  maimred. 

Culiivntors  who  are  able  to  pull  up  the  weeds  -.isually  do  so;  but  rarely  hoc  or  thin  the  tur- 
nips, or  regulate  the  spaces  between  them.  When  the  crop  succeeds,  the  produce  is  considera- 
ble, though  rarely  equal  to  that  of  the  ICnglish  hoed  turnips  ;  if  it  fail,  the  lows  of  the  pr-ed  is  disre- 
garded. But  as  the  culture  of  other  plants  on  the  tallow  is  more  productive,  we  rarely  sow  tur- 
nips on  it. 

In  Germany  turnips  are  more  generally  raised  on  stubble-land.  This  cultivation  is  indeed  verj'^ 
common  in  the  western  parts:  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  it  has  been  in  use  from  the  earliest 
times ,  but  it  is  decreasing,  and,  indeed,  almost  disappearing  hi  the  countries  north  of  the  Elbe.  ' 
This  decrease  cannot  be  attributed  to  tiie  influence  of  climate ;  the  crop  is  not  usually  later  in  these 
parts  than  in  the  west,  neither  does  winter  come  on  earlier  This  culture  is,  however,  highly  ad- 
vantageous, and  in  the  countries  above-iiit-ntioned  con.^-titutes  one  of  the  chief  foundations  of  the  sys- 
tem of  Agriculture.  Why,  then,  has  it  been  renounced  in  our  part  of  the  country  1  Chiefly  be- 
cause in  large  rural  establishments  there  is  such  a  pre.ss  oi  business  during  harvest  time,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  break  up  the  .stubble  after  the  first  rye  crops  have  been  cairiod,  which  is  an  essential 
condition  of  this  method  of  culture.  la  our  large  establishments  the  rent  of  land  is  usually  of  less 
amount  than  the  cost  of  labor;  and  as  turnips  sown  after  harvest  require  cultivation,  we  prefer 
sowing  them  on  the  fallow,  where  their  success  is  less  precarious,  and  their  cultivation  take-i  place 
at  &  more  convenient  season.  As  to  our  smaller  fanners,  they  are  usually  too  poor  to  undertake  this 
labor ;  and,  moreover,  they  are  without  examples  of  this  cultivation,  which  is,  nevertheless,  better 
suited  to  them  than  to  establishments  of  larger  extent. 

Turnips  require  a  sandy  soil  mixed  with  clay,  rich,  and  neither  very  dry  nor  exposed  to_ excess 
of  djoisture.  For  turnips  .sown  after  harvest  (and  it  is  of  these  alone  that  I  am  now  speaking)  the 
stubble  is  pkiwed  superficially  as  soon  as  tlie  rye  is  cut;  this  labor  is*often  not  deferred  till  tlae 
corn  Is  housed,  but  the  plow  is  passed  between  the  stooks  of  grain.  A  strong  harrowing  is  then 
eh'^n,  and  the  stubble  thus  uprooted  is  collected  with  the  rake  and  burned.  When  manure  ic  to 
be  had,  it  is  put  upon  the  land  ;  this,  indeed,  is  indispensable,  if  the  soil  has  not  been  previously 
maiiured  for  the  i-ye  crop.  Soon  afterward  the  plow  is  again  used,  more  deeply;  then  the  ground 
ifi  lih.rrowed,  and  the  seed  sown  as  regularly  as  po.ssible,  tlie  quantity  used  being  about  1  lb.  or 
1^  lb.  per  acre  ;  finally,  the  soil  is  once  more  harrowed,  and  then  rolled.  The  turnips  are  some- 
tit-'ins  sown  after  the  first  plowing,  especially  when  the  soil  is  veiy  sandy  ;  but  they  do  not  suc- 
CA-.c,  so  well  asthoi^e  which  have  received  more  efficient  preparation.  The  sowing  must  be  per- 
fcriiied  as  eaidy  as  possible,  that  the  soil  may  not  have  time  to  dry. 

'When  the  turnips  have  put  forth  their  leaves  and  taken  root  firmly,  they  are  well  harrowed. 
Nc-  notice  is  taken  of  the  uprooting  of  a  very  few  weakly  plants  by  this  operation  ;  the  loss  of 
tlvsf!  is,  indeed,  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  rest.  Wherever  harrowing  is  adopted,  it  is  re- 
garded as  indispensable  to  the  production  of  a  good  crop.  Those  who  cultivate  but  a  small  ex- 
teiit  of  ground,  and  take  great  pains  with  it,  have  tbo  larger  weeds  pulled  up. 

The  success  of  the  crop  is  altogether  dependent  on  a  fall  of  rain  soon  after  sowing.  Whew 
the  latter  part  of  the  summer  is  dry,  the  sowing  turns  out  a  complete  failure,  the  young  plants  be- 
ing destroyed  by  aphides.  The  loss  of  the  seed  is,  however,  of  no  consequence,  and  the  labor  be- 
slowed  on  the  soil  is  beneficial  to  the  following  crop.  Caterpillars  are  less  dangerous  to  late  than 
to  early-sown  turnips ;  they  may  be  destroyed  by  means  of  the  harrow  and  roller. 

When  the  turnips  are  too  thick,  the  smaller  ones  are  pulled  up  about  Michaelma.s,  and  may,  to- 
gether with  their'leaves,  be  profitably  given  to  cattle.  The  larger  ones  are  left  in  the  gi-ound  tiil 
November;  they  are  then  gathered,  and  the  necessary  quantity  of  them  is  given  to  the  live  stooii, 
the  leaves  not  being  cut  off;  the  remainder  are  stripped  of  their  leaves,  and  stored  up  in  cellars, 
or  in  heaps  covered  with  straw. 

If  it  be  impos-sible  to  house  the  whole  crop,  part  of  it  is  left  in  the  ground ;  tlie  larger  turnips 
only  being  taken  up.  With  us,  they  arc  most  commonly  left  in  the  ground  during  winter ;  and  in^ 
.spring,  with  their  young  shoots,  they  afford  excellent  feed  for  sheep.  Sometimes  also  they  are  fed  off 
by  sheep  on  the  ground,  especially  when  they  have  not  attained  a  very  great  size,  or  the  requisite 
amount  of  labor  cannot  be  bestowed  upon  theia.  But  in  winters,  during  which  there  is  a  rapid 
alternation  of  frost  and  thaw,  turnips  are  sure  to  perish  in  the  ground  :  hence,  it  id  always  desira- 
ble to  bouse  as  many  of  them  as  possible. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  obtain  a  crop  of  20  or  2.5  quintals  per  acre.  On  laud  which  has  been  ma- 
nured expressly  for  the  crop  I  have  known  the  quantity  to  amount  to  40  qumtals. 

Sometimes,  when  turnips  have  been  gathered  in  December,  autumn  rye  is  sown  upon  the  land  ; 
hut  the  soil  is  more  commonly  devoted  to  spring  grain,  for  the  growth  of  which  it  is  well 
prepared. 

The  nourishment  afforded  to  the  soil  by  the  turnips  left  in  it,  and  their  young  leaves,  is,  per- 
haps, an  equivalent  for  that  consumed  by  the  rest.  It  is  said  that  this  method  does  not  impoverish 
the  larid.  ,        r      •  , 

Turnips  are  not  very  nutritious  in  proportion  to  their  bulk;  but  they  furnish  agreeable  and 
\  ■,\  holesomc  food  for  sheep  and  horned  cattle.  It  has  sometimes  been  thought  that.turnip.s  have 
\  ri-.en  an  unpleasant  flavor  to  the  milk  of  animals  fed  upon  them  ;  but  tliis  must  have  arisen  from 
I  a  icraved  state  of  the  turnips  themselves,  or  their  leaves;  otherwise  the  butter  made  with  rach 
I  milk  has  a  flavor  equal  to  that  made  from  the  milk  of  cows  fed  upon  grass.  Turnips  seem  to  be 
I  adapted  to  increa-sc  the  quantity  of  milk  rather  than  of  fat,  though  in  England  great  numbrra  of 
I  cattle  are  fattened  on  them.  It  is  reckoned  that  an  ox  should  have  per  day  a  third  of  his  weight  of 
'  (llo-:ii 


TRANSPLANTING  TURNIPS TURNIP-CABBAGE. 


turnips.  For  the  feed  of  cows,  I  consider  100  lbs.  of  turnips  equivalent  to  22  lbs.  of  hay.  The 
'  very  large  English  turnips  contain  a  smaller  quaptitj'  of  nutriment  in  the  same  weight. 

There  "is  a  variety  of  this  vegetable  called  the  stubble  turnip  :  it  is  closely  allied  to  the  common  tur- 
nip both  in  its  nature  and  mode  of  cultivation.  It  is  sometimes  sown  on  rye-stubble,  but  more  fre- 
quently on  the  fallow.  The  smallness  of  these  turnips  renders  them  too  costly  to  allow  them  to  be 
used  for  feeding  cattle  ;  but  they  are  in  request  as  an  agreeable  dish,  and  fetch  a  high  price.  The 
cultivation  of  these  turnips  is  very  profitable  to  the  small  farmer,  who  cultivates  them  with  the 
help  of  his  family,  and  cleans  them  for  sale  ;  but  they  are  proportionably  disadvantageous  to  the 
large  proprietor  ;  it  has  not  even  been  found  advantageous  to  raise  them  for  home  consumption  It  is 
not  true  that  these  turnips  require  a  peculiar  kind  of  soil,  to  be  met  w^ith  in  certain  localities  only ; 
every  clayey  sand  which  is  light,  clean,  and  well  stored  with  old  nutritive  matter,  agrees  with 
them  perfectly  well. 

Turnip-seed  should  not  be  gathered  from  plants  which  have  been  in  the  ground  all  the  winter, 
and  flowered  early  in  spring;  at  all  events,  this  should  not  be  done  many  times  in  succession  ;  for 
the  turnips  will  then  become  smaller  and  smaller,  and  ultimately  quite  insignificant  in  size  ;  so 
that,  like  rape  cultivated  for  the  extraction  of  oil,  they  -will  soon  acquire  a  mere  cylindrical  root. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  disposition  to  produce  large  turnips  is  transmitted  through  the  seed  when, 
in  addition  to  other  favorable  circumstances,  it  is  collected  from  turnips  of  the  largest  size,  which 
have  been  chosen  for  the  purpose,  preserved  from  cold  in  winter  in  pits  or  cellars,  and  replanted 
in  spring.  It  has,  however,  been  observed  that  turnips  raised  fr  >m  such  seed  are  peculiarly  sensi- 
tive of  frost;  and  in  England,  as  this  disposition  is  regarded  with  considerable  apprehension,  the 
seed  is  from  time  to  time  collected  from  turnips  which  have  been  sown  late  iu  the  season,  and 
passed  the  win  er  in  the  ground,  after  having  been  carefully  hoed. 

Attempts  have  also  been  made  to  sow  turnips  with  late  tares,  the  latter  having  been  sown  in  drills 
and  harrowed,  and  then  cut  in  the  green  state.  It  is  said  that  the  turnips  being  thus  cleared  of 
weeds  yield  a  good  crop.  This  may  have  happened  in  one  or  two  instances  when  the  tai-es  have 
been  accidentally  destroyed  by  an  early  frost ;  otherwise  I  should  fear  that  tares  cut  while  young 
would  shoot  up  again  too  strongly  to  leave  the  necessary  room  for  the  turnips.  Buckwheat  would 
be  better  adapted  than  tares  for  this  purpose. 

Turnips  admitting  of  Transplantation — Tu7'nip-Caibage. 

This  is  a  descendant  of  the  brassica  oleracea  ;  botanists  distinguish  by  the  name  of  napo 
brassica  that  particular  vai-iety  which  forms  its  root  under  ground,  and  is  usually  cultivated  on  an 
extensive  scale. 

This  variety  itself  is  divided  into  several  subvarieties :  it  might  indeed,  be  possible  to  produce 
varieties  out  of  number,  by  selecting  the  seed  of  plants  which  exhibit  peculiar  characters.  The 
several  varieties  are  distinguished  by  their  color,  which  in  some  is  perfectly  white,  and  in  others 
yellovfish.  The  color  is,  however,  not  always  permanent ;  so  that  yellowish  plants  are  often  pro- 
duced from  seed  taken  from  a  white  one,  and  vice  versa.  They  differ  also  in  substance  :  some  are 
firm  and  compact  ;  others  soft  and  spongy.  These  latter  qualities  are  more  permanent ;  they  con- 
tinue the  same  even  when  the  color  changes.  The  several  varieties  are  also  distinguished  by  ex- 
ternal appearance  by  their  base  and  their  stem,  so  that  they  may  be  recognized  at  a  glance. 
These  differences,  h  iwever,  scarcely  admit  of  verbal  explanation,  for  they  exist  not  in  kind  but  in 
degree. 

The  kind  of  turnip  so  much  prized  in  England  under  the  name  of  Sioedish  turnip  or  ruta-baga, 
and  extensively  cultivated  in  Germany,  is  also  a  variety  of  the  same  species  ;  its  character  can  be 
distinguished  only  by  sight  or  taste. 

Turnips  of  this  description  require  a  soil  more  argillaceous  than  that  wrhich  is  most  congenial  to 
turnips  properly  so  called,  viz.,  those  which  do  not  admit  of  transplantation  This  is  particularly 
the  case  with  the  heavier  varieties,  which  are  usually  white.  On  a  dry  sandy  soil,  they  remain 
small,  and  yield  but  a  scanty  produce.  The  more  porous  kinds  thrive  better  on  a  sandy  soil ;  but 
the  one  which  accommodates  itself  best  to  such  land  is  the  Swedish  turnip.  The  advantage  of 
this  plant  mainly  consists  in  its  thriving  on  such  a  soil,  and,  moreover,  attaining  a  considerable  size  ; 
we  must,  however,  observe  iu  addition  that  it  is  sweeter  and  more  agreeable  to  the  taste  than  the 
other  varieties.  Otherwise,  1  do  not  think  that  it  is  so  nutritious  as  the  more  compact  and  usually 
white  variety,  though  the  latter  is  too  hard  to  be  used  for  domestic  purposes.  For  strong  land, 
I  should  recommend  the  cultivation  of  this  variety,  but  on  light  land,  that  of  the  ruta-baga,  because 
it  yields  a  larger  produce. 

Many  gardeners  have  maintained  that  the  ruta-baga  is  identical  with  the  yellow  turnip-cabbage, 
which  has  been  so  long  known ;  but  the  former  is  distinguislied  by  its  taste,  and  in  an  economical 
point  of  view,  chiefly  by  thriving  on  sandy  soils,  and  resisting  frost  well;  whereas  the  yellow  tur- 
nip-cabbage is  the  most  delicate  of  all  plants  of  this  kind. 

The  mode  of  cultivation  is  the  same  for  all  these  varieties.  When  the  soil  is  not  already  ■well 
stored  with  nutriment,  it  must  be  strongly  manured,  and  the  dung  well  mixed  by  two  plowings 
at  the  least.' 

The  seed  is  sown  either  on  the  spot  where  the  plants  are  to  attain  their  full  growth,  or  in  oeed- 
beds,  from  which  they  are  afterward  to  be  removed  to  the  place  prepared  for  them  :  they  bear  trans- 
planting very  well.. 

In  the  former  case  the  sowing  takes  place  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  middle,  or,  if  necessa- 
ry, to  the  end  of  June.  It  is  not  advisable  to  sow  earlier,  for  the  plants  will  then  be  inclined  to 
run  to  seed  in  autumn,  and  the  roots  to  become  woody.*  If,  however,  transplanting  be  prefeired,  it 
is  better  to  sow^  as  early  as  April,  for  the  plants  are  much  retarded  by  transplantation.  They  thrive 

*  I  know  not  how  to  designate  in  any  other  manner  the  state  which  the  turnips  assume  when  the  for- 
mation of  hollow  cells  takes  place,  and  the  diminution  of  fluid  matter  causes  the  fibres  to  become  move 
closely  packed.     Our  peasants  denote  this  state  by  the  epithet  coriace.  [French  Tram 

(1103) 


particularly  well  when  sown  or  planted  on  ridges,  but  it  is  then  somewhat  more  difficult  to  keep     ■ 
them  clear  of  weeds.    In  other  cases,  they  are  cultivated  with  the  horse-hoe,  and   afterward 
earthed  up,  but  only  to  a  slight  extent ;  otherwise,  the  mould  would  cover  their  leaves.     Toward 
the  middle  of  September  they  may  be  stripped  of  their  leaves,  and  will  thus  yield  an  abundant 
supply  of  fodder. 

Turnips  of  this  class,  especially  the  ruta-bagas,  are  more  capable  than  the  others  of  resisting  the 

eflPects  of  cold  :  the  best  mode  of  keeping  them  would  be  to  leave  tlifim  in  the  ground  after  it  had 

been  well  drained,  were  it  not  that  they  show  themselves  above  the  surface,  and  are  in  conse- 

'    quence  very  liable,  when  left  in  the  field,  to  be  taken  up  by  men  or  devoured  by  animals,  both  wild 

'    and  domestic.  'V\'^hen  thej'  are  kept  in  store-houses,  or  in  heaps,  there  is  more  fear  of  their  becom- 

'   ing  heated  and  putrefying,  than  of  their  being  injured  by  fi-ost.     They  are  not  easily  destroyed  by     i 

by  cold  :  they  still  continue  good  after  a  thaw,  though  they  are  certainly  more  sensible  to  cold  in 

this  state  than  when  left  in  the  ground  with  all  their  roots;  and  to  a  certain  extent,  continuing  to 

vegetate.     "When  collected  in  pita  or  cellars,  they  are  very  likely  to  rot. 

That  portion  of  the  crop  which  remains  unconsumed  at  the  beginning  of  the  new  yearmay  be  most 
advantageously  deposited  in  barns  or  store-houses,  arranged  in  layers  separated  by  straw  :  there 
will  then  be  no  fear  of  injury  from  frost. 

The  produce  of  those  varieties  of  the  turnip  which  bear  transplanting,  and  especially  of  the 
Swedish  variety,  is,  when  no  accidents  interfere  Avith  it.  greater  perhaps  than  that  of  any  other 
vegetable  of  this  description.  I  have  myself  gathered  from  land  not  perfectly  manured,  as  much 
as  240  schefFels  (full  measure)  per  acre  :  the  weight  of  this  is  about  24,000  lbs.  exclusive  of  the  ' 
leaves.  But  I  have  also  met  with  frequent  failures  in  the  culture  of  these  turnips,  and  have  seen 
I  them  injured  by  plant-lice,  by  the  caterpillar  which  attacks  the  cabbage,  and  also  bj'  that  which 
attacks  rye.  The  last-mentioned  insect  is  particularly  fond  of  this  plant;  and,  in  1810,  in  con,=e- 
quence  of  the  drouth  which  took  place  at  the  end  of  the  summer,  it  attacked  all  the  plants  of  this 
description.  The  attacks  of  insects  render  the  cultivation  of  tliese  vegetables  much  more  precarious 
than  that  of  potatoes  or  beet. 
I  According  to  the  analyses  of  Einhof,  the  quantity  of  nuti-iment  in  the  Swedish  turnip  is,  to 
that  of  the  common  turnip,  as  15  to  12.  a  result  which  is  in  accordance  with  those  of  experi- 
ments made  on  the  fattening  of  cattle  vtrith  these  vegetables:  compared  with  that  of  potatoes  it  is 
as  15  to  25 

Plants  of  this  dass  are  eaten  with  avidity  by  cattle  of  all  kinds,  and  have  great  influence  on  the 
secretion  of  milk.  When  not  in  a  state  of  putrefaction,  they  do  not  impart  an  unpleasant  flavor  to 
the  milk. 

These  considerations  speak  loudly  in  favor  of  the  cultivation  of  the  vegetables  under  considera- 
tion, provided,  however,  we  do  not  place  our  whole  reliance  upon  them;  for  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  they  are  liable  to  accidents. 

The  turnip-cabbage,  distinguished  in  botanical  language  by  the  name  of  Brassica  oleracea  ; 
var.  gongyladea,  also  belongs  to  the  same  family.  Several  varieties  of  it  are  cultivated  in  gardens : 
it  is  Isetter  adapted  for  culinary  purposes  than  to  furnish  food  for  live  stock.  Some  persons  recom- 
mend its  cultivation  as  a  field  ci-op  for  this  latter  purpo.se,  because  it  is  easily  gathered  and  cleaned 
during  winter,  its  turnip  being  wholly  foi-med  above  ground.  I  have  .seen  a  variety  whose  turnip 
was  more  cylindrical,  some  of  the  plants  bearing  small  heads  of  cabbage.  This  must  certainly 
have  been  a  cross  between  the  common  cabbage  and  the  turnip-cabbage. 

With  regard  to  cultivation,  this  plant  does  not  differ  from  those  already  spoken  of;  but  it  re- 
quires a  strong  soil,  well  manured,  and  particularly  well  cultivated  ;  the  same  kind  of  soil,  in  short, 
as  that  required  for  cabbages. 

Common  Red  and  White  Cabbage  {Brassica  oleracea  ;  var.  Capiiata). 

There  are  several  varieties  of  this  plant:  I  do  not  here  speak  of  those  w^hich  are  cultivated  in 
gardens,  but  of  the  common  smooth  cabbage.  This  latter  also  exhibits  considerable  diversity  in 
form,  size,  and  color:  it  is  either  white,  red,  or  tinged  with  a  mixture  of  both  colors:  in  shape  it  is 
sometimes  flattened,  sometimes  tapering  to  a  point :  in  the  latter  case  it  is  called  the  sv gar-loaf 
cabbage.  There  are  some  kinds  of  cabbage  which,  when  cultivated  on  a  proper  soil  and  with 
due  aUentiou,  will  form  heads  weighing  from  20  to  30  lbs.:  it  is  said,  indeed,  that  their  weight 
sometimes  amounts  to  80  lbs.  Other  kinds,  and  particularly  the  sugar-loaf  cabbage,  seldom  weigh 
more  than  3  or  4  lbs. ;  though  some  heads  may  attain  the  weight  of  6  or  7  lbs.  Many  persons  look 
upon  those  kinds  of  cabbage  which  grow  to  a  large  size  as  highly  advantageous,  and  are  even  at  a 
loss  to  imagine  why  cultivators  in  general  rest  contented  with  the  smaller  kinds.  But  any  one 
who  is  practically  acquainted  with  the  two  varieties,  and  examines  them  with  due  consideration, 
will  certainly  give  the  preference  to  the  smaller.  The  large  cabbage  not  only  requires  a  very  rich 
soil,  but  a  proper  regulation  of  the  interspaces,  to  the  width  of  four  feet  in  all  directions  for  the  vei-y 
largest,  and  three  feet  for  the  next  in  size  :  consequently,  only  nine  plants  of  the  former,  and  six- 
teen of  the  latter  can  be  grov/n  on  a  square  perch.  The  small  variety,  particularly  the  sugar-loaf 
cabbage,  succeeds  admirably  in  rows  placed  at  intervals  of  two  feet,  the  plants  being  set  six 
inches  apart  in  the  rows ;  so  that  54  plants  grow  on  a  square  perch.  It  is  almost  sure  to  attain  its 
full  development,  while  the  other  often  remains  weak  and  sickly :  it  also  becomes  more  compact, 
and  is  more  ea.sily  preserved.  As  cabbage  plants,  even  when  treated  with  the  greatest  care  and 
in  a  state  of  active  vegetation,  are  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  the  larvae  of  the  cockchafer  and  the 
mole-cricket,  there  remains  a  large  vacant  space  on  the  ground  when  a  plant  of  the  larger  variety  » 
disappears  from  this  cause ;  whereas,  among  those  which  are  planted  at  small  distances,  the  loss 
of  an  individual  plant  is  scarcely  noticed. 

The  cabbage  requires  a  clayey  soil  in  excellent  condition,  or  well  impregnated  with  humus,  and 
i  in  a  damp  situation.  This  argillaceous  soil  must  be  carefully  and  repeatedly  mingled  with  warm 
)  and  active  manures;  and,  if  possible,  before  the  last  plowing,  sheep  should  be  penned  on  it,  or  it 
)  should  be  watered  with  drainings  from  the  stable.  But  even  rich  soils  well  supplied  with  humus, 
^  (1104) 


CARROTS.  481 


require  manuring  before  they  are  used  for  raising  cabbages  ;  the  manure  is,  however,  intended  to 
act  rather  as  a  solvent  than  as  a  source  of  nourishment.  In  treating  of  the  culture  of  lioed  crops  in 
general,  we  have  said  all  that  is  necessary  on  the  rearing  and  transplantation  of  the  seedlings. — 
Cabbages  may  also  be  sown  on  the  spot  which  they  are  to  occupy  during  the  whole  time  of  their 
growth,  the  superuumerai-y  plants  being  removed  bj'  hoeing:  but  this  method  is  scarcely  practi- 
cable excepting  on  very  clean  land.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  raise  the  seedlings  in  good  time, 
so  that  the  transplanting  may  be  performed  in  May,  during  favorable  \veatlier. 

Cabbages  must  be  cultivated  with  the  horse-hoe,  and  tlien  earthed  up  at  different  times,  until 
their  leaves  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  cultivate  the  soil 
quite  close  to  the  plants,  and  destroy  -weeds  with  the  hand-hoe. 

The  cabbage  may  without  injury  be  stripped  of  its  leaves  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  shed  them,  but 
not  before.  When  this  has  been  done,  it  is  useful  to  earth  it  up  again  ;  new  leaves  will  then  be  put 
forth. 

•  The  heads  are  plucked  or  cut  toward  the  end  of  October;  .sometimes  even  later.  If,  however, 
in  consequence  of  wet  weather,  they  should  begin  to  break,  the  gathering  must  take  place  earlier 
in  the  season.  The  slump  is  left  standing  together  with  the  outer  leaves,  or  the  stem,  which  are  af- 
terward taken  ag  they  are  wanted  to  feed  the  cattle.  "When  there  is  a  great  abundance  of  the.se 
stumps,  they  may  be  consumed  on  the  ground  by  the  cattle. 

Tliere  is  perhaps  no  other  plant  who.se  produce  is  .so  great  as  that  of  the  cabbage  when  grown 
on  a  .soil  adapted  to  its  nature.  Crops  have  been  obtained  of  which  the  heads  alone  weighed 
more  than  500  quintals  per  acre  :  300  quintals  per  aci-e  is  by  no  means  extraordinary.  The  cab- 
bage is  u.sually  cultivated  for  sale,  and  may  indeed  be  sold  to  great  advantage  by  cultivators  who 
po.ssess  land  well  suited  to  its  growth,  and  situated  in  countries  where  it  is  not  abundant.  But  the 
cabbage  may  also  be  advantageously  cultivated  solely  as  food  lor  cattle,  provided  the  .soil  be  well 
adapted  to  it;  notwithstanding  that  six  quintals  of  cabbage  are  required  to  furnish  as  much  nutri- 
ment as  one  quintal  of  hay,  or  two  quintals  of  potatoes.  When  given  in  abundance,  cabbages 
are  well  adapted  for  fattening  cattle  of  all  kinds,  and  produce  large  quantities  of  milk.  If  the  rot- 
ten leaves  be  thrown  away,  milk  and  butter  thus  produced  will  have  a  pleasant  grassy  flavor. — 
Cabbages  are  considered  very  useful  for  ewes  which  have  lambed. 

According  to  the  mean  of  my  experiments,  an  ox  which  is  being  fattened  consumes  (per  day) 
from  150  to  180  lbs.  of  cabbages;  a  sheep,  12  lbs. 

But  the  cabbage  is  very  difficult  to  preserve  during  winter.  For  even  when,  by  exposure  in  i 
the  open  field,  it  has  been  attacked  by  frost  in  all  its  parts,  and  is  yet  not  spoiled  when  the  thaw  i 
comes  on,  it  nevertheless  suffers  considerable  loss  by  the  rotting  of  its  outer  leaves.  It  cannot  be 
kept  in  cellars  or  warm  places,  for  it  soon  rots  there.  The  best  mode  is  to  leave  it  on  its  stem,  to 
be  taken  when  wanted  ;  endeavoring,  however,  to  have  it  consumed  in  the  early  part  of  tlie  win-  . 
ter.  Making  it  into  saw  kraut  for  cattle  is  a  very  good  plan,  bat  very  tedious,  and  incapable  of  / 
application  on  a  large  scale. 

The  cabbage  is  exposed  to  various  accidents :  to  plant-lice  in  its  infancy ;  to  honey  dew ;  after 
which  it  is  again  attacked  by  another  species  of  plant-lice :  to  worms  which  attack  its  roots  :  and 
to  caterpillars  which  attach  themselves  to  its  leaves  and  devour  them,  sometimes  completely  de- 
stroying the  plant.  These  various  enemies  do  not,  however,  wage  war  upon  it  to  so  great  an  ex- 
tent in  the  open  field  as  in  gardens. 

Carrots. 

The  culture  of  this  plant  for  feeding  cattle  is  practiced  not  only  in  England  and  Belgium,  but  al- 
['    so  in  various  parts  of  Germany,  and  acknowledged  to  be  very  advantageous,  provided  the  necessa-    ' 
I '    ry  care  and  labor  can  be  bestowed  upon  it.     The  care  required  is,  however,  greater  than  that   i ' 
I     which  is  requisite  for  any  other  plant  of  this  kind.  1 1 

I        There  are  several  varieties  of  the  carrot,  but  they  are  distinguished  from  one  another  merely  by    ' 
I     size  and  color.     The  smaller  kinds,  usually  sown  in  gardens  or  hot-bed  s  for  the  sake  of  obtaining 
an  early  crop,  are  not  looked  upon  as  well  adapted  for  the  purposes  of  Agriculture  ;  for  which,  on 
the  contrary,  those  varieties  are  most  in  request  which  are  disposed  to  grow  very  thick  and  long. 
Some  carrots  are  of  an  orange  color ;  others  of  a  pale  yellow:  the  largest  that  I  have  seen  have 
been  of  the  latter  kind. 
\  I        Carrots  require  a  light,  and  therefore  a  sandy,  soil ;  but  it  must  be  fertile  to  the  depth  of  at  least 
foot.     When  this  latter  condition  is  fulfilled,  carrots  will  tlirive  very  well,  even  though  the  field 
'    should  be  cutoff  from  all  access  of  moisture. 

A  soil  of  this  description  requires  no  farther  cultivation  with  the  plow.  If  it  has  been  once  plowed 
to  the  depth  of  a  foot,  an  operation  which  cannot  be  better  performed  than  with  a  double-plow,  it 
will  be  in  a  state  of  sufficient  preparation.  The  soil  must,  however,  be  perfectly'  free  from  dogs'- 
and  all  other  weeds  which  multiply  by  their  roots.  If  this  be  not  the  case,  the  weeds  must 
be  destroyed  by  two  or  three  superficial  plowings.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  carrots  are  often  cul- 
tivated after  other  weeded  crops,  by  which  the  soil  has  been  already  cleaned.  The  deep  plowing 
is  given  and  the  soil  completely  prepared  in  autumn,  in  order  that  it  may  sink  down  during  win- 
ter, and  the  seed, be  sown  as  early  as  possible,  even  before  the  w^inter  is  over,  and  while  the  snow 
remains  on  the  ground. 

If  the  soil  be  still  rich  in  nutritive  matter,  it  will  not  require  manuring;  but  if  it  be  exha-asted, 
the  sparing  of  manure  is  a  false  economy,  for  it  will  occasion  a  considerable  diminution  of  the  crop,  i 
even  though  the  labor  of  cultivation  may  be  the  same.  After  sowing,  a  quantity  of  dung,  either 
very  rotten,  or  else  tenacious  and  full  of  straw,  must  be  spread  on  the  soil ;  when  the  carrots  spring 
up,  the  residue  of  this  dung  must  be  removed  with  the  rake.  Many  cultivators  have  found  this 
method  perfectly  successful. 

The  sowing  of  carrots  is  attended  with  some  difiSculty,  for  the  seed  is  much  disposed  to  stick  to- 
gether.    It  must,  therefore,  be  forcibly  rubbed  between  the  hands  ;  otherwise  it  will  fall  in  lumps.    | 
(115.3) 3t 


But  even  after  this  trituration,  the  grains  will  sometimes  remain  adhering  to  one  another :  the  beat 
mode  of  proceeding  in  such  a  case  is  to  mix  them  with  wood-shavings,  rub  them  well  together, 
and  then  sow  them.  The  quantity  of  seed  is  3j  lbs.  per  acre  ;  this  will  certainly  be  sutBcient  if  it 
be  well  spread. 

The  cultivation  of  carrots  is  certainly  much  facilitated  by  drilling ;  but  I  have  always  found  this 
operation  diificult,  on  account  of  the  disposition  which  the  seed  has  to  stick  together.  The  young 
plants  thus  sown  grow  in  tufts  very  close  together,  and  the  thinning  of  them  occasions  a  great  deal 
of  trouble. 

The  seed  must  be  but  very  .slightly  covered.  In  wet  weather,  it  will  penetrate  the  ground  spon- 
taneously :  in  dry  weaiher,  the  soil  is  hrst  harrowed,  then  the  seed  is  sown,  and  lastly,  the  roller 
is  passed  over  the  surface. 

The  seed  remains  a  long  time  in  the  ground  before  it  springs  up,  especially  when  its  germina- 
tion is  not  favored  by  damp  and  warm  weather;  the  young  plants  then  grow  up  in  a  very  weak 
state.  In  such  a  ca^e  the  ^^oil  becomes  covered  with  weeds  before  the  plants  make  their  appear- 
ance,* and  the  de.-;truciion  of  these  weeds  is  absolutely  neeessaiy. 

Some  cultiva:ors  have  succeeded  in  almost  wholly  superseding  this  labor  by  means  of  harrow- 
ing ;  but  they  must  have  been  peculiarly  fortunate  in  choosing  the  precise  moment  when  the  weeds 
could  be  completely  destroyed  by  this  operation,  without  injury  to  the  young  plants  just  emerging- 
fi-om  their  seed. 

\Vhen  the  carrots  show  themselves  by  their  cut  leaves,  it  is  indispensably  necessarj-  to  rake, 
hoe,  and  thin  them  :  the  hoeing  must  be  repeated  twice  at  least.  By  the  first  operation  the  car-  , 
rots  are  left  somewhat  loo  close  together;  but,  by  the  .second,  they  must  be  thinned  till  they  are  at 
least  nine  inches  apart.  It  is  almost  incredible  to  what  an  extent  the  success  of  the  carrots  de- 
pends on  the  performance  of  this  operation.  I  have  repeatedly  made  a  comparative  experiment, 
and  seen  others  do  the  same,  by  treating  one-half  of  a  tield  according  to  the_  gardeners'  method, 
that  is  to  say,  first  pulling  up  the  weeds  and  then  a  portion  of  the  carrots  to  thin  them — and  hoeing 
the  other  half  at  the  ]jro|ier  lime.  The  portion  treated  by  this  latter  method  yielded  at  least  three 
>imes  as  much  as  the  other.  But  the  hoeing  of  fairots  requires  practice  and  attention,  and  there- 
fore renders  their  cullivaiion  difficult  and  cosily. 

It  is,  however,  worih  the  trouble;  for,  by  means  of  it,  the  crop  of  carrots  may  be  made  to 
amount  to  300  .^che'fels  \^vl■  acre,  and  even  more. 

If  it  be  impos.-ible  to  devote  ,so  much  aiteniion  to  the  cultivation  of  the  carrots,  we  must  content 
ourselves  with  smaller  produce.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  better  to  sow  them  among  some  other  plant, 
and  take  them  as  a  second  crop  :  they  are  well  adapted  for  this  purpose,  since  they  do  not  spread 
till  the  latter  part  of  summer.  They  are  n.sually  sown  among  po|'pie,s,  which  ai-e  removed  in 
tolerably  good  time.  Afier  poppies.'early  Hax  is  best  adapted  for  sowing  with  carrots,  because, 
when  pulled  up,  it  leaves  the  soil  clean  and  light  for  them.  It  is  also  said  that  carrots  may  be 
sown  among  rye  ;  but  if  so,  it  must  be  necessary  to  hoe  the  stubble  immediately  after  harvest,  in 
order  to  remove  it ;  and  leave  to  the  carrots  a  .sufficiency  of  room  and  a  lightened  soil.  This  op- 
eration is  required  in  so  busy  a  season  that  I  have  not  yet  been  able  even  to  try  it ;  if  it  were 
omitted,  the  carrots  would  certainly  fail.  It  will  be  understood  that  carrots  sown  among  other  , ' 
plants  require  a  richer  soil  than  when  sown  by  themselves. 

The  leaves  of  carrots  are  cut  at  Michaelmas  ;  but  cattle  do  not  like  them  ;  they  even  prefer  po-     | 
tato  haulm. 

Carrots  are  best  taken  up  with  an  iron  ibrk ;  the  leaves  are  usually  cut  with  a  scythe.  Some 
persons  say  that  they  keep  better  when  the  tops  are  removed  by  twisting.  It  is  certainly  at  the 
point  of  separation  that  carrots  usually  begin  to  rot :  it  i.s,_  therefore,  proper  t  >  allow  this  part  to 
dry  and  cicatrize  before  the  carrots  are  taken  to  the  store  in  which  iliey  are  to  be  kept  during  the 
winter.  It  is  advisable  also  to  leave  the  carrots  for  a  certain  time  on  the  ground,  in  small  heaps,  'i 
in  order  that  they  may  be  washed  by  rain.  ' 

Carrots  are  not  injured  by  moderate  frost;  but,  when  severely  attacked  by  it.  they  are  very  apt 
to  rot  after  a  thaw.  On  the  other  hand,  when  they  are  put  in  large  heaps  and  kept  very  warm, 
they  soon  ferment  and  rot.  It  i.s,  therefore,  somewhat  difficult  to  keep  them  during  winter.  The 
safest  method  is  to  place  them  in  layers  alternating  with  straw,  either  in  cellars,  or  in  stacks  or 
heaps,  which,  on  the  approach  of  severe  cold,  are  covered  with  straw  and  then  with  earth,  in  the 
same  manner  as  potatoes;  care  must  be  taken  to  admit  the  air  as  soon  as  the  weather  becomes 
mild.     When  carrots  are  kept  in  pits,  it  is  not  safe  to  put  more  than  a  few-  bushels  together. 

CaiTOts  afford  excellent  nourishment  for  all  kinds  ot  live  slock.  For  this  purpo.se  they  are  bet- 
ter than  any  kind  of  turnip,  and,  according  to  the  experience  of  many  agriculturists,  they  agree 
very  well  with  pigs;  they  are  even  somewhat  superior  to  potatoes,  which,  nevertheless,  contain 
a  great  quantity  of  solid  food.  In  my  part  of  the  country,  they  are  regarded  as  absolutely  the  best 
food  that  can  be  fed  to  pigs.  An  anonymous  writer  in  the  "German  Agricultural  Gazette,"  has 
lately  maintained  that  caiTots  are  injurious  to  the  formation  of  milk  in  horned  cattle.  It  is  scarcely 
conceivable  how  data  assumed  at  hazard  could  produce  so  much  effect  as  those  of  the  author  in 
question  have  produced.  Other  per.sons,  however,  relying  on  their  own  experience,  have  suc- 
cessfully refuted  the  assertion.     Carrots  have  a  highly  beneficial  effect  upon  milk  ! 

It  has  long  been  known  in  our  country  that  carrots  are  eagerly  eaten  by  horses,  and  are  very 
wholesome  for  them  ;  in  consequence  of  which  they  have  been  adopted  as  a  remedy  for  horses 

*  To  avoid  this  inconvenience,  and  gain  more  time  for  preparing  the  soil  intended  for  the  can-ots,  I  iim  in 
the  habit  of  spreading  the  seed  (after  it  has  been  rubbed  between  the  hands  in  the  maimer  above  described, 
and  mixed  with  shavings)  on  a  table  in  a  warm  place,  but  protected  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  It  is 
then  constantly  watered  with  stable-drainings,  for  8  or  10  days,  in  order  that  it  may  be  ready  to  germinate  as 
soon  as  it  is  put  into  the  ground.  To  prevent  the  upper  ponion  of  the  seed  thus  spread  out  from  drying  too 
quickly,  and  becoming  deteriorated,  instead  of  germinating,  I  cover  it  with  a  small  quantity  of  a.shes,  by 
■n'-hich  means  the  moismre  is  more  completely  retained.  I  also  take  care  to  keep  the  seed  coustantiy  moist- 
ened up  to  the  time  when  it  is  put  into  the  ground,  and  then  to  cover  it  up.  [Frmch  Trans. 
(1154^ 


r 


PARSNIPS. MAIZE,  OR  INDIAN  CORN.  483 


which  have  been  overheated.  But,  as  I  have  observed  in  the  first  volume  of  my  "  Enghsh  Agri- 
cnlture,"  the  English,  and  particularly  the  Suffolk  cultivators,  were  the  first,  to  show  that  horses 
may  be'  kept  in  full  vigor  for  six  months  upon  this  food,  although  they  are  employed  in  the  most 
laborious  occupation.     A  horse  requires  70  or  80  lbs.  of  carrots  per  day,  besides  8  lbs  of  hay. 

TAe  Parsnip.  , 

This  plant  requires  for  its  complete  success  a  soil  even  richer  and  more  humid  than  that  required 
for  the  carrot.  Its  cultivation  is  almost  entirely  similar  to  that  of  the  carrot,  but  somewhat  easier ; 
for  tlie  parsnip  gains  strength  more  quickly,  .soon  puts  forth  its  large  leaves,  and  is  not  so  easily 
choked  by  weeds.  It  is  also  more  easily  drilled,  because  its  seed  i.s  more  uniform.  But  it  abso- 
lutely requires  thinning,  without  which  it  gains  but  little  strength. 

On  a  rich  soil  well  stored  with  humus,  the  produce  of  the  parsnip  surpasses  even  that  of  the 
carrot.  In  point  of  nutritive  power  these  two  plants  are,  perhaps,  equal ;  some  persons  even 
think  that  the  parsnip  has  the  advantage  in  this  respect. 

An  advantage  which  the  parsnip  possesses  over  all  other  root  vegetables,  is  that,  when  left  in 
tiie  sround,  it  "completely  withstands  the  attacks  of  frost,  so  that  it  may  be  kept  for  spring  con- 
sumption. It  therefore  deserves  more  attention  than  it  has  hitherto  received.  Vide"Annalen 
des  Ackerbaues,"  bd.  iii.  s.  294. 

Parsnips,  as  well  ps  carrots,  may  be  sown  among  other  plants. 

The  abundant  leaves  of  the  parsnip  are  very  grateful  to  cattle,  and,  if  I  can  trust  the  limited  ex- 
periments which  I  have  made  upon  this  subject,  increase  tlie  secretion  of  milk.  It  might,  there- 
fore, be  advantageous  to  cultivate  this  plant  merely  for  its  stalks,  which  always  grow  again  after 
being  cut.  and  take  root  almost  as  easily  as  weeds. 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn  [Zea  mais). 

This  plant  belongs  by  its  nature  to  the  cereal  grasses,  and  by  its  cultivation  to  hoed  crops :  it  is 
for  the  latter  reason  that  we  treat  of  it  iu  this  place, 
;       Maize  requires  a  warm  and  rich  soil,  the  former  quality  being  requisite  in  proportion  to  tlie 
'     coldness  of  the  climate  in  which  the  plant  is  grown.     A  soil  which  is  both  sandy  and  calcaijeous, 
'     and  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  argillaceous  matter,  is  better  adapted  for  maize  than  a  tena- 
cious, plastic  clay,  especially  if  the  former  be  well  supplied  with  manure.    For  the  cultivation  of 
this  plant  the  land  should,  if  possible,  slope  toward  the  south,  and  be  sheltered  from  the  north- 
west wind.     The  culture  of  maize  is  much  less  precarious  in  southern  climates ;  it  may,  however, 
succeed  in  ours,  provided  we  are  not  frightened  by  failure  in  cold  summers.     In  1805,  the  larger 
variety  failed  altogether  in  this  country,  and  the  smaller  scarcely  attained  maturity.      In  1810,  the 
cold  which  happened  toward  the  end  of  summer  caused  the  maize  to  fail. 

The  varieties  of  maize  are  innumerable;  but  they  are  not  permanent,  and  easily  blend  one  into 
the  other.  The  color  of  the  seed  is  particularly  changeable ;  but,  in  an  economical  point  of  view, 
this  appears  to  be  a  matter  of  indifference  :  diversity  of  size  is  of  more  consequence. 

The  maize  which  is  cultivated  in  the  Southern  States  of  North  America  grows  to  an  enormous 
size.  In  one  experiment  made  with  this  variety,  some  seed  was  sown  in  a  bed  which  was  situated 
on  the  south  side  of  a  house,  and  had  been  plentifully  manured- for  the  cultivation  of  flowers.  The 
maize  reached,  with  its  male  flowers,  the  windows  of  the  second  story,  a  bight  of  at  least  eighteen 
feet.  It  was  a  magnificent  plant;  but  although  the  summer  was  tolerably  warm,  not  a  single 
grain  ripened.     This  variety  is,  consequently,  quite  unfit  for  cultivation  in  our  country. 

The  variety  most  frequently  cultivated  in  Europe  is  that  called  the  large  maize:  when  success- 
ful, it  yields  a  considerable  crop.'  Lately  we  have  been  made  acquainted  with  the  small  variety, 
which,  under  the  names  of  qnarantino,  cinquantino,  sessanthio,  ajad  torguetio,  is  cultivated  in 
Italy  as  a  second  crop.  It  has  been  recommended  for  cultivation  in  this  country,  because  it  may 
be  sown  late,  completes  its  vegetation  during  the  hottest  season  of  the  year,  and  therefore  appears 
weil  adapted  for  cultivation  in  northern  climates.  But  according  to  all  the  trials  which  have  been 
made  of  this  variety  of  maize,  its  produce  is  too  scanty  to  repay  the  trouble  of  cultivating  it  as  a 
separate  and  principal  crop.  It  easily  mixes,  however,  with  the  larger  maize,  and  produces  a 
hybrid  variety,  which  appears  to  be  the  safest  and  best  adapted  for  cultivation  in  our  climate, 
thoueh  we  must  not  expect  it  to  yield  a  produce  equal  to  that  of  the  larger  variety. 

Maize  requires  a  soil  carefully  and  deeply  cultivated,  and  having  a  vegetable  stratum  well 
stored  with  manure. 

It  must  not  be  sown  till  we  can  predict  with  some  confidence  that  no  frosts  will  happen  after 
it  has  come  up.  In  this  country  much  apprehension  is  with  reason  entertained  of  the  dangerous 
days  of  the  middle  of  May,  and  therefore  the  maize  is  sown  at  such  a  time  that  itcannot  come  up 
till  after  that  season.  Some  persons  maintain  that  maize  is  not  very  likely  to  be  injured  by  frosts 
which  may  attack  it  in  the  first  stage  of  its  growth  :  for  my  part,  I  have  continually  seen  maize- 
plants  which  have  been  seized  by  frost  remain  sickly,  although  they  have  not  been  killed. 

Maize  is  cultivated  by  the  gardeners'  method,  with  great  labor,  and  in  various  ways :_  but  I 
here  confine  myself  to  describing  the  horse-hoe  cultivation,  the  only  method  by  which  this  plant 
can  be  adapted'tb  large  rural  undertakings. 

The  seed  may,  like  that  of  beans,  be  deposited  in  the  row  by  means  of  a  bean-drdl,  to  which  is 
adapted  a  cylinder,  proportioned  in  size  to  the  work  which  it  is  to  execute,  and  the  size  of  the 
maize  seed  :  but  the  furrow  must  have  very  little  depth,  not  exceeding  three  inches  :  moreover, 
this  method  must  be  adopted  only  on  sandy  soils.  A  safer  plan  is  to  trace  with  the  marking-plow 
the  fuiTows  in  which  the  seed  is  to  be  deposited,  making  them  about  two  inches  deep  :  this  is 
done  by  pres-sing  lightly  on  the  instrument,  so  as  to  make  it  penetrate  somewhat  more  deeply 
than  usual.  The  seed  is  then  deposited  in  the  furrows,  and  covered  by  harrowing  the  soil  with  a 
harrow  turned  upside  down. 

The  seed  sown  by  the  bean-drill  is  closer  together  than  the  plants  can  be  allowed  to  remain.  As 
soon,  therefore,  as  it  has  sprung  up,  the  superfluous  plants  are  removed  with  the  hand-hoe,  the 


{1155) 


484  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

weeds  which  have  come  up  between  the  rows  being  destroyed  at  the  same  time.  In  this  man- 
ner the  large  maize  te  thinned  to  the  width  of  15  or  18  inches,  and  the  small  to  that  of  6  or  8  inches : 
the  distance  between  the  rows  is  usually  2  feet. 

The  spaces  between  the  rows  are  first  cultivated  with  the  horse-hoe ;  and  then  the  plants  are 
earthed  up,  slightly  in  the  first  instance,  but  afterward  strongly. 

When  maize  isabout  to  flower,  the  young  shoots  which  come  out  near  its  lower  leaves  should 
be  pulled  off.     These  shoots,  if  .suffered  to  remain,  will  not  indeed  injure  the  plant ;  but  they  are    ( 
of  no  benefit  to  it,  and  may,  therefore,  be  advantageously  used  to  feed  the  cattle,  for  which  pur-    ' 
pose  they  are  excellent.* 

As  soon  as  the  maize  has  fairly  flowered,  it  is  to  be  left  quiet,  otherwise  the  fructification  of  the 
female  ears,  which  at  this  time  put  forth  their  long,  tuft-shaped  pistils,  might  be  disturbed. 

When  the  fructification  is  complete,  which  is  known  to  be  the  case  by  the  withering  of  this  tuft, 
the  male  flowers  are  cut  off,  in  such  a  manner,  however,  as  to  leave  one  leaf  attached  to  the  stem 
above  the  female  ear.  The  small  and  imperfect  ears  are  at  the  same  time  removed,  not  more  than 
three  being  left  on  each  plant,  because  the  rest  would  not  ripen  at  the  same  time,  and  would 
merely  deprive  the  rest  of  nourishment  to  no  purpose.  It  is  true  that  the  fructification  of  all  the 
ears  does  not  take  place  at  once :  but  the  male  flowers  should  be  cut  off  when  almost  all  the  ears 
have  been  fertilized.  The  removal  of  these  pai'ts  of  the  plant  supplies  a  quantity  of  fodder  as  sub- 
stantial as  that  of  any  other  green  plant,  and  which  may  be  used  sparingly  in  conjunction  Avith 
other  kinds  of  fodder.  It  would  be  inconsistent  with  good  management  to  pinch  off  the  tops  of 
all  the  maize  nlauts  at  once,  and  give  them  to  the  cattle  in  very  large  quantities.  The  gathering 
should  not  be  performed  all  at  once,  excepting  when  this  part  of  the  crop,  which  contains  a  great 
quantity  of  saccharine  matter,  is  to  be  used  for  the  preparation  of  syrup  or  sugar. 

From  this  time  the  maize  is  left  to  itself  to  ripen,  no  more  being  done  to  it  till  the  seeds  become 
hardened.  There  is  no  fear  of  their  becoming  too  ripe  and  detaching  themselves  from  the  car  ; 
but  they  are  much  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  the  crows,  which  often  assemble  from  the  whole 
country  rouud  to  feed  upon  a  field  of  maize.  This  circumstance  renders  it  necessary  to  gatherthe 
crop  as  soon  as  the  seed  is  ripe. 

The  ears  are  taken  into  buildings,  and  stripped  as  soon  as  possible  of  the  leaves  with  which 
they  are  enveloped.  The  preservation  of  these  ears  till  they  are  perfectly  ripe  is  the  most  difficult 
part  of  the  culture  of  maize.  The  method  usually  followed  is  to  leave  two  of  the  largest  leaves 
attached  to  each  ear,  to  connect  them  at  their  extremities,  and  pass  a  thread  through  them,  by 
which  they  may  be  hung  up  in  the  granary.  Some  cultivators  use  for  this  purpose  stoves  sur- 
rounded with  hurdles,  and  keep  them  at  a  very  high  temperature.  The  method  best  adapted  for 
preserving  maize,  and  most  easily  applied  on  a  large  scale,  is  to  keep  it  in  open  granaries,  into 
which  the  air  can  enter— such  as  are  described  and  delineated  in  Dr.  Burgers  exceUent  work  on 
the  culture  of  maize.  ,  ,    ,  ,  .„  .,.  , 

When  the  ears  are  perfectly  drj',  which,  unless  the  stove  be  used,  does  not  happen  till  J  anuarj',t 
they  may  be  threshed  as  easily  as  other  grain  plants  ;  those  ears  which  are  intended  to  furnish 
seed  for  sowing  should  be  emptied  by  hand,  to  prevent  the  seed  from  being  injured. 

The  straw  wliich  has  been  left  standing  must  next  be  cut  off  above  the  root ;  if  not  wanted  for 
any  other  purpose,  it  will  furnish  very  excellent  fodder.  It  is  said  that  syrup  may  be  prepared 
from  the  stems  of  maize  as  weU  as  from  the  grain  of  the  ear.  Some  say  that  the  best  mode  of  turn- 
ing the  stems  to  account  is  to  reduce  them  to  ashes,  for  the  sake  of  their  potash,  of  which  they  con- 
tain a  considerable  quantity.  ■      ■    n 

The  grain  of  maize  affords  very  substantial  nourishment.  In  many  countnes  it  forms  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  man,  even  without  being  made  into  bread  :  it  is  not  fit  for  this  latter  purpose  unless  it 
be  mixed  with  other  grain.  In  some  countries  it  is  used  solely  for  feeding  cattle,  and  is  considered 
to  be  the  most  efficiint  of  all  kinds  of  food  that  can  be  employed  for  fattening  domestic  animals  of 
all  kinds.  In  almost  all  places  where  it  is  cultivated  on  a  small  scale,  its  eiHcacy  in  fattening  poul- 
try is  well  known ;  it  is  given  to  the  poultry  either  whole,  macerated,  cooked  or  ground.  The  uu- 
threshed  ears  are  often  given  to  pigs  ;  maize  which  has  not  attained  its  full  maturity  may  always 
be  advantageously  used  in  this  manner.  ,  ^     .    ^, 

As  maize  requires  thinning  to  a  certain  width,  it  is  often  considered  desirable  to  grow  some 
other  plant  which  rises  but  little  above  ground  in  the  intermediate  spaces.  Beet  is  generally  chosen 
for  this  purpose,  and  sown  as  soon  as  the  maize  has  been  earthed  up.  I  must  say,  however,  as 
S  the  result  of  my  own  experience,  that  the  beet  which  I  have  obtained  in  this  manner  has  always 
been  small,  and  has  ill  repaid  the  labor  bestowed  upon  it.  I  have  derived  much  greater  advantage 
from  sowing  small  haricots  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  rows  with  the  maize.  Dr.  Burg-er 
has  contrived  a  modification  of  the  bean-drill,  which  is  very  convenient  for  executing  this  double 
sowing.  The  box  containing  the  seed  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  partition,  and  the  cyhnder 
has  holes  adapted  to  the  size'of  the  maize  on  one  side,  and  of  the  beans  on  the  other,  so  that  the 
machine  sows  maize  and  haricots  alternately,  when  these  seeds  are  deposited  in  the  spaces  in- 
tended for  them.  The  seed  wifl  not  indeed  be  distributed  with  perfect  regularity,  but  the  plants 
may  easily  be  thinned  to  the  proper  distance  by  the  use  of  the  hoe. 

I  have  not  thought  proper  to  dilate  largely  on  the  culture  of  maize,  because  we  have  recently 
been  funiished  with  two  complete  works'onthis  subject,  viz.,  the  complete,  ingenious,  and  admi- 
rable treatise  of  Dr.  Burger—  "  Ueberdie  Cultur  nnd  Benntzung  des  Mais  ;  Wien,  1809  ("  On 
the  Culture  and  Application  of  Maize  ;  Vienna,  1809.")  ;  and  Anu-eisuxg  znm.  Anhau  und  zur 
Benulz,iin"  dex  Mais,  besonders  im  Nordlichen  Deutschlande  nnd  den  Freussichen  htaaten  ; 
nach  eieeiien  Erfahrangen,  von  Hofprediger  Schregel  zu  Schwedt."  ["  Directions  concerning 
the  Culture  and  Application  of  Maize,  particularly  in  Northern  Germany  and  the  Prussis.n  States, 

*  Good,  certainly,  butnot  very  good  for  milk.  ^        ■      ■        .^,^-^'T"'\TZ"'''\    a 

t  This  obsei-vation  is  applicable  to  northern  countries  only ;  m  the  south,  maize  is  gathered  and  threglied 
as  early  as  Augi 
(1156) 


compiled  from  personal  experience,  by  Schregal,  Court-chaplaia  of  Schwedt  ").  The  latier  work 
has  been  printed  both  ia  thtj  ninth  volume  of  the  Aiuiakit.  des  Ackerbauea,  and  likewise  separately 

Jevlin,  1S09).  I  take  it  I'or  granted  that  every  one  who  wishes  to  devote  himself  in  earnest  to  the 
caltivat'ion  of  maize  will  avail  himself  of  one  or  other  of  these  treatises. 

Doubtless,  however,  in  these,  as  in  all  other  special  treatises,  the  subject  is  exhibited  on  its  fair 
side  only,  the  chapter  of  accidents  being  left  in  the  dark. 

The  use  of  unripe  maize  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar  has  lately  been  again  recommended,  on 
the  ground  that  maize  is  better  adapted  for  this  purpose  than  beet-root.  I  have  long  been  of 
opinion  that  of  all  plants  which  can  be  raised  in  this  country,  maize  is  best  suited  to  the  purpose 
in  question;  the   syrup  extracted  from  it  is,  before   crystalizatiou,  decidedlj'  superior  lo  that  of 

In  the  south  of  France,  and  in  Italy,  maize  is  also  cultivated  as  a  fodder  plant,  and  either 
given  to  the  cattle,  in  the  green  state,  or  made  into  hay,  just  as  the  tufted  pistils  begin  to  show 
■themselves.  It  is  sown  broadcast,  but  afterward  hoed  and  thinned,  so  that  the  plants  may  receive 
a  second  hoe  cultivation,  and  be  slightly  earthed  up.  The  drilling  machine  might,  however,  be 
used  f"r  this  purpose,  in  order  to  make  the  hoe  culture  practicable  with  horse  implements. 
The  maize  is  mown  close  to  the  ground  ;     it  is  not  easily  dried,  but  is  well  adapted  for  use  as 

green-meat.  ,  .         ,  ^      ,  .  j  •  ■.  u 

In  these  warm  climates,  maize  is  cultivated  for  this  purpose  as  a  second  crop  :  m  ours  it  would 

J    be  ouly  in  summers  and  autumns  like  those  of  1811  that  this  plant  would  attain  sufficient  strength 

/    and  size  when  .'=own  upon  rye  stubble.     It  might,  however,  succeed  after  a  crop  of  colza.     The 

)    succe.=s  of  the  smaller  variety  would  be  certain.     But  on  the  fallow,  or  the  hoed-crop  field,  maize 

<  would  be  as  appropriate  as  any  other  fallow  plant  intended  for  fodder:  an  early  green  crop  might 

<  also  be  previously  raised  on  the  same  spot,  if  it  vi^ere  desirable  to  turn  the  land  to  the  greatest  pos- 

<  sible  account.  The  produce  of  maize  as  a  fodder  plant  would  probably  be  equal  to  that  of  many 
S  others  both  in  quantity  and  quality,  especially  when  grown  on^well  manured  sandy  soils  ;  but  I 
''    am  not  acquainted  with  any  exact  experiments  on  this  subject.* 

HERBAGE  PLANTS. 


!  Common  purple  Clover  {Tre folium  Pratense,  var.  Sativum.) 

\ '  It  has  Ion"-  been  known  to  agriculturists  that  this  kind  of  clover,  which  is  preserved  in  our  coun- 
i  try  only  by  cultivation,  is  different  both  in  nature  and  appearance  from  that  which  grows  wild  in 
I  our  meadows,  though  botanists  have  always  regarded  them  as  the  same  species.  BotanLsts  have,^ 
I  however,  been  also  obliged  to  acknowledge  this  diversity,  for  they  have  noticed  a  difference  of 
S   proportion  in  the  structure  of  the  several  parts  of  these  clovers. 

'  But  the  clover  which  we  procure  from  seed  likewise  comprises  two  distinct  varieties  at  least. 
The  one  which  has  been  hitherto  but  little  cultivated  in  our  country,  but  is  elsewhere  known  by 
the  name  of  °-reen  clover,  is  characterized  by  .slower  vegetation,  greater  strength  and  abundance  of 
leaves  and  a  larger  proportion  of  the  green  parts  to  the  ilowers.  It  flowers  later,  attains  greater 
hi"-ht  and  strength  before  it  ripens,  and  may  therefore  be  left  standing  for  a  longer  time  ;  whereas 
common  clover  flowers  more  quickly,  and  may  be  mown  earlier,  if  we  do  not  wish  to  wait  till  it 
becomes  hardened  by  perfecting  its  seed.  I  have  had  the  former  kind  in  my  possession,  but  it 
was  accidentally  destroyed.  I  have  now  got  a  new  sample,  and  intend  to  make  more  accurate 
observations  on  it.  According  to  the  statement  of  those  who  are  acquainted  with  its  properties, 
tliis  kindof  clover  is  very  useful,  especially  for  stall-feeding  cattle,  because  it  retains  its  nutritious 
matter  longer  than  common  clover,  and  grows  to  a  larger  size. 

Clover  is  said  to  thrive  on  all  soils,  even  those  ol  a  sandy  nature,  provided  it  be  well  supplied 
with  manure.  This  is  true  ;  clover  will  grow  even  on  soils  containing  eighty  per  cent,  of  sand, 
provided  they  are  well  stored  with  nutriment,  plowed  deeply,  and  cleared  of  weeds,  at  least  of 
the  perennial  species :  provided  also,  that  the  land  be  in  a  low  situation,  or  the  growth  of  tlie 
clover  be  favored  by  a  wet  summer.  By  careful  cultivation,  land  of  this  description  may  be 
made  to  produce  very  fine  clover,  if  the  vv'eather  be  not  unfavorable.  But  on  soils  which  contain 
a  ''i-eater  quantity  of  clay,  and  are  at  the  same  time  calcareous,  clover  requires  less  careful  cultiva- 
tion and  in  dry  seasons"is  much  less  precarious.  At  all  events,  there  is  no  reason  to  fear  that  clover 
frrown  on  such  soils  will  dry  down  to  its  very  root.  On  a  marly  and  vigorous  soil  clover  is,  as  it 
were  in  its  native  abode ;  nothing  is  required  beyond  the  spreading  of  the  seed  :  the  clover  gets 
th-  better  of  all  the  plants  that  grow  around  it.  But  on  a  sandy  soil,  totally  destitute  of  lime,  and 
somewhat  disposed  to  acidity,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  any  obstacles  that  may  present  them- 
selves sow  the  clover  after  recent  manuring,  and  especially  to  favor  the  extension  of  the  roots 
by  deep  plowings,  in  order  that  the  plant  may  be  less  exposed  to  injury  from  the  desiccation  of 

the  surface.  ,  .  .      .        ^  ^ 

In  consequence  of  these  circumstances  the  cultivation  of  clover  is  m  some  countries  very  ea.sy, 
and  may  be  made  to  occupy  any  place  that  may  be  desired  in  the  rotation.  There  are  localities, 
thou'-h  thev  are  seldom  met  with  in  Germany,  where  clover  may  take  the  place  of  the  fallow 
every  three  years,  and  will  leave  the  soil  clean  and  light.  But  in  most  situations  clover  requires 
a  select  and  well-prepared  spot ;  and  it  is  really  worthy  of  such  selection,  on  account  of  its  great 

'^'Vhe  culture  of  clover  had  long  been  known,  and  had  become  extended,  though  only  in  isolated 
enclosures  or  gardens,  when  Gugenmus,  and  Schubart,  of  Kleefeld.  among  others,  recommended 
its  extension  over  whole  fields,  and  its  mixture  with  the  cereal  grasses.  Since  that  time  clover 
has  been  regarded  and  used  by  many  persons  as  the  basis  of  Agriculture,  and  the  pivot  on  which 

*  Durinn-  the  summers  of  1613  and  1814,  my  cows  in  Italy  were  frequently  fed  upon  green  maize;  and  my 
neoule  constantly  observed  a  diminution  in  the  quantity  of  milk,  when  cows  previously  fed  on  clover  or 
hir/rae  were  put  ^n  maize  diet     Moreover,  this  plant  is  exhausting  even  when  mown  in  the  green  state. 
'""^  i-      -  [French  Tram. 

(1157) 


it  should  turn ;  but  -with  various  results,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  perhaps,  also  of 
the  climate.  The  greater  number  of  cultivators  were  for  a  while  obliged  to  con  tine  themselves 
to  the  practice  of  now  and  then  turning  the  fallow-field  to  account,  by  means  of  this  cultivation. 
Others  were  compelled  to  abandon  it  altogether,  or  at  least  to  fallovv^  after  their  clover,  before  they 
again  devoted  the  soil  to  the  growth  of  cereal.s,  because  it  had  become  hardened  and  infested  with 
herbs  during  the  growth  of  the  clover.  Finally,  the  system  of  alternate  culture  has  assigned  to  clo- 
ver a  place  in  which  it  is  sure  to  succeed,  even  on  a  soil  not  well  adapted  to  it,  provided  the  wea- 
ther be  not  extraordinarily  unfavorable  to  it.  In  this  place  clover  yields  an  advantageous  produce,  < 
and,  at  the  same  lime,  maintains  the  soil  in  a  favorable  condition  for  the  following  crop.  By  labor 
— by  the  removal  of  weeds  and  the  deepening  of  the  vegetable  stratum,  which  have  been  effected 
in  the  year  preceding  that  in  which  the  clover  is  sown — the  soil  is  prepared  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  clover  is  enabled  to  cover  the  whole  surface,  and  put  forth  its  shoots  without  hindrance  from 
other  plants.  It  is  only  in  this  manner  that  the  soil  for  the  succeeding  crop  will  be  kept  clean  and 
light  as  ^vhen  the  clover  was  sown. 

At  the  present  day  clover  is  no  longer  sown  alone,  but  mixed  with  some  other  plant ;  for  it  rare- 
ly yields  a  veiy  large  crop  in  the  year  in  which  it  has  been  sown,  and  in  the  early  stage  of  its 
growth  it  is  much  assisted  by  the  protection  of  another  plant,  which  may  afterward  give  up  the 
ground  to  it.  The  sooner  the  plant  with  which  the  clover  is  mixed  abandons  the  soil  or  is  mown,, 
the  greater  is  the  strength  gained  by  the  clover.  This  plant  is  usually  sown  among  corn  ;  ibrmer- 
ly  it  was  always  mixed  with  the  spring  grain,  but  at  present  it  is  commonly  mixed  viitli  the  au- 
tumn main,  and  in  most  cases  with  equal  success,  provided  the  sowing  be  perfoimed  with  proper 
attention,  and  certain  precautions  which  we  shall  presently  notice.  Clover  is  not  pov\"n  at  the 
same  time  as  the  autumn  grain,  but  at  such  a  time  that  it  may  germinate  after  the  winter  sea.son. 
It  is  sometimes  grown  among  peas,  and  certainly  shoots  forth  with  great  vigor  among  the  stubble 
of  tho.se  plants.  But  if  the  peas  are  soon  laid,  and  do  not  ripen  quickly,  the  clover  may  be  com- 
pletely choked  by  them ;  its  growth  will  then  be  very  unequal,  presenting  large  vacant  spaces 
here  and  there.  We  are,  however,  acquainted  with  two  plants  which  are  altogether  favorable  to 
clover  sown  among  them,  and  likewise  to  other  plants  possessing  a  certain  degree  of  affinity  with 
it ;  these  are  flax  and  buckwheat.  These  plants  favor  the  germination  and  early  growth  of  the 
clover,  and  allow  it.  much  better  than  corn,  to  thicken  and  establish  itself  uniformly  on  the  land. 

Flax  is  no  longer  .sown,  excepting  on  rich  and  well  prepared  soils  ;  it. is  cleared  of  weeds,  an 
operation  which  is  productive  of  benefit  to  the  clover.  The  latter  is  not  injured  by  the  pulling  up 
of  the  fiax,  if  this  operation  be  performed  with  proper  care.  But  among  buckwheat  I  have  seen 
clover  growing  thickly  even  on  a  soil  which  was  not  well  .suited  to  it.  Close  by  its  side,  and  on  a 
somewhat  better  soil,  there  was  a  crop  of  oats  growing  mixed  with  clover ;  and  thus  I  had  an  op- 
portunity of  convincing  myself  in  the  most  positive  manner  of  the  great  diflierence  betv^een  the 
two  crops  of  clover,  and  the  superiority  of  that  which  gi-ew  among  the  buckvvheat ;  this  superiori- 
ty was  maintained  during  the  whole  of  the  following  year.  I  would,  therefore,  recommend  the 
cultivator  who  wi.shes  to  have  a  thick  crop  of  clover,  and  does  not  think  his  land  very  well  adapted 
to  it,  to  sow  his  clover  among  buckwheat.  It  appears  to  be  indifferent  whether  the  buckwheat  be 
allowed  to  ripen,  or  mown  to  be  consumed  as  green-meat.  Clover  also  thrives  well  among  colza. 
Clover  may  be  sown  from  the  beginning  of  spring  (or  even  in  winter,  provided  that  it  do  not  ger- 
minate) till  the  beginning  of  August.  If  it  be  sown  later,  and  come  up  before  the  end  of  antunin, 
it  is  commonly  destroyed  by  the  winter.  It  is  particularly  important  to  obtain  favorable  weather 
for  sowing,  so  that  not  only  the  grain  may  germinate,  but  likewise  the  young  plants  may  not  be  in 
danger  of  perishing  from  drouth,  or  the  attacks  of  aphides.  For  these  reasons,  the  surest  clover-  , 
sowings  are  those  which  are  executed  very  early  in  the  season,  or  else  among  the  autumn  grain,  ' 
on  even  ground  not  exposed  to  be  flooded,  and  even  while  the  land  is  covered  with  snow  (the 
melting  of  which  carries  the  seed  down  into  the  ground),  or  among  large  barley  sown  very  early, 
for  the  clover  is  then  benefited  by  the  humidity  of  winter.  If  the  soil  has  but  just  sufficient  moist- 
ure to  enable  the  seed  to  germinate,  and  this  moisture  be  then  exhau.sted  by  long  continued  drouth, 
no  rain  coming  to  the  assistance  of  the  clover,  and  the  plants  are  in  consequence  unable  to  gain 
strength,  the  crop  is  almost  sure  to  suffer.  It  would  be  safer  to  sow  it  on  a  perfectly  dry  surface, 
where  it  might  remain  without  germinating  till  wet  weather  came  on. 

The  degree  of  care  required  in  sowing  clover  depends  greatly  on  the  adaptation  of  the  soil  for  it. 
On  a  favorable  soil,  the  seed  may  be  scattered  in  any  way  whatever  ;  the  clover  is  sui-e  to  come 
up.  But  if  the  soil  be  not  of  the  proper  character,  we  must  be  very  careful  in  sowing,  and  not  al- 
low ourselves  to  be  guided  by  the  opinion  of  a  few  fortunate  cultivators  of  clover,  who  think  that 
care  and  attention  are  quite  unnecessary.  It  may  occasionally  happen  that  a  sowing  performed 
in  a  very  unequal  manner  may  be  especially  favored  by  fine  weather ;  but  at  other  times  this  une- 
qual sowing  will  be  productive  of  a  great  deal  of  mischief,  which  will  more  than  counterbalance  i 
any  good  that  may  occasionally  result  from  it.  i 

Clover-seed  must  not  be  buried  under  a  thick  layer  of  mould,  but  placed  permanently  in  contact  \ 
with  a  stratum  of  light  soil.  When  the  soil  is  lightened,  and  the  seed  covered  up  with  the  har-  \  > 
row,  part  of  it  becomes  buried  to  too  great  a  depth,  and  is  choked  by  the  earth  which  covers  it ; 
it  should,  therefore,  be  well  spread  after  harrowing.  Even  when  the  crop  among  which  the  clo- 
ver is  to  be  sown  has  already  grown  up  to  some  hight,  and  especially  if  it  be  an  autumn  grain,  the  <■ 
ground  mu.st  be  harrowed  before  sowing  the  clover,  in  order  that  the  cnast  on  the  surface  may  be  i 
completely  broken,  and  the  cracks  which  are  formed  in  it  may  be  closed  up.  The  clover  is  then 
sown  without  delay  ;  and  if  it  be  desired  to  proceed  without  chance  of  failure,  the  roller  is  passed 
over  it.  In  this  manner  the  clover  falls  into  the  fuiTOWs  made  by  the  teetli  of  the  haiTow,  and  is 
afterward  covered  up  with  a  light  stratum  of  earth,  which  the  roller  compresses  upon  it.  The 
same  method  is  pursued  when  clover  is  sown  as  soon  as  the  grain  of  the  corn  crop  has  been  put 
into  the  ground;  and  even  if  it  would  not  otherwise  be  thought  necessary  to  pass  the  roller,  this 
operation  must  be  performed  for  the  sake  of  the  clover.  On  a  very  light,  porous  soil,  well  filled 
with  humus,  clover  must  be  sown  before  the  surface  has  been  completely  leveled  by  the  harrow 
(1158) 


I  CLOVER  487 

and  the  harrowing  must  be  performed  a  second  time  to  bm-y  the  seed.  On  soils  of  this  descrip-  i' 
tion  clover  shoots  up  through  the  earth  which  covers  it ;  but,  if  left  on  the  surface,  it  is  unable  to  •] 
withstand  dry  weather.  | 

Some  cultivators,  in  sowing  clover  among  spring  com,  wait  till  the  latter  had  come  up.  in 
order  that  it  may  not  be  choked  by  the  clover.  This  accident,  however,  is  not  likely  to  hap- 
pen, unless  the  soil  be  particularly  favorable  to  the  growth  of  clover.  In  one  instance,  however, 
I  witnessed  this  occurrence.  The  soil  on  which  it  happened  was  not  very  well  adapted  to  clo- 
ver ;  but  it  was  in  a  low  situation,  and  the  spring  of  the  year  was  very  wet.  The  barley  sown  on 
this  land  had  Suffered  so  much  from  moisture  that  it  would  certainly  have  failed,  even  if  no  clover 
/    had  been  mixed  with  it. 

)  In  general,  tlien,  I  .should  recommend  that  clover  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  spring  com  has  been 
(  put  into  the  ground  ;  if  it  be  deferred  to  a  later  period  of  the  sea.son,  the  ground  will  require  har- 
(    rowing — an  operation  which  may  be  injurious  to  the  young  barley. 

■  '  It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  .seed  be  well  spread,  in  order  that  the  clover  may  not  be  too 
thick  in  one  place  and  too  thin  in  another,  or  leave  vacant  spaces.  For  this  purpose  it  is  well  to 
divide  the  seed  into  two  portions,  and  sow  one  along  the  field  and  the  other  across,  unless,  indeed, 
we  can  procure  a  sower  well  practiced  in  this  kind  of  .sowing. 

There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion  respecting  the  quantity  of  seed  required.  Some  persons 
consider  4  lbs.  per  acre  sufficient ;  others  recommend  10  or  12  lbs.  I  am  aware  that  the  former 
quantity  is  capable  of  producing  a  very  thick  field  of  clover,  but  only  under  very  favorable  cir- 
cum-:taijces.  Even  if  everything  has  been  dulj'  prepared,  and  a  skillful  sower  can  be  obtained, 
I  .should  still  recommend  6  lbs.  per  acre,  and,  if  these  conditions  are  not  completely  fulfilled,  8  lbs. 
— for,  whatever  saving  of  seed  may  be  effected  on  a  large  extent  of  ground,  it  is  as  nothing  when 
compared  with  the  disadvantage  of  having  a  field  of  clovei  scantily  and  unequally  covered.  I 
shall  hereafter  speak  of  the  qualities  which  the  seed  ought  to  possess. 

The  clover  will  often  appear  thin  at  first,  even  though  the  crop  among  which  it  is  sown  may- 
have  been  gatliered.     This  is  not  of  much  consequence  ;  but  the  clover  ought  to  make  its  appear- 
ance a  fortnight  afterward,  or,  at  least,  as  soon  as  rain  has  penetrated  the  soil.     If  the  clover  come    [ ' 
up  among  .stubble,  it  will  often  become  large  enough   to  afford  a  crop.     If  this  happen  before  the    / 
middle  of  September,  we  need  not  he.sitate  about  mowing  it.     At  a  later  part  of  the  season,  there     ' 
would  be  danger  of  sudden  cold,  which  would  arrest  the  growth  of  the  plant  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  leave  it  too  weak  for  encountering  the  winter.     The  u.sual  mode  is  to  have  it  fed  off',  which  may 
be  done  without  injury  by  the  horned  cattle   till  the  end  of  September.     It  may  also  be  croiiped 
by  the  sheep,  but  not  quite  close  to  the  ground,  as  the  animals  might  then  attack  the  crown  of  the 
plant  and  destroy  it.     There  is  sometimes  too  much  and  sometimes  too  little  appreheiision  enter- 
tained of  this  accident. 

Clover  may  be  destroyed  by  winter:  it  is  more  or  less  exposed  to  this  danger  in  proportion  as 
the  soil  is  more  or  less  adapted  by  nature  and  cultivation  to  its  wants.  On  a  deeply  cultivated 
soil,  clover  will  resist  wintei's  which  are  fatal  to  that  which  is  sown  on  more  superficial  soils.  I  , ' 
noticed  this  in  the  winter  of  1802-3,  when  the  frost  penetrated  lo  the  depth  of  three  feet  below 
the  surface.  In  the  winter  of  1811-12.  the  clover  perished  on  all  dry,  sandy  spots,  while  it  main- 
tained its  ground  on  humid  .soils ;  but  this  appeared  to  result  from  the  extreme  desiccation  which 
the  soil  had  undergone  toward  the  end  of  summer,  rather  than  from  frost,  which  in  that  winter 
was  not  particularly  severe.  Even  when  the  clover  does  not  make  its  appearance  after  the  cessa- 
tion of  frost,  there  is  no  reason  to  despair;  but  if  on  the  other  hand,  a  few  plants  come  up,  and 
yield  easily  to  the  hand,  leaving  their  roots  behind  them  there  is  but  little  hope  of  the  crop.  I 
have  indeed  observed,  in  a  manner  which  leaves  no  room  for  doubt,  that  such  plants  will  some- 
times take  root  again,  and  shoot  forth  vigorously ;  but  this  takes  place  only  under  very  favorable 
circumstances. 

Clover  is  sometimes  covered  during  winter  with  dung  containing  straw,  both  to  give  it  strength  !' 
and  protect  it  from  the  cold.  At  the  present  day.  however,  experienced  cultivators  do  not  follow  !' 
this  practice,  because  the  dung  often  makes  the  clover  weakly,  and  attracts  mice,  and  may,  there- 
foi-e.  be  more  injurious  than  useful.  Moreover,  the  circumstances  of  a  farm  in  general  do  not  ad- 
mit of  this  use  of  stable  manure.  If  it  be  desired  to  help  the  clover  a  little,  diit  collected  in  the 
farm-yard  during  winter  may  be  put  upon  it,  or  it  may  be  watered  with  liquid  manure.  In  spring 
the  crop  may  be  greatly  benefited  by  manuring  with  turf,  or  .soap-boilers'  ashes,  or  a  compost 
prepared  with  lime.  But  the  most  common  manure  for  clover  consists  of  powdered  gypsum 
spread  upon  the  land  when  the  clover  begins  to  grow. 

Harrowing  in  spring  when  the  clover  begins  to  shoot  forth  is  a  very  useful  operation,  and  will 
repay  the  expense  which  it  occasions.  The  more  forcibly  this  harrowing  is  performed,  the  greater 
is  the  benefit  which  it  confers  on  the  clover. 

The  proper  time  for  mowing  clover  is  when  the  field  begins  to  assume  a  purple  hue  from  the 
expansion  of  the  flowers.  If  the  clover  be  mown  earlier,  the  crop  will  be  con.siderably  less,  for  it 
is  at  this  time  that  the  clover  grows  most  rapidly — so  much  so,  indeed,  that  a  week  may  make  a 
difference  of  one-half  in  the  amount  of  the  produce.  If  the  clover  be  mown  later,  the  crop  will 
be  still  more  abundant :  but  the  stems  will  be  hard,  the  whole  substance  will  contain  a  greater 
portion  of  insoluble  fibrin,  and  the  following  growth  will  be  weaker.  It  is  only  when  clover  is  to 
be  used  for  stall-feeding  cattle,  and  forms  the  basis  of  this  system  of  feeding,  that  it  should  be 
mown  as  .soon  as  it  will  bear  the  scythe  ;  the  portion  which  has  been  mown  early  will  then  have  [ 
time  to  grow  again  by  the  time  when  the  fii-st  crop  can  no  longer  be  left  standing.  We  shall  say 
what  remains  on  this  subject  when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  .stall-feeding  of  cattle. 

Clover  may  be  intended  to  grow  and  be  cut  during  one  year  or  two.  It  would  be  useless  to 
leave  it  standing  for  more  than  two  years,  unless  it  were  to  be  used  as  pa.stui-age  ;  because,  in 
the  third  year  of  its  produce,  or  the  fourth  from  its  sowing,  it  undergoes  considerable  diminution, 
and  its  place  is  supplied  by  grasses.  The  question  as  to  whether  it  should  be  turned  to  account 
for  one  year  or  for  two,  must  be  determined  by  the  particular  circumstances  of  each  rural  estab- 
(1159) 


lishment,  aud  by  the  time  during  which  the  clover  will  thrive  on  the  soil — a  point  which  experi- 
ence alone  can  decide.  It  has  been  remarked  that  there  are  some  lands  on  whicli  clover  is  very- 
fine  during  the  first  year,  but  dwindles  remarkably  in  the  second ;  while  on  the  others  it  shoots 
more  abundantly,  and  is  thicker  and  more  uniform  in  the  second  year  than  in  the  first.  The 
second  of  these  cases  seems  to  occur  on  soils  of  which  the  vegetable  stratum  is  deep,  hut  which  are 
not  much  disposed  to  produce  grass  ;  the  fir.st  case,  on  the  contrary,  when  the  soil  has  but  little 
depth,  and  is  favorable  to  the  growth  of  grass.  Nothing,  however,  but  extensive  observation  will 
enable  us  to  deduce  any  general  conclusions  respecting  this  matter,  since  it  is  pcssible  that  in 
those  cases  from  which  "my  observations  have  been  drawn,  the  culture  which  preceded  the  sowing 
of  the  clover,  or  some  peculiarity  in  the  weather,  may  have  had  an  influence  on  the  duration  of 
the  clover.  For  the  present,  every  one  must  be  guided  by  his  own  experience  as  to  whether  it 
is  advisable  for  him  to  let  his  clover  grow  for  one  year  or  for  two. 

Clover  generally  yields  three  crops.  The  first  is  commonly  the  most  plentiful,  the  second  some- 
what less,  and  the  t\nrd  least  of  all.  But  this  rule  is  liable  to  frequent  exceptions,  because  the 
strength  of  each  shoot  depends  upon  the  weather.  When  a  shoot  continues  weak  in  consequence 
of  dry  weather,  it  is  the  worst  thing  that  can  be  done  to  leave  it  standing  beyond  the  usual  time, 
in  the  hope  that  it  will  grow  more  vigorously  when  rain  comes  on.  It  should,  on  the  contrary,  be 
immediately  cut  down,  especially  if  there  be  reason  to  hope  for  more  favorable  weather,  in  order 
that  the  following  shoot  may  be  thicker  and  more  uniform.  It  is  rai^gly  that  three  abundant  crops 
are  obtained,  and  still  more  rarely  that  they  all  fail;  in  most  instances  the  goodness  of  one  makes 
up  for  the  deficiency  of  the  others.  I  have  often  seen  the  second  crop  surpass  the  first,  and,  on 
one  occasion,  I  found  the  third  to  surpass  the  other  two. 

When  clover  is  left  standing  for  one  year  only,  which  practice,  however,  is  confined  to  the  three- 
field  system,*  only  two  crops  are  commonly  obtained  from  it :  the  third  is  buried  with  the  plow,  and 
the  winter  corn  sown  upon  diis  single  plowiug.  Every  one  knows  that  this  third  crop  is  a  valua- 
ble enrichment  for  tiie  soil,  and  that  the  autumn  grain,  especially  wheat,  thrives  remarkably  well 
on  this  single  plowing.  But  the  third  shoot  of  clover  is  often  so  considerable,  especially  when 
the  others  have  beenmown  early,  that  it  is  of  great  use  in  the  general  economy,  particularly  iu 
localities  where  the  supply  of  fo'dder  is  nut  greater  than  is  required,  and,  consLquently.  no  one  is 
willing  to  sacrifice  it.  It  is  not  advisable  to  sow  autumn  grain  aftera  third  crop  of  clover  ;t  it  is 
better  to  substitute  a  crop  of  oats  sown  in  the  following  spring.  This  crop  is  always  highly  suc- 
cessful after  clover,  and,  according  to  all  my  experiments,  equally  in  value  to  the  autumn  gi-aiu. 

When  clover  is  left  standing  for  two  years,  it  is  usual  to  cut  it  three  times  in  the  first  year,  and 
once  only  in  the  second  :  after" that  a  summer  fallowing  is  given.  If  the  clover  he  thin  and  the 
land  infested  with  weeds,  this  fallowing  is  indispensable  ;  but  if  the  soil  be  clean  and  well  cov- 
ered, two  crops  may  be  taken  aud  the  third  plowed  in  ;  after  which,  we  may  proceed  in  the  same 
manner  as  when  the  clover  is  left  standing  for  one  year  only.  The  clover  must  not,  however,  be 
fed  off  by  the  cattle  either  in  the  first  or  second  year.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  oats 
succeed  remarkably  well  after  two-years'  clover  ;  and  if  it  be  desired  to  turn  the  clover  to  the  utmost 
possibfe  account.  I  .should  recommend  the  sow  ing  of  oats,  at  least  on  those  parts  of  the  land  on 
which  the  clover  has  not  continued  very  thick  to  the  last :  for  such  spots  must  be  plowed  at  least 
three  times  for  the  autumn  grain,  if  we  would  not  have  theland  infested  with  weeds. 

Clover  may  either  be  consumed  as  green-meat  or  made  into  hay  :  it  is  well  always  to  proceed 
with  the  view  of  making  some  portion  of  it  into  hay,  even  when  it  is  cultivated  chiefly  to  be  used 
as  green-meat  in  stall-feeding,  for  if  there  be  a  sufficiency  under  unfavorable  circumstances,  there 
must  certainly  be  a  surplus  when  the  clover  is  successful.  When  we  come  to  treat  of  stall-feed- 
ing, we  shall"  inquire  whether  it  is  advantageous,  as  some  persons  think,  to  make  the  whole  of 
the  clover  into  hay.  and  feed  the  cattle  on  dry  fodder  during  the  summer. 

There  are  various  modes  of  making  clover  hay  :  the  state  of  the  weather  must  determine  which 
of  them  is  to  be  prelerred.  In  settled,  fine  weather,  there  is  no  better  method  than  to  leave  the 
clover  iu  swath  until  the  upper  portion  is  dry  ;  and  then  turn  it  over  with  the  handle  of  the  rake, 
to  bring  the  lower  part  uppermost.  In  order  that  the  clover  may  not  .shed  its  leaves,  it  is  collect- 
ed in  great  heaps  when  the  dew  is  deposited,  and  then  carried  to  the  barn. 

But  if  the  season  be  wet,  and  frequent  rains  may  be  expected,  the  clover  will  take  too  long  to 
di-y  in  swath,  and  even  if  it  do  not  rot  it  will  lose  its  flavor.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  best  to  spread  it 
after  mowing,  in  order  that  it  may  dry  more  quickly,  and  then  make  it  into  cocks.  On  the  mor- 
row, after  the  dew  is  dispersed,  these  cocks  are  opened  and  spread,  an  operation  which  is  most 
easily  performed  by  hand :  as  the  clover  dries,  it  is  collected  into  large  cocks.  If  these  cocks  are 
much  penetrated  by  rain,  they  must  be  turned  over  as  soon  as  the  rain  has  ceased,  and  the  lower 
part  brought  to  the  top  :  this  work  is  also  performed  by  hand,  care  being  taken  to  lay  the  hay 
down  as  hghtly  as  possible,  that  the  wind  may  blow  through  it.  The  cocks  are  made  as  high  aud 
iian-ow  as  possible,  that  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  clover  may  be  protected  from  the  rain, 
and  at  the  same  time  exposed  to  the  air.  To  enable  the  cocks  to  retain  their  upright  position,  it 
is  very  useful  to  fix  small  stakes  in  the  ground,  and  heap  the  clover  round  them. 

If  a'ny  incipient  fermentation  or  rise  o"f  temperature  be  perceived,  the  cocks  must  be  turned  and 
spread  out.  In  wet  weather  this  method  is  very  troublesome  ;  but  it  preserves  the  quality  of  the 
clo%'er. 

The  third  method  is  that  described  by  F.  J.  Klapmeyer,  in  his  treatise  on  the  cultivation  of  clo- 
ver and  its  relation  to  the  growth  of  com.  (  Yon  Kleebau  und  dessen  Verbendung  met  dem  Ge- 
treedebau.    Riga  und  Leipzig,  1797).      It  is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Klapmeyer's 


*  This  is  the  case  in  most  crop  systems  in  which  the  land  is  not  laid  dovsm  to  grass,  and  particularly  in  that 
of  Norfolk:  1,  turnips  ;  2.  barley;  3,  clover;  4,  wheat- or,  in  ours  :  ],  potatoes,  or  other  hoed  crops;  2, 
wheat ;  3,  clover ;  4,  wheat ;  5,  hoed  beans  ;  6,  wheat ;  7,  clover  ;  8,  wheat— also  m  most  well  arranged  crop 
Bystems.— 1815.  [French  Trans. 

■  In  the  north,  certainly  not ;  but  it  may  be  done  in  our  country.  [French  Trans. 


method.      It  may  be  recommended  particularly  for  adoption  in  very  rainy  weather,  diversified 
with  intervals  of  fine. 

The  first  method  is  preferable  in  perfectly  dry  weather ;  the  second  in  a  season  of  continued 
rain.  Klapmeyer's  method  is  as  follows: — The  clover  mown  on  the  preceding  dajr  is  raked 
into  small  parcels  at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  afterward  gathered  into  very  large  cocks, 
each  containing  several  cart-loads  :  they  should  be  carefully  made  up  and  well  pressed.  If  the 
night  be  calm  and  warm,  fermentation  will  set  in  after  the  lapse  of  four  or  five  hours,  and  show 
itself  by  a  smell  resembling  that  of  hone3^  On  the  following  morning  the  interior  of  tlie  heap  will 
be  very  hot,  and  on  opening  it  vapor  will  be  disengaged.  This  is  the  time  for  spreading  and 
turning  over  the  clover  with  rakes  and  forks.  If  the  sun  shine,  or  a  little  wind  come  on,  the  clo-  ' 
ver  will  be  dry  enough  by  the  afternoon  for  removal  into  tlie  barn,  or,  if  there  be  not  time  for  that 
operation,  it  may  be  again  made  up  into  cocks;  there  will  be  no  fear  of  a  second  fermeutatioa. 

If  the  night  be  cold,  windy,  or  rainy,  fermentation  will  take  place  equally  well ;  but  more  time     , 
will  elapse  before  the  heat  becomes  too  great  to  permit  the  tlirusting  the  hand  into  the  heap,  which 
is  the  sign  by  which  we  know  that  the  fermentation  has  attained  its  maximum.     If  the  wind  be 
very  high,  fermentation  will  take  place  on  one  side  and  in  the  middle,  but  not  on  that  side  which 
is  exposed  to  the  wind.     In  this  case,  the  cock  must  be  opened,  and  the  fermented  clover  spread 
out ;  it  is  easily  recognized  by  its  brown  color  :    the  rest  must  be  immediately  heaped  up  again 
that  it  may  ferment.     If  the  fermentation  should  have  affected  a  small  part  only  in  the  middle,  the    , 
clover  may  be  again  cocked,  the  green  part  being  placed  in  the  center,  and  the  brown  on  the 
outside  and  at  the  top.     We  must  then  wait  till  it  has  fermented,  and  spread  it  out  again.     If  the 
portion  of  clover  which  remains  green  and  has  not  fermented  be  very  small,  it  is  said  to  do  no  injury 
to  the  rest  when  the  whole  is  carried  into  the  barn.     If  it  be  desired,  however,  the  green  portions     , 
may  be  separated  and  left  behind. 

If  a  heavy  rain  should  come  on  while  the  clover  is  in  a  state  of  feraientation,  it  must,  neverthe- 
less, be  spread  out.  If  the  rain  continue,  the  clover  must  be  stirred  and  turned  again  from  time 
to  time.  Then,  if  the  rain  should  cease  for  a  few  hours  only,  the  fodder  will  soon  be  dry  enough 
for  housing,  because  moisture  will  not  adhei-e  to  clover  thus  fermented.  It  will  not  rot,  even 
though  left  exposed  to  the  rain  for  several  weeks,  provided  it  be  not  removed  before  it  is  perfectly 
dry  :  its  nutritive  power  will,  however,  be  diminished. 

The  chief  advantage  of  this  method  is  that  the  clover  dries  very  quickly,  and  may  be  cut  and 
housed  within  three  days  ;  whereas,  by  other  methods,  particularly  when  the  crop  is  very 
abundant  and  the  clover  soft  when  mown,  this  course  of  operation  takes  at  least  a  week.  Clover 
which  has  fevinented  is  already  deprived  for  the  most  part  of  its  internal  moisture,  and  only  re- 
quires external  drying. 

The  properties  of  clover  are  certainly  changed  by  fermentation  •.  this  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the 
sweet  odor  which  it  exhales :  but  it  is  not  yet  decided  whether  the  quality  is  improved  or  dete- 
riorated by  the  change.  The  advocates  of  the  method  assert  positively  that  the  quality  of  the 
clover  is  improved  by  it ;  they  compare  the  fermentation  to  that  of  bread  and  to  the  sweating  of 
corn,  by  which  the  substance  of  the  grain  is  rendered  more  nourishing  and  easy  of  digestion. 
•They  say,  too,  that  all  kinds  of  cattle,  as  soon  as  they  are  accustomed  to  clover  treated  in  this 
manner,  become  very  partial  to  the  taste  of  it,  preferring  it  even  to  green  clover  ;  and  that  this  fodder 
produces  very  rich  milk  and  excellent  butter  I  cannot  decide  this  question  from  my  own  expe- 
rience :  I  tried  the  method  once,  but  was  obliged  to  absent  myself  while  it  was  in  progress;  and 
my  people  fearing  that  the  fermentation  might  proceed  too  far,  opened  the  cocks  too  soon.  Since 
that  time,  the  weather  has  always  been  so  favorable  to  J,he  making  of  clover-haj-,  that  I  have  not 
been  inclined  to  adopt  this  method,  which  is  very  troublesome,  in  preference  to  one  that  is  sim-  ' 
pier.  Trials  on  a  small  .scale  have  appeared  to  me  too  little  decisive,  especially  with  regard  to 
the  effect  which  this  fodder  produces  upon  cattle. 

According  to  information  which  I  have  received  from  many  friends  whom  I  consider  impartial 
judges,  this  method  is  attended  with  all  the  success  which  is  assigned  to  it ;  particularly  in  Sile- 
sia, where  it  is  vei-y  generally  practiced.  It  evidently  requires  great  labor  and  attention,  and 
when  the  crop  is  large,  a  considerable  number  of  hands.  In  changeable  weather,  it  is  especially 
im[)ortant  to  have  the  means  of  placing  the  hay  under  cover,  as  soon  as  it  is  sufficiently  dried  ;  for 
if  it  be  alternately  moistened  and  dried,  it  will  be  injured  to  an  extent  proportionate  to  the  degree 
of  its  internal  desiccation  and  the  quantity  of  saccharine  matter  which  has  been  formed  within  it. 

Various  other  methods  have  been  proposed  for  making  clover-hay,  not,  however,  practicable  on 
the  large  scale;  such  as  placing  it  on  poles  or  hurdles  under  cover.  I  cannot,  however,  omit  to 
mention  a  process  which  may  sometimes  be  useful,  though  it  is  applicable  to  the  large  clover  only, 
and  may,  perhaps,  be  even  confined  in  its  application  to  that  which  is  raised  from  seed.  It  is  as 
follows  : — A  quantity  of  clover  is  taken  from  the  breadth,  as  much  as  can  be  held  under  the  left  i 
arm,  and  tied  up  with  a  few  of  the  longest  stalks  taken  from  it ;  the  parcels  so  formed  are  set  up  - 
in  j)airs  one  against  the  other. 

It  is  said  that  clover  thus  treated  does  not  spoil,  even  when  long  exposed  to  rain,  and  that  it  ul- 
timately dries  without  alteration.  This  is  the  method  adopted  with  buckwheat,  in  countries  where 
that  plant  is  grown. 

For  what  remains  to  be  said  on  this  subject,  I  refer  to  my  remarks  on  the  making  of  hay,  and 
its  preservation  under  .sheds  or  in  ricks. 

Young  clover,  mown  just  as  it  is  going  to  flower,  loses  about  four-fifths  of  its  weight  in  drying 
completely  ;  that  which  is  in  a  more  advanced  stage  of  growth  and  in  full  flower  loses  but  three- 
quarters  ;  but  the  proportion  is  probably  somewhat  affected  by  the  more  or  less  humid  state  of  the 
atmosphere  during  the  time  of  growth.  On  the  average,  we  may  reckon  that  in  the  state  of  ad- 
vancement which  we  have  noticed  as  proper  for  mowing,  100  lbs.  are  reduced  to  22  lbs. 

The  produce  of  clover  is  usually  estimated  in  dry  fpddei-,  because  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  weigh 
it  in  die  green  state.  There  is  much  diversity  of  (ipinion  respecting  the  medium  produce  of  clo- 
ver :  estimates  vary  from  16  to  50  quintals  per  acre  ;  and  there  is  certainly  an  almost  endless  di- 
(1161, 


490  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

versily,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  cultivation  and  manure  bestowed  upon  the 
crop.  A  friend  of  mine  vveiglied  the  quantity  of  fodder  which  he  had  obtained  in  two  cuttings 
from  an  acre  of  clover  carefully  measured,  and  on  which  the  clover  appeared  to  grow  as  tliickly 
and  strongly  as  I  had  ever  seen  :  he  weighed  this  fodder  in  a  stale  of  perfect  dryness,  and  tied  up  ' 
in  bundles,  and  found  it  to  amount  to  37  quintals  30  lbs.  The  soil  was  not  peculiarly  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  clover,  but  was  iu  a  state  of  great  fertility,  and  had  been  maimred  on  the  surface 
with'ashes  from  the  soap  factory.  I  have,  therefore,  reckoned  40  quintals  as  the  highest  amount 
of  produce  that  an  acre  of  clover  will  yield  in  two  cuttings.  Since  the  time  of  which  I  am  .'^pcak- 
ing,  1  have  only  once  seen  clover  superior  or,  perhaps,  even  equal  to  the  above  ;  but,  according 
to  the  descriptions  v\  hich  I  have  heard  of  that  which  grows  in  the  most  fertile  regions,  in  Alien- 
bourg  for  example,  samples  are  to  be  found  which  far  surpass  it.  I  have  now  before  me  a  .speci- 
men of  clover  from  that  country,  which,  as  I  am  assured  by  eye-witnesses,  has  not  been  picked 
out  as  particularly  fine,  but  rather  taken  as  an  average  sample  ;  it  is  in  flower,  three  feet  high, 
and  has  twelve  complete  .stems.  The  lower  leaves  are,  in  the  dry  stale,  four-fifths  of  an  inch 
broad  and  two  inches  long.  I  admit,  then,  that  the  produce  of  clover  iu  dry  fodder  may  far  ex- 
ceed 40  quintals  per  acre  ;"but  only  under  extraordinary  circumstances. 

In  the  tir,-t  jiurt  ot'this  work  1  mentioned  2,400  lbs  per  acre  as  the  average  produce  of  cloveron 
a  samly  ciay  (:.;ii(],i  barley  land],  provided,  however,  that  the  clover  occupied  an  advantageous 
place  111  til.'  idlatioii.  and  one  iu  which  the  soil  was  in  good  condition.  This  appears  to  me  to  be 
the  iioa  ^'f-'  ajqiniach  to  trutli.  for  land  of  this  description. 

In  a  wr;l-iji-L;aiiizril  rural  establi.shnieiit,  the  necessary  quantity  of  clover-seed  .should  be  ob- 
tained iVoui  liiL-  laiiil  itsulf,  fir  the  purclia.se  of  it  would  not  only  be  very  costly,  but  also  attended 
with  many  iiKOiivcnieiices.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  soil  is  impoverished  bj-  the  reproduc- 
tion of  the  seed.  This  etiect  is  not  very  obvious,  but  any  one  who  wishes  to  convince  himself  of 
it  has  only  to  grow  clover-seed  for  two  successive  years  on  the  same  land  ;  if  he  do  not  supply  the 
loss  ihu.s  occasioned  by  manuring,  he  will  see  his  crops  continue  inferior  for  several  j-ears  on  the 
spot  where  the  .seed  has  been  gathered.  The  impoverishing  of  the  soil  is  not,  however,  .so  great 
as  to  preclude  the  pos.sibilily  of  its  being  richly  repaid. 

The  seed  is  usually  taken  from  the  second  crop  ;  in  this  case  the  first  crop  is  mown  rather  earli- 
er than  usual,  iu  order  that  the  second  may  shoot  (brth  more  quickly  and  flower  .sooner.  The 
first  crop  must  not,  however,  be  tanen  so  early  as  to  allow  the  backward  shoots  belonging  to  it  to 
grow  up  alter  the  mowing,  for  they  would  then  get  the  start  of  the  second  crop,  and  ripen  too 
soon.  As.  however,  an  unfavorable  state  of  the  weather  may  sometimes  prevent  the  setting  of 
the  clover,  and  cause  it  to  flower  without  forming  seed,  it  is  advisable,  for  the  sake  of  additional 
security,  to  obtain  a  portion  of  the  necessary  seed  from  the  first  shoot,  if  its  flowers  are  observed 
to  set  particularly  well.  The  proper  setting  of  ihe  seed  may  be  judged  of  by  compressing  the 
flowers  between  the  fingers ;  they  ought  to  be  hard  and  to  resist  compression.  It  is  best  to  re- 
serve for  gathering  .seed  a  part  of  the  field  on  which  the  clover  is  not  thick,  but  uniform  and  free 
from  weecis. 

The  ripeuinGT  of  the  seed  should  be  as  complete  as  possible.  Some  of  the  flowers  get  the  .start 
of  the  rest,  and  their  seed  falls  to  the  ground  in  dry  weather  before  the  others  have  time  to  ripen; 
this  inconvenience  is  experienced  more  w  ilh  the  first  crop  when  the  weatjier  is  hot,  than  with  the 
.second.  We  ought  never  to  pay  so  much  regard  to  it  as  to  mow  the  crop  before  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  plants  are  ripe,  for  even  if  a  portion  be  lo.st  by  waiting,  the  produce  will  on  the  whole 
be  greater  than  it  would  be  if  the  crop  were  taken  before  it  was  all  ripe.  We  may  know  when 
the  clover  is  ripe  by  pressing  one  of  the  heads  between  the  hands  till  the  moisture  contained  in  it 
is  completely  exhausted  ;  the  husk  may  then  be  separated  by  blowing  upon  it,  and  the  seeds  will 
rest  iu  the  palm  of  the  hand.  If  ihe  seeds  be  of  a  violet  color,  they  are  ripe  ;  but  this  is  rarely  the 
case  with  all  of  them  ;  they  should  be  hard  and  convex,  presenting  no  depressions. 

Seed  clover  should  be  mown  in  the  dew.  or,  at  least,  not  under  a  hot  sun;  it  should  be  made  in- 
to small  cocks,  and  left  till  quite  dry.  It  dries  much  more  quickly  than  young  clover.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  shake  it  iu  carrying,  and  to  place  it  where  it  will  be  well  exposed  to  the  air,  if 
possible,  on  poles,  above  the  barn  floor. 

As  soon  as  the  clover  is  gathered  in.  especially  if  it  has  been  housed  in  a  state  of  perfect  dryness, 
it  is  tlii-esbed,  iu  order  to  separate  the  heads  from  th«  stalks  on  which  they  grow  ;  this  operation 
may.  however,  be  defen-ed  till  the  dryest  frosts  of  winter.  The  husks  separated  from  the  straw- 
are  again  subjected  to  tlie  flail,  and  the  seed  thus  obtained  from  them  is  separated  by  means  of  a 
sieve.  What  remains  on  the  .sieve  is  passed  through  the  faimer,  that  the  empty  husks  may  be  car- 
ried away  by  the  air,  an  operation  which  greatly  facilitates  the  threshing  of  the  rest.  This  re- 
maining portion  is  then  taken  to  the  barn,  and  spread  out,  for  the  sake  of  exposing  it  to  the  air  and 
dryingit  well ;  it  is  then  threshed  again  during  dry  weather,  and  the  same  process  repeated. — 
This  series  of  operations  may  be  repeated  three  or  four  times  without  effecting  the  entire  separa- 
tion of  the  grain.  This  separation  is  accomplished  much  more  easily  when  the  heads  are  dried 
by  artificial  heat.  The  desiccation  is  usually  performed  in  the  kiln,  but  the  seed  is  then  very  like- 
ly to  burn,  unless  great  care  be  taken,  and  the  seed  be  not  put  into  the  kiln  till  the  temperature  is 
considerably  lowered.  If  the  heat  be  too  great,  the  seed  loses  its  lustre  and  assumes  a  brown  tint. 
This  color  renders  clover-seed  very  suspicious  :  the  purchaser  should  look  well  to  it.  The  safest 
method  is  to  place  a  number  of  tables  in  a  chamber  which  can  be  heated,  and  cover  them  with 
cloths,  on  which  the  clover  may  be  spread  :  the  room  is  then  to  be  heated  strongly  for  some  days, 
care  being  taken  to  guard  against  fire.*  When  the  quantity  of  clover-seed  is  sufficient  to  fur- 
nish a  year's  stock  in  advance,  the  best  thing  that  we  can  do  is  to  defer  the  threshing  till  the  hot- 
test days  of  the  summer  following.  Such  a  provision  is  in  every  respect  advantageous,  inasmuch 
as  clover-seed  keeps  perfectly  well,  especially  before  it  is  threshed.  The  clover,  in  its  husk,  is  re- 
moved from  the  barn  floor,  and  placed  on  cloths  spread  out  in  the  sunshine  ;  it  is  then  several 

In  our  climate,  in  which  the  summer  is  longer,  we  have  no  occasion  to  resort  to  artificial  heat  for  drying 
our  seed  clovers.  [Freiick  Traiia        : 

(1162) 


DUTCH    CLOVER.  491 


times  stirred  with  a  rake,  after  which  it  is  again  carried  to  the  bam  floor  and  threshed.     This  is  the 
easiest  mode  of  separating  the  seed. 

When  a  large  quantity  of  clover-seed  is  gathered,  it  may  be  ground  in  the  mill,  but  the  mill- 
stones must  be  carefully  adjusted  in  such  a  manner  that  they  may  not  crush  the  seed.  It  is  diffl- 
calt  to  induce  millers  to  do  this  in  places  where  the  operation  is  not  common.  We  maj'  usually 
obtain  300  lbs.  of  clover-seed  from  an  acre  of  ground,  and  therefore  realize  a  considerable  sum  by 
the  sale  of  it,  especially  when  we  keep  the  seed  which  has  been  obtained  in  a  plentiful  season  in 
order  to  sell  it  at  a  time  when  it  is  scarce  and  consequently  dear.  To  save  the  trouble  of  thresh- 
ing, many  cultivators  sow  their  clover  in  the  husk  ;  this  method  succeeds  very  well ;  the  germina- 
tion of  the  clover  may  indeed  be  retarded  a  little,  but  it  will  be  rendered  less  precarious.  But 
when  clover  is  sown  in  this  manner,  we  cannot  guard  against  the  seed  being  too  thick  in  some 
places :  and  to  ensure  a  sufficiency  all  over  the  field,  it  is  necessary  to  sow  twice  as  thickly  as  if 
the  seed  had  been  previously  cleansed  from  its  husk.  The  labor  of  threshing  is  undoubtedly  te- 
dious, but  it  is  incomparably  more  economical  than  the  use  of  so  great  a  quantity  of  seed,  particu-  i 
larly  if  we  have  the  means  of  preserving  or  disposing  of  the  surplus.  The  straw  and  chaff' of  clo-  \ 
ver  are  not  nearly  so  valuable  as  young  clover-hay  ;  they  may,  however,  be  usefully  employed  in 
feeding  cattle. 

The  observation  that  clover  does  not  succeed  when  repeatedly  grown  on  the  same  spot,  is  too   'i 
general  to  admit  of  its  being  called  in  question.     False  rumors  and  prejudices  do,  indeed,  spread   S 
ill  defiance  of  reason;  but  they  do  not,  like  this  opinion,  originate  among  several  nations  at  once.    \ 
■  \    Instances  may,  however,  be  found  of  clover  having  been  sown  for  three  or  four  years  on  the  same    ) 
land,  and  with  uniform  .success.     If  now  we  examine  the  former  cases  -with  attention,  we  shall 
find  that  where  the  deterioration  of  the  clover  has  been  observed,  the  soil  has  been  turned  up  to  a  small 
depth  only  ;  as,  for  example,  in  Noi'folk,  and  in  the  duchies  of  Magdeburg,  Brunsvi'ick,  &c.     On 
the  other  hand,  where  clover  has  been  found  to  succeed  uniformly,  it  has  been  sown  in  gardens, in 
the  alternate  system  of  four  or  five  years,  as  in  Belgium,  for  example.     (Vide  Schwertz,  ch.  ii.  s.  4). 
In  these  .situations  the  soil  is  once  plowed  up  to  a  considerable  depth  between  two  .sowings  of 
[     clover.  .In  places  where  the  land  is  manured  with  lime,  marl,  or  ashes,  clover  is  not  found  to  fail 
when  often  grown  on  the  same  spot.     Gypsum,  on  the  contrary,  which  is  usually  .so  beneficial  to 
clover,  is  of  no  farther  use  in  these  cases.     I  content  myself  with  stating  these  facts  without  at- 
tempting to  explain  them. 

It  has  been  often  and  warmly  disputed,  whether  clover  improves  or  exhausts  the  soil,  and  par- 
ticularly ^vhether  it  favors  or  injures  the  succeeding  crop.  Most  persons  incline  to  the  former 
opinion  :  but  it  caimot  be  denied  that  manj-  have  experienced  the  truth  of  the  latter.  It  has  been 
positively  ascertained  that  clover  does  not  directly  exhaust  the  land  ;  for  it  is  always  ob.served 
that  the  success  of  the  following  crop  is  in  proportion  to  the  beauty  and  abundance  of  the  clover, 
provided  only  that  the  latter  has  not  been  left  to  ripen  and  perfect  its  seed.  The  contrary  would 
certainly  happen  if  clover  drew  fi-om  the  land  a  large  portion  of  the  nourishment  by  which  it  grows. 
But  clover  when  thin  and  weak  has  a  bad  eiFect  upon  the  soil,  because  it  then  permits  the  grovi'th 
of  \veeds,  particularly  of  dogs'-grass,  and  other  grasses  which  have  a  disposition  to  spread.  More- 
over, the  ground  is  hardened,  from  lo.sing  the  beneficial  shade  of  the  clovei-,  particularly  when  the 
clover,  in  spite  of  its  poorness,  is  left  .standing  for  a  long  time,  and  the  land  which  has  borne  it  is 
plowed  but  once.  If.  then,  we  would  obtain  a  good  result  from  clover,  in  this  respect  also  we 
must  omit  nothing  which  tends  to  make  it  grow  tliickly  and  strongly.  It  must  be  sown  on  a  rich, 
well  cleared  soil,  which  has  been  lightened  by  fallowing,  or  the  cultivation  of  hoed  crops ;  the 
sowing  must  be  performed  with  great  care,  and  the  crop  mown  at  the  proper  time.  The  clover 
must  dien  be  plowed  up,  when  it  has  grown  up  a  little  after  the  second  mowing,  and  long  enough 
before  seed-time  to  allow  the  soil  to  settle  itself  and  the  clover-stubble  to  rot.  If  in  spite  of  all  the 
care  bestowed  upon  the  clover,  it  should  grow  but  poorly,  in  consequence  of  unfavorable  weather, 
and  should  be  partly  destroyed  by  winter,  we  must  content  ourselves  with  one  crop,  and  fallow 
the  soil  with  three  plowings,  succeeded  by  harrowing.  When  these  rules  are  observed,  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  will  always  be  sensibly  improved  by  the  growth  of  clover,  independently  of  the 
enrichment  which  it  receives  from  the  increased  quantity  of  manure  produced  by  the  crop.  Corn 
obtained  after  this  plant  is  often  finer  than  that  which  is  grown  upon  a  non-manured  fallow. 

White  or  Dutch  Clover  {Trifolium  repens). 
There  are  various  kinds  of  clover  w^hich  bear  white  flowers  ;  even  that  of  which  we  have  been 
speaking  sometimes  changes  color;  but  the  name  of  white  clover  is  almost  always  confined  to 
the  species  of  which  we  are  about  to  treat.  This  species  of  clover  is  indigenous  on  almost  all 
moist,  clayey  soils  in  our  climate  ;  it  forms,  indeed,  part  of  the  sward,  and  even  if  not  perceived 
at  first  sight,  it  is  soon  discovered  on  closer  inspection.  It  soon  shows  itself  after  the  soil  has  been 
manured  with  substances  congenial  to  its  nature,  such  as  lime  or  ashes — to  such  an  extent,  indeed, 
that  .some  persons  have  imagined  that  its  seed  must  be  concealed  in  these  substances. 
'  Some  cultivators  also  sow  Dutch  clover  with  the  intention  of  mowing  it ;  but  it  requires  a  very 
rich  soil  to  cause  it  to  grow  to  any  considerable  bight.  On  a  soil  of  this  description,  it  will  some- 
times yield  a  crop  equal  in  thickness  to  that  of  the  common  purple  clover,  and,  according  to  some 
persons,  preferable  to  the  latter  as  a  fodder-plant — of  better  flavor,  yielding  more  nourishment, 
and,  above  all,  more  conducive  to  the  production  of  milk.  But  it  yields  only  one  crop,  and  does 
not  rise  much  above  the  surface. 

It  is  more  frequently  used  to  form  pastures,  and  is  certainly  the  most  generally  approved  of  all 
I    plants  that  are  cultivated  for  this  purpose.     It  is  peculiarly  fitted  for  a  pasture-plant  by  the  dispo- 
\    sition  which  it  has  to  send  forth  shoots,  and  the  quickness  with  which  its  leaves  are  reproduced — 
a  quality  in  which  it  surpasses  the  purple  clover.     Again :  Dutch  clover  is  not  so  easily  choked 
by  weeds,  but  exterminates  them  by  means  of  its  roots,  which  thrust  their  way  through  the  soil ; 
lience,  it  does  not  require  a  soil  so  well  cleared,  and  may  with  greater  facility  be  sown  after  re- 
peated grain  crops.    It  has  also  been  remarked  that  Dutch  clover  is  not,  like  purple  clover,  averse 
(1163) 


to  growing  frequently  on  the  same  soil,  altliough  that  soil  may  have  been  but  superficially  plowed 
— a  consequence,  no  doubt,  of  the  plant  beinir  indigenous,  and  growing  spontaneously  in  this  couu- 
trj'.  Some  persons  have,  however,  observed  that  on  soils  not  very  well  adapted  to  its  cultivation, 
it  thrives  better  when  firot  introduced  than  after  the  land  has  borne  it  for  a  number  of  years. 

Purple  clover  is  not  found  to  be  injured  when  sown  alternately  with  white  clover. 

Dutch  clover  is  sown  either  on  the  autumnal  sowing  or  among  the  spring  corn ;  but  the  former 
po.sition  is  better  for  it,  because  among  the  autumn  corn  it  grows  up  more  quickly,  and  affords 
good  pasturage  among  the  stubble.  It  is  also  spread  over  the  autumnal  sowings  as  soon  as  the 
frost  is  over  ;  sometimes  also  sown  before  wiutor,  or  even  while  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow, 
in  order  tliat  it  may  be  more  effectually  buried  by  the  water  formed  when  the  snow  melts,  and 
may  consequently  germinate  on  the  first  return  of  spring. 

The  smallness  of  the  seed  of  Dutch  clovei'.  and  the  disposition  of  the  plant  to  spread,  allow  of 
its  being  sown  much  more  thinly  than  purple  clover  ;  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  seed  is  therefore 
required  for  a  given  extent  of  ground — 2  lb.'.i.  or  2^  lbs.  per  acre  are  quite  sufficient,  if  the  seed  be 
uniformly  scattered. 

The  time  for  which  Dutch  clover  lasts  depends  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  soil  is  adapted  to 
it.  Sometimes  it  continues  for  three  years  only  from  the  time  of  sowing,  and  fails  in  the  fourth. 
When  fed  off  to  excess  by  sheep,  it  disappears  sooner  still,  because  these  animals  gnaw  the  stem 
even  dov\-n  to  the  roots,  \vhich  they  tear  up. 

"VS'hen  the  seed  is  to  be  gathered,  the  clover  is  usually  mown  ;  this  operation,  however,  alwaji^s 
leaves  many  of  the  heads  untouched.  If  it  be  desired  to  obtain  a  large  quantity  of  seed  from  a 
small  extent  of  ground,  it  is  best  to  have  the  heads  gathered  by  women  and  children,  either  by 
hand  or  with  the  scissors.  The  result  of  this  method  will  always  repay  the  expense  of  the  man- 
ual labor.  The  seed  may  also  be  gathered  bj'  means  of  a  sack  having  just  within  its  mouth  a  kind 
of  iron  comb,  which  is  drawn  over  the  clover  and  pulls  off  the  heads.  These  heads  then  fall  into 
the  sack,  the  mouth  of  which  is  for  this  purpose  kept  open  with  a  bow. 

Many  other  kinds  of  clover  have  also  been  recommended  for  cultivation. 

Strawberry  Trefoil  (Trifoliu/n  fragiferum). 

This  species  is  very  similar  to  Dutch  clover,  both  in  nature  and  appearance ;  it  is  distinguished 
from  the  latter  only  by  its  heads,  which  are  in  the  form  of  strawberries.  It  is  likewise  indigenous, 
and  appears  to  put  ibrth  leaves  even  more  tufted  than  those  of  Dutch  clover ;  but  we  are  unac- 
quainted with  any  trial  of  it  on  a  large  scale.  The  species  known  by  the  name  of  zigzag  trefoil 
(Trifolivm  Jl£xuosnmJ,  of  which  there  are  two  varieties,  alpeslre  and  rubeits,  has  been  recom- 
mended as  a  substitute  for  the  common  purple  clover,  because  both  varieties  thrive  better  than 
common  clover  on  a  bad  soil ;  but  their  produce  is  less  abundant,  and  they  have  not  the  soft  fleshy 
leaves  of  the  meadow  clover. 

The  j-ellow  melilot  {Trifolium  melilotiisj  approaches  more  nearly  to  lucerne  than  to  clover, 
both  in  culture  and  mode  of  growth  ;  it  ought,  indeed,  to  be  regarded  as  a  substitute  for  the  for- 
mer. The  variety  with  blue  flowers  has  too  strong  ascent;  the  yellow-flowered  has  less  odor, 
and  the  white  less  still.  The  latter  is,  consequently,  preferred.  It,  however,  imparts  a  slight  fla- 
vor to  milk  and  butter;  but  this  flavor  is  by  some  persons  considered  as  not  unpleasant,  and  in 
cheese  is  even  esteemed. 

Lucerne  {Medicago  sativa). 

!My  attention  has  been  fixed  in  an  e.special  manner  on  this  plant,  on  the  one  hand  by  the  great 
esteem  in  which  it  has  been  constantly  held,  from  the  remotest  times,  as  the  best  of  all  fodder- 
plants  ;  and,  on  the  other,  by  repeated  attempts  which  I  have  made  to  cultivate  it  with  all  poissi- 
ble  care,  but  which,  in  .spite  of  all  my  endeavors,  have  produced  but  very  indifferent  results.  I 
have  not,  however,  confined  my  attention  exclusively  to  my  own  experiments ;  I  have  also  col- 
lected and  compared  the  results  obtained  by  other  cultivators,  and  endeavored  to  trace  the  cause 
of  the  differences  between  them.  I  have,  consequendy,  found  reason  to  alter  my  opinion  more 
than  once,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  1st  and  3d  volumes  of  my  English  Agriculture.  At 
present.  I  consider  myself  better  qualified  to  form  a  fixed  and  well-grounded  opinion. 

For  the  culture  of  lucerne,  the  lower  stratum  of  the  soil  is  one.  I  may  almost  saj',  of  more  con.se- 
quence  than  the  upper.  The  latter  may  be  ameliorated  and  enriched  during  the  growth  of  the 
lucerne  ;  the  former  increases  in  importance  every  year,  in  consequence  of  the  lengthening  of  the 
fusiform  or  principal  root  of  the  plant,  For  the  sub.sistence  of  lucerne,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  ' 
that  the  soil,  to  the  depth  of  at  least  four  feet,  be  of  the  same  nature  as  the  vegetable  stratum,  and  ' 
in  accordance  with  the  Rabits  of  tlie  plant  itiself  When  the  successive  strata  of  the  soil 
vary  in  consistence  or  constituent  parts,  the  root  of  the  lucenie  is  checked,  and  the  plant  dies, 
01-,  at  all  events,  barley  vegetates.  That  which  is  mo.st  inimical  to  it  is  a  stiff" clay  on  which  water 
rests  without  penetrating.  There  are  whole  districts,  as  well  as  detatched  spots,  in  the  fields 
where  this  variation  of  strata  occurs,  but  at  a  depth  which  has  hitherto  concealed  it  from  observa- 
tion :  in  such  situations  all  trials  of  this  plant  are  unsucces.sful.  It  is,  however,  possible  to  mix 
the  several  lower  strata  of  the  .soil  by  turning  them  up,  and  thus  to  render  them  fit  for  the 
culture  of  lucerne  :  but  the  operation  must  be  performed  to  a  considerable  depth,  at  least  three 
feet  below  the  usual  depth  of  plowing  ;  and  even  this  is  scarcely  sufficient.  I  have  often  found, 
and  my  experience  is  confirmed  by  that  of  others,  that  lucerne,  after  having  presented  a  remark- 
ably good  appearance  until  the  third  year  of  its  growth,  has  then,  histead  of  putting  forth  more 
abundant  shoots,  begun  to  thin  and  die  away,  notwithstanding  that  the  greatest  care  has  been  be- 
stowed upon  it. 

It  is  well  known  that  a  soil,  to  be  adapted  to  the  culture  of  lucerne,  must  not  at  any  time  of  the 
year  be  exposed  to  injury  from  wetness.     Spots  which  are  over  subterranean  springs,  and  those 
on  which  water  stagnates  at  the  surface,  occa.sioned  by  alternate  strata  of  pervious  and  impervi- 
(1164) 


LUCERNE. 


493 


oos  soil,  are  on  this  account  quite  unfit  for  the  growth  of  luceme.  Even  if  such  portions  of  land 
could  be  properly  drained,  they  would  still  be  inapplicable  to  the  culture  of  this  plant.  Butlucerne 
is  also  injured  by  water  running  over  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  either  collecting  there,  or  filtering 
through.  Suchwrater  injures  the  plants,  either  directly,  or  by  favoring  the  growth  of  grass  at  the 
surface,  which  chokes  and  destroys  the  lucerne.  This  evil  may  often  be  somewhat  lessened  by 
draining. 

The  soil  must  also  be  of  medium  consistence.  Stiff  clay  is  quite  unfit  for  lucerne,  for  only 
the  vegetable  stratum  of  such  a  soil  ishghtened  by  manuring  and  cultivation,  and  the  lower  stra- 
tum soon  offers  a  resistance  which  is  very  injurious  to  the  roots.  Lucerne  thrives  better  on  a  deep 
, '  sandy  soil,  but  continues  weak  and  poor,  and  during  drouth  is  so  much  injured  that  its  leaves  fall 
off.  The  best  soil  for  lucerne  is  one  which  is  homogeneous  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  in  which 
the  quantity  of  sand  is  to  that  of  clay  purified  by  washing  in  any  proportion  between  70  :  30, 
and  50  :  50.  But  it  is  still  more  advantageous  to  the  lucerne  when  part  of  the  sand  is  replaced  by 
lime,  even  if  that  substance  should  be  found  in  the  lower  stratum  only,  and  not  in  the  vegeta- 
ble layer.  The  lime  mu.st  not,  however,  predominate,  or  be  collected  in  separate  layers,  but  mix- 
ed uniformly  with  the  other  constituents  of  the  soil.  Sainfoin  grows  admirably  on  limestone,. but 
lucerne  does  not. 

The  former  kind  of  land,  usually  called  warm  land,  is  universally  regarded  as  the  best  for  lu- 
cerne. But  the  soil  on  which  this  plant  grows  should  also  have  a  warm  aspect — that  is  to  say,  it 
should  be  turned  toward  the  east,  or  the  south,  and  somewhat  sheltered  ft-ora  the  cold,  damp  winds 
of  the  north  and  west.  Lucerne  is  a  native  of  warm  climates  :  it  there  withstands  continued 
heat  better  than  any  other  plant :  hence,  warm,  di'y  summers  in  which  clover  suffers  most  fi'om 
drouth,  are  precisely  those  during  which  lucerne  grown  on  proper  soils  yields  the  most  abund- 
ant produce. 

To  cultivate  lucerne  successfully,  it  is  necessary  to  turn  up  the  soil  not  only  on  the  surface,  but 
likewise  to  a  considerable  depth  :  this  mode  of  proceeding  is  much  less  costly  and  difficult  than 
random  trials,  which  seldom  yield  definite  results.  In  various  localities,  where  the  lower  strata 
of  the  soil  vary  considerably,  the  culture  of  lucerne  is  alwajs.precarious.  Thick  crops  of  it  ai-e 
rai-ely  obtained  on  such  soils :  vacant  spaces  are  always  found  ;  and  in  those  parts  where  the 
plants  meet  with  strata  which  are  uncongenial  to  them,  they  fall  off  and  disappear.  , 

Land  which  is  to  be  sown  with  lucerne  must  bo  well  prepared,  plowed  as  deeply  as  possible, 
and  cleared  of  all  perennial  weeds;  dog's-tooth  grass,  and  all  roots  of  gra.sses  must  be  absolutely 
I  desti-oyed— a  result  which  cannot  be  obtained  more  effectually  than  by  a  complete  fallow,  or  the 
culture  of  hoed  crops  for  two  successive  years.  Annual  weeds  are  not  very  injurious  to  lucerne, 
because  they  are  cut  down  together  with  the  crop  which  has  been  associated  with  it.  or  with 
the  young  lucerne  itself,  after  which  they  disappear.  Their  seed  must  not,  however,  be  allowed 
to  ripen. 

Before  executing  the  labors  required  for  lucerne,  it  is  proper  to  manure  the  land  abundantly,  so 
I    that  the  manuring  may  not  require  repetition  while  the  lucerne  is  growing. 

Luceme  is  sown  either  by  itself  or  with  another  crop;  the  quantity  of  seed  required  is  from 
seven  to  eight  pounds  per  acre.*  for  the  grain  is  much  larger  than  that  of  clover.     The  former 
method  was  once  preferred,  because  it  gives  greater  facility  of  removing  weeds,  and  thinning  the   '! 
lucerne  where  it  looks  too  thick.      But  at  the  present,  the  latter  method  is  almost  universally 
adopted,  because  it  is  scarcely  practicable  to  carry  on  the  weeding  operations  on  a  large  scale, 
and  it  has  been  found  that  the  young  luceme  plants  are  as.sisted  by  the  covering  and  protection 
which  they  receive  from  those  which  are  associated  with  them.  Many  cultivators  sow  luceme  with 
barley,  especially  the  late  four-rowed  variety;    the  barlej^  is  allowed  to  ripen.  Others  prefer  a  crop 
which  can  be  mown  in  the  green  state,  such  as  peas,  tares,  and  various  mixtures.     For  my  part,  I 
prefer  flax  and  buckwheat,  which  I  have  found  by  trial  to  be  most  advantageous  ;  indeed,  I  have 
observed  that  under  these  plants  lucerne  always  grows  very  thickly  and  uniformly,  and  afterward 
shoots  with  the  greatest  vigor.     The  flax  mu.st,  however,  be  pulled  up  with  .some  care  and  man- 
agement, otherwise  the  young  lucerne  plants  will  be  injured.     Buckwheat  may  be  either  suffered 
to  ripen  or  mown  while  in  flower;  but  as  on  soils  of  this  description  it   usually  puts  forth  too    '1 
many  leaves  to  allow  of  its  producing  much  seed,  I  prefer  the  latter  method.     Under  these  plants   \ 
the  s  >il  becomes  perfectly  clean  :  they  do  not  shoot  a  second  time,  but  leave  the  ground  to  the    y 
lucerne  at  the  very  time  when  the  latter  is  required  to  grow  most  rapidly.     Toward  the  end  of 
summer,  and  in  autumn,  the  luceme  requires  no  farther  attention. 

Some  cultivators  sow  purple  clover  among  lucerne,  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  an  abundant 
crop  in  the  second  year,  at  which  time  the  lucerne  has  not  yet  attained  its  full  growth.  For  my  \ 
own  part,  I  have  found  the  produce  of  lucerne  in  the  second  year  to  be  at  least  equal  to  that  of  A 
the  clover ;  and  moreover,  there  is  reason  to  fear  that  the  latter,  which  at  first  grows  in  tufts,  ' 
would  destroy  a  number  of  the  young  luceme  plants.  1  cannot,  therefore,  give  my  approval  to  / 
this  method.  ,  '^ 

Many  persons,  on  the  approach  of  winter,  cover  their  young  lucerne  with  stiff  dung  containing  i' 
straw  ;  I  do  not  deny  the  possible  utility  of  this  method  in  severe  winters,  when  the  ground  is  not  ' 
covered  with  snow.  During  the  winter  of  1802-3,  the  young  luceme  plants  perished ;  but  we  ) 
rurely  have  winters  so  completely  free  from  snow,  or  in  which  the  frost  penetrates  so  deeply  into  '  ■ 
the  ground,  producing  not  mere  cracks,  but  deep  chasms.  Moreover,  a  very  thick  covering  would  'i 
be  required  to  form  a  sufficient  protection  against  cold  so  intense  as  this.  In  the  winter  of  1810-  \' 
11,  when  also  the  ground  was  not  covered  with  snow,  and  the  cold  was  very  intense,  the  young   * 


*  My  experience  is  not  exactly  in  accordance  with  that  of  our  author  respecting  the  quantity  of  seed 

which  should  be  sown  on  an  acre.    I  have  always  found  it  advantageous  to  use  16  or  18  lbs.  per  acre.    I  ad- 

'    mit,   however,  that  when  the  soil  has  been  turned  up  to  the   depth  of  four  or  five  inches,  and  properly 

'    manured,  and  the  plants  consequently  grow  vrith  extraord?nary  vigor,  it  is  not  necessary  to  sow  so  thickly. 

[French  Trans. 


1  lucevne  plants  were  not  injured.  The  covering  of  dung  appears  to  me  to  render  tlie  young  plants 
'i  delicate,  to  favor  the  growth  of  weeds,  and  the  covering  of  the  land  with  grass,  which  is  very  in- 
jurious to  lucerne,  and  also  to  attract  mice  to  the  fields.  My  advice  is,  therefore,  to  leave  the 
young  lucerne  to  itself  for  the  first  winter. 

For  the  preservation  of  lucerne  it  is  very  important,  and  indeed  almost  indispensable,  that  the 
ground  be  strongly  harrowed,  especially  in  spring.  This  operation  may  also  be  repeated  between 
two  crops,  several  times  in  the  year,  when  the  grass  roots  seem  inclined  to  establish  themselves 
in  the  soil  between  the  lucerne  plants.  In  the  spring  of  the  first  year,  the  harrowing  must  be 
moderately  performed  ;  ba;  in  the  following  year  it  must  be  executed  with  as  much  force  as  pos- 
sible, so  as,  indeed,  to  give  the  land  the  appearance  of  a  field  completely  broken  up.  The  harrows 
used  for  this  purpose  must  be  very  strong  and  well  tempered.  If  there  be  no  large  hairows  at 
hand,  small  ones  must  be  several  times  passed  in  all  directions.  This  operation  does  no  harm  to 
a  lucerne  crop  vs'hich  has  already  acquired  some  strength.  Such  a  crop  puts  forth  tufts  of  great- 
er size  and  strength  in  proportion  to  ihe  depth  to  which  the  soil  has  been  broken.  An  old  lucerne 
field  has  even  been  restored  to  its  youthful  vigor  by  having  furrows  traced  on  it  with  the  plow  at 
intervals  of  a  foot. 

The  good  effect  of  spreading  dung  upon  the  field  is  increased  by  this  strong  harrowing.  Lu- 
cerne may  be  advantageously  dunged  every  two  years,  in  order  to  maintain  it  in  a  state  of  vigor- 
ous growth,  but  the  "best  method  is  to  manure  it  alternately  with  dung  and  mineral  maimres. 
Amouir  the  latter,  ashes  are  particularlj-  efficacious;  but  pounded  lime,  mixed  with  mould  or  turf 
and  pulverized  marl,  is  also  very  useful.  Of  all  animal  manures,  the  most  efficacious  is  the  dung 
of  birds,  e.specially  ol  pigeons,  spread  very  thinly  over  the  laud.  It  is  also  customary  to  apply 
liquid  manure,  consisting  of  stable-drainings  mixed  with  water,  and  allowed  to  ferment;  this  Idnd 
of  manure  is  used  in  Switzerland,  under  the  name  af  piirin. 

Gypsum  spread  upon  lucerne  produces  as  good  an  effect  as  it  does  upon  clover. 

Lucerne  should  be  mown  before  the  Hower-buds  show  themselves,  if  we  would  ensure  a  prompt 
and  vigorous  after-shoot.  A  well  managed  lucerne  crop  may  be  cut  four  or  five  times  in  the 
course  of  a  summer. 

The  strength  of  each  crop  increases  almost  every  year,  as  long  as  the  lucerne  field  continues 
thickly  covered,  and  no  vacant  spaces  show  themselves,  provided  always  that  the  harrowing  and 
manui-ioir  be  not  neglected.  Even  if  the  old  plants  do  not  put  forth  shoots  of  equal  length  with 
those  of  the  young  ones,  they  have,  nevertheless,  the  advantage  in  point  of  thickness  :  their  pro- 
duce exceeds  that  of  all  other  fodder-plants.  Forty  quintals  per  acre  is  regarded  as  an  average 
quantity,  but  it  is  said  that  the  produce  often  amounts  to  eighty  quintals.  The  richness  of  the 
cro|)  depends  much  upon  the  quantity  of  manure  that  has  been  bestowed  upon  it ;  but  tempera- 
ture has  also  considerable  influence  :  the  hotter  the  summer  the  more  abundant,  generally  speak- 
ing, is  the  produce. 

Lucerne  is  either  used  in  the  green  state  to  feed  cattle,  or  made  into  hay  ;  the  process  of  making 
luceriiti-hay  is  the  same  as  that  for  clover-hay.  In  the  green  state  lucerne  is  most  frequently  given 
to  horses ;  "these  animals  gain  rather  than  lose  strength  when  fed  upon  lucerne,  provided  they  are 
once  a  day  supplied  with  a  third  of  their  usual  feed  of  oats.  Lucerne  given  to  cows  seems 
t  >  increase  their  milk  even  more  than  clover  ;  some  persons,  however,  think  that  the  milk 
thus  produced  is  thin,  and  that  the  butter  often  acquires  a  bitter  taste.  I  have  not  ob,served  this 
mvself. 

Lucerneisavery  long-lived  plant.  On  a  piece  of  garden  ground  formerly  used  as  a  lucerne  field, 
and  afterward  turned  up  twice  with  the  spade  and  laid  down  to  grass,  I  have  seen  isolated  lu- 
cerne idantsgrjw  up  which  must  have  been  at  leastthirty  years  old.  A  lucerne  field  may  often 
be  kept  up  for  fifteen  years ;  seven  or  eight  years  is  the  time  usually  reckoned.  Some  cuhiva- 
tors  suffer  their  lucerne  to  gro^v  for  four  or  five  vears  only,  not  so  much  from  fear  of  its 
perishing  or  diminishing,  as  for  the  sake  of  turning  the  .soil  to  great  ac;,-ouut  by  more  rapid  al- 
ternation. 

That  lucerne  may  be  included  in  a  well-  arranged  fi  Id-system,  it  isnecessary  that  the  system 
contain  a  great  number  of  divisions,  either  to  allow  the  lucerne  to  continue  for  a  sufficient  length 
of  time,  or'because  this  plant  cannot,  according  to  general  opinion,  b-;  successfully  re-sown  on  the 
same  spot  till  after  an  interval  of  nine  year.s.  If  the  number  of  divisions  be  but  small,  seven  for 
example,  it  is  best  to  keep  a  few  acres  of  each  for  the  growth  of  lucerne  ;  to  sow  a  portion  of 
them  with  it  every  year;  and  after  having  gone  through  them  all,  to  break  up  a  portion  every 
year,  and  devote  another  part  of  each  division  to  the  culture  of  lucerne.  This  method  is  particular- 
ly iiecessarj'  in  places  where  the  fields  are  not  ali  adapied  to  th  j  growth  of  lucerne.  In  many 
cases  particular  spots  of  ground  are  devoted  to  this  plant  without  regular  order,  being  separated 
for  the  purpose  from  the  usual  rotation. 

Seed  is  not  gathered  from  young  lucerne  crops,  or  from  such  as  are  to  be  frequently  cut  and  to 
last  a  Ions;  time,  for  the  plants  are  much  exhausted  by  perfecting  their  seed.  I  have,  however, 
known  them  to  be  completely  restored  by  good  manuring.  The  seed  is  usually  gathered  on  lucerne 
fields  which  are  intended  to  be  broken  up  ,  the  first  shoot  is  mown  while  young,  and  the  second  al- 
lowed to  ripen. 

Lucerne-seed  is  more  easily  threshed  than  clover-seed  ;  but  it  is  less  plentiful,  and  its  price  is, 
consequently,  higher  by  one-third. 

The  breaking  up  of  an  old  lucerne  field  does  not  appear  to  me  to  be  easy.  I  have  treated  such 
land  with  three  deep  plowings,  using  plows  with  cutting  shares,  to  prepare  it  for  hoed  crops,  and, 
nevertheless,  lucerne  plants  have  sprung  up  again.  This,  however,  is  the  case  with  young  lucerne 
only;  for  the  celebrated  Pictet  deLancy,  who  keeps  his  lucerne  growing  for  four  years,  only  sows 
wheat  after  it,  as  after  clover  upon  a  single  plowing. 

The  fertility  of  a  broken  lucerne  field  is  vei-y  great,  especially  if  it  has  been  often  manured 
daring  the  growth  of  the  lucerne  :  such  land  will  bear  a  series  of  crops  without  requiring  fresh 
manure. 


(1166) 


SAINFOIN.  495 


I  rnqst  here  notice  a  few  particular  modes  of  cultivating  lucerne,  of  which  I  have  treated  more 
at  length  in  the  first  volume  of  my  -'English  Agriculture." 

By  transplantation,  wherein  the  lucerne  loses  its  tap-root,  this  plant  may  be  cultivated  on  soils 
which  have  but  little  depth,  because  it  then  puts  forth  lateral  roots  which  require  considerable 
space.  This  seems  to  be  the  principal  motive  for  adopting  this  method.  I  have  tried  it  on  a 
small  scale,  but  have  found  it  to  be  attended  with  this  inconvenience,  that  the  plants  which  grew 
very  strongly  became  gradually  covered  with  a  woody  envelop,  hard  enough  to  resist  the  scythe, 
and.  consequently,  grew  higher  and  higher;  from  this  cause  the  lucerne,  after  a  few  years,  had  to 
be  mown  six  inches  above  ground.  This  method  is  also  very  troublesome  ;  the  transplanting  must 
be  frequently  repeated,  and  three  years  elapse  before  the  tufts  of  lucerne  unite  and  press  one 
against  the  other.  Hence,  this  process  has  fallen  into  disuse  in  England.  It  mav,  however,  be 
adapted  for  the  purpose  of  filling  up  vacant  spaces. 

Tlie  method  of  drilling  lucerne  between  grain,  and  in  rows  eight  or  ten  inches  apart,  is  regular- 
ly increasing  in  estimation  in  England,  because  the  culture  by  which  th-o  plant  is  so  much  bene- 
fited is  much  more  effectually  performed  w^ith  the  horse-hoe  than  with  the  harrow.  I  have  not 
yet  tried  this  method. 

A  well-made  lucerne  ground,  the  extent  of  which  is  kept  up  by  sowing  a  new  portion  every 

year  to  supply  the  place  of  that  which  is  broken  up,  gives  great  assistance  to  a  rural  undertaking, 

I     and  may  even  fully  and  safely  supply  the  want  of  meadow-lands.     A  meadow  never  yields  on  the 

!    same  extent  of  surface  a  produce  equal  to  that  of  a  lucerne  field,  and  can  rarely  be  depended  upon 

with  equal  security.* 

Sainfoin  [Hedysarum  Onohrychis). 

This  valuable  fodder-plant  absolutely  requires  a  soil  whose  lower  stratum  contains  lime.  On 
such  a  soil  the  assistance  of  a  moderate  quantity  of  manure  is  sufficient  to  ensure  tolerable  suc- 
cess to  the  plant,  even  on  the  poorest  vegetable  stratum  ;  whereas,  if  lime  be  wanting  in  the  lower 
bed,  the  sainfoin  will  not  thrive,  even  though  the  richest  vegetable  soil  should  be  devoted  to  it. 
On  such  a  soil  it  grows  up  very  well,  and  appears  very  thick  in  the  first  year  ;  but  it  afterward  dis- 
appears without  forming  tufts.  It  requires  lime  or  chalk  :  even  if  these  substances  should  be  in 
the  form  of  hard  rocks,  the  roots  will  not  fail  to  make  their  way  through  them.  ^Vhoever  thinks 
of  growing  it  may  save  himself  a  number  of  costly,  and  perhaps  useless  trials,  by  sounding  his 
land  to  the  depth  of  four  feet.  ' 

Land  which  is  to  be  sown  with  sainfoin  must  be  cleared  of  weeds,  especially  of  dog's-tooth 
grass,  which  prevents  the  success  of  this  plant.  The  clearance  may  be  effected  by  careful  fal- 
lowing, or  the  culture  of  hoed  crops.  Sainfoin  is  greatly  improved  by  recent  manuring  ;  but  it  is 
often  sown  on  poor  .soils,  and,  nevertheless,  yields  a  plentiful  crop. 

Sainfoin  is  usually  sown  with  oats  or  barley ;  it  is,  however,  sometimes  sown  in  autumn,  with 
corn.  The  seed  is  .sown  either  upon  or  under  the  lines,  but  not  at  any  considerable  depth.  The 
quantity  of  seed  used  is  two  or  three  bushels  per  acre  ;  the  latter  quantity  is  to  be  prefen-ed. 

Sainfoin  may  likewise  be  advantageou.sly  sown  in  rows  with  the  corn-drill,  and  cultivated  with 
the  horse-hoe,  supposing  that  these  implements  have  been  already  introduced  upon  the  establish- 
ment ;  this  method  saves  a  third  of  the  seed.  When  we  are  desirous  of  growing  sainfoin  in  large 
quantities,  we  must  endeavor  to  procure  seed  from  countries  in  which  this  cultivation  is  already 
established  on  the  large  scale ;  for  seed-merchants,  who  sell  it  by  the  pound,  charge  much  too 
highly  for  it,  and  sometimes  sell  it  in  an  unripe  state.  But  we  must  make  timely  application  to 
an  enterprising  and  honest  grower  ;  for  this  grain  is  not  a  common  object  of  commerce,  and  the 
gathering  of  it  at  the  proper  season  requires  considerable  attention. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  have  establi.shed  their  roots  in  the  soil,  which  sometimes  happens  in  the 
spring  immediately  following  the  sowing,  but  sometimes  not  till  that  of  the  next  year,  the  sainfoin 
must  be  treated,  like  lucerne,  with  strong  harrowing.  If  it  be  manured  a  little,  from  time  to  time, 
its  shoots  will  be  more  abundant,  and  its  produce  large. 

As  this  plant  is  usually  grown  on  distant  and  hilly  fields,  it  is  more  frequently  made  into  hay 
than  consumed  as  green-meat.  It  yields  a  plentiful_  crop  just  as  it  is  beginning  to  flower,  and  a 
second  but  smaller  one  at  the  end  of  summer  ;  at  this  time  it  will  also  afford  very  nourishing  pas- 
turage. A  produce  of  eighteen  or  twenty  quintals  of  hay  is  considered  satisfactory  ;  but  on  a  fa- 
vorable soil,  frequently  manured  on  the  surface, t  the  produce  may  amount  to  thirty  quintals  per 
acre.  This  fodder  is  particularly  good  ;  many  practical  cultivators  say  that  its  quality  surpasses 
that  of  clover  and  lucerne. 

Sainfoin  is  very  durable  when  it  meets  with  a  favorable  soil,  provided  that  it  be  properly  har- 


*  All  that  our  learned  author  has  here  said  on  the  cultivation  of  lucerne,  seems  to  me  perfectly  correct 
with  regard  to  the  north  of  Germany.     But  in  milder  climates,  I  have  had  very  fine,  plentiful,  and  durable 
lucerne  grovcing  on  soils  which  had  not  been  turned  up  to  a  greater  depth  than  sixteen  inches,  but  were 
in  a  healthy  condition,  and  gravelly.     I  have  even  obtained  from  such  lucerae  grounds  as  much  as  eighty    j 
qnuiX.3\s.  oiAry  ioAAer  pev3.i:.Ye,  durivg  the  years  of  their  gTe.atest  vigor  ;  and  I  have  scarcely  fallen  short  of   \ 
this  quantity  on  ncli  lands  which  had  been  cultivated  to  the  depth  of  the  spade  only;  that  is  to  say,  about    ^ 
twelve  or  thirteen  inches  Rhine  measure. 

Lucerne  fields  give  more  frequent  and  plentiful  crops  when  they  are  watered  in  time  of  drouth  with 
wann  or  calcareous  waters,  by  irrigation,  or  momentarj^  inundation  ;  but  generally  speaking,  their  duration 
is  shortened  by  this  treatment,  because  the  soil  acquires  an  increased  disposition  to  become  covered  with 
grass.  Count  Ph.  R&,  formerly  professor  of  Agronomy  in  the  University  of  Bologna,  and  now  at  Modena, 
has  gone  through  a  series  of  conclusive  experiments  on  this  point,  in  the  agricultural  garden  of  the  first 
mentioned  University.  In  all  cases  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  take  proper  precautions  to  pi-event  the 
luceiTie  roots  from  coming  in  contact  with  stagnant  and  subterranean  waters ;  but  this  precaution  becomes 
doubly  nece-ssary  when  the  lucerne  field  is  to  be  watered.  [Frerich  Trans. 

t  On  the  borders  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  where  sainfoin  is  much  esteemed,  especially  for  feeding  horses,  / 
it  is  often  supplied  with  mineral  manures,  especially  gj'psum  ;  but  an  opinion  is  entertained  (and  I  think  , ' 
that  I  have  had  practical  demonstration  of  its  correctness)  that  animal  manures  cause  the  plant  to  make  an  , 
effort  of  vegetation  which  hastens  its  death.  [French  Trans. 


rowed  and  manured,  especially  with  ashes  or  gypsum,  and  not  too  often  required  to  produce  seed. 
Fields  of  sainfoin  have  been  kept  in  excellent  condition  for  twenty  years.  _ 

Sainfoin  sometimes  penetrates  the  ground  twelve  inches  deep  ;  plants  of  it  have  even  been  found 
whose  roots  went  to  the  depth  of  sixteen  inches.  The  roots  are  very  strong  in  the  upper  part,  .=o  that 
it  is  not  easy  to  breakup  an  old  sainfoin  layer:  this  labor  is,  however,  willingly  undertaken,  be- 
cause a  iield  of  this  description,  which  has  previously  not  even  repaid  the  expense  of  sowing. 
will  afterward  yield  several  fine  crops  without  fresh  manuring.  The  light  vegetable  stratum, 
covering  a  calcareous  rock,  is  thereby  considerably  increased,  and  the  vigorous  roots  of  the  sain- 
foin appear  to  lighten  the  rock  and  divide  the  calcareous  stones.  It  seem.s,  however,  to  be  matter 
of  observation  that  sainfoin  will  not,  till  after  a  very  long  interval,  thrive  on  land  which  it  has  pre- 
viously occupied. 

This  plant,  which  seems  to  penetrate  the  depths  of  the  soil  to  seek  notarishment  which  it  after- 
ward yields  to  the  surface,  is,  for  many  countries,  an  invaluable  gift  of  Nature  ;  while,  in  others,  it 
is  absolutely  unavailable.  Excellent  fodder  may,  by  its  means,  be  obtained  on  the  tops  of  the  most 
barren  hills,  sufficient,  indeed,  to  supply  the  want  of  low  meadows.  The  latter  may  then  be 
sometimes  advantageously  broken  up,  and  thus  the  usual  order  of  Nature,  which  seems  to  design 
the  valleys  for  producing  fodder  and  the  bights  for  cultivating  grain,  may  be  inverted  :  but  we 
must  be  careful  to  ascertain  quid  cjnceqiie  ferot  regio,  qnidferre  recvaet. 

VARIOUS  OTHER  FODDKR-PLANTS,  WITH  PAPILIONACEOUS  FLOWERS. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  cultivate  various  other  plants  of  the  genus  medicago,  and  others 
bearin"^  some  affinity  to  them,  and  several  authors  have  recommended  these  plants  ;  but  their  cul- 
tivation has  nowhere  been  continued,  or  even  generally  adopted.  The  cause  of  this  neglect  is 
not  so  much  that  the  plants  thus  recommended  have  been  found  unfit  for  the  uses  to  which  they 
were  destined,  as  that  they  are,  in  many  respecl.s,  inferior  to  those  already  spoken  of;  and  that 
/  where  the  latter  have  been  found  unavailable,  the  former  have  likewise  yielded  but  an  indiffer- 
ent return.     Of  this  number  are  the  following  :— 

Yellow  Sickle  Medick  [Medicago  falcata) 
i'    Which  grows  wild  almost  everywhere,  and  thrives  on  bad  soils:    its  produce  is,  however,  but 
\.  small ;  and,  on  good  land,  it  is  far  inferior  to  lucerne. 

Black  Medick  or  nonsuch  [Medicago  lupulina) 
Is  liable  to  the  same  objections,  as  are  also  various  kinds  of  Lotus  ;    for  example,  lotus  siliquosus 
and  lotus  corniculatus',  or  common  bird's-foot  trefoil ;  various  species  oi Lathyrus,  viz.,  lal.hyrus    \ 
pralensis  or  meadow  vetchhng,  lathyrus  sativus,  and  lathyrus  tuberosus  ;    .several  species  of    - 
Orobus  such  as  orobns  niger  or  black  bitter  vetch,  orobus  sylvaf.icns  or  wood  bitter  vetch,  and 
orobus  intaus  ;  also,  astragalus  cicer,  and  various  kinds  of  wild  vetches. 

All  these  plants  are  excellent  in   natural  meadows,  where  they  grow  among  the  rest  of  the 

herba°-e.     When  meadows  are  to  be  sown  with  them,  it  is  certainly  advisable  to  procure  the  seed 

from  other  meadows  in  which  they  grow  abundantly,  and  for  this  purpose  to  allow  some  portion 

'    of  the  plants  growing  in  the  latter  to  perfect  their  seed  ;  but  if  I  may  rely  on  my  own  experience, 

these  plants  do  not  vield  a  satisfactory  produce  when  separately  cultivated. 

Plants  have  also  been  recommended  which  appear  very  desirable  on  account  of  their  strength 
'  of  vcetation  and  the  long  time  for  which  they  last ;  but  it  appears  to  me  that  cattle  accustomed 
to  beuer  nourishment,  absolutely  reject  them.  Among  this  namber  is  the  galcga  officinalis. 
Particular  attention  has  been  directed  to  the  discovery  of  a  plant  which  shall  thrive  on  poor  and 
.sandv  soils,  enable  them  to  yield  a  moderate  return,  and  at  the  same  time  improve  them.  Ac- 
cording- to  the  English,  French,  and  Belgians,  these  qualities  are  possessed  by  the  common  furze, 
Culez  'EnropcBusJ.  At  all  events,  this  plant  is  the  one  generally  alluded  to  by  agricultural  wri- 
ters who  speak  of  furze.  It  grows  likewise  in  the  north  of  Germany,  but  not  spontaneously  ;  and 
I  am  not  acquainted  with  any  trial  that  has  been  made  of  it  in  our  part  of  the  country.  We  have, 
however  a  very  similar  plant,  which  grows  abundantly  on  the  worst  lands,  viz.,  the  common 
broom  fspnrtium  scaparium).  It  appears  to  me,  indeed,  very  probable  that  this,  and  not  the 
common  furze,  is  the  plant  really  spoken  of  in  the  works  ot  foreign  authors.  Several  per.sons 
have  proved  that  broom,  when  properly  prepared,  is  eaten  by  cattle  quite  as  readily  as  furze. 
For  an  account  of  the  excehent  effects  which  the  culture  of  this  plant  produces  on  sandy  and 
heath-land=?  I  refer  to  the  dissertation  of  Francis  de  Caster,  in  the  third  volume  of  Schwertz's 
"  Flemish  A<^riculture."  and  various  other  passages  of  the  same  work  ;  also  to  Arthur  Young's 
'•  Tour  in  France,''  particularly  the  third  volume.  The  seed  of  broom  is  sown,  like  that  of  other 
fodder  plants,  among  the  sprins  or  autumn  grain,  and  the  soil  is  devoted  to  the  plant  for  five  or 
«iK  vears  When  the  broom  has  been  cut.  it  is  given  to  the  cattle  ;  the  most  delicate  leaves  are 
ffiven  to'sheep,  and  the  harder  stalks  used  as  manure  :  where  fuel  is  scarce,  these  stalks  are  dried 
and  used  for  burning.  But  if  it  be  desired  to  make  these  harder  stalks  al.«o  fit  to  be  eaten  by  cat- 
tle thev  may  be  bruised  with  an  instrument  resembling  a  braque,  or.  what  is  still  better,  they 
mav  be  reduced  to  a  semi-fluid  consistence  by  the  bark-mill,  and  given  to  the  cattle  m  that  state. 
Tl-e  fodder  thus  obtained  is  said  to  be  of  the  most  nourishing  description,  and  to  impart  a  most 
acrUpable  flavor  even  to  winter  butter.  I  have  never  myself  tried  this  use  of  the  broom  ;  but  I 
would  recommend  the  trial  to  those  who  often  find  this  pla.it  growing  wild,  especially  on  the  bor- 
ders of  fir  woods.  The  use  of  broom  is  recommended  by  many  considerations. 
Corn  Spurry  [Spergula  Arvensis). 
Thi=»  plant  is  essentially  different  from  the  wild  spurry  (spergula  pentandra).  both  in  nature 
and  habits  but  I  am  not  aware  of  any  characteristic  mark  by  which  the  two  may  be  distinguished  ; 
for  the  occurrence  of  ten  stamens  on  the  former  and  five  on  the  latter  is  by  no  means  constant. 
flowers  with  five  and  with  ten  stamens  being  often  found  in  the  same  plant.      The  two  species   < 

'(lies) 


are,  indeed,  scarcely  distiiiguishable  excepting  by  their  stature  and  time  of  flowering'.  Some  per- 
sons are  afraid  that  the  cultivated  species  may  degenerate  into  a  weed,  and,  at  last,  multiply  spon- 
taneously; but  I  have  doubts  on  this  point.  I  have,  indeed,  often  remarked  that  when  spuiTy 
ripens  upon  a  Held,  it  shows  itself  in  the  following  year  among  the  plants  sown  either  upon  this 
field  or  the  adjoining  ones.  This  growth  arises  from  seed  which,  having  been  shed  and  dis- 
persed by  the  wind,  remains  dormant  during  winter,  and  shoots  forth  in  spring;  but  after  a  year 
or  two,  it  disappears  entirely,  lor  the  young  plants  are  incapable  of  withstanding  frost,  whereas 
the  wild  spurry  is  not  injured  by  it. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  cultivated  spurry  :  the  one  rises  to  a  small  hight,  but  grows  thickly  ; 
the  other  attains  double  the  hight  of  this  one,  but  never  grows  thickly  or  surpasses  it  in  produce, 
excepting  when  grown  on  a  very  vigorous  soil.  The  I'ormer  is  proper  for  the  poorer  soils,  on 
which  alone  spurry  is  usually  sown  ;  it  is  also  better  adapted  for  a  pasture  plant.  The  latter  va- 
,  riety  is  the  more  advantageous  lor  sowing  on  very  fertile  land,  with  the  intention  of  mowing  it. 
The  two  varieties  may  be  distinguished  by  their  seed :  the  smaller  has  a  black  seed  marked  with 
a  white  ring  ;  the  larger,  a  brownish  seed,  which,  when  closely  examined,  appears  spotted  with 
yellow  and  dark  brown,  and  is  usually  without  the  ring. 

By  mixing  the  two  seeds,  I  have  obtained  a  medium  variety,  which  grows  to  a  much  greater 
hight  than  the  small  kind,  and,  at  the  same  time,  very  thickly.  I  have  obtained  excellent  crops 
from  this  variety  even  on  middling  soils,  and  fit  for  either  pasturage  or  mowing. 

Spurry  grows  on  almost  all  soils,  even  on  the  very  bad  sands,  provided  tliere  be  no  want  of 
water  during  the  time  of  its  growth  :  but  its  strength  and  produce  vary  almost  infinitely,  accord- 
ing to  the  quantity  of  nourishment  contained  in  the  soil  on  which  it  grows.  It  is  rarely  cultivated 
on  fertile  soils,  but  its  produce  is  not  equal  to  that  of  clover.  On  the  other  hand,  it  presents  the 
great  advantage  of  not  occupying  the  ground  long,  for  it  may  often  be  mown  eight  weeks  after 
seed-time,  unless  its  germination  has  been  retarded  by  excessive  drouth.  There  are,  therelbre. 
cases  in  which  spurry  may  be  advantageously  cultivated  on  the  best  lands :  many  cultivators 
may  have  recourse  to  it,  when  their  clover  fails. 

Another  great  advantage  afforded  by  spurry  is,  that  it  produces  plenty  of  seed,  which  is  easily 
gathered  and  threshed,  and  therefore  very  cheap.  When  the  necessary  quantity  is  grown  on  the 
land,  it  may  be  set  down  at  a  very  low  price.  In  calculating  the  expense,  however,  we  must  not 
altogether  lose  sight  of  the  fact,  that  spurry,  when  allowed  to  ripen,  and  particularly  when  palled 
up,  exhausts  the  soil  to  a  great  degree  ;  whereas,  that  which  is  mown  or  fed  off  while  young,  af- 
fords a  very  sensible  increase  of  nutriment. 

Five  pounds  of  seed  are  required  for  an  acre  ;  but  if  the  soil  has  been  well  prepared,  and  the 
seed  be  scattered  with  perfect  uniformity,  this  quantity  may  be  diminished. 

The  soil  does  not  require  extraordinary  prepjaration,  unless,  indeed,  it  is  infested  with  dog's- 
tooth  grass.  Even  if  this  be  the  case,  the  spurry  will  still  grow  up,  but  the  dog's-tooth  grass  will 
soon  choke  it.  Spurry  may  be  .sown  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  middle  of  August.  In  dry 
weather,  the  seed  should  be  sown  immediately  after  plowing'  the  soil  having  been  perfectly  lev- 
eled with  the  harrow.  The  success  of  the  crop  depends  altogether  on  the  circumstance  of  the 
spurry  meeting  with  a  well-pulverized  layer  of  earth  at  the  surface.  Hence  it  is  better  to  follow 
the  harrow  by  the  roller,  and  then  to  harrow  again — afterward  to  sow  the  seed,  and  finish  by  once 
more  passing  the  roller  over  it.  The  spurry  then  rises  quickly  and  equally,  a  point  of  great  im- 
portance. 

Spurry  is  usually  sown  by  itself;  I  have,  however,  seen  it  mixed  with  clover,  the  young 
plants  of  which  were  very  advantageously  protected  and  .sheltered  by  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
spurry  ;  and,  after  the  latter  had  been  mown,  shot  up  vigorously  and  very  close  together.  Spur- 
ry has  also  been  sown  with  buckwheat  intended  for  mowing  as  a  green-crop.  It  might,  per- 
haps, be  economical  in  some  cases  to  sow  spurry  among  grain  which  grows  up  into  the  ear,  for 
the  sake  of  obtaining  good  pasturage  on  the  stubble.  It  is  often  sown  on  the  broken  corn  stubble, 
to  obtain  autumnal  pasturage,  or  green-meat.  At  this  season  it  is  scarcely,  if  at  all,  injured  by 
slight  frosts. 

Spurry  is  mown  while  in  full  flower,  either  to  be  consumed  as  green-meat,  or  made  into  dry 
fodder.  Its  lower  flowers,  however,  often  begin  to  expand  very  early,  and  it  is  just  at  this  time 
that  the  plant  begins  to  vegetate  most  strongly  ;  we  must  not,  therefore,  be  guided  by  these  fii-st 
flowers,  when  we  intend  to  take  but  one  cutting.  If  spurry  be  mown  while  very  young,  it  will 
shoot  up  again,  and  a  second  crop  may  be  obtained  from  it,  often  more  considerable  than  the  first. 
But.the  first  crop  is  scarcely  worth  the  trouble  which  it  occasions ;  it  is,  therefore,  better  in  most 
cases  to  have  it  lad  off  on  the  ground— but  quickly,  and  by  a  considerable  number  of  cattle.  The 
spurry  will  then  not  be  injured  by  this  pasturage,  but  will  afterward  shoot  up  with  greater 
strength  and  thickness. 

The  produce  of  spurry  is,  as  may  be  conceived,  subject  to  endless  variations,  not  only  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  but  also  to  the  state  of  the  weather ;  for  „his  plant  requires  heat  and 
frequent  showers.  It  stops  growing  in  unfavorable  weather,  but  quickly  recovers  itself  when  the 
weather  again  becomes  congenial  to  it.  The  quantity  of  its  produce  may  be  estimated  at  the  half 
of  a  crop  of  clover  raised  on  the  same  extent  of  surface.  When  spurry  is  laid  up  in  heaps,  it  be- 
comes much  compressed,  and  undergoes  considerable  diminution  of'  volume  ;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  it  increases  in  density,  and  a  given  weight  of  it  is  then  much  more  nourishing  than  the  same 
weight  of  any  other  kind  of  fodder,  as  those  who  cultivate  it  soon  find  out.  When  cattle  are  fed 
on  spun-y,  either  green  or  dry,  the  increase  of  their  milk  ynd  fat  is  sensible  to  the  eye.  Spurry  - 
is  likewise  one  of  the  best  kinds  of  fodder  for  producing  butter  and  milk  of  agreeable  flavor.  | 

Spurry  is  easily  convertible  into  hay  by  making  it  up  into  small  cocks  as  soon  as  it  is  partially  ' 
'dried.  When  the  weather  is  fine,  the  plant  will  dry  completely  of  itself:  but  in  wet  weather  the 
cocks  must  be  now  and  then  stirred  and  turned  over.  Spurry  may  be  exposed  to  rain  for  a  long 
time  without  spoiling  or  losing  its  nutritive  qualities.  The  earlier  it  is  mown,  the  more  nutritious 
is  the  fodder  which  it  yields:  but  even  the  straw — that  is  to  say,  the  haulm  of  spurry  which  has 
(1169) 3i 


run  to  eeed — appears  to  me  to  be  more  nourishing:  tlian  any  other  kind  of  hay.     It  is  still  g^i'een 
when  mown  ;  tor  we  cannot  venture  to  let  it  ripen  very  far,  for  fear  that  it  should  drop  its  ; 

The  seed  may  be  turned  to  very  good  accou'at,  when  the  quantity  gathered  is  larger  than  we 
"want.  Oil  may  be  expressed  from  it,  though  not  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  profitable  :  it  is  thought 
better  to  use  this  seed  for  feeding  livestock  :  its  nutritive  power  has  been  shown  to  be  very  great. 
Spurry-seed,  when  used  (or  this  purpose,  is  steeped  in  warm  water:  it  then  loses  its  germinating 
power,  swells,  and  becomes  digestible.  If  not  treated  in  this  manner,  it  passes  through  the  bodies 
of  animals  unchanged,  and  with  its  germinating  power  undimini.?hed.  When  prepared  as  above, 
it  is  given  to  the  cattle,  either  in  the  form  of  wash,  or  poured  upon  chopped  straw.  In  cows  that 
are  fed  upon  it  the  increase  of  milk  is  visible  ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  milk  and  butter  thus  produced 
do  not  acquire  the  unpleasant  flavor  which  is  perceptible  when  the  animals  are  fed  upon  other 
oily  substances.     Schwertz  informs  us  that  this  practice  is  universally  adopted  in  Belgium. 

Various  other  lodder-plants,  such  as  pimpernel  chiccory,  and  several  kinds  of  grasses,  are  best 
adapted  for  pasture-grounds. 

There  remain,  however. 

The  tall-growing  Grasses, 

which  are  cultivated  in  the  fields  for  mowing. 

These  grasses  may  be  called  Hai/,  or  Stallc-graxses  in  contra-distinction  to  Pasture  or  Leaf- 
grasses,  because  the  former  have  vigorous  stems  with  strong  leaves  attached  to  them  ;  whereas, 
those  of  the  second  class  bear  feeble  and  leafless  stems,  but  have  strong  radical  leaves,  which 
grow  with  greater  vigor  the  more  they  are  fed  off,  and  kept  short  by  the  teeth  of  animals. 

Ray-grass  {Lolium  perenne). 
Of  all  cviliivated  grasses  this  is  the  most  celebrated,  and  the  one  which  has  most  steadily  main- 
tained its  reputation.  Two  essential  qualities  are  united  in  it :  first,  it  may  be  mown ;  and,  sec- 
ondly, when  fed  off,  it  forms  a  close  sward,  which  grows  again  with  great  vigor.  It  thrives  on 
stiff,  and  also  on  sandy  clays,  provided  they  are  not  in  very  dry  situations.  It  gives  but  one  crop 
per  annum,  for  mowing;  but  the  fodder  which  it  yields  is  very  substantial  when  it  is  cut  before 
flowering:  after  that,  its  stems  become  hard.  The  Engli.sh  usually  sow  it  among  purple  clover-, 
and  never  neglect  it  when  the  clover  is  intended  to  stand  for  a  number  of  years,  becau.'^e  the  ray- 
grass  multiplies  as  the  clover  thin.s.  The  chief  advantaire  of  this  grass  consists  in  the  facility  with 
which  its  seed  is  gathered,  and  the  quantity  which  it  yields.  The  part  from  which  the  grain  is  to 
be  collected  is  allowed  to  ripen  ;  it  is  then  mown,  and  the  grass  is  treated  like  com,  and  threshed 
in  a  similar  manner:  20  schefl'els  may  be  obtained  from  an  acre  :  the  qaantity  of  seed  put  upon  this 
surface  is  about  1  schefifel,  or  1|  scheffel.  The  residue  of  the  threshing  can  only  be  looked  upon 
as  straw  :  but  the  plant  .shoots  up  again  in  autumn,  and  the  exhaustion  con.sequent  upon  the  ripen- 
ing of  the  seed  may  be  repaired  by  manuring.  In  England,  the  most  varied  trials  have  been  made 
with  an  immense  number  ol  grasses,  and  the  result  has  been  that  the  cultivation  of  ray-grass  in  the 
field  has  been  continued,  or,  at  all  events,  resumed.* 

Common  oat-like  Grass  {Avena  elatior). 

The  plant  so  called  by  the  French  was  at  first  confounded  in  Fi-ance  with  the  ray-grass  of  the 
English  ;  but  it  is  altogether  different — its  stems  or  reeds  are  much  longer,  and  more  thickly  cov- 
ered with  leaves,  and  it  does  not  form  a  close  sward.  Like  the  former,  it  grows  on  soils  of  all 
kinds,  provided  they  are  in  a  state  of  feitility.  and  yields  as  its  first  crop  a  greater  quantity  of  hay 
than  ray-grass :  it  afterward  yields  a  second,  but  weaker  crop.  It  lasts  till  the  fourth  or  fifth  year, 
especially  if  it  be  supplied  with  manure. 

But  its  cultivation  is  incomparably  more  troublesome  and  costly  than  that  of  ray-grass,  because 
the  unequal  ripening  of  its  seed  causes  great  difficulty  in  taking  the  crop.  It  begins  to  ripen  on 
the  top  of  the  panicle,  and  falls  as  soon  as  it  is  ripe ;  .=o  that  we  cannot  collect  all  the  seed  from  a 
stem,  unless  we  take  some  of  it  in  an  unripe  state.  There  is  yet  greater  iiregularity  in  the  ripen- 
ing of  the  stems,  so  that  they  must  be  gathered  almost  one  by  one,  and  dried  in  a  barn  where  they 
will  be  well  exposed  to  the  air.  The  difficulty  of  taking  the  crop  is  a  great  obstacle  to  the  ex- 
ended  cultm-e  of  this  grass.  It  often  happens  that,  of  a  quantity  of  seed  purchased  of  a  .seed.sman, 
not  more  than  a  fourth  is  ripe  :  and  hence  it  becomes  impossible  to  obtain  a  thick  herbage,  even  by 
sowing  several  schcffels  on  an  acre  of  ground.  , 

Especial  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  confounding  this  grass  with  the  avena  bulbosa,  and  not  to 
take  the  seed  of  the  one  for  that  of  the  other.  They  are  much  alike  ;  but  the  latter  species  is  a  ve- 
ry troublesome  weed,  which  continually  multiplies  by  its  bulbs.f 

Tall  Fescue-Grass  {Festuca  elatior). 

This  grass  is  verj-  similar  to  the  preceding  in  its  economic  characters,  but  it  requires  a  more  hu- 
mid soil ;  when  it  meets  with  such  a  soil,  it  yields  a  larger  produce  than  common  oat-like  gras.'^. 

Its  seed  does  not  shed  so  easily  as  that  of  the  latter  ;  it  must,  however,  be  carefully  gathered,  and 
from  each  stem  separately. 

*  The  Italians,  particularly  the  inhabitants  of  Lombstrdy.  who,  as  well  as  the  English,  often  as.?ociate  ray- 
rass,  which  they  call  lojezza,  with  common  purple  clover,  think  that  it  affords,  amone  other  advantages,  that 
of  preventing  distention  of  the  stomach  in  ruminating  animals,  an  accident  which  the  carelessness  of  ser- 
vants often  brings  upon  cattle  fed  upon  pure,  tender  clover  In  Italy,  too,  this  p^ant  often  yields  two  or  three 
crops  in  a'  year ;  and  I  have  seen  upon  my  own  land,  even  in  a  season  of  extreme  drouth,  a  vei7  good  sec- 
l  crop  of  lojezza  taken,  with  its  seed  perfectly  ripe.  [French  Trcms. 

By  US  bulbs,  and  also  by  the  numeroiis  lateral  shoots  proceeding  from  its  stem  and  between  the  bulbs, 
which  shoots  soon  give  birth  to  others  ;  and  lastly,  by  its  seed,  which  ripens  easily,  and  in  considerable  quan- 
tities among  com.    It  is,  undoubtedly,  one  of  the  most  detestable  weeds  with  which  a  soil  can  be  infested. 

[FreKck  Trans. 

(1170) 


Cock's-foot  Grass  {Dactylis  glomerata). 

This  plant  is  cultivated  and  used  in  the  same  manner  as  common  oat-like  grass.    It  must  be 

,'   mown  very  young,  when  it  is  beginning  to  put  forth  its  stems,  for  it  is  only  in  this  state  that  it  is 

I     agreeable  to  cattle.     As  soon  as  its  panicles  are  formed,  the  stems  become  hard.     Moreover,  if 

I    mown  early,  it  will  yield  a  second  crop,  which  would  otherwise  be  quite  insignificant.     The  grain 

adheres  firmly  to  the  ear,  aud  admits  of  being  cut  with  the  scythe.    It  is  usually  found  among  the 

seed  of  common  oat-like  grass  purchased  of  seedsmen.     Seed  thus  obtained  often  yields  a  larger 

quantity  of  cock's-foot  than  of  oat-like  grass. 

Dog^s-tail  Grass  [Cyiiosurus  cristatus). 

This  is  in  all  respects  similar  to  the  preceding,  but  is  more  inclined  to  harden.  Both  species 
thrive  equally  well  on  a  dry  but  rich  soil. 

Common  Cat's-Tail  or  Timothy  Grass  (Phleum  Pratense). 

This  grass  requires  a  moiiat  situation  on  a  light  soil.  When  mown  young  it  is  soft  and  grateftil 
to  cattle  ;  but  after  it  has  formed  its  ear.  it  becomes  hard,  and  the  hay  is  no  longer  good,  excepting 
for  horses.     As  it  shoots  late,  it  yields  but  one  crop. 

Cat's-tail  grass  produces  a  lai-ge  quantity  of  seed,  which  does  not  easily  shed,  so  that  it  may  be 
mown  and  threshed.  This  seed  is  very  small,  a  few  pounds  only  being  required  for  an  acre.  It 
is  probably  from  this  circumstance  that  the  culture  of  Timothy  grass  has  become  more  extended 
than  that  of  any  other. 

The  seed  of  this  grass  was  first  imported  into  Germany  from  England,  and  into  England  from 
America.  Theplant,  however,  grows  wild  in  our  country  ;  but  that  imported  from  America  ap- 
pears to  me  to  be  a  particular  variety,  for  the  thickest  and  most  vigorous  crop  of  Timothy  grass 
tha:  I  ever  saw  was  that  of  a  field  for  which  the  seed  had  been  imported  from  England.  This 
was  thirty  years  ago,  and  at  that  time  the  English  imported  this  grass  tirom  America. 

Woolhj  Soft  Grass  {Holcus  lanatus) 

Has  been  particularly  recommended  by  many  writers  on  Agriculture.  In  my  opinion,  however, 
it  is  one  of  the  worst  and  least  agreeable  to  cattle  of  all  gi-asses.  At  all  events,  it  must' be  mown 
very  young.  It  yields  but  one  crop  ;  but  toward  autumn  it  sho^its  up  again  strongly,  and  in  tufts, 
so  that  it  then  furnishes  a  tolerably  abundant  pasturage,  even  on  sandy  and  elevated  soils,  where,'  '' 
indeed,  it  is  eaten  by  cattle,  for  want  of  better  nourishment.  This  grass  is  often  destroyed' by  frost 
in  winter,  when  it  grows  alone,  instead  of  being  mixed  in  the  sward  with  other  grasse.s. 

The  seed  may  be  collected  by  mowing  and  threshing;,  but  it  is  very  difBcult  to  get  the  grain  out 
of  the  husk,  and  therefore  the  husk  is  often  sown  with  it.  In  purchasing  it  we  must  be  careful  to 
notice  whether  the  grain  is  separated  or  still  in  the  husk  :  in  the  latter  case  several  scheffels  per 
acre  will  be  required,  in  the  former  a  pound  will  suffice,  provided  the  seed  be  ripe  and  carefully 
spread. 

Meadow  Fox-Tail  Grass  {Alopecurus  Pratensis). 

On  a  rich  and  moderately  humid  soil,  whether  consisting  of  sand  or  clay,  this  gi-ass  is,  perhaps, 
the  best  that  can  be  cultivated  in  our  climate.  It  puts  forth  very  thick  aud  vigorous  leaves,  both 
from  its  stalk  and  its  stems ;  it  covers  the  soil  well,  shoots  forth  early,  and  grows  again  very  quick- 
ly, so  that  three  crops  may  easily  be  obtained  from  it  in  the  course  of  a  year.  When  mown  young, 
at  the  time  when  the  ears  begin  to  show,  it  is  very  grateful  to  cattle.  It  is  not  at  all  adapted  to  dry 
and  meager  soils. 

Tlie  seed  should  be  gathered  by  plucking.     When  the  grass  is  ripe,  the  ear  must  be  taken  hold    '! 
of  and  drawn  toward  the  gatherer  iu  such  a  manner  that  the  husk,  in  passing  through  his  hand, 
may  separate  from  the  grain  and  leave  it  behind.     This  grain  must  then  be  immediately  spread    ' 
out  in  a  well-aired  barn,  as  it  will  otherwise  become  heated,  and  lose  its  germinating  power. 

Meadow-Grasses  (Poa). 

Smooth-stalked  meadow-grass  fPoa  pratensis) ;  roughish  meadow-grass  (Poa  trivialisj,  and 
various  other  species  of  Poa,  afford  the  best  of  all  kinds  of  hay :  meadows  on  which  they  grow  are 
preferable  to  all  others.  But  these  grasses  are  not  fit  for  separate  cultivation,  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  gathering  their  seed  and  separating  it  from  the  woolly  covering  which  keeps  it  united 
in  knots,  and  absolutely  prevents  the  uniform  spreading  of  it.  The  Poa  grasses,  to  thrive  well,  re- 
quire a  rich  meadow  soil. 

The  culture  of  grasses  intended  for  mowing  may  be  useful  in  certain  cases ;  for  example,  when 
we  wish  to  procure  a  fodder-field  that  may  last  for  several  years,  and  the  soil  is  not  adapted'  to  the 
cultivation  of  lucerne,  particularly  if  it  be  too  damp.  But  this  branch  of  husbandry  can  never  be 
much  extended;  both  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  gathering  the  seed,  and  also  because  clover 
yields  a  larger  produce,  allows  of  alternation  with  the  culture  of  grain,  and  prepares  the  soil  for 
that  cultivation.  The  culture  of  grasses  should  be  reserved  for  the  light,  black  soil  of  low  coun- 
tries, where  clover  often  fails,  and  which  are  especially  adapted  to  this  description  of  plants.  But 
soils  of  this  nature  have  usually  considerable  inclination  for  the  growth  of  herbage,  and  the  seed 
of  grasses  that  are  proper  for  them  is  usually  multiplied  upon  them  to  such  an  extent  that  artificial 
sowing  is  .scarcely  necessary.  The  gathering  of  the  seed,  or  the  very  high  price  which  it  costs, 
and  the  difficulty  of  spreading  seed  of  such  extreme  lightness  in  a  uniform  manner,  are  inaupera- 
'  ble  obstacles  against  any  gi-eat  extension  of  the  culture  of  grasses  for  mowing. 
*  •  We  have  already  spoken,  in  the  proper  place,  of  the  use  of  vetches,  rape,  colza,  buckwheat, 
maize,  and  various  mixtures,  both  as  green  food  for  cattle,  and  for  hay-making. 
(1171) 


500  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 


Section  VL 
THE  ECONOIMY  OF  LIVE  STOCK. 

Under  the  denomination,  ''economy  of  live  stock,"  we  include  not  only  the  breeding  and  rearing 
of  animals,  but  generally  all  that  relates  to  their  maintenance,  even  when  not  connected  with 
1 1    breeding. 

We  have  before  spoken  of  the  necessai-y  relations  between  the  economy  of  live  stock  and  Agri- 
cultui-e,  and  the  proportion  which  must  be  maintained  between  them.  It  is  rare  to  meet  with 
cases  in  which  these  proportions  are  less  important,  in  which,  for  example,  the  necessary  quantity 
,  of  manure  can  be  purchased,  or  cattle  belonging  to  other  parties  can  be  taken  into  the  establish- 
,  ment,  eitlier  for  a  fixed  rent,  or  by  giving  up  a  certain  quantity  of  fodder  to  the  owner  of  the  cat- 
tle, on  condition  of  its  being  consumed  on  the  establishment  itself  by  a  certain  number  of  cattle, 
and  under  the  inspection  of  the  proprietor.  The  latter  method  is  highly  convenient  for  the  cultiva- 
tor, and  is  adopted  in  many  counties  of  England,  where  cattle  from  Scotland  are  fattened  on  the 
farms.  It  is  likewise  common  in  Switzerland,  where  the  milch  cows  are  taken  in  autumn  from 
the  Alpine  pastures  to  winter  in  the  plains.     In  other  countries  this  system  is  rarely  pursued. 

The  much-disputed  question  as  to  whether  the  culture  of  grain  or  the  economy  of  live  stock  yields 
the  greater  profit,  or  which  of  the  two  it  is  advisable  to  follow  in  preference  to  the  other,  cannot  be 
decided  on  general  principles.  The  pecuniary  profit  derived  from  the  management  of  live-stock 
increases  or  diminishes  with  the  welfare  of  civilized  nations,  because  the  consumption  of  animal 
food  becomes  larger  in  proportion  to  tlie  well-being  of  the  community.  A  large  exportation  of  a 
particular  kind  of  animal  produce,  in  consequence  of  its  recognized  quality,  may,  however,  cause  a 
rise  in  its  price  ;  this  is  the  case  with  Holstein  butter  and  Swiss  cheese.  Sometimes  one  portion 
'  of  the  live  stock,  the  value  of  which  in  other  places  is  but  small,  will  yield  so  high  a  profit  that  the 
^  price  of  the  rest  will  fall  proportionably  low.  Such,  for  instance,  is  the  case  in  this  country  with 
sheep,  which,  on  account  of  the  high  price  of  their  fleeces,  have  been  multiplied  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  market  is  overstocked  with  mutton;  whereas,  in  England  sheep  are  kept  principally  for 
the  sake  of  their  flesh. 

In  our  circumstances  the  economy  of  live  stock  rarely  yields  a  large  profit,  if  we  charge  it  with 
manure  and  pasturage  at  the  mai-ket  price.  But  we  are  usually  satisfied  when  the  expense  of  these 
matters  is  properly  repaid  by  the  maintenance  of  cattle,  and  our  straw  is  converted  by  their  excre- 
ments into  an  active  manure.  A  large  number  of  cattle  maintained  in  this  manner  witli  great  care 
and  at  considerable  expense  always  yields  an  adequate  return ;  and,  generally  speaking,  it  is  ob- 
served in  almost  all  countries  that  rural  undertakings  which  maintain  large  numbers  of  cattle, 
and  feed  them  well,  are,  in  the  end,  more  profitable  than  than  those  which  have  only  the  number 
absolutely  required,  and  feed  them  but  scantily. 

The  advantage  of  one  or  other  kind  of  live-stock  depends  partly  on  circumstances  of  place  and 
time,  and  partly  on  the  skill  and  industry  with  which  they  are  treated.     In  general,  v^^e  may  lay 

I  down  as  a  rule  for  our  country,  that  horned-cattle  are  most  profitable  on  low  pastures,  and  when 
(    maintained  by  stall-feeding ;  sheep,  on  the  contrary,  on  all  dry  and  elevated  pasture-grounds,  natu- 
ral or  artificid. 

HORNED-CATTLB. 

It  is  not  yet  decided  whether  our  domestic  ox  is  descended  from  the  same  stock  as  the  wild  bull 
and  buffalo.  But  as  these  animals  not  only  breed  together,  but  also  produce  a  race  which  is  capa- 
ble of  perpetuating  itself  it  is  probable  that  our  domestic  cattle  are  descended  from  the  wild  race, 
and  owe  their  change  of  form  entirely  to  the  kind  of  nourishment  and  the  care  which  man  has  be- 
stowed upon  them. 

But  even  among  our  own  homed  cattle  we  may  observe  a  great  diversity  of  races,  which  is  trans-    '  - 

mittedfrom  generation  to  generation.     These  changes  may  have  been  brought  about  by  cHmate    ' 

,    and  mode  of  living  ;  but  if  so,  the  eftect  must  have  been  produced  by  very  slow  degrees,  for  we  do    . 

I I  not  find  that  either  of  these  circumstances  has  any  prompt  and  marked  influence  on  a  race  which   / 
is  maintained  in  perfect  purity.     The  choice  of  individuals  for  propagation  has,  in  all  probability,    ^ 
contributed  most  powerfully  to  the  perpetuation  of  constant  and  distinct  races,  and  particular  vari- 
eties have  been  subsequently  produced  by  crossing. 

In  Germany,  (under  which  title  I  include  all  the  various  empires  and  provinces  in  which  the 
German,  with  its  several  dialects,  constitutes  the  prevailing  language)  the  races  have  lately  been 
mingled  in  so  many  ways,  and  with  so  little  definite  purpose,  that  their  distinguishing  characteris- 
tics can  no  longer  be  recognized.     We  must,  however,  distinguish  the  three  Ibllowing  races:— 

(fi,j.     The  low-country  race. 

fbj.     The  ordinary  race  of  the  high  grounds. 

(cj.     The  mountain  race. 

But  these  races,  which  are  in  themselves  sufBciently  distinct,  have  often  been  mingled. 

The  low -country  race — whose  distinguishing  marks  are  a  fine  skin  and  hair,  large  size  of  body, 
strong  bones,  and  short  horns — is  met  with  in  several  countries  under  different  names.  But  it  in 
eludes  many  varieties,  each  of  which  is  distinguished  by  some  peculiarity,  especially  in  countries 
where  constant  attention  has  been  paid  to  breeding  and  choice  of  individuals.  This  race  probably 
derives  its  origin  from  the  first  cultivated  countries  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  the  Elbe,  the  Weser,  and 


PROPERTIES  OF  DIFFERENT  RACES  OF  CATTLE.  50] 

the  coast  of  llie  Baltic.  It  is  probable  that  the  Flemiugs — who,  being  a  peaceful  and  industrious 
people,  mulliphed  quickly,  and  estabUshed  themselves  in  other  low  countries,  in  which  they  were 
readily  employed  to  cultivate  the  land — introduced  the  race  into  these  countries,  keeping  it  pure 
in  some  cases,  and  mixing  it  in  others  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  with  the  native  breed  of  the  coun- 
try. The  low-country  breed  is  known  in  these  parts  by  the  name  of  the  Friesland  breed;  it  is 
likewise  often  called  the  Oldenburg  or  the  Bremen  breed,  because  it  was  brought  to  us  by  cattle-deal- 
esr  of  those  countries  in  which  it  has  partly  been  raised.  The  race  found  in  the  rich  valleys  of  Holstein 
and  Sleswick  is  in  in  some  respects  different  from  the  former.  This  is  still  farther  true  with  re- 
gard to  the  breed  which  has  been  formed  in  the  low  countries  around  Dantzig  and  Tilsitt ;  these 
races,  however,  resemble  one  another  very  closely.  In  England  the  same  breed  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  short-horned  or  HoLderibess  breed,  and  is  thought  to  have  been  originally  introduced 
from  the  Netherlands.  Contrary  to  the  opinion  wliich  has  hitherto  been  common,  1  think  that  we 
ought  to  include  in  the  same  race  the  large  Swiss  breeds,  of  which  such  excellent  portraits  are 
given  in  the  second  part  of  the  ''  DeatschLands  rind  Viehracen,"  by  M.  Witte,  viz.,  the  Fnbury 
race,  and  even  the  smaller  Simmenthal  breed,  which  certainly  does  not  belong  to  the  primitive 
mountain  races,  although  it  thrives  on  the  rich  pastures  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  is  very  well  adapted  for  stall-feeding.  This  race  has  been  again  transplanted  into  some  of 
the  more  fertile  countries  of  Southern  Germany  and  Franconia,  particularly  the  Margravate  of 
Anspach. 

These  several  races  are  all  esteemed  as  milch  cows,  because,  when  properly  fed,  they  give  more 
milk  than  any  others.  But  they  are  delicate,  and  require  food  not  only  in  abundance,  but  also  of 
particularly  good  quahty:  when  badly  fed,  they  soon  degenerate,  their  produce  diminishes,  and 
afte  a  short  time  they  yield  no  return  whatever. 

The  crossing  of  this  large  breed  with  others  is  not  always  successful,  especially  for  the  first  few 
generations.  Bat  when  the  breeding  is  judiciously  managed,  the  animals  which  are  coupled  not 
being  too  dissimilar,  a  breed  may  be  obtained  far  superior  to  the  primitive  race  for  certani  locali- 
ties, and  possessing  its  good  quahties  without  its  delects.  When  such  a  race  has  been  obtained,  it 
must  be  perfected  by  itself 

This  race  of  cattle  does  not  appear  to  be  well  adapted  for  draught;  for,  though  very  strong  and 
healthy,  they  are  not  sufficiently  robust  and  hardy  for  that  employment ;  besides,  their  mainten- 
ance is  too  expensive.  It  is  only  by  crossing  and  after  a  lapse  of  years,  that  strong  and  robust 
beasts  of  draught  can  be  obtained  from  this  race. 

Great  weight  and  embonpoint  may  be  given  to  these  animals  by  fattening:  but  for  this  purpose 
a  large  quantity  of  very  nourishing  fodder  must  be  used  ;  and  when  a  beast  of  this  description  is 
lean,  an  enormous  supply  of  food  is  required  to  fatten  it  again. 

The  native  races  present  great  diversity  both  on  the  low  grounds,  and  on  the  hills.  Our  German 
breed,  originally  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  and  with  large  horns,  has  retained  more  or  less  of  its 
size  and  vigor,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  it  has  been  treated.  This  race  is  found  in  its 
best  and  purest  state  in  Vogtland  :  but  in  most  places,  it  has  greatly  degenerated,  for  want  of  suf- 
ficient pasturage,  and  from  over  parsimnnious  treatment.  It  might,  however,  be  again  improved 
within  itself,  by  means  of  better  nourishment,  more  careful  treatment,  and  a  proper  choice  of  indi- 
viduals for  breeding. 

It  never  yields  so  much  milk  as  the  low  country  breeds :  the  milk  is,  however,  on  the  average,  of 
richer  quality  ;  and,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  food  consumed,  often  yields  an  equivalent  net 
return. 

The  hardihood  of  this  race  renders  them  well  adapted  for  draught.  In  many  countries,  partic- 
ular attention  is  paid  to  the  rearing  of  oxen  from  it :  very  large  and  strong  animals  are  thus  ob- 
tained, which  scarcely  seem  to  spring  from  the  same  origin  as  the  cows  of  this  breed ;  which  are, 
for  the  most  part,  very  small  and  stunted. 

In  other  countries  the  native  race  is  strongly  marked.  A  breed  of  great  interest  for  northern 
Germany  is  that  of  Jutland,  which  is  excellent  both  for  milking  and  fattening.  The  hair  of  this 
breed  is  peculiar,  of  a  dun  or  tawny  color,  often  spotted  with  white  :  individuals  are,  however, 
found,  having  black  or  gray  hair ;  but  a  reddish-brown  color  is  very  uncommon  among  them ;  and 
wherever  I  have  met  with  it,  the  form  of  the  animal  has  appeared  to  me  to  betray  a  different  ori- 
gin. The  bones  are  small,  the  legs  short,  the  body  long  and  deep,  the  fore-quarters  proportionally 
weaker,  the  hinder  large  and  strong.  The  physiognomy  is  peculiar:  jaws  thin,  mouth  elongated 
and  pointed,  head  and  neck  thin.  There  is  a  feminine  appearance  in  all  these  animals,  even  among 
the  males,  and  this  character  would  be  yet  more  widely  diffused,  were  it  not  that  the  bulls  are  usu- 
ally chosen  for  breeding  from  another  race,  in  which  the  bones  are  larger  and  the  head  thicker. — 
The  Jutland  breed  is  lively  and  robust,  and  preserves  its  milk  and  flesh  better  than  the  other  cattle 
of  the  country,  on  bad  and  scanty  pasturage. 

This  race  is  much  esteemed  for  fattening,  because  the  muscular  fibre  is  delicate  and  savory  ;  and 
the  bones  and  offal  weigh  but  little  in  comparison  with  the  useful  parts.  The  animals  also  readily 
increase  in  muscle  and  fat;  though  the  latter  substance  is  not  developed  externally  so  much  as  be-  , 
tween  the  flesh  and  muscular  fibre,  where  the  lean  and  fat  are  so  agreeably  mixed.  WJiere  this  i| 
meat  is  known!  it  readily  fetches  a  somewhat  higher  price  than  other  kinds.  The  cows,  which  are  i  \ 
very  lean  when  tliey  begin  to  give  milk,  increa.se  in  fat  when  well  fed,  in  proportion  as  their  milk  i 
decreases ;  so  that,  at  the  end  of  their  milking  time,  they  are  fat  enough  for  killing.  ' 

As  we  usually  obtain  them,  the  cattle  of  this  race  are  smaller  than  those  of  our  ordinary  German 
breed,  either  on  account  of  the  scanty  nourishment  which  they  find  in  their  own  country,  or  be-    ' 
cause  they  are  paired  too  early.     I  have  seen  heifers  brought  from  that  country  before  they  have 
borne  young  ;  and  such  as  happened  to  be  in  a  situation  where  they  were  well  fed,  attained  great   ^ 
lengthr  though  they  did  not  grow  very  tall.     But  the  progeny  of  this  race,  when  supplied  with    , 
plenty  of  nourishment,  may  become  very  large  :  a  cow  of  this  breed,  which  was  killed  as  soon  as 
milk  was  no  longer  taken  from  her,  yielded  550  lbs.  of  butchers'  meat,  exclusive  of  offal.     In  their 
own  country,  animals  of  this  breed  are  met  with  which  attain  a  remarkable  length,  without,  how- 
(1173) 


ever,  growing  tall,  and  give  an  astonishing  quantity  of  milk  :  but  they  are  not  in  the  market.  There 
is,  perhaps,  no  other  race  which,  und^r  ordinary  circumstances,  is  so  well  deserving  of  careful  en- 
deavors to  perfect  it. 

Among  the  mountain  races,  that  of  the  Swiss  Alps,  or  the  Hash  breed,  is  the  most  remarkable. 
I  M.  Witte  has  given  us  an  excellent  drawing  of  it  in  the  work  already  spoken  of  It  is  indigenous 
'  in  high  mountain  regions  only  ;  but  has  been  naturalized  in  other  situations,  and  even  in  Lower 
Saxony,  originally  in  the  countries  of  the  Hartz.  1  will  not,  however,  take  upon  me  to  decide 
whether  the  race  thus  transplanted  may  not  be  the  less  perfect  breed  of  Schwytz,  a  drawing  of 
which  is  to  be  given  in  the  work  of  Wiite.  The  Hash  race  is  small,  but  elegant  and  well  built. — 
The  horns  have  a  peculiar  curvature  directed  backward,  and  become  very  thin  toward  their  ex- 
tremities. The  head  is  narrow,  but  the  mouth  large  in  proportion  to  it ;  the  ears  spring  from  thick 
tufts  of  hair;  the  neck  is  short;  the  legs,  especially  in  the  ibre-ann,  short  and  very  thin,  but  fur- 
nished with  very  strong  nerves  and  muscles;  the  foot  is  small  and  perfectly  well  shaped ;  the  tail 
long,  reaching  almost  to  the  leet,  but  thin,  and  terminated  with  a  large  tutt  of  hair.  The  body  is 
long  in  proportion  to  the  general  structure,  and  of  a  tine  blacki.shbrown  color,  deepest  toward  the 
lower  parts.  A  tawny  streak,  inclining  more  or  less  to  whitenes.s,  extends  along  the  neck  and 
back  to  the  middle  of  the  tail.  The  ears,  mouth,  and  legs,  ai-e  usually  of  the  same  color.  The  eye 
is  commonly  surrounded  by  a  tawny  ring:  the  udder  of  the  cow  is  of  the  same  color,  and  covered 
with  hair.     Sometimes  the  animal  is  also  marked  with  white  spots. 

This  race  exhibits  very  little  disposition  to  fatten  ;  perhaps  on  account  of  the  free  and,  in  some  / 
respects,  fatiguing  life  which  the  animals  lead  on  the  Alps.  I  have,  however,  seen  their  descend-  ' 
ants  become  tolerably  fat  when  stalled. 

Cows  of  this  breed  give  very  good  and  i-ich  milk,  in  proportion  to  their  size,  and  the  kind  of  pas- 
tures on  which  they  graze :  even  on  the  Alps,  however,  there  is  a  great  difference  between  one  in- 
dividual and  another.  In  our  own  country  I  have  seen  descendants  of  the  race  sometimes  highly 
valuable,  sometimes  altogether  valueless,  tor  their  quantity  of  milk.  But  I  have  always  seen  them 
larger  here  than  M.  Witte  describes  them  on  the  Alps. 

The  Tyrolese  cattle  approach  in  some  measure  to  the  latter  as  regards  their  stature ;  but  on  the 
average  they  are  much  larger,  and  of  a  red-brown  color.  The  abundance  of  their  milk  is  much 
vaunted,  and  has  often  led  to  their  introduction  into  low  countries,  where  they  thrive  very  well, 
even  when  stalled.  Notwithstanding  the  expense  of  transporting  them,  they  have  lately  been 
brought  into  our  part  of  the  countrj'. 

The  Siyrian  race,  at  least  that  which  is  known  to  me  by  this  name,  is  similar  in  form  and  color 
to  that  of  Hash  ;  but  it  is  larger.     Its  color  is  lighter,  and  the  spine  curved  to  an  extraordinary  de- 
gree, both  in  the  cows  and  the  bulls  ;  which,  moreover,  are  exceedingly  beautiful.     I  must,  how-   \ 
ever,  confess  my  inability  to  give  an  exact  account  of  the  peculiarities  of  this  breed,  having  seen 
but  a  small  number  of  individuals  belonging  to  it. 

In  this  country  we  oiteu  meet  with  Podolian  oxen,  upon  whose  origin  I  have  not  yet  been  able 
to  obtain  exact  information.  They  are  almost  all  of  a  fine  gray  color  ;  sometimes,  though  rarely, 
black  and  spotted  with  white.  They  are  high  on  their  legs,  and  not  very  long  ;  but  their  breadth 
is  considerable,  especially  behind  in  the  croup.  It  is  .'^aid  that  this  race  cannot  be  used  as  milch 
cows,  because  they  will  not  allow  themselves  to  be  milked  ;  but  the  oxen  are  particularly  well 
adapted  for  fattening  When  they  are  brought  to' us  in  autumn,  they  will  have  already  fattened 
considerably  on  the  rich  pastures  of  Ukraine ;  and,  in  spite  of  the  long  journey  which  they  have 
performed,  some  of  them  will  be  sure  to  be  fat  enough  for  killing.  Others  will  have  grown  thin  ; 
but  they  will  soon  recover  their  lat  when  stalled  or  led  upon  potatoes  or  hay.  In  this  manner  they 
may  be  completely  fattened  in  ten  or  twelve  -weeks,  and  their  weight  increa.sed  to  8U0  lbs. 

The  Hungarian  cattle  resemble  the  latter  in  color,  but  are  longer,  and  have  shorter  legs.  Po- 
dolian oxen  may  be  used  for  draught :  they  are  usually  very  docile,  but  some  of  them  are  very  vi- 
cious and  cannot  be  broken  in:  moreover,  they  do  not  appear  to  be  very  robust.  The  Hungarian 
oxen  appear  to  be  better  adapted  for  work,  and  more  vigorous. 

By  the  choice  of  individuals  of  a  particular  race,  or  the  crossing  of  different  races  of  homed-cat- 
tle,  families  are  formed,  possessing  characteristics  of  a  greater  or  less  value,  which,  when  they  an-  , 
, '  swe»-  our  purpose,  we  must  endeavor  to  perpetuate  among  the  families  themselves.  When  the-e 
characters  become  constant,  the  family  may  be  regarded  as  forming  a  distinct  race.  The  crossing 
must,  however,  be  conducted  wiih  care  and  circumspection.  Since  the  gi-eater  number  of  cattle 
are  reared  for  the  sake  of  obtainius;  milk,  the  chief  desideratum  is  a  family  of  good  milkers;  and 
from  this  family,  when  obtained,  we  -tiust  endeavor  to  raise  a  distinct  breed  by  always  selecting 
the  best  individuals  to  form  the  nucleus  of  the  race,  and  taking  from  among  them  the  male  and  le- 
mak  calves  to  be  used  in  perpetuating  the  breed.  With  regard  to  the  males,  most  breeders  are 
too  much  guided  by  a  certain  conventional  beauty  of  form,  which  in  many  cases  is  not  really  the 
most  desirable  characteristic.  When  a  constant  race  is  to  be  formed,  we  must  begin  by  coupling 
animals  of  the  nearest  parentage,  provided  they  are  free  from  defects,  and  adapted  to  the  end  pro- 
posed. I  am  now  engaged  in  forming  a  breed  by  the  crossing  of  the  Friesland,  Swiss,  and  Jut- 
land raaes. 

Breeding  oj  Cattle. 

Great  care  must  be-bestowed  on  the  choice  of  the  bull.  With  respect  to  form,  the  characteris- 
tics usually  required  in  a  bull  are,  that  the  head  be  short  and  thick ;  forehead  broad  and  wrinkled  ; 
eyes  black,  and  lively  ;  horns  short,  and  dark  colored  ;  ears  long,  and  well  placed  ;  nostrils  large ; 
mouth  black  ;  neck  short,  and  fleshy ;  chest  broad,  and  expanding  beyond  the  legs  in  front :  body 
elongated  ;  legs  short,  and  shaped  like  columns  ;  tail  long,  and  well  covered  with  hair  :  he  should 
likewise  have  a  bold  and  lively  gait.  A  broad  front  is  much  valued  by  some  persons:  for  my 
own  part  I  prefet  that  tlie  animal's  hind  quarters  should  be  in  good  proportion  to  the  front.  First, 
that  when  he  leaps  the  cow,  he  may  be  able  to  keep  himself  up  without  pressing  too  heavily  upon 
her ;  and,  secondly,  because  a  strong  croup  appears  to  favor  a  large  secretion  of  milk.  I  likewise 
(1174) 


BREEDING   OF    CATTLE.  503    ' 


prefer  a  bull  with  a  lon^  and  fine  head,  and  a  thin  tail :  but  my  chief  care  is  to  select  one  that  is 
tbeoft'sprinff  of  a  good  milch  cow.  ,        .   .        ,  ^      .-r  i  t       e 

Many  persons  endeavor  to  rear  bulls  of  great  stature,  by  gmng  them  a  very  plentiful  supply  of 
food  I  am  however,  of  opinion  that  bulls  may  be  of  too  great  stature,  so  that  it  may  be  necessa- 
rv-  to  leave  olf  using  them  at  the  very  time  when  they  attain  their  greatest  strength,  because  they 
then  become  too  heavy  for  the  cows.  They  are  often  allowed  to  leap  before  they  have  completed 
»heir  second  year.  This  has  the  efiect  of  reducing  their  size  :  but  it  also  weakens  tlieir  con.stitu- 
tion  to  such  a  degree  that  they  lose  their  generative  power  by  the  time  when  they  have  attained 
their  sbtth  year,  the  very  age  at  which  they  would  otherwise   be  just  arriving  at  their  iull 

"^^  tTic  following  marks  and  properties  are  regarded  as  characteristic  of  a  good  breeding  cow,  and 
as  iustifying  the  expection  of  a  goodly  supply  of  milk.  The  body  and  frame  should  not  pos.sess 
much  beauty  of  form:  the  latter  descending  from  the  spine,  should  grow  larger  toward  the  low-er 
part  .0  as  to  form  a  large  and  pendulous  abdomen.  The  general  contour  ol  the  body  should  be  - 
rather  e-g-shaped  than  round  ;  the  rump  as  broad  as  possible,  and  the  front  narrow  m  proportion 
to  it  Tl.e  bones,  especially  those  of  the  legs  and  head,  should  be  thin  :  a  thin  tail  is  also  a  good 
mark  The  physiogaomy  should  be  feminine— mild,  but  lively.  The  animal  should  be  cheertul 
and  good  tcmi.ered:  but  bold.  The  udder  should  hang  down  behind  between  the  legs ;  it  should 
be  lar-e  not  tieshy,  but  thin  and  soft,  displaying  large  milk  veins.  A  considerable  hollow  under 
the  behy,  deep  enough  to  thrust  the  thumb  into,  is  by  many  persons  regarded  as  a  .sign  ot  a  good 
milch  cow  •  but  in  my  opinion  this  character  is  more  deceptive  than  any  other.  A  long,  thm  tail, 
reaching  almost  to  the  ground  is  likewise  regarded  as  a  good  sign.  But  it  is  of  primary  import- 
ance that  the  cow  be  descended  from  a  mother  which  was  a  good  milker,  healthy,  and  of  a  good  < 
stock  I  have  seen  many  good  milch  cows  whose  legs  were  very  close  together  near  the  hams,  j 
although  as  beauty  is  concerned,  this  conformation  is  not  approved  _  Some  persons  require  that 
the  hinder  extremity  of  the  thigh  should  fomi  a  right  angle  with  the  hip  bone,  which  projects  near 
the  tail.     Moreover,' the  thigh  should  not  be  thick.  -j      x,,     .  ,     ^  „„^  f„ii 

If  ue  wish  to  produce  cattle  of  large  size,  we  must  choose  cows  of  considerable  stature,  and  hill 
ffrown  for  thickness  and  length  of  body  are  inherited  more  surely  from  the  mother  than  the  lather 
I  am  therefore  decidedly  of  the  same  opinion  as  the  Swiss,  who  endeavor  to  keep  their  bulls  small 
so  that  in  fact,  the  bull  is  often  the  smalle.st  animal  of  the  whole  herd. 

Oie'bull  might  serve  for  seventy  or  eighty  cows,  if  the  seasons  of  the  latter  were  equally  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  year  ;  but  as  that  is  not  the  case,  we  must  not_  reckon  more  than  twenty- 
five  thirty,  orlbrty  cows  to  each  bull,  accordingly  as  the  former  require  at  one  particular  time  of 
tirVear  or  at  different  seasons.     Besides,  a  bull  might  be  attacked  with  illness  that  won  d  render 

m  unfi  for  leaping,  and  great  embarrassment  might  thence  result  It  is  therefore  usual  to  keep 
vvo  bXfor  for?,  cows-a  young  one,  in  his  third  year,  and  an  older  one,  m  his  fifth  or  sixth,  so 
t^a"  the  younger  and  weaker  cows  may  be  covered  by  the  former:  the  older  bull  would  be  too 

^'''when'i^iTour  object  to  increase  the  size  of  a  breed  of  cattle,  we  ought  undoubtedly  to  let  the 
heifers  attain  the  age  of  three  years  before  they  breed  ;  this  is  indeed  always  necessary  when  the 
vo  uv^  ct  ^l  ave  but  scanty  and  inferior  pasturage,  and  we  wish  to  preserve  the  breed  from  de-     ; 
ge  ei-acy      But  if  the  youngcattle  have  been  well  fed  and  nurtured  from  their  birth  we  may  with-     , 
ou   hesifatioa  allow  them  tS  breed  when  they  are  nearly  two  years  old :  and  I  thmk  it  right  to  do     , 
sfwhe  never  the  young  heifers  come  to  early  maturity,  for  they  will  otherwise  either  become  lean 
and  r^OD  ^^row  n-  or,  if  the  v  are  still  well  fed,  they  will  grow  fat,  and  be  no  longer  inclined  to  take 
th"  bull  '^n  .some  countries,  where  the  management  of  cattle  is  in  other  respects  conducted  with 
^^rea    -ire   as  m  the  low  countries  of  Holstein  and  Bremen,  generation  is  le:t  entirely  to  Nature, 
rt  e  aai'nals  all"  meeting  promiscuously  on  the  same  pasture.  In  these  countries  it  is  not  uncommon    ,  ■ 
for  a  cow  o  calve  at  the  age  of  two  years;  no  degeneracy  of  the  race  is  apprehended  ,n  conse-   S 
nuence  ;  but  care  is  taken^not  to  milk  so  precociou.s  an  animal  too  long.     I  have  known  a  cow  to 
bear  a  calf  at  the  ase  of  eighteen  months,  after  having  been  covered  by  a  bull  not  older  than  her- 
self •  the  calf  continued  small,  but  became  a  good  milch  co\v.  .      :,  ,       1  r      ^     ;■ 

Homed  cattle  come  into  heat  at  all  season.,,  the  time_  being  determined  by  that  of  parturition 
When  cows  are  well  fed.  it  occurs  as  early  as  the  twentieth  day  ;  but  it  is  usually  allowed  to  pass 
off  ekher  fK-m  fear  of  trving  the  animal's  strength  too  much  or  because  it  is  not  thought  proper 
to  accelerate  the  time  of  birth.     If  it  occurs  again  about  .he  fortieth  or  fiftieth  day  after  pgnun- 

k,n  this  thne  must  not  be  neglected,  otherwise  she  will  probably  not  want  the  bull  again.    With    , 
stT^lled    a  tie  it  is  particularly-necessary  to  watch  the  signs  which  indicate  it.     These  signs  are 
Sles^esV  a  wandering  expression  of  the  eyes  and  figure,  extraordinary  cries  and  lowmgs    \ 
swenin"of'the  sexual  organs,  an  inclination  to  leap  upon  the  other  cows,  cessation  or,  af  all 
event"  suspension  of  the  lacteal  secretion.     The  servants  of  the  cow-house  should  carefully  watch 
tliP^P  Vi<.ns  in  cows  which  are  not  allowed  to  go  out  of  the  stall. 

When  the  desire  of  copulation  does  not  appear,  its  absence  is  due  either  to  weakness  or  to  over 
feedin'  =md  excess  of  flesh.     In  the  first  case,  better  food  must  be  given  -,  and  it  is  thus  that  cer- 

afn  mucl?boasted  specifics,  such  as  oats  roasted  with  salt,  lentils,  and  bruised  hemp-seed,  pro- 
.1^  P. "heir  effect  The  cow  should  also  be  made  to  drink  the  milk  of  another  which  has  just 
come  nto  h»at.  '  If.  on  the  contrary,  the  evil  arise  from  excess  of  fat.  the  cow  must  be  made  to- 
take  more  exercise.     Some  breeders  have  restored  the  fecundity  of  their  cows  by  yoking  them  to 

'^Ttedrae  when  the  cow  comes  into  heat  having  been  observed,  the  best  time  for  copulation  is 
from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  afterward  ;  if  it  be  deferred  longer,  impregnation  will  probably 

"""we  mry  retard  as  a  sign  of  pregnancy  the  fact  of  the  cow  not  giving  fresh  signs  of  heat  in 
three  weeks  after  copulation  If,  however,  the  cow  should  exhibit  such  signs  at  this  time,  itis  by  no 
meanra  sure  indication  that  she  has  not  been  impregnated.     The  swelling  of  the  abdomen  is  very 

(1175) 


504  THAER  S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

deceptive  ;  but  after  twenty  weeks  it  becomes  very  perceptible,  and  frequently  the  calf  may  b« 
felt  on  the  right  Hank  of  the  cow,  which  is  not  the  case  afterward. 

The  period  of  gestation  is  usually  285  days,  or  forty  weeks  and  five  days.  Strong,  healthy  cows 
sometimes  go  a  week  longer  ;  if  with  their  iirst  calf,  a  week  less.  i 

When  cows  are  in  an  advanced  state  of  pregnancy,  they  must  not,  especially  when  stall-fed,  be 
allowed  to  go  out,  excepting  to  the  watering-place;  care  must  also  be  taken  that  they  are  not 
pushed  or  squeezed  by  other  cows  in  leaving  or  entering  the  stall. 

Miscarriages,  or  premature  deliveries,  are  attributed  lo  various  causes.  These  misfortunes  may 
undoubtedly  be  brought  on  by  Ibdder  of  bad  quality,  or  which  has  acquired  an  unpleasant  flavor.  | 
As  to  particular  kinds  of  fodder,  such  as  the  straw  of  buckwheat,  frosted  cabbage-leaves,  or  celery- 
leaves,  I  do  not  think  it  has  been  proved  that  they  cause  these  accidents :  tlie  opinions  of  those 
who  make  this  assertion  appear  tome  to  be  somewhat  prejudiced.  Abortion  and  unfoitinrate  la- 
bors are,  in  animals  as  in  tlie  human  race,  often  epidemic,  and  probably  caused  by  a  peculiar  state 
of  the  atmosphere,  lor  they  sometimes  happen  in  groat  nuiuber  ia  a  particular  country,  without  ' 
our  being  able  to  point  to  any  other  cause  of  general  iuHacnco. 

Nothing  can  be  more  ill-founded  than  the  opinion  of  those  who  pretend  to  facilitate  calving,  par- 
ticularly in  cows  which  have  had  difficult  labors,  by  keeping  them  on  short  allowance  during  the 
last  few  weeks  of  their  pregnancy,  with  a  view  of  diminishing  the  .size  of  the  calf.     It  is  not  the 
soft  fleshy  parts  which  render  parturition  difficult,  but  the  whole  mass  of  the  bones,  and  these  are   ' , 
formed  at  an  earlier  period.     Bad  feeding  deprives  the   cow  of  that  sirenglh  ot Which  she  stands    ', 
so  much  in  need  at  the  time  of  calving,  and  diminishes  the  quantity  of  her  milk.     On  the  contrary,    ' , 
the  food  given  to  the  cow  when  the  time  of  her  calving  is  a|)pi-oachiiig,  should  be  suctulen  ,  easy 
of  digestion,  and  of  small  bulk,  such  as  a  mash  or  soup,  made  of  crushed  grain,  s^'ed.  or  oil-cakes, 
or  leaven  of  rye  mixed  with  water:  some  farmers  strongly   recommend    boiled  lent  Is  for  this   . 
purpose.  Messes  of  this  description  greatly  forward  the  secretion  of  milk  by  stimulating  the  lacteal    , 
vessels:  they  are  therefore  very  useful,  both  at  the  time  of  calving  and  for  a  tew  days  alter,  and 
the  more  so  because  they  enable  us  to  diminish  the  quantity  of  dry  fodder,  and  such  as  have  a  ten- 
dency to  swell. 

The  signs  of  approaching  calving  are  as  follows :  The  udder  becomes  distended,  partially  filled 
with  milk  ;  the  generative  organs  sweU ;  there  are  formed  above  ihe  vertebrce  of  the  tail  two  little 
hollows,  which  gradually  increase  in  depth,  and  yield  to  the  touch;  the  cow  becomes  restless, 
continually  lying  down  and  rising  again ;  often  looks  toviard  her  hinder  parts  and  continues  low- 
ing at  intervals.  She  must  then  be  supplied  with  a  larger  quantity  of  htter  to  protect  the  calf 
from  injury  ;  to  a  certain  extent  also  she  should  be  watched,  In  other  respects  everything  is  left 
to  JSlature.     Some  cows  bring  forth  standing,  others  lying  down. 

The  fore-feet,  on  which  the  head  rests,  are  the  first  to  show  themselves,  and  the  wliole  body 
soon  follows,  being  expelled  by  the  efforts  of  the  mother ;  it  is,  however,  not  as  with  most 
animals,  the  head,  but  the  chest  which  has  the  greatest  difficulty  in  passing.  The  umbilical 
cord  divides  spontaneously  ;  if  not.  it  may  be  tied  a  full  inch  from  the  belly,  and  cut  oft'  an  inch 
lower. 

If  the  calf  is  intended  to  suckle,  it  is  presented  to  the  mother  in  order  that  she  may  lick  it;  if,  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  to  be  habituated  to  drink  milk,  it  is  immediately  to  be  removed  to  the  place  in- 
tended for  it. 

The  after-birth  and  bladder,  fuH  of  Hquid,  in  which  the  calf  was  enclosed  in  its  mother's  body, 
usually  come  away  spontaneously  :  to  favor  their  expulsion  it  is  only  necessary  to  supply  the  cow   , ' 
with  succulent  food,  or  a  mess  containing  starch,  <5cc.  ,  | 

Calving  is  sometimes  attended  with  difficulties,  arising  from  a  bad  position  of  the  calf  in  its   - 
mother's  womb.      This  evil  may  be  greatly  diminished  by  skillful  and  judicious  aid.     The  first    ' 
thing  to  be  done  in  such  a  case  is  to  obtain  an  exact  idea  of  the  position  in  which  the  calf  ought  to    ' , 
be  placed,  and  of  its  actual  deviation  from  that  position.     By  gently  thrusting  the  hand  into  the    ' 
womb  this  deviation  may  not  oidy  be  ascertained,  but  in  most  cases,  corrected  by  turning  the  calf. 
The  usual  cause  of  resistance  is  a  false  position  of  one  of  the  forelegs,  or  the  whole  body,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  ear  or  forehead  shows  itself  first,  instead  of  the  muzzle.  Force  must  no  more 
be  applied  in  this  case  than  it  would  be  to  make  anything  pass  into  the  gullet ;  any  violent  trac- 
tion may  be  fatal,  whereas  Nature  will  assist  if  we  only  give  her  time.     Afl  assistance  given  must 
be  guided  by  discretion  ;  misdirected  aid  may  do  an  infinite  amount  of  mischief  and  is  too  often 
fatal :  this  I'know  from  experience.     As,  however,  this  is  not  the  place  for  teaching  the  obstetric 
art,  I  pass  it  over,  strongly  recommending  all  fanners  who  pay  any  attention  to  their  cattle,  to  avail 
themselves  of  every  opportunity  of  acquiring  information  on  this  matter,  since  in  the  country  it  is    , 
not  always  possible  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  skillful  veterinary  surgeons.      In  other  re.spects,     , 
however,  it  is  best  to  leave  all  to  Nature  and  chance  ;  for  without  proper  knowledge,  we  shall  be 
more  likely  to  kill  the  cow  and  her  calf  than  to  save  her. 

There  are  two  modes  of  nom-ishing  and  rearing  the  calf  during  the  first  period  of  its  life  : 

(a).     To  let  it  suck. 

(i).     To  make  it  drink  milk. 

When  the  former  method  is  adopted,  the  mother  and  calf  are  accustomed  to  it  from  the  birth  of 
the  latter,  by  letting  the  cow  lick  it.  It  is  then  brought,  as  soon  as  it  can  stand,  to  the  udder  of 
the  cow,  and  immediately  begins  to  suck.  The  first  portion  of  milk  possesses  a  purgative  quali- 
ty ;  but  this  is  not  injurious,  but  beneficial  to  the  calf,  for  it  excites  the  irritability  of  the  in- 
testines, and  removes  the  viscous  excrements  which  have  entered  them  from  the  womb  of  the 
mothf;r.  These  excrements  might  be  very  injurious  to  the  calf  if  they  were  to  remain  longer  in 
the  intestines. 

But  there  are  still  two  methods  of  proceeding :  the  one  consists  in  leaving  the  calf  with  its 
mother;  the  other  in  taking  it  to  her  as  often  as  it  ought  to  suck.  The  former  is  the  more  conve- 
nient method;  but  it  is  objectionable — first,  because  the  calf  is  almost  constantly  playing  with  the 
udder :  and  secondly,  because  it  either  sucks  loo  much,  and  exhausts  the  mother,  at  the  same 


BREEDING  OF  CATTLE.  505 


time  over-feeding  itself,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  sucks  too  little,  and  gives  rise  to  deposits  of  milk  • 
besides,  the  calf  is  often  in  danger  of  being  squeezed  to  death  by  its  mother,  or  by  a  neighboring 
cow.  The  other  method,  vs^hich  consists  in  taking  the  calf  to  the  mother  at  regular  intervals  ;  at 
first,  four  or  five  times  a  day,  and  afterward  only  three  times  ;  care  being  taken  each  time  to  no- 
tice whether  it  has  left  any  milk  behind  it,  in  order  that  the  surplus,  if  any,  may  be  drawn  off. 
This  method.  I  say,  is  more  troublesome,  requiring  continued  attention,  in  order  tliat  where  there 
are  several  calves,  none  may  be  neglected  .  but  it  is  safer,  and  more  conducive  both  to  the  health  of 
■  I    the  calf  and  an  abundant  supply  of  milk  in  the  cow,  at  the  time  when  the  calf  is  weaned. 

After  three  week.s,  the  milk  is  often  in-^ufficient  for  the  full  nourishment  of  the  calf  A  kind  of 
soup  may  then  be  given  to  it,  made  of  oil-cake,  coar.se  meal,  bran,  or  ground  corn  ;  potatoes  mash- 
ed in  water  ;  or  an  infusion  of  hay,  with  a  small  quantitj'  of  milk.  The  calf  is  allowed  to  drink  as 
much  of  this  as  it  likes  between  the  meals  which  it  takes  from  its  mother  :  the  remaining  portion 
of  the  food  which  it  has  not  consumed  is  given  to  the  mother.  The  calf  is  thus  gradually  accus- 
tomed to  this  kind  of  food  :  it  is  allowed  to  suck  only  twice  a  day,  and  the  cow  is  milked  once. 
A  quantity  of  very  good  hay  is  also  given  to  the  calf,  which  it  .soon  leanis  to  eat.  Calves  which 
are  to  be  very  carefully  reared,  are  allowed  to  suck  in  this  manner  for  five  or  six  'weeks. 

When  the  calf  is  to  be  totally  weaned,  it  is  removed  as  far  as  po.ssible  from  its  mother,  that 
they  may  not  disturb  one  another  by  their  cries — the  manner  in  which  they  make  known  their  ar- 
dent desire  to  be  reunited — and  that  they  may  forget  each  other  as  soon  as  pos,?ible.  They  must 
be  well  fed,  that  the  calf  may  not  lose  too  much  in  condition  and  the  cow  in  milk  ;  this  loss  is  al- 
ways experienced  in  some  degree  on  accoun:_  of  the  distre.ss  which  the  animals  suffer.  At  the 
same  time  that  the  secretion  of  milk  is  favored  in  this  manner,  the  cow  is  brought  to  allow  herself 
to  be  milked  more  readily,  and  not  to  retain  her  milk. 

If  the  calf  is  intended  to  drink  milk  instead  of  sucking,  it  7nust  vol  be  allowed  to  tonch  the 
mother,  but  must  be  immediately  removed  from  her.  I  do  not  agree  with  those  who  let  the  calf 
suck  for  the  first  two  or  three  days,  and  afterward  accustom  it  to  drink. 

The  calf  learns  to  drink  as  easily  as  to  suck  ;  provided  that,  for  the  first  two  or  three  times,  the 
finger  wetted  with  milk  be  introduced  into  its  mouth,  and  then  its  muzzle  be  thrast  into  the  milk  ; 
it  soon  learns  to  drink  by  itself;  and  I  am  not  aware  of  any  case  in  which  difiiculties  have  been 
met  with  in  this  respect.  The  first  poi-tion  of  milk  is  given  just  as  it  comes  fi-om  the  cow,  or  di- 
luted with  a  little  warm  water.  For  the  first  week,  the  mother's  milk  alone  is  given  to  the  calf 
Afterward  the  milk  is  taken  either  warm  as  it  comes  fi-om  the  udders  of  the  cows,  or  heated  with 
a  little  boiling  watei".  Some  care  mu.st  be  taken  in  feeding  calves  in  this  manner.  A  proper  me- 
dium must  be  observed  with  regard  to  quantity,  so  that  the  calves  may  neither  take  more  nourish- 
ment than  is  proper  for  them,  nor  .suffer  from  deficiency  of  food.  Calves  of  different  ages  must, 
therefore,  be  kept  separate,  and  the  milk  measured  out  to  them  accordingly.  For  the  fir-st  week, 
4  lbs.  per  day  are  sufficient;  8  lbs.  should  be  given  in  the  second  ;  and  121b.s.  in  the  third  :  the  quan- 
tity must,  however,  be  gradually  increased.  The  milk  is  always  given  to  the  calves  in  three  sepa- 
rate portions.  In  the  fourth  week,  the  quantity  of  milk  is  not  increased,  but  liquid  food  is  added 
to  it.  of  the  same  nature  as  that  given  to  sucking  calves.  In  the  fifth  week,  .skimmed  milk  not 
curdled  is  given  to  them  ;  and  they  begin  to  eat  a  little  hay.  Math  potatoes,  beet-root.  &c.  These 
substances,  however,  are  given  in  small  portions  only,  being  put  into  the  manger,  chopped  very 
finely.  In  the  sixth  week,  the  quantity  of  .solid  food  is  increased  ;  and  in  the'seventh,  they  are 
able'to  dispense  with  the  milk  and  soup  ;  if  possible,  however,  a  little  skimmed  milk  is  given  to 
them,  either  sweet  or  curdled.  From  that  time  I  give  them  tiie  same  food  as  the  cows,  viz.,  raw 
potatoes  and  hay,  while  they  are  on  winter  food,  and  afterward  green-meat  of  all  kinds.  When 
they  are  ten  or  twelve  weeks  old  they  are  turned  out  to  grass ;  excepting,  however,  the  castrated 
calves,  wliich  are  usually  left  in  the  stall. 

I  am  aware  that  some  persons  object  to  green-meat  and  pasturage,  apprehending  that  corpu- 
lence and  weakness  of  the  digestive  organs  may  be  thus  produced,  and  accordingly  they  give 
tlieir  calves  nothing  but  very  fine  hay  and  corn  for  the  first  nine  months  ;  but  I  have  never  known 
the  slightest  disadvantage  to  result  from  the  use  of  green  food ;  on  the  contrary,  my  calves  have 
always  continued  very  healthy  upon  it.  There  is,  however,  no  objection  to  the  method  of  feeding 
with  dry  foddei',  provided  the  proper  kinds  can  be  obtained. 

'  As  to  grain,  I  never  gave  any  to  my  calves,  excepting  when  its  price  is  very  low,  as  was  the 
ca.se  in  the  .spring  of  1811. 

The  reasons  advanced  for  allowing  calves  to  suck  instead  of  giving  them  milk  to  drink,  are  not, 
in  my  opinion,  valid.     It  is  said— 

[a).  That  it  is  natural  for  calves  to  suck,  and  unnatural  for  them  to  drink. 

But  our  cows  are  not  in  a  state  of  nature  ;  neither  is  the  end  for  which  we  keep  them  natural. 
Nature  has  given  milk  to  cows  solely  for  the  nourishment  of  their  calves;  but  our  object  is  to 
leave  as  little  as  possible  of  this  milit  for  the  calves,  because  we  wi.?h  to  use  it  in  another  manner. 

{b).  That  we  cannot  milk  the  cow  so  completely  as  the  calf  does  by  sucking. 

A  dairy-maid  drains  the  last  drop  of  milk  from  the  udder  of  the  cow  and  the  four  teats,  better 
than  the  calf  usually  does.  The  calf  either  does  not  suck  excepting  when  it  is  thirsty,  and  does 
not  draw  all  the  milk  contained  in  the  udder,  or  else  it  plays  with  the  teai,  and  takes  only  a  few 
mouthfuls  now  and  then,  leaving  the  thickest  part  of  the  milk  behind.  It  often  accu.stoms' itself  to 
certain  teats  only — to  those  on  one  side,  for  instance ;  and  then  the  others  lose  their  milk  and 
dry  up. 

(c).  That  the  practice  of  feeding  calves  by  giving  them  milk  to  drink  does  not  succeed  in  large 
cow-houses,  because  the  method  cannot  be  pursued  with  all  the  care  and  attention  that  it  requres, 
and  hence,  that  it  can  only  be  usefully  applied  when  the  number  of  animals  is  small.  ' 

This  is  contrarj'  to  experience.      When  calves  are  cla.ssified,  and  fed  according  to  their  ages,    ' 

the  most  exact  order  can  be  observed  in  feeding  them  :  when,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  taken  to    \ 

'    their  mothers  to  suck,  it  is  easy  to  pass  one  of  them  over.     Moreover,  the  taking  of  them  to  their   , 

mothers  occupies  more  time  than  giving  them  milk  to  drink.     If  again,  the  calves  are  to  suck  at   i 

(1177; 


the  lime  when  the  cows  go  out  to  grass,  the  mothers  must  be  kept  in  the  stall,  and  fed  in  a  differ- 
ent manner  from  the  rest. 

Moreover,  ^^■hen  calves  drink  milk  instead  of  sucking,  they  remain  quiet  in  the  stall,  and  are  not 
annoyed  and  distressed  by  being  first  taken  to  their  mothers  and  then  removed.  Milk  given  to 
calves  in  measured  portions,  according  to  their  ages,  does  them  more  good  than  they  would  re-  ' 
ceive  by  sucking  sometimes  a  large  and  sometimes  a  small  quantity.  They  are  not  exposed  to 
indigestion  from  excess  of  nourishment;  experience  show.s,  indeed,  that  calves  fed  in  this  man-  [ 
ner  are  less  subject  to  diaiThcEa  than  those  which  suck.  The  quantity  of  milk  can  also  he  propor- 
tioned to  the  strength  and  appetite  of  each  calf;  whereas,  a  calf  brought  up  at  the  teat  of  its  mother, 
is  either  unable  to  consume  all  her  milk,  or  does  not  find  a  sufficient  quantity. 

The  chief  motive  for  preferring  the  method  of  making  the  calves  drink  is,  that  they  become 
more  easily  and  gradually  accustomed  not  only  to  do  without  milk,  but  also  to  milk  of  inferior 
quality  and  to  a  different  kind  of  food.  Hence,  when  weaned,  they  do  not  fall  off  like  calves  v^'hich  ' 
have  been  used  to  suck.  The  distress  of  the  cow  and  calf  which  they  express  by  long-continued 
lowings,  is  also  spared.  The  cow  is  accustomed  to  being  milked  ;  and  as  this  operation  gives  her, 
from  the  first,  an  agreeable  sensation,  she  willingly  submits  herself  to  the  woman  who  milks  her. 
Lastly,  skimmed  milk  is  more  easily  dispensed  with,  and  thus  a  saving  is  efiected. 

The  only  case  in  which  it  may,  perhnpx,  be  better  to  let  the  calf  suck,  is  when  the  cow  is  suck- 
ling her  first  calf;  because  by  this  means  the  lacteal  vessels  are  more  effectually  opened. 

When  tlie  method  of  giving  milk  to  drink  is  adopted,  the  following  mode  of  proceeding  should 
be  observed. 

It  is  only  for  the  first  few  days  that  the  calf  is  fed  with  its  mother's  milk  :  afterward  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  take  care  that  the  milk  be  taken  from  cows  which  have  most  recently  calved  :  when  the 
calves  ato  three  weeks  old,  they  may  be  fed  with  any  milk,  provided  it  be  good. 

For  the  first  week  it  is  best  to  give  the  milk  at  its  natural  temperature  ;  and  if  it  has  got  cold,  to 
warm  it  again  with  a  little  boiling  water.     Afterward,  the  milk  may  be  given  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture, or  even  quite  cold. 
I        In  whatever  manner  the  calves  are  fed.  great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  them  from  being 
seized  with  diarrhoea,  and  if  they  are  attacked  by  this  malady,  to  check  it  as  quickly  as  possible.  The 
reme<lv  whicli  I  have  found  most  efficacious  is  an  extract  of  rhubarb,  made  with  brandy.      Haifa 
poundof  brandy  is  put  upon  an  ounce   of  rhubarb,  the  mixture  is  exposed  for  fbur-and-twenty 
hoars  to  a  gentle  heat,  and  frequently  shaken.     This  tincture  i.s  then  strained  off,  and  a  spoonful 
of  it  given  twice  a  day  to  the  sick  calf     The  malady  generally  ceases  after  the  calf  has  swallowed 
I     a  few  spoonfuls ;    if  not,  five  drops  of  tincture  of  opium  may  be  added  to  each  dose.     We  must   ' 
then  be  more  cautious  in  letting  the  calf  drink,  and  not  oblige  it  to  do  .so  until  it  has  regained  its   ' 
appetite.     Some  persons  speak  highly  of  a  broth  made  with  lentils  and  acorns,  roasted  like  coffee. 
A  calf  which  has  had  good  nourishment  during  the  first  year  of  its  life,  may  in  the  second  be  fed 
more  sparingly,  and  on  less  abundant  pasturage ;  provided,  however,  that  the  saving  be  not  car- 
ried so  far  as  to  cau.se  the  animal  to  become  lean  and  sickly. 

During-  the  third  year's  winter,  it  may  he  fed  upon  good  chopped  straw,  mixed  with  a  little  hay. 
A  youui?  cow  in  calf  for  the  first  time  must  have  better  fodder,  and  both  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  her  food  must  be  increased  as  she  approaches  the  termination  of  her  pi'egnancy. 

Many  persons  do  not  consider  it  profitable  to  rear  cattle  ;  they  estimate  the  expense  of  bringing 
up  a  cow  at  a  higher  rate  than  the  purchase  of  good  cattle.  Many  rural  establishments,  indeed, 
are  not  adapted  for  the  rearing  of  young  cattle  ;  this  is  the  case,  for  instance,  where  cows  are 
taken  in  singly  for  a  fixed  sum.  To  me,  however,  it  appears  that  the  uniformity  of  breed  which 
■we  obtain  by  "rearing  cattle  ourselves  is  so  valuable,  that  I  should  recommend  the  practice,  even 
when  it  actually  costs  more  than  purchasing.  But  I  do  not  think  that  this  will  be  the  case  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  or  unless  there  should  be  an  opportunity  of  selling  the  milk  fresh  aird  at  a 
high  price. 

When  we  know  the  annual  return  which  a  cow  yields,  we  calculate  as  follows:  for  the  first 
(  two  years,  a  calf  costs  at  most  half  as  much  as  a  cow  ;  and  in  the  third  year,  making  even  large 
allowance,  the  same  sum  as  a  cow  ;  so  that  the  whole  expen.se  is  equal  to  that  of  two  cows  for  a 
year  :  now  it  is  rarely  possible  to  purchase  a  young  cow,  without  blemish,  for  less  than  this.  The 
advantages  of  having  cattle  accustomed  to  a  certain  mode  of  treatment  and  a  cei-tain  pasturage 
are  well  kno\\-n,  and  they  are  greater  in  proportion  to  the  inferiority  of  the  pasturage. 

If  we  do  not  intend  to  rear  the  calve.s,  we  must  endeavor  to  get  rid  of  them  as  soon  as  possible, 
that  we  may  have  the  advantage  of  the  milk.  \ 

The  fattening  of  calves  can  be  profitable  in  particular  circumstances  only — where  good  calves  , 
are  bought  at  high  prices  for  consumption  in  large  towns,  and  where,  also,  notwithstanding  the  , 
vicinity  of  these  towns,  there  is  no  better  way  of  disposing  of  the  milk,  either  by  selling  it  in  its  / 
natural  state,  making  it  into  butter  and  cheese,  or  using  it  in  any  other  way.  < 

Calves  are  fattened  in  two  ways : 

(a).  On  milk  alone.  This  mode  of  feeding  always  produces  the  best  and  whitest  meat,  and  is 
I  likewise  more  easy  of  application  than  any  other.  For  calves  which  are  to  be  fattened,  the  prac- 
I  tice  of  suckling  is  attended  with  fewer  inconveniences,  because  they  are  sold  immediately  after 
'  being  weaned."  But  when  a  large  number  are  fattened  at  once,  they  must  be  taken  to  their  moth- 
ers or  nurses  at  stated  hours.  It  is  necessary  to  accustom  some  of  the  cows  to  suckle  calves  which 
are  not  their  own  ;  some  will  do  so  without  resistance.  The.se  cows  may  be  used  as  nurses  as  long 
as  their  milk  continues,  and,  if  well  fed,  may  thus  be  made  to  yield  a  larger  return  than  otherwise  ; 
but  they  become  quite  unfit  for  milking.  When  fatted  calves  have  attained  the  age  of  eight  or 
twelve  "weeks,  their  mother's  milk  is  often  insufficient  for  fattening  them  completely  :  recourse  is 
then  had  to  other  cows  as  nurses.  ,    .       •„         ,    ^  j 

(b).  By  food  of  a  different  nature,  given  to  them  first  in  addition  to  their  milk,  and  afterward 

In  this  case,  all  sorts  of  mashes  ai-e  provided  for  them,  made  from  linseed,  cakes  of  linseed,  oat- 


L 


(1178) 


meal  gruel,  boiled  potatoes  or  turnips,  and  eggs ;  sometimes,  also,  with  old  white  bread  which  has 
remained  unsold  at  bakers'  shops,  and  may  be  obtained  at  a  low  price.  These  mashes  are  given 
to  the  calves  either  alone  or  mixed  with  milk.  In  many  parts  of  the  country,  and  even  in  towns, 
there  are  persons  who  make  a  trade  of  fattening  calves,  and  buy  them  very  young  ibi  this  pur- 
pose.    To  the  farmer  this  mode  of  fattening  calves  is  only  of  secondary  importance. 

The  age  of  horned-cattle  cannot  be  determined  by  their  teeth  with  the  same  accuracy  as  that  of 
horses  and  sheep.  Of  the  eight  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  the  calf  brings  with  him  into  the 
world,  or  acquires  very  .soon  after,  the  two  middle  ones  are  usually  shed  between  the  twelfth  and 
eighteenth  month,  and  replaced  by  larger  ones.  After  the  second  year,  the  next  two  teeth  are 
changed  in  a  similar  manner,  and  so  on  c-very  year.  If  the  calves  are  very  well  fed,  this  change 
goes  on  rapidly ;  if  not,  it  is  retarded  ;  and,  generally  speaking,  the  course  of  nature  is  le.ss  regular 
in  horned-cattle  than  in  other  animals,  and  consequently,  in  young  animals  of  this  class,  the  indica- 
tions of  the  teeth  are  very  deceptive. 

It  is  a  more  general  practice  to  look  to  the  horns  for  indications  of  age  ;  but  the  information  which 
they  furnish  is  likewise  rather  vague.  In  oxen,  the  lower  ring,  that  which  is  nearest  to  the  root  of 
the  horn,  makes  its  appearnce  in  the  tifth  year :  in  cows,  this  ring  .shows  itself  after  they  have  borne 
their  first  calf;  after  that,  a  new  ring  is  formed  every  year,  and  pushes  the  second  forward.  Young 
cattle  do  not  shed  their  horns  and  acquire  new  ones,  as  is  staled  in  a  manual  of  the  economy  of  live 
stock  lately  published.  Some  persons  profess  to  have  observed  that  cows  do  not  acquire  a  distinct 
ring  unless  they  have  calved  during  the  year ;  but  that,  in  such  a  case,  the  space  between  the  rings 
is  proportionally  larger.  When  they  miscarry,  we  may  expect  the  ring  to  be  less  distinct.  I  think 
I  have  observed  this  in  some  mstauces,  but  I  do  not  regard  it  as  an  invariable  rule.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  a  regular  disposition  of  the  rings  is  a  characteristic  mark  of  a  cow  which  has  always 
been  a  good  breeder,  and  that  in  one  which  has  been  sickly  the  rings  vary  both  in  strength  and  dis- 
tance. In  old  animals  the  rings  are  not  very  distinct ;  indeed,  they  can  scarcely  been  counted. — 
The  h<jrns,  which  at  first  are  strong  at  the  root,  and  get  gradually  thinner  at  the  extremities,  be- 
come, after  the  ninth  or  tenth  year,  thicker  at  top  than  at  bottom.  Other  marks  of  more  advanced 
age  are,  a  deepening  of  the  cavity  above  the  eyes — also  a  deepening  of  the  hind  quarters,  increased 
size  of  the  hoofs,  and  the  growth  of  white  hair  about  the  eyes.  The  latter  may,  however,  be  an  m- 
dividual  peculiarity. 

Feeding  of  Cattle. 

The  feeding  of  cattle  is  divided  into  summer  and  winter  feeding.  We  shall  first  speak  of  win- 
ter I'eediug. 

Tlie  wniter  food  of  cattle  usually  consists  of  dry  fodder,  hay  and  straw.    The  proportions  in 
whicii  these  two  kinds  of  fodder  are  given  are    very  variable,  depending  on  tiie  meaus  and  cir- 
cumstances of  the  rural  establishment.     Cattle  are  sometimes  fed  on  straw  alone  during  winter;    / 
but  when  reduced  to  this  food,  they  not  only  become  unprofitable,  but  likewise  diminish  to  the  last    / 
degree  in  flesh  and  strength.     In  some  instances,  this  etfect  lias  not  been  observed  to  result  from    , 
straw-feeding  ;  but  in  such  cases,  the  straw  has  been  mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  other  kinds 
of  grass,  or  some  portion  of  grain  has  remained  in  the  ear:  it  is  well  kaown,  indeed,  that  in  some 
rural  establishments,  the  straw,  especially  that  of  oats,  is  for  this  purpose  not  wholly  deprived  of 
the  grain  which  it  contains.     When  no  description  of  hay  can  be  obtained   for  feeding  the  cows, 
it  is  usual  to  give  them  all  kinds  of  refuse,  independently  of  the  husk  of  earn  and  the  residue  of  the 
grain ;  and  when  they  are  near  calving,  a  mash,  composed  of  meal,  bruised  corn,  oil-cakes,  or  oth- 
er matters  of  a  similar  nature,  are  provided,  to  keep  up  their  strength  a  little. 

It  is  only  the  straw  of  plants  which  bear  a  great  quantity  of  leave.?,  such  as  peas,  vetches,  hari- 
icots,  lentils  and  buckwheat,  that  contains  a  larger  supply  of  nourishment.  Its  nutritive  power  is 
in  proportion  to  the  greenness  of  the  crop  when  mown.  Millet  and  maize  straw,  when  properly 
prepared,  likewise  belong  to  the  more  nutritious  class. 

Among  the  ordinary  corn-straw,  that  of  wheat  is  undoubtedlj'  best  adapted  for  fodder ;  next  in 
value  is  the  straw  of  oats  and  barley,  which  is  also,  generally  speaking,  more  abundant  in  leaves ; 
the  least  nourishing  of  all  is  that  of  full-growu  rye. 

But  it  is  more  common  to  give  straw  mixed  with  hay.  The  feed  of  cattle  is  usually  considered 
good,  when  1000  lbs.  of  hay  can  be  allowed  to  each  animal  during  winter,  making  about  6  lbs.  per 
day ;  this  quantity,  however,  is  not  distributed  weekly  over  the  whole  winter  season,  but  saved, 
tor  ihe  most  part,  till  the  time  of  calving  ;  8  or  10  lbs.  per  day  is  considered  as  good  feed.  Itis  cer- 
tain, however,  that  an  ordinary  sized  cow,  which  receives  no  other  nourishing  food,  ought  to  have 
1-2  lbs.  of  hay  per  day  to  keep  her  in  perfect  health :  and  20  lbs.  if  she  is  also  required  to  yield  a 
good  su[>ply  of  milk.  A  large  cow  requires  20  lbs.  p.er  day ;  and  if  she  gives  milk,  and  we  wish 
to  keep  up  the  supply,  she  ought  to  have  30  lbs.  When  onl_^  a  small  quantity  of  hay  is  given 
is  mixed  aud  cut  up  with  straw. 

For  winter  leeding,  it  is  almost  universally  thought  necessary  to  chop  the  straw.  The  chopped 
straw  is  divided  into  sche+Fels,  one  of  which,  coarsely  divided  for  horned-cattle,  weighs  about  9  lbs., 
taking  the  straw  of  spring  and  autumn  corn  together.  Eor  an  ordinary  native  cow,  from  three- 
quarters  to  one  scheffel  per  day  is  thought  sufficient. 

The  cutting  of  straw  requires  considerable  labor.  With  an  ordinary  machine,  of  the  largest  size 
It  is  calculated  that  a  man  can  chop  36  scheft'els  per  day,  but  not  very  finely.  Various  machines 
have,  however,  been  invented,  by  means  of  which  a  man  can  get  through  double  or  triple  the  quan 
tity,  without  more  trouble.  Their  mechanism  is  so  contrived  that  the  straw  is  pushed  forward  by 
cylinders,  which,  at  each  cut,  present  a  certain  length  of  it  to  the  knife.  The  knives,  or  blades,  are 
of  the  usual  form,  but  larger;  and  as  the  workman  can  devote  his  whole  time  and  strength  to  the 
raising  and  lowering  of  die  knife,  he  can  make  twice  as  many  cuts  in  the  same  time,  and  put  mor 
force  into  them.  In  this  manjier,  provided  that  care  has  been  taken  to  place  the  box  a  little  higher 
than  usual,  each  cut  will  furnish  about  a  third  more  of  chopped  straw.  Sometimes  the  blades  are 
iixed  to  a  wheel,  the  circumference  of  which  is  loaded  in  order  to  give  it  greater  momentum  ;  when 
(1179^ 


508  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

its  inertia  has  been  once  overcome,  it  merely  requires  to  be  kept  moving  to  do  all  the  work.  — 
'  Sometimes  only  one  blade  is  attached  to  this  wheel ;  sometimes  there  are  two  or  three.  A  ma- 
chine brought  t'rom  England,  which  had  three  knives,  and  was  well  made,  could  not,  on  account 
of  its  great  friction,  be  kept  in  action  by  one  man  -,  and  when  the  knives  were  blunted,  two  men 
'  were  not  sufficient  to  move  it.  The  one-bladed  machine  is  generally  prefen-ed  Karsteii,  of  Kos- 
tock,  lias  given  in  the  "  Annalen  des  Ackerbaues,"  Iller.  Band.  S.  507,  the  description  ot  such  a 
machine,  made  according  to  Lester's  model,  and  with  the  improvements  devised  by  himself.  This 
machine  is  well  executed  at  Rostock,  by  M.  Haak,  and  at  present,  also,  at  Berlin,  by  Schulz,  the 
mechanist,  who  sells  it  for  50  rix-dollars.  In  rural  establishments  of  considerable  magnitude  large 
machines  of  this  kind  are  also  used  ;  they  are  set  in  motion  by  draught  cattle,  or  even  by  wind  or 
water,  and  produce  a  large  quantity  of  chopped  straw  in  a  short  time.  But  all  these  machines,  es- 
pecially the  more  complicated,  are  liable  to  this  defect,  that  something  or  other  in  them  is  apt  to 
get  deranged  or  broken,  and  in  the  couniry  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  man  capable  of  repairing  the 
mischief  Accordingly,  I  have  known  cases  in  which  persoi.s,  after  laying  aside  the  ordinary  ma- 
chines, have  been  thrown  into  great  embarrassment  by  such  accidents  with  the  larger  ones,  and 
have  in  consequence  become  so  disgusted  with  them  that  they  have  put  them  on  one  side,  without 
making  any  fariher  use  of  them.  But  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  mechanical  knowledge  required 
for  constructing  or  repairing  a  machine  of  this  kind,  will  soon  be  generally  diS'used. 

^^''hen  cattle  are  sparingly  fed,  and  straw  is  mixed  with  hay,  for  the  purpose  of  making  them 
eat  as  much  as  possible  of  the  former,  and  thus  making  u.se  of  the  small  quantity  of  nutriineut  con- 
tained in  it  to  deaden  the  sensation  of  hunger,  the  culling  of  the  straw  is  indispensable  ;  but  when 
they  are  well  fed,  I  regard  this  operation  as  (juite  superiiuous.  The  quantity  of  nutriment  iii  the 
straw  is  not  increased  by  it  in  the  slightest  degree  :  on  the  contrary,  the  cattle  pick  out  tlie  nutri- 
tive portions  much  better  from  straw  vvhicii  has  not  been  cut.  It  is  proper,  therefore,  always  to 
give  them  the  kind  of  straw  which  is  used  tor  litter.  As  to  good  hay,  animals  eat  the  whole  of  it, 
even  though  uncut.  If  the  cattle  are  not  hungry,  they  likewise  pick  out  the  best  portion  ot  tlie  cut 
straw,  and  blow  away  the  rest.  We  have  then  the  trouble  of  removing  from  the  manger  a  quanti- 
ty of  straw  which  has  been  cut  at  considerable  expense. 

Feeding  with  grain,  whether  used  as  a  substitute  tor  hay,  or  as  supplementary  to  it,  cannot  be 
adopted  on  the  large  .scale  with  anj'  advantage,  unless  the  price  of  milk  be  very  high,  or  that  of 
grain  vevy  low.  It  is  certain,  indeed,  that  a  lew  pounds  of  grain  per  day  considerably  increase 
the  quantity  of  milk ;  and  when  we  have  nothing  else  to  give  to  the  cattle,  grain  may  be  used  wiih 
advantage  for  this  purpose  ;  but  it  is  the  dearest  of  all  kinds  of  fodder.  Moreover,  milk  and  butter 
produced  from  grain  alone  are  of  bad  quality,  rather  cheesy  than  rich,  and  have  an  unpleasant 
flavor. 

Grain,  when  given  to  animals  in  its  natural  state,  often  passes  through  their  bodies  undigested : 
it  is,  therefore,  usually  ground;  but  this  operation  is  attended  with  considerable  loss,  unless  we 
have  a  mill  of  our  own,  moved  either  by  hand  or  by  water.  This  operation  may,  however,  be  dis- 
pensed Willi,  if  the  grain,  before  it  is  given  to  the  cattle,  be  soaked  either  in  warm  or  cold  water,  or 
else  prepared  like  malt.  The  development  of  the  saccharine  principle  by  the  latter  process  consid- 
erably improves  the  grain,  and  renders  the  milk  of  better  quality.  The  best  kind  of  grain  for  milch 
cows  is  oats :  great  benefit  is  ascribed  to  a  mixture  of  oats  and  tares,  previou.siy  well  ground.  Bar- 
ley is  more  likely  than  other  kinds  of  grain  to  produce  white,  cheesy  milk,  and  the  butler  produced 
fi-om  it  is  apt  to  acquire  a  bitter  taste. 

Sittings  if  grain,  bran  (whether  of  the  large,  middling,  or  small  kind),  mill-dust,  and  the  residue 
ot  cleansed  oats  and  barley,  are  most  frequently  used  for  feeding  cattle. 

All  these  kinds  of  grain  refuse  should  be  mixed  either  with  cut  .straw,  or,  what  is  better,  in  the 
ma.sh.     In  winter,  the  latter  method  makes  the  cattle  more  inclined  to  drink. 

We  must  here  speak  of  the  refuse  of  the  brewery.  This  food  has  a  very  favorable  influence 
on  the  milk :  the  proprietors  of  small  cow-houses  find  it  very  profitable  to  buy  the  refuse  of  the 
brewer.s.  As  it  can  be  obtained  at  a  very  cheap  rate  in  summer  from  town  brewers  who  do  not 
keep  their  own  cattle,  we  endeaver  to  keep  it  in  trenches,  which,  when  quite  full,  are  closed 
with  a  covering,  on  which  earth  is  thrown  :  the  residue  is  thus  preserved  till  winter. 

The  refuse  of  the  brandy  distilleiy  cannot  be  better  employed  than  for  feeding  cows  ;  provided, 
however,  that  we  have  a  ready  sale  for  our  dairy  produce.  It  is  either  poured  into  the  mangers 
on  cut  fodder,  by  means  of  pipes  fixed  for  the  purpose  in  stalls  expressly  adapted  for  it ;  or  given 
in  the  form  of  mash  mixed  wiiii  water.  The  sooner  it  is  used  the  better;  for  if  it  become  acid 
even  in  the  slightest  degree,  it  will  have  a  bad  effect  on  the  milk.  It  is  best,  therefore,  to  cool  it 
with  water  as  soon  as  it  is  taken  out  of  the  still.  This  kind  of  food  must,  however,  be  regarded  on- 
ly as  an  accessory,  and  given  in  moderate  quantities ;  for  when  used  to  excess,  it  injures  ihe  health 
of  the  cows.  The  quantity  given  to  a  fatted  ox  must  be  divided  between  at  least  four  cows.'  The 
residue  of  the  brandy  distillery  also  imparls  a  disagreeable  flavor  to  milk. 

A  very  atientive  farmer  used  to  complain  that  his  calves  became  sickly,  that  their  flesh  stuck  to   i 
■  r;>iu   onrl  ilipv  (\\pA      Hfi  thinks  with  me.  that  the  evil  arose  from  the  mothers  haviuer  eaten    ' 


their  ribs,  and  they  died.     He  thinks  with  me,  that  the  evil  arose  from  the  mothers  having  eaten 
too  much  distillers'  refuse.  i 

Finally,  oil-cakes  (the  residue  of  the  manufacture  of  oil),  especially  those  made  of  linseed,  have 
a  very  good  effect.     The  best  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  put  them  into  the  mash ;  in  which,  ho  wev-   \ 
,     er,  they  should  be  well  mixed  up.     This  is  effected  as  follows:— A  vertical  division  is  made  in  the    , 
i     pail  with  boards,  in  which  a  number  of  small  holes  are  pierced  with  an  auger;  the  partition  is  so   , 
i     placed  that  the  smaller  space  shall  occupy  a  third  of  the  whole.     In  this  space  the  cake  and  water  i ' 
are  placed,  and  frequently  stirred.     The  liquid  is  then  transferred  to  the  other  division,  into  which 
there  cannot  pass  a  single  morsel  of  solid  cake,  but  only  the  mashed  portions-     The  oil-cake  mixes 
gradually  with  the  water  which  is  added  to  it;  care  must  therefore  be  taken  to  add  afresh  portion 
from  time  to  lime.     This  renders  the  mash  particulai-ly  agreeable  to  cattle,  and  evidently  increases 
the  secretion  of  the  milk. 
Bad  linseed,  crushed  and  boiled  in  water,  forms  a  very  nourishing  drink  for  milch  cows.     Spuny- 

(1180) 


r 


FEEDING  OP  CATTLE.  509 


seed  is  also  used  for  this  purpose ;  not,  however,  boiled,  but  merely  swelled  with  warm  water. 
It  is  recommended  as  one  of  the  most  substantial  kinds  of  food  for  milch  cows. 

One  of  the  best  kinds  of  food  for  horned-cattle,  and  particularly  for  cows,  and  which  completely 
supplies  the  place  of  a  portion  of  hay  during  winter — consists  of  roots,  such  as  potatoes,  mangel- 
wurzel,  cabbage-turnips,  transplanted  turnips,  ruta-bagas,  common  turnips,  carrots,  and  parsnips. 
These  roots  must  not.  however,  be  valued  at  their  market  price,  which  is  often  determined  by  ac- 
cident, but  according  to  the  outlay  necessary  for  obtaining  them  by  cultivation  ;  it  is  rare  indeed 
that  these  plants  can  be  disposed  of  in  the  market  in  large  quantities ;  and  if  by  chance  a  high 
price  toward  spring  time  should  favor  such  a  mode  of  disposing  of  part  of  them,  the  occuiTence 
must  be  regarded  as  merely  casual. 
^  In  the  former  part  of  this  work  I  have  spoken  of  the  nutritive  power  of  these  vegetables  and 
their  value  as  compared  with  thatof  hay  ;  and  of  the  average  produce  of  them  which  may  be  ex- 
pected from  a  well-cultivated  soil ;  I  have  also  spoken  of  it  more  at  length  elsewhere,  when 
describing  the  culture  of  each  of  these  plants.  Subsequent  observations  have  convinced  me  that 
the  proportional  nutritive  power  there  ascribed  to  them  is  determined  with  as  much  precision  as 
we  can  at  present  attain.     It  remains,  therefore,  only  to  speak  of  the  mode  of  using  them. 

These  vegetables  are  used  either  raw  or  boiled.  The  boiling  of  potatoes  is  now  performed  by 
steam  in  almost  all  places  where  it  is  conducted  on  a  large  scale,  because  this  method  not  only 
produces  a  saving  of  wood,  but  also  ensures  the  proper  degree  of  boiling.  The  best  apparatus  for 
this  purpose  is  now  well  known,  in  consequence  of  the  almo.st  universal  introduction  of  the  distilla- 
tion of  brandy  from  potatoes.  It  consists  of  a  brandy  still  of  the  usual  form,  which,  like  most  of 
those  of  the  recent  manufacture,  has  no  capital,  but  only  a  long  neck,  like  that  of  a  retort,  from 
which  the  vapor  is  transferred  through  a  tube  into  the  vessel  containing  the  potatoes.  The  latter 
is  an  upright  cask,  into  whose  lower  part  is  fixed  a  false  bottom,  pierced  with  holes,  to  allow  the 
'\  escape  of  the  water  condensed  in  the  vessel.  The  steam-pipes  are  introduced  into  :his  cask,  care 
I  being  taken  to  keep  the  lid  well  closed,  and  also  the  door,  which  is  usually  placed  at  the  side. 
,  The  water  in  the  still  is  then  made  to  boil,  and  the  potatoes  become  cooked  to  the  proper  degree 
,    in  a  much  shorter  time  than  they  would  by  being  boiled  in  water. 

It  has  not  yet  been  decided  by  comparative  experiments  whether,  or  to  what  extent,  root-crops,    i 
and  especially  potatoes,  are  improved  for  cattle  by  boiling.     Experiments  on  a  small  scale  seem,     ' 
however,  to  show  that  the  diflFerence  is  not  considerable,  and  does  not  compensate  for  the  expense    / 
of  the  operation,  how  strongly  soever  this  method  may  be  recommended  by  theory  and  analogy.     It 
is  easily  seen  that  cattle  eat  vegetables  in  the  raw  state  with  as  much,  and  ultimately  with  more 
pleasure,  than  those  which  are  boiled.     It  is  only  when  potatoes  are  given  in  very  large  quantities, 
which  is  the  case  with  fatted  cattle,  that  boiling  may  be  advantageous,  by  diminishing  the  laxa- 
tive property  which  these  vegetables  certainly  exhibit  when  eaten  in  considerable  quantities.     It 
is  probably  for  this  reason  that  many  persons,  particularly  in  England,  who  keep  cattle  in  large 
numbers,  recommend  boiled  potatoes  for  fatted  oxen,  and  raw  ones  for  milch  cows.    We  shall 
hereafter  speak  of  feeding  on  mashes  or  soups,  and  the  use  of  root-crops  for  this  purpose. 

These  vegetables  should  be  cut  in  pieces,  which  is  done  on  the  small  scale  with  a  knife  .shaped 
like  an  S,  made  expressly  for  the  purpose ;  and  on  the  large  scale  by  means  of  various  cutting- 
machines.     Several  machines  have  been  invented  for  this  purpose  ;  the  one  best  known  .consists 
('   of  a  strong,  solid  wheel,  armed  with  three  blades,  and  composed  of  three  triangular  pieces  of 
'   wood,  joined  together  to  prevent  the  passage  of  the  roots.     This  wheel  turns  upon  an  axle  in   } 
front  of  a  box,  in  which  the  roots  are  placed,  and  cuts  them  as  tliey  are  presented  to  it.     The  im-   { 
I     petus  with  which  the  wheel  moves  facilitates  the  labor  so  much,  that  a  weak  person  may  perform    ( 
it.     The  blades  are  straight,  and  cut  the  roots  in  the  form  of  disks ;    or  they  have  an  undulating   C 
edge,  and  cut  them  into  small,  elongated  pieces.     The  latter  effect  has  also  been  obtained  by  other   I 
cutting  pieces  placed  across.     In  my  opinion  it  is  quite  sufficient  that  the  roots  be  cut  into  disks 
or  fiat  slices ;  and  this  is  even  preferable,  because  small  pieces  easily  adhere  together,  or  become 
blackened,  and  ferment  when  left  for  some  time  in  that  state.      Cattle  certainly  eat  them  more 
willingly  when  they  are  but  coarsely  divided ;    very  minute  division,  indeed,  cannot  be  of  any 
use,  excepting  to  prevent  the  animals  from  being  swelled  up.     Curved  edges  are  also  more  quickly 
blunted,  and  more  difficult  to  sharpen. 

I  am  still  less  disposed  to  admit  the  utility  of  those  machines  which  reduce  the  roots,  either  raw     ' 
or  boiled,  to  a  semi-fluid  consistence  :  they  are  only  useful  for  the  distillation  of  brandy  and  other 
\    preparations  made  with  these  roots. 

In  constructing  machines  which  mash  the  roots  in  this  manner,  the  object  in  view  is  to  mix  them 

better  with  cut  straw,  so  as  to  compel  the  cattle  more  effectually  to  eat  the  latter;  but  experience 

has  quite  altered  my  opinion  on  this  point;   in  short,  I  have  seen  cattle  which  had  been  well  fed, 

'    and  had  therefore  become  rather  dainty,  constantly  endeavor  to  separate  the  cut  straw  from  the 

'    pieces  of  root,  and  get  rid  of  the  latter  by  blowing  upon  them  before  they  went  on  with  their 

meal.      T  therefore  have  the  roots  given  to  them  separately,  and  I  find  that  they  eat  straw  much 

more  willingly  when  put  before  them  whole,  soon  after  they  have  eaten  the  roots,  than  that  which 

'     is  cut  for  the  purpose  of  making  them  swallow^  it  together  with  the  roots. 

A  mixture  of  several  kinds  of  roots,  or  the  use  of  them  one  after  the  other,  appears  to  me  to  be 
very  ailvantageous.  The  several  kinds  of  turnip,  which  contain  a  greater  quantity  of  saccharine 
matter,  are  certainly  an  improvement  to  potatoes,  which,  on  the  other  hand,  are  more  farinaceous ; 
I  the  milk  becomes  sweeter  in  consequence,  and  acquires  a  better  flavor  ;  moreover,  the  cattle  like 
th«  change.  But  the  preservation  of  turnips  till  spring  is  much  more  difficult  than  that  of  pota- 
■  toes ;  and  hence  there  is  positive  reason  for  having  the  turnips  consumed  first,  the  potatoes  being 
reserved  for  use  at  a  later  part  of  the  season. 

However  nouri.shing  and  advantageous  these  vegetables  may  be,  we  must  not  venture  to  use 
them  long  as  the  sole  food  of  milch  cows.      A  due  proportion  of  dry  fodder  should  always  be 
added.     It  is  true  that  the  addition  of  a  quantity  of  unmixed  straw  may  be  sufficient,  and  the  cat- 
tle will  eat  it  with  avidity.      But  cows  thrive  best,  and  yield  the  greatest  quantity  of  milk,  whe 
(1181) 


part  of  their  food  consists  of  hay.  Other  cultivators  as  well  as  myself  have  foaiid  that  when  cat 
tie  are  partly  fed  ou  potatoes,  it  is  best  to  g^ive  them  half  their  feed  in  hay  and  half  in  roots,  the 
quantity  of  the  latter  being  regulated  according  to  their  nutritive  powers.  When,  for  instance,  a 
cow  fed  solely  on  hay,  wouldrequire  20  lbs.  of  that  substance,  we  may  giv^e  her  10  lbs.  of  hay, 
and  make  up  the  quantity  with  20  lbs.  of  potatoes,  46  lbs.  of  mangel-wurzel,*  35  lbs.  of  Swedish 
turnips,  or  52  lbs.  of  common  turnips.  When  cows  eat  potatoes,  the  hay  contributes  greatl3'  to 
improve  their  milk ;  for  when  they  have  nothing  but  potatoes  and  straw,  the  milk  produces  a 
white,  cheese-like  butter,  very  apt  to  acquire  a  bitter  taste,  as  is  the  case  when  cows  are  fed  upon 
meal.t 

When  one  kind  of  food  is  to  be  substituted  for  another,  T  have  always  found  it  important  to  i 
make  the  change  gradually.  If,  for  example,  cattle  have  been  fed  for  a  long  time  exclusively  on 
beet-root,  and,  this  kind  of  food  being  almost  exhausted,  we  are  about  to  substitute  potatoes  for  it, 
it  is  proper,  in  order  to  prevent  the  cows  from  falling  off  in  their  milk,  to  feed  them  for  a  v\eek  on 
beet  mixed  with  potatoes,  the  quantity  of  the  latter  being  gradually  increased ;  for  although  the 
cattle  like  the  change,  still  they  get  so  much  attached  to  a  particular  kind  of  food  to  which  they 
have  been  accustomed,  that  they  do  not  abandon  it  suddenly  without  regret ;  the  effect  of  the 
change  is  first  seen  in  a  diminution  of  the  quantity  of  milk. 

The  method  of  giving  food  in  the  form  of  mash  or  soup  has  been  very  generally  extolled,  both 
from  theoretical  and  practical  considerations,  as  being  well  adapted  to  develop  the  nulritive  prin- 
ciples. Tt  is  generally  adopted  in  many  countries,  particularly  in  small  rural  e.'stablishments, 
where  creat  attention  is  paid  to  the  management  of  milch  cows.  Boiling  water  is  poured,  either  . 
alone  or  mixed  with  some  nutritive  substance,  on  the  cut  fodder ;  the  mixture  is  then  brewed  and  \ 
;?iven  to  the  cattle,  after  it  has  cooled  a  little.  Roots,  or  some  other  farinaceous  substance,  like  , 
tliose  already  spoken  of  may  then  be  boiled  in  water,  and  more  intimately  mixed  with  the  cut 
stra'A-.  I  oiice  tried  this  kind  of  food  for  t\^"0  vs'inters  on  twelve  or  fourteen  milch  cows,  making 
up  the  total  quantity  required  with  roots  and  cabbages  boiled  in  water,  and  obtained  a  quantity 
of  milk  much  greater  than  I  could  have  expected.  The  food  was  prepared  twice  a  day,  in  two 
tubs,  in  the  morning  for  the  noon  and  evening  meal,  and  in  the  evening  for  that  of  the  following  ' 
morning,  otherwise  the  liquid  would  not  be  sufficiently  cool.  But  though  the  vessels  were  fre- 
quently washed  with  lye,  I  could  not  prevent  the  occurrence  of  acidity  during  the  slow  cooling. 
This  acidity,  when  slight,  did  no  harm  ;  but  when  it  became  stronger  in  consequence  of  high  tem- 
perature, it  made  the  food  very  unpleasant,  so  that  none  of  the  cattle,  excepting  those  which  were 
vers-  hungry,  would  touch  it.  Moreover,  I  found,  in  the  en,9uing  summer,  that  my  cattle  were 
weakened,  and  that  their  digestive  powers  were  impaired  ;  and  I  lost,  during  the  time  of  feeding 
on  s-reen-meat,  more  tha.n  I  had  gained  during  the  winter.  1  therefore  abandoned  this  mode  of 
feedins-,  which  was  likewise  very  troublesome.  I  do  not  think  that  it  can  well  be  adopted  in 
lartre  establishments,  or  anywhere,  indeed,  excepting  in  small  concerns  where  only  three  or  four 
milch  cows  are  kept,  and  the  water  can  be  waraied  in  pans ;  and  farther.  I  think  that  it  is  fit  only 
for  cov.'s  from  which  we  wish  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  return  for  a  time,  and  get  rid  of  them 
afterward. 

The  mixture  already  mentioned,  of  the  refuse  of  the  brandy  distillery,  while  yet  warm,  with  cut 
straw,  mav  be  con.sidered  as  a  kind  of  mash  or  soup. 

In  winter,  cow.s  should  be  induced  to  drink  a  great  deal.  They  will  not  drink  very  cold  wa- 
ter, unless  compelled  by  excessive  thirst,  but  tepid  water  they  drink  much  more  willingly.  They 
may,  however,  be  easily  induced  to  drink  by  simply  mixing  a  small  quantity  of  farinaceous  mat- 
ter "with  the  water;  the  oil-cake  already  spoken  of  is  particularly  well  adapted  for  this  purpose. 
Cattle  should  not  be  made  to  drink  immediately  after  their  meals,  but  in  the  intervals. 

It  is  of  great  importance,  in  giving  food  and  drink  to  cattle,  to  observe  regularly  the  hours  to 
which  they  are  accustomed,  and  to  give  them  at  each  time  the  kind  of  food  which  they  are  in  the    / 
habit  of  receiving.      At  the  beginning  of  the  time  of  winter  feeding,  the  arrangement  maybe    <| 
made  in  almost  any  way  ;   but  when  once  fixed,  it  .should  be  adhered  to.    Tn  my  e.stablishment,    i| 
the  winter  feeding'has  usually  been  arranged  as  follows:  Early  in  the  morning  the  cows  are  fed     \ 
with  cut  straw  and  hay  ;    at  eight  or  nine  o'clock  they  are  watered  ;    at  eleven  o'clock  roots  are     , 
given  to  them  without'any  addition,  then  uncut  straw",  at  three  o'clock  they  are  again  watered, 
and.  after  that,  a  little  uncut  hay  is  given  to  them.      In  the  evening,  they  are  again  supplied  with   ' 
cut  fodder,  as  in  the  morning,  but  in  smaller  quantity  ;    and  when  they  have  consumed  this,  they 
get  another  supply  of  roots.     A  quantity  of  straw  is"then  put  before  them  for  the  night ;   they  eat 
OB  much  of  it  as  they  like,  and  the  reist  serves  for  litter  on  the  morrow.     In  this  part  of  the  country 
I  have  never  given"  salt  to  my  horned  cattle,  because  its  high  price  would  outweigh  all  the  ad- 
vantages which  it  might  procure.     At  one  time  I  used  often  to  give  it  to  them,  and   I  found,  be 
yond  all  doubt,  that  it  increased  the  secretion  of  milk.      When,  however,  it  was  used  in  excess,    / 
the  cattle  appeared  to  grow  lean  upon  it,  and  the  butter  acquired  a  bitter  taste.  _       •, 

The  arrangement  of  our  stalls  makes  good  litter  very  advantageous  to  the  cattle.     The  quantity   ', 
.'••lionld  be  i-egulated  according  to  the  supply  of  food,  especially  that  of  a  succulent  character. —     , 
\Vhen  cattle  are  ill  fed,  and  on  dry  fodder  only,  three  pounds  of  straw  per  day  are  sufficient ;  but 
vviien  the  supply  of  food  is  more  abundant,  ten  pounds  are  scarcely  sufficient  to  absorb  the  excre- 
ments and  urine.     In  a  season  when  straw  is  scarce,  as  was  the  case  in  1811-12,  if  we  should  be 
compelled,  in  order  to  save  a  sufficiency  of  straw  for  summer  stall-feeding,  to  reduce  the  quantity 
oi'  litter  at  the  same  time  that  we  give  the  cattle  an  abundant  supply  of  roots,  it  will  be^  necessary 
to  remove  the  dung  every  day,  in  order  to  keep  the  cow  house  dry  and  clean — unless,  indeed,  we    , 
can  have  recourse  to  other  substances  to  supply  the  place  of  straw.    A  dry  bed,  even  if  it  cannot 
be  made  soft,  is  indispensable  to  the  health  of  cattle. 

'  I  shoiild  sKy  26  lbs.  ^.        ,       .    ^    [French  Trans.  _ 

1  For  the  proportion  in  which  potatoes  should  be  given  to  cattle,  see  "  Die  v.  Jenaische  Versuche,"  A  "• 
the  "  Neue  Annalen,"  3er.  bd.  1  Btes.  et.  s.  102 ;  "  Die  v.  Jenaische  Vereuche,"  A. 

(1182) 


Many  persons  recommend  the  practice  of  currying  cows.  On  fatted  cattle  this  treatment  pro- 
daces  a  surprising  effect,  but  with  cows  I  never  observed  any  good  to  result  from  it  that  could  at 
all  compensate  for  the  trouble  it  occasioned;  the  only  care  required  is  to  keep  the  udder  clean, 
and  wash  it  before  milking. 

When  a  large  quantity  of  litter  is  given  to  the  cattle,  at  the  same  time  that  they  are  but  poorly 
fed,  the  litter  may  be  left  under  them  for  a  long  time.  In  the  contrary  case,  the  dung  must  be  re- 
moved or  drawn  to  the  back  of  the  stall  at  least  twice  a  week.  The  dung  is  most  easily  removed 
by  the  drag  ;  but  the  implement  must  be  so  formed  as  to  allow  of  yoking  bcth  sides,  so  that  it  may 
not  be  necessary  to  turn  it,  but  merely  to  yoke  the  horse  on  the  opposite  side. 

Winter  feeding  may  be  calculated  to  last  for  seven  months.*  Pasturage  usually  continues  till 
the  middle  of  October,  and  is  resumed  in  the  middle  of  May.  We  shall  hereafter  speak  of  green 
feeding  in  winter.  It  is,  however,  prudent  to  reckon  upon  a  fortnight  longer,  because,  if  the 
spring  be  unfavorable,  the  grass  feeding  may  be  retarded  for  that  time.  Especial  care  is  therefore 
taken  to  save  the  hay,  because  it  can  also  be  used  in  summer,  or  may  be  preserved  till  the  follow- 
ing winter.  A  supply  of  hay  or  straw  preserved  from  one  year  to  another  affords  great  security. 
We  have  previously  spoken  of  the  various  kinds  of  pasturage,  and  the  extent  required  per  head 
of  cattle. 

A  pasturage,  of  which  six  acres  are  not  sufficient  for  a  cow  of  proportionaie  size,  can  scarcely 
be  considered  as  cow  pasturage,  or  advantageously  used  as  such.  For,  where  a  cow  has  to  seek 
her  food  over  a  large  extent  of  ground,  she  will  not  thrive,  and  her  return  will  be  reduced  to  a 
ver3'  small  amount.     These  very  poor  pastures  are  only  fit  for  sheep. 

Experience  shows  that  there  are  pastures  particularly  well  adapted  to  favor  the  production  of 
milk  in  cows,  but  on  which  cattle  do  not  fatten  ;  and  others,  on  the  contrary,  which  soon  bring 
cattle  into  good  condition,  but  do  not  produce  much  milk.  I  am  not  aware  that  the  cause  of  this 
difference  has  yet  been  discovered.  In  many  low  countries,  however,  this  fact  has  been  so  clearly 
established  that  pastures  are  there  divided  into  fattening  and  milk  pastures,  and  each  division  is 
grazed  by  the  kind  of  cattle  properly  belonging  to  it. 

Every  body  knows  that  pastures,  to  be  good  for  covrs,  must  be  free  from  acidity.  Where  the 
acid  principle  predominates,  cows  lose  their  milk,  but  oxen  thrive  well.  I  .shall  not  pretend  to 
decide  whether  this  effect  is  owing  to  a  transmission  of  acidity  to  grasses  and  other  plants  which 
are  otherwise  wholesome,  or  to  particular  plants  v^liich  grow  upon'those  lands.  Cor)i  Horse-tail 
(Eqiihctum  arvensej.  and  Morsh  Horse-tail  fEqnisetnm  palustre),  Colchicum,  various  species 
o{  RatiJincnli  and  other  marsh-plants,  are  certainly  injurious  to  horned-cattle,  and  particularly  un- 
favorable to  the  production  of  milk ;  but  animals  of  this  class  do  not  touch  these  plants  unless  com- 
I    pelled  by  hunger. 

i  Upland  pastures,  when  rich  enough  to  enable  a  cow  to  find  full  nourishment  on  three  acres. 
\  produce  a  larger  secretion  of  milk  than  lowland  pastures — provided,  however,  that  the  race  of 
)  cattle  be  adapted  to  them,  for  a  large  cow  of  the  low  countries  would  not  easily  find  suflicient 
)    nourishment  on  three  acres  of  upland  pasture. 

Outlying  pastures  lose  much  of  their  value  from  the  distance  which  the  cattle  have  to  travel  in 
going  to  them  and  returning :  it  is  commonly  said  that  the  milk  is  lost  on  the  road.  The  more 
quiet  the  cattle  are  on  the  pasture  gi-ound,  the  more  profitable  will  they  be  found.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  pasturage  on  the  fields  under  the  alternate  system  of  culture  is  so  valuable  :  on  fields 
completely  enclosed,  where  there  is  no  occasion  for  either  dog  or  herdsman,  cattle  enjoy  perfect 
tranquillity,  especially  when  left  on  them  night  and  day. 

0  pinions  are  divided  respecting  the  propriety  of  leaving  cattle  on  the  pastures  during  the  night. 
Some  persons  think  that  it  is  most  advantageous  to  take  them  back  to  the  stall,  not  only  for  the 
sake  of  their  health,  but  also  to  obtain  a  greater  quantity  of  manure.  But  most  cultivators  who 
follow  the  alternate  system.,  especially  those  who  make  it  their  business  to  keep  cows,  are  posi- 
tively of  opinion  that  the  cows  should  be  left  on  the  pastures  for  the  night-time,  during  the  warm- 
est months  of  summer,  as  otherwise  their  milk  is  considerably  diminished.  The  assertions  of  some 
parties  respecting  the  hurtful  influence  of  dew  and  fog,  and  the  injurious  quality  of  grass  still  wet 
with  dew,  are  altogether  without  foundation,  at  least  with  regard  to  high  grounds  enjoying  a  sa- 
lubrious atmosphere.  It  is  only  in  damp  situations,  in  the  midst  of  marshes,  that  fog  caii  be  hurt- 
fui.  In  the  cold  nights  of  spring  and  autumn,  however,  the  cattle  .should  always  be  taken  back  to 
the  stall ;  and  if  in  the  morning,  before  they  are  sent  to  the  pasturage,  a  little  dry  fodder,  though 
it  be  merely  good  straw,  can  be  given  to  them,  they  will  be  much  benefited  by  it". 

Wiih  regard  to  other  kinds  of  pastures,  it  is  rarely  advantageous  to  leave  cattle  on  them  for  the 
night,  if  it  be  only  because  the  dung  is  lost  upon  them.  Ondie  enclosed  fields  of  the  alternate 
system,  on  the  contrary,  the  dung  is  of  some  use  to  the  laud,  especially  if  the  cattle  are  all  collect- 
ed for  the  night  on  the  field  which  is  first  to  be  brought  into  cultivation. 

When  cattle  are  tended  by  a  herdsman,  the  manner  in  which  they  are  treated  is  by  no  means 
'  indifferent.  The  herdsman  should,  as  far  as  possible,  leave  the  cattle  to  themselves,  or,  at  all 
I  events,  guide  or  dVive  them  before  him  with  gentleness,  and  never  allow  the  dog  to  hunt  them. — 
As  the  cattle  advance  in  grazing,  the  herdsman  should  guide  them  in  such  a  manner  that  they  may 
always  walk  before  the  wind,  and  never  have  it  in  their  faces.  But  it  is  of  especial  importance 
that  the  cattle  be  not  disturbed  when  they  lie  down  to  ruminate  ;  they  then  require  absolute 
repose. 

The  question  as  to  whether  a  cow  gives  more  milk  at  pasturage  or  when  stall-fed  may  perhaps 
be  decided  in  favor  of  the  former,  supposing  that  she  is  in  both  cases  equally  well  supplied  with 


*  On  the  borders  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva  the  time  is  six  months,  from  the  10th  of  November  till  the  10th 
of  May.  Between  the  Alps  and  the  Appenines  pasturase  is  sometimes  to  be  had  from  the  beginninjr  of 
April ;  and  in  places  where,  as  in  Bologna,  it  is  the  practice  to  cut  the  heads  of  wheat  once,  twice,  or  even 
three  time.s,  to  prevent  it  from  being  laid,  these  heads  are  used  to  introduce  thecattte  to  summer  feedin;r  oii 
green-meat.  [French  Tr.irJs. 

ni83) 


food,  and  tended  with  the  same  care.  Indeed,  I  am  not  acquainted  with  a  single  instance  in 
whicli  the  total  product  of  milk  from  a  whole  herd  has  been  so  high,  on  the  average,  during  stall- 
feeding,  as  when  the  cows  are  fed  on  the  best  pasturage.  This  latter  case,  however,  is  but  seldom 
realized. 

The  method  of  tethering  cattle  on  the  pasture,  called  by  the  Germans  tudern,  or  toddeni,  holds 
the  middle  place  between  pasturage  and  stall  feeding.  This  method  consists  in  fastening  the  ani- 
mal by  a  cord,  having  a  swivel  adapted  to  it  at  the  end  which  goes  round  the  neck,  and  is  fixed  to 
a  stake  at  the  other  end,  where  there  is  often  a  second  swivel.  As  applied  to  separate  animals, 
this  method  is  pretty  generally  known  ;  but,  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  its  application  to  herds  of  more 
tlian  a  hundred  cattle  is  confined  to  Denmark  ;  for  this  reason  I  think  it  right  to  transcribe,  in  this 
place,  the  description  of  the  metho.i  which  has  been  communicated  to  me. 

In  applying  this  method  on  the  large  scale,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  animals  as  close  together 
as  possible — first,  that  every  part  of  the  ground  may  be  turned  to  account ;  secondly,  that  the  dai- 
rymaids maj-  not  have  too  far  to  go  in  carrjing  the  milk  to  the  cart  which  is  to  take  it  awaj',  and 
is  placed  for  that  purpose  in  the  center  of  the  herd  ;  and  thirdly,  that  the  dung  of  the  cattle  may 
be  equally  distributed.  The  cows  are  usually  collected  in  divisions  of  twenty,  because  that  is  the 
number  which  a  dairj-maid  can  milk.  In  commencing  the  pasturage  of  a  field  according  to  this 
method,  the  cows  are  placed  in  a  row.  the  last  being  fastened  at  the  extremity  of  the  field.  The 
distance  between  one  cow  and  the  next  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  cord,  and  that  again  is 
determined  by  the  quality  of  the  pasturage.  At  Thorserg.  where  second-year  clovers  are  con- 
sumed in  this  iQianner.  the  cords  are  10  feet  long,  Rhine  measure.  The  stakes  are  so  placed  that 
the  cows  can  approach  close  together,  without,  however,  touching  one  another ;  and  thus  all  parts 
of  the  surface  are  reached  by  their  teeth.  When  the  first  division  has  been  cropped,  the  second 
is  arranged  at  a  distance  varying  from  60  to  80  feet,  according  as  the  soil  is  good  or  bad  ;  the  third 
and  fourth  divisions  are  arranged  in  the  same  manner. 

The  spaces  left  between  the  preceding  are  next  grazed  ;  for  which  purpose  the  stakes  are  re- 
moved, and  planted  forward,  after  the  space  determined  by  the  length  of  the  cord  has. been 
grazed ;  and  this  succession  is  continued  till  the  first  division  has  come  into  the  position  previously 
occupied  bj'  the  second — the  second  into  that  of  the  third,  <Scc. 

The  following  figure  will  give  an  idea  of  the  mode  of  proceeding : 


miiiiimiiimiii 
iiimiiiiniiiiiiii 
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimi 
iimiiiiniiniiiii 


00000000000000000000 
00000000000000000000 
00000000000000000000 

ocoooooooooooooooooo 

00000000000000000000 


Let  the  enclosed  space  represent  a  field  of  pasture-ground,  and  the  dotted  lines  five  divisions  of 
twenty  cows  each.  The  cows  graze  the  portion  assigned  to  them  until  it  is  completely  exhausted. 
The  whole  herd  is  then  moved  forward  to  the  spaces  marked  oooooooooooooooooooo.  When  the 
herd  has  in  this  manner  reached  the  extremity  of  the  field,  they  come  back  in  the  same  order  as 
shown  by  the  marks,  iiiiiiiiiiiiiimiii,  and  so" on  till  the  whole  field  is  depastured. 

As  the'  whole  herd  must  not  only  frequently  be  moved,  but  also  led  to  the  watering  place,  it  is 
essential  that  a  man  be  able  to  lead  twenty  cows  and  more  at  once.  For  this  purpose  the 
cows  must  be  fastened  together,  which  is  done  as  follows :  The_  herdsman  begins  at  the  right 
wing  of  the  first  division,  attaching  the  cord  to  the  first  cow  in  such  a  manner  that  he  can 
suspend  it  from  the  horns  of  the  second.  He  proceeds  in  the  same  manner  with  the  cord  of  the 
second  cow,  which  he  attaches  to  the  horns  of  the  third,  and  thus  he  links  together  twenty  cows 
in  one  line.  The  cowherd  walks  on  the  left  wing,  and  leads  the  animals  to  water;  they  drink 
without  being  unfastened.  On  returning,  he  fixes  in  the  ground  the  stake  of  the  cow  which  he 
has  been  leading  on  the  left  wing ;  he  then  takes  the  cord  of  the  second  cow  which  was  attached 
to  the  horns  of  the  third,  and  fixes  it  in  like  manner,  proceeding  in  the  same  way  v,'ith  the  third, 
fourth,  &c.  In  linking  them  together,  he  always  begins  on  the  right ;  in  separating  and  fastening 
them  to  the  stake,  on  the  left. 

If  as  is  usually  the  case  with  fields  of  this  description,  the  watering  place  be  near  at  hand,  the 
herdsman  takes  mil  v  one  division  at  a  time.  Bat  if  it  be  distant,  or  if  the  cattle  are  to  be  led  to 
another  field  at  some  distance  from  that  in  which  they  have  been  grazing,  several  files  are  united 
together.  This  is  easily  done  by  attachins  the  cord  of  the  cow  on  the  left  side  of  the  second  row, 
(1184) 


FEEDING   OF  CATTLE. 


>   to  the  homs  of  the  one  at  the  left  side  of  the  first  row,  &c.     But  when  the  cows  are  to  be  watered, 

I   the  several  divisions  must  he  again  disunited. 

^       The  facility  of  this  method  of  linking  and  separating  depends  partly  on  the  animal  being  accus- 

C    tomed  to  it.  but  more  on  the  skill  of  the  herdsman.     Sometimes  one  man  is  required  for  twenty 

I    cows  ;  at  other  times,  one  cowherd  can  without  difficulty  take  care  of  fifty. 

(       The  cattle  become  so  readily  accustomed  to  the  method,  that  after  a  time  they  place  themselves 

(    in  rows  and  divisions,  almost  of  their  own  accord  ;  and  thus  the  care  and  circumspection  required 

{    become  much  less  burthensome  than  when  the  cattle  are  stall-fed.     The  method  under  considera- 

i    tion  resembles  stall-feeding,  however,  in  this  respect,  that  the  cattle  injure  but  very  little  of  the 

'j    fodder  with  their  feet,   and  may  be   made   to   consume  the  crop  in  the  most  favorable  stage 

}   of  its  growth,   after   which   vegetation  soon  recommences ;    hence   the    quantity  of  land   re- 

^   quired  for  supporting  an  animal  is  not  greater  than  that  which  would  be  necessary  in  stall- 

I    feeding. 

.'       A  comparative  experiment,  made  at  Thorserg,  on  the  relative  advantages  oi grazing  with  the 

I    telher  and  stall-feeding,  gives  (Jhe  following  results : 

^       Four  cows,  stall-fed,  during  twelve  days,  gave  1,110  lbs.  of  milk  ;  extent  of  land  required,  2,172 

\    square  fathoms  ;  quantity  consumed,  6,144  lbs.  clover:  which  gives  for  one  cow  in  a  day,  23' 1-8 

(    lbs.  of  milk.  45  1-4  square  fathoms.  128  lbs.  clover. 

)       Four  cows  pastured  by  the  tether  for  twelve  days,  gave  950  2-5  lbs.  of  milk  ;  extent  of  land 

>    igrazed,  1,842  square  fathoms :  which  gives  for  one  cow  in  a  day,  194  4-5  lbs.  milk,  38  3-8  square 

)    fathoms. 

)       Therefore  the  stall-feeding  consumed  the  produce  of  330  square  fathoms  more  than  the  pasturage 

)    hy  tether  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  quantity  of  milk  was  greater  by  159  3-5  lbs.  in  the  former  case 

(    tiian  in  the  latter. 

For  1  lb.  of  milk  the  stall  feeding  required  1  531  535  square  fathoms:  the  pasturage  by  tether 
1  1117-1188  square  fathoms  of  clover-land. 

Therefore,  according  to  the  same  result,  the  330  square  fathoms  which  remained  untouched  in 
the  pasturage  hy  tether  of  a  given  number  of  cows  would,  if  consumed  in  the  same  manner,  have 
yielded  170  1-5  lbs.  of  milk,  which,  with  the  950  2-5  lbs.  actually  produced  by  the  four  cows  fed 
in  that  manner,  gives  a  total  of  1,120  3-5  lbs.  of  milk:  as  much  therefore  (and  even  10  3-5  lbs. 
more)  than  the  same  number  of  cows  yielded  when  stall-fed  on  the  produce  of  the  same  extent  of 
clover-land. 

According  to  this  experiment  the  same  quantity  of  milk  is  obtained  from  a  given  quantity 
of  clover  ready  for  the  scythe,  and  the  same  number  of  cattle  may  be  fed  upon  it,  whether 
they  are  pastured  hy  the  tether  or  stall-fed.  Hence,  there  is  no  peculiar  advantage  on  either 
side. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  when  cattle  are  stall-fed,  the  quantity  of  dung  ob- 
tained is  two-thirds  greater  ;  for  when  they  are  tethered  there  is  not  more  than  one-third  of  the  dung    ' 
profitably  applied  to  the  land.     On  the  other  hand,  the  stall-feeding  must  be  charged  with  the  addi- 
tional expense  of  mowing  and  carrying  the  clover. 

It  will  probably  be  disadvantageous  to  have  the  same  clover-field  grazed  twice  by  cattle 
thus  tethered,  because  the  excrements  which  they  leave  on  the  ground  during  the  first  grazing  ' 
may  disgust  thian  with  the  second  shoot.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  make  the  second  crop  into  dry  1 
fodder. 

I  have  previously  spoken  of  the  advantages  whicb  stall-feeding  confers  on  rural  economy  in  gen- 
eral, and  I  have  afterward  described  the  cultivation  of  plants  intended  for  feeding  cattle.  It  only 
remaio-s,  therefoi-e,  to  speak  of  the  mode  of  giving  this  feed  and  tending  the  cattle. 
.  A  stall  properly  arranged  for  feeding  greatly  facilitates  the  work  to  be  done  ;  and  of  all  arrange- 
ments which  can  be  made,  that  which  I  have  recommended  in  the  "  Introduction  to  Bergent's 
Economy  of  Live  Stock"  appears  to  me  to  be  the  most  convenient,  because  it  enables  us 
to  spread  the  fodder  well,  and  give  it  to  the  cattle  in  small  portions  and  in  the  most  convenient 
mtoner. 

Some  persons,  thinking  it  better  to  feed  their  cattle  in  the  open  air,  have  enclosed  a  yard  with 
hedges,  furnished  it  with  mangers  and  racks,  and  put  their  cattle  in  it,  leaving  them  at  liberty  to 
walk  about  as  they  pleased.  This  treatment  has  been  adopted  from  the  notion  that  free  air  and 
exercise  would  be  more  favorable  to  the  cattle  than  constant  rest  in  the  stall.  In  the  long  run, 
however,  experience  has  not  been  in  favor  of  this  method,  but  has  shown  it  to  be  attended  with 
the  following  inconveniences  :  The  cattle  eat  the  fodder  too  greedily,  but  against  each  other  :  and 
the  weaker  animals  are  completely  driven  from  their  food  by  the  others.  The  dung  is  also  de- 
teriorated in  quality.  From  theoretical  considerations,  we  might  perhaps  be  apprehensive  lest  the 
close  air  and  confinement  of  the  stall  should  be  injurious  to  the  cattle  ;  but  experience  shows 
very  clearly  that  this  is  not  the  case,  and  that  stall-fed  cattle,  when  well  treated,  always  continue 
healthy,  yield  abundance  of  milk,  and  live  to  an  advanced  age  :  this  has  been  the  case 
even  when  they  have  never  quitted  the  stall.  But  it  is  undoubtedly  better  to  let  them  go 
out  twice  a  day  for  the  sake  of  removing  the  dung,  vt^atering  them,  and,  if  necessary,  letting  them 
bathe.  , 

The  places  for  the  cattle  should  be  so  disposed  as  to  leave  the  animals  a  proper  quantity  of  room 
in  proportion  to  their  size,  and  particukrly  to  allow  of  sufficient  depth  for  removing  the  dung 
from  under  them,  and  heaping  it  up  against  the  wall,  and  at  the  same  time  leaving  a  free  passage 
l^ehind  them.  It  is  also  necessary  that  there  be  a  gutter  behind  the  cattle,  by  which  the  large 
quantity  of  urine  produced  by  a  plentiful  supply  of  green-meat  may  drain  off,  or  be  removed  and 
'  Hvvept  away.  The  supply  of  liquid  manure  increases  or  diminishes  according  to  the  quantity  of 
iitit-r  put  under  the  cattle  ;  but  it  is  rarely  possible  to  put  a  sufficient  quantity  for  absorbing  the 
v.hole  of  the  urine  ;  for  that  purpose  15  lbs.  of  str.nw,  and  even  more,  would  be  required  for  each 
head  of  cattle. 

When  the  stalls  are  well  built,  boarded,  and  fanii.".hed  with  proper  drains,  and  care  is  taken 
(1185) .3.-^ 


514  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

keep  the  places  occupied  by  the  cattle  clean  with  the  broom,  the  litter  may  be  dispensed  with. 
This  is  proved  by  tlie  experience  of  cultivators  in  the  Netiierlands.  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  and 
in  Switzerland,  and  even  among  ourselves  by  several  farming  establishments  which  have  been  in- 
ti-oduced  by  persons  from  those  coautries.  This  is  the  best  mode  of  keeping  the  cattle  clean  :  but 
where  there  is  no  scarcity  of  straw,  the  use  of  litter  is  preferable,  inasmuch  as  it  increases  the 
quantity  of  manure.* 

The  stall  should  be  famished  with  windows  for  the  admission  of  light  and  air,  and  capable  of 
being  opened  or  shut  at  pleasure. 

Clover  is  usually  regarderl   as  the  only  proper  subsistence   for  summer  stall-feeding,  but  this 

(    opinion  is  altogether  unfounded.     This  is  not,  and  cannot,  be  the  ca.se,  unless  the  stall-feedins  is 

to  be  continued  for  a  few  months  only,  instead  of  being  used  as  a  con.stancy.     Cows  were  staJlfcd 

(    in  summer  before  clover  was  known.     It  is  certain,  however,  that  when  the  clover  is  in  season,  it 

furnishes  the  best  and  cheapest  fodder  that  can   be   had.     But  green-feeding  commences  before 

clover  is  ready  for  mowing  :  and  this  kind  of  fodder  fails,  not  only  between  the  first  and  second 

I    ci'op,  but  also  toward  the  end  of  summer.     It  is  therefore  necessarj'^o  pi-ocure  other  kinds  of  green 

food  to  precede  the  clover,  and  fill  up  the  voids  which  that  plant  would  leave  in  the  course  of 

summer  feeding. 

The  plant  best  suited  lor  the  first  kind  of  green  food  is  autumn  colza,  sown  toward  the  end  of 
the  preceding  year.  Next  comes  rye,  which  has  been  sown  for  the  purpo.'je.  Both  these  articles  are 
sown  on  part  of  the  field  intended  for  root-crops,  or  perhaps  for  late  vetches,  so  that  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  break  up  the  soil  as  soon  as  they  are  gathered.  The  sowing  of  these  plants  costs  nothing 
beyond  the  seed  and  the  labor  of  spreading  and  covering  it.  When  wheat  sown  in  autumn  is  par- 
ticularly strong,  the  heads  may  be  cut  off,  and  used  to  aid  in  feeding  the  cattle.  By  this  time  the 
lucerne  is  ready  for  mowing :  it  is  always  the  main  prop  of  the  stall-feeding.  Then  the  clover  be- 
gins to  put  forth  its  Howers.  and  reaches  the  stage  in  which  it  may  be  most  advantageously  given 
to  the  cattle.  \Vhen  the  first  crop  begins  to  get  too  hard,  recourse  is  to  be  had  to  tares  and  vari- 
ous mixtui-es  of  this  plant,  with  othei-s  which  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  unless  we  have  a  field 
of  lucerne  of  considerable  extent  to  serve  as  a  supplement  to  the  summer  feeding.  At  this  time 
also  spurry  may  be  brought  into  use.  Then  the  second  crop  ot  clover  is  ready  for  mowing ;  and  if 
perchance  it  sliould  not  be  very  abundant,  or  we  wish  to  make  it  into  hay,  in  order  to  plow  up 
the  stubble  sooner,  we  must  then  resort  to  a  mixture  of  tares  sown  later  than  the  rest — buckwheat, 
early  sown  colza,  spurry,  and  the  tiiird  crop  of  luceme.t  Then,  with  perhaps  a  third  clover,  a 
fourth  of  lucerne,  assisted  by  the  annual  fodder-plants  just  spoken  of,  the  end  of  September  is 
reached,  at  which  time  the  cattle  may  be  abundantly  supplied  with  cabbage-leaves,  mangel-wur- 
zel, turnips  of  various  kinds,  and  even  the  haulm  of  of  potatoes  ;  and  thus  without  any  other  assist- 
ance, beyond  perhaps  a  little  hay  or  straw,  we  reach  the  end  of  October. 

Stall-feedinsr,  on  green-raeat,"may  thus  be  continued  for  six  entire  months,  that  is  to  say,  as  long 
as.  or  even  longer  than  pasturage.  But  itis  often  thought  desirable  to  let  the  cattle  go  out  during 
part  of  the  day  ;  when,  for  instance,  advantage  can  be  taken  of  a  nutritious  stubble  on  the  corn- 
fields, particularly  on  those  which  bear  clover  sometimes,  or  of  which  clover  has  been  twice  mown, 
and  is  intended  to  stand.  In  this  case,  it  is  sufficient  to  give  the  cattle  a  small  quantity  of  light  food 
before  sending  them  to  the  field,  and  thus  they  are  treated  by  the  system  commonly  called  half- 
stall-feeding,     t 

The  method  of  half-stall  feeding, -anitei  with  pasturage  during  part  of  the  day,  has  gained  many 
advocates,  and  is  particularly  well  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  certain  rural  establishments, 
where,  for  instance,  there  is  a  pasture  which,  from  liability  to  inundation,  or  some  other  cause,  can- 
not be  used  in  any  other  way,  and  is,  at  the  same  time,  insufficient  for  the  full  nourishment  of  the 
required  number  of  cattle.  For  this  reason,  the  .system  of  haJf-s  fall  feeding  is  establi.shed  with 
great  success  in  several  rural  establishments  on  the  banks  of  the  Elbe,  Weser,  and  other  rivers, 
not  kept  in  by  dykes,  or  enclosing  within  their  dykes  lands  which  are  fertile  but  exposed  to  inun- 
dation, and  therefore  not  adapted  to  the  ordinai-y  .system  of  cultivation.  It  is  certain  that  this  vari- 
ety of  diet  stimulates  the  appetite  of  the  cattle,  and  causes  them  to  eat  more  and  yield  a  larger 
quantity  of  milk,  provided  always  that  the  pasturage  be  of  good  quality,  for  if  bad.  it  will  only 
serve  to  dissipate  the  milk  produced  by  .stall-fseding.  Positive  injury,  therefore,  often  results  from 
turning  cows  out  of  the  stall  merely  for  the  sake  of  turning  a  bad  pasture  to  account. 

It  is  on\j  in  veiy  small  rural  establishments  that  green-meat  should  be  carried  by  servants  in  fod- 
der-baskets. This  practice  is,  however,  sometimes  adopted  in  establi-shmeuts  containing  from 
twenty  to  thirty  head  of  cattle.  I  consider  it  quite  inconsistent  with  a  good  sj-stem  of  mpage- 
ment,  whatever  may  be  the  circumstances  of  the  establishment.  Sometimes,  the  carriage  is  per- 
formed by  the  plow  horses ;  they  take  the  fodder  wagon  to  the  field  when  they  go  to  work  in  the 
moniing,  and  bring  it  home  loaded  when  they  return  at  noon  or  in  the  evenmg.  This  plan  seema 
tome  to  occasion  much  disorder  and  loss  of  time. 

The  labor  may  be  very  well  executed  by  the  cows,  if  Aey  are  put  to  it  in  turns ;  some  of  them 

*  I  think  that  the  science  of  rui-al  economy  has  yet  much  to  learn  upon  this  point.  It  is  clear  that  the 
straw  adds  little  of  itself  to  the  quantity  of  nutriment  contained  in  the  manure,  increasing  its  bulk  raiherthan 
its  intrinsic  value  ;  above  all,  we  must  remember  that  the  real  value  added  to  the  manure  is  not  equal  to  the 
cost  of  the  straw  in  its  natural  state.  On  the  other  hand,  the  straw  used  iu  feeding  cattle,  though  not  very 
substantial,  nevertheless  contributes  something  toward  their  nourishment  and  it  is,  undoubtedly,  moi-e  anl- 
malized  bypassing  through  the  bodies  of  the^animals,  and  therefore  better  adapted  for  manure,  ihan  when 
Bimply  mixed  with  the  dung  of  the  cattle,  without  passing  through  their  bodies.  It  appears  to  me,  then, 
that  by  using  straw  to  feed  cattle,  of  a  particular  kind,  we  may  gain  a  gi-eat  deal  both  in  the  use  of  the 
etraw  and  in  the  quality  of  the  manure  produced  from  it.  This,  however,  cannot  be  done  with  milch  cows  ; 
for,  by  making  one-quarter  of  their  nourishment  consist  of  straw,  the  quantity  of  milk  would  be  reduced  by 
about  two-thirds.  Neither  can  this  kind  of  food  bo  given  to  young  animals;  for  it  would  retard  their 
growth.  It  can,  therefore,  only  be  given  to  the  working  cattle  during  the  time  when  they  are  but  little  em- 
.ployed.  "  [French  Trans. 

t  Orrather  the  fourth,  in  places  where  this  plant  grows  luxuriantly.  [French  TraiiM. 

(1186) 


FEEDING  OF  CATTLE.  515 

may  be  readily  accustomed  to  it.  This  liglit  work,  far  from  injuring  their  health,  or  diminishing 
the  quantity  of  their  milk,  is  always  found  to  agree  with  them  perfectly  well.  One  or  tvvo  oxen 
intended  for  sale  in  the  autumn  may  also  be  devoted  to  this  work.  It  is  true  that  they  will  eat  a 
great  deal,  both  on  arriving  at  the  field  and  on  returning  home,  but  they  will  fatten  sufficiently  to 
repay  the  value  of  the  fodder  which  they  have  con.sumed. 

Oxen  daily  employed  in  this  work  soon  become  so  much  accustomed. to  it,  that  they  will  go  alone 
with  the  wagon  to  the  tield,  and  bring  it  back  again  alone  when  loaded. 
'        When  the  labor  of  mowing  and  gathermg  the  green  crop  is  well  regulated,  the  number  of  per- 
sons engaged  in  supplying  food  for  a  herd  of  forty  oxen  is  not  greater  than  would  be  required  to 
take  care  of  the  same  number  while  grazing  ;  for  a  man  who  would  be  occupied  in  taking  care  of  i 
cows  out  at  grass,  may  very  well  mow  and  bring  in  the  necessary  quantity  of  fodder.     The  dairy-    i 
maids  assist  in  distributing  the  fodder,  and  this  light  labor  is  amply  repaid  by  the  saving  of  the  dis 
tuuco  which  they  would  have  to  walk  in  going  to  the  pasturage,  and  of  the  additional  trouble  of 
(    milking  in  the  open  field.     The  trouble  of  clearing  the  dung  out  of  the  stalls  may  very  well  be  laid 
'    to  the  account  of  the  larger  quantity  of  manure  obtained. 

Many  persons  consider  it  absolutely  necessary  to  cut  the  clover,  an  operation  which  occasions 
"reat  increase  of  labor.  1  consider  it  altogether  supei-fluous,  excepting  during  the  first  week  ot  the  * 
u-ansition  from  dry  to  green  fodder,  a  time  at  which  the  latter  is  not  abundant  but  very  active. — 
The  object  of  this  method  is  to  save  fodder,  but  if  this  end  is  actually  attained,  the  quantity  of 
milk  is  at  the  same  time  diminished.  It  is  thought  also  that  the  same  method  prevents  the  loss  oc- 
casioned by  the  cattle  throwing  their  long  green  food  about  in  the  stall  as  they  do  in  the  fiy  season, 
but  the  quantity  lost  in  this  manner  is  quite  iusignificani,  ind,  in  my  opinion,  far  exceeded  by  that 
which  the  cattle  leave  in  the  mangers  when  the  clover  is  too  finely  divided.  Cut  green-meat  soon 
becomes  heated  and  completely  spoiled.  The  liove,  or  blown,  which  is  so  much  dreaded  from  feed- 
ing on  long  clover,  is  not  at  all  likely  to  occur  if  the  cattle  are  regularly  fed,  and  never  allowed  to 
sutfer  from  hunger  and  afterward  eat  to  excess.  For  twenty-six  years,  during  which  my  cattle 
have  been  stall-fed,  I  have  never  lost  an  animal  fed  on  clover  by  this  accident.  It  is  true  that  long 
clover  sometimes  has  a  laxative  efi'ect  on  cattle,  and  that  this  inconvenience  is  obviated  when  the 
clover  is  cut  up  with  straw.  But  this  evil  may  be  just  as  well  prevented,  or,  at  all  events,  dimin- 
ished, by  giving  the  cattle  a  quantity  of  uncut  straw,  which  they  will  eat  with  avidity  when  their 
bowels  are  relaxed  by  the  use  of  succulent  green  food.  In  that  case,  it  is  also  very  useful  to  give 
the  animals  a  little  dried  hay  in  the  morning. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  distribute  the  fodder  in  such  a  manner  that  the  cattle  may  not  eat  it  too 
fast,  which  they  will  be  sure  to  do  if  the  quantity  of  food  intended  for  a  meal  be  given  to  them  all 
at  once.  Each  meal,  of  the  three  usually  given  in  the  course  of  the  day,  should  be  subdivided  into 
three  portions,  to  be  eaten  at  intervals  of  an  hour  :  for  example,  in  the  morning,  at  five,  six,  and 
seven  o'clock ;  in  the  middle  of  the  day  at  twelve,  one,  and  two  o'clock ;  and  in  the  evening,  at  sev- 
en, eight,  and  nine  o'clock.  _  J-      1       r 

■The  cattle  must  be  watered  in  the  intervals  between  their  meals,  and  not  immediately  alter  they 
have  eaten:  in  the  forenoon  at  eleven  o'clock,  and  in  the  evening  about  six  o'clock.  Good  pond- 
water  is  usually  preferred  by  cattle  to  river  or  spring  water. 

In  places  where  it  is  possible,  we  must  not  neglect  to  have  a  ford  or  bathing-place,  and  send  the 
cattle  to  it  twice  a  day.  There  is  nothing  more  refreshing  to  cattle  in  summer,  or  more  conducive 
to  their  health  and  cleanliness.  . 

In  the  arrangement  of  cultivation,  matters  must  be  so  disposed  as  always  to  ensure  a  suiBciency, 
or  even  a  superabundance  of  clover  or  other  green  food  for  the  cattle,  so  that  if  one  sort  should  fail, 
we  may  have  recourse  to  another.  As  soon  as  we  perceive  that  the  quantity  is  greater  than  we  re- 
quire, and  that  the  fodder  may  become  too  much  hardened,  we  must  make  it  into  hay  and  pass  to 
another  kind  of  food.  . 

It  is  impossible  to  indicate,  even  approximately,  the  extent  of  each  kind  of  fodder-plants  required 
for  supporting  an  animal,  for  the  produce  of  a  field  is  so  variable,  that  in  one  year  it  may  be  double 
what  it  was  in  the  preceding.  On  good  barley  land,  an  acre  of  fodder-plants  will  generally  be 
sufficient  for  one  large  animal.  I  have  even  known  cases  in  which  100  perches,  or  144  square  feet, 
have  been  sufficient.  But  prudence  forbids  us  to  reckon  upon  less  than  an  acre  and  a  half  even  of 
good  land,  favorable  to  the  growth  of  fodder-plants,  and  two  acres  of  a  less  favorable  soil.  It  will 
not  often  happen  that  the  whole  produce  of  this  extent  of  ground  will  be  used,  but  no  loss  will  re- 
sult from  this  circumstance.  If  we  have  contrived  to  save  a  supply  of  hay  from  the  preceding  yea.r, 
which  may  easily  be  done  when  the  clover  has  been  successful,  there  will  be  no  occasion  for  reck- 
oning on  so  great  an  extent  of  ground  for  a  head  of  cattle,  and  consequently  a  greater  number  may 
be  maintained  ;  for  such  a  provision  is  always  an  available  resource. 

Alternate  feeding  on  dry  and  green  fodder  is  always  agreeable  and  beneficial  to  cattle. 
Some  cultivators  have  fed  their  cattle  for  the  whole  summer  on  dry  fodder,  chiefly  on  clover,  and 
,     speak  very  highly  of  the  method.     But,  in  the  first  place,  it  is  very  difficult  to  provide  a  supply  of 
,     hay  which  shall  suffice  till  a  fresh  crop  can  be  given  to  the  cattle  (which  should  never  be  done  till 
,     the  latter  is  thoroughly  dry) ;  and  secondly,  the  hay-making  is  attended  with  much  greater  outlay 
!     and  risk  than  consumption  in  the  green  state.     The  method  in  question  also  appears  to  me  to  be  at- 
tended with  great  difficulties  on  account  of  the  magnitude  which  must  be  given  to  the  sheds  for 
preserving  so  large  a  quantity  of  hay ;  in  fact,  it  is  necessary  first  to  consume  the  whole  of  the  last  year's 
produce.     Lastly,  it  is  very  probable  that  as  the  fodder  dries,  not  only  the  watery  portions,  but  al- 
so a  great  many  useful  principles  are  separated  from  it  by  evaporation,  and  that  several  substances 
contained  in  it  enter  into  new  combinations.     We  are  not  in  possession  of  any  compara.tive  exper- 
iments on  this  subject  of  the  degree  of  accuracy  which  would  be  desirable,  but  only  of  a  few  scat- 
tered observations ;  these,  however,  point  to  the  conclusion  that  a  given  quantity  of  fodder,  when 
consumed  as  green-meat,  is  more  advantageous,  particularly  to  cows,  than  when  dried.*    The 
*  It  is  evident  that  fodder-plants,  in  drying,  lose  a  great  part  of  their  leaves,  flowers,  and,  in  general,  all  their 
most  delicate  and  substantial  parts,  which  either  remain  on  the  ground  or  are  lost  on  the  road;  whereas,  if 
IU87J 


nourishment  contained  in  the  fresh  juice  of  plants  apparently  passes  more  easily  into  the  blood,  and 
becomes  more  readily  available  for  nourishment,  than  when  re-dissolved  in  a  foreign  liquid. 

Milk  and  butler  produced  by  dry  fodder  never  have  so  good  a  flavor  as  from  feeding  on  green- 
meat.  It  is  also  remarkable  that  all  animals  prefer  green  to  dry  food,  though  they  willingly  eat  the 
latter  for  a  change.  The  stall-feeding  of  oxen  on  hay  may,  however,  be  attended  with  some  ad- 
vantages.'* 

In  order  to  recommend  dry  feeding  in  summer,  the  most  unfounded  apprehensions  have  been 
suggested  against  feeding  on  green  meat.  Thus,  it  is  recommended  never  to  gather  the  fodder 
while  wet.  especially  with  dew.  But.  according  to  my  experience,  this  practice  is  by  no  means 
objec  ionable,  provided  only  that  the  fodder  be  left  on  the  ground  till  it  begins  to  get  hot,  without 
being  cocked.  It  is  necessary  either  to  deposit  the  supply  of  fodder  in  a  place  large  enough  to  ad- 
mit of  its  being  spread  out  in  a  very  thin  layer,  or  else  only  to  bring  enough  for  one  meal  at  a  time. 
In  wet  weather  the  fodder  will  not  be  injured,  even  though  left  for  some  days  in  breadths  upon 
the  ground. 

I  have  never  known  cattle  to  be  injured  by  young  clover  mown  before  flowering,  when  it  was 
given  to  them  in  moderation.  But  if  it  be  given  to  them  in  very  large  quantities  at  a  time  when  they 
are  very  eager  for  green-meat,  or  if  they  are  allowed  access  to  the  place  in  which  it  is  kept,  it  may 
undoubtedly  produce  indigestion,  and  its  consequence,  the  hove  or  blown.  Besides,  it  is  not  eco- 
nomical to  mow  the  clover  which  has  put  forth  its  flowers,  because  in  the  week  during  which  the 
flowers  come  out  the  plant  increases  in  volume  more  than  it  has  done  for  the  five  weeks  prece- 
ding. If  a  field  of  clover  be  mown  once  a  fortnight  during  six  weeks,  and  each  crop  yields  30  lbs. 
of  fodder,  making  90  lbs.  in  the  whole,  the  same  extent  of  ground  w^ill  yield  600  lbs.  if  the  crop  be 
mown  only  once  during  the  six  weeks:  this  has  been  positively  demonstrated  by  a  comparative 
I    experiment  expressly  directed  to  this  subject. 

This  is  one  of  the  main  causes  which  render  the  produce  of  a  given  extent  of  surface  so  much 
greater  when  the  crop  is  mown  than  w^hen  it  is  fed  off,  the  plants  not  being  allowed  in  the  latter 
case  to  attain  their  full  development.  The  question  as  to  whether  a  cow  yields  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  milk  when  pastured  or  stall-fed,  leaving  out  of  consideration  the  greater  or  less  extent  of 
ground  employed  in  feeding  her,  can  never  be  decided  in  a  general  manner.  The  same  cow 
which  on  pasturage  of  good  quality,  but  not  extraordinary  richness,  will  yield  ten  quarts  of  milk 
per  day,  may,  when  stall-fed,  yield  no  more  than  six  quart.s,  or  as  much  as  fourteen  quarts,  ac- 
'  t  cordmgly  as  her  feed  is  scanty,  or  substantial  and  abundant.  If  however,  the  pasturage  be  of  the  , ' 
'  richest  and  most  abundant  description,  so  that  the  cattle  are  not  able  to  consume  the  whole  of  it,  ' 
I  believe  that  a  cow  will  produce  more  milk  upon  it  than  upon  the  most  abundant  supply  of  green 
food  than  can  be  given  to  her  in  the  stall.  Trustworthy  per.sons  assure  us,  that  certain  cows  fed 
upon  the  best  and  most  milk-producing  pastures,  of  the  low  countries,  have  given- from  90  lbs.  to 
100  lbs.  of  milk  per  day  at  the  time  of  their  greatest  abundance  ;  and  I  am  not  acquainted  with 
any  positive  instance  of  stall-fed  cows  having  yielded  more  than  60  lbs.  in  the  same  time.t 

There  is  too  much  difference  between  races  and  individuals,  too  much  irregularity  in  feeding 
and  maintenance,  too  much  variety  in  the  mode  of  treating  and  making  use  of  the  products  of  the     ' 
cow-hou.se,  as  well  as  in  their  price,  to  enable  us  to  fonn  any  general  estimate  of  the  produce,  and    \ 
still  less  of  the  pecuniary  return  of  a  milch  cow.      There  are  positive  examples  of  cows  having,     ' 
under  active  management,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  large,  populous  towns,  yielded  an  annual    ' 
return  of  200  rix-doUars,  and  others  in  which  the  whole  produce  in  milk  of  a  cow  has  not  amount-   . '' 
ed  to  three  rix-dollars.     Undoubtedly  there  are  cases  in  which  the  produce  of  a  cow  far  surpasses 
the  value  of  the  fodder  which  she  has  consumed,  even  if  we  estimate  it  at  the  market  price  ;    but 
this  seldom  happens  under  ordinary  circumstances.      The  calculation,  however,  assumes  a  differ- 
ent aspect  if  the  fodder  be  valued,  not  at  the  market  price,  but  at  what  it  cost  when  raised  upon     \ 
the  land  ;  and  it  is  in  this  manner  that  the  valuation  must  in  most  cases  be  conducted  ;  since  it  is   ' , 
impos.sible  to  turn  fodder  to  account  in  the  market.      Circumstances  are  so  varied  in  this  respect,     • 
that  we  can  add  nothing  to  what  we  have  already  said  on  the  subject.     The  gross  profit  of  a  cow, 
without  deducting  fodder,  pasturage  and  attendance,  or  reckoning  the  value  of  her  dung,  varies 
'i    (if  we  except  cows  fed  with  excessive  parsimony,  and  those  most  abundantly  nourished)  between     ' 
i    10  and  30  rix-dollars.     The  average  profit  of  a  cow,  in  well-managed  rural  establishments,  may  be 
■     set  (taking  the  average  of  40  weeks,  or  280  days,  during  which  they  are  milked  at  four  quarts  per 
day)  at  1,120  quarts  in  all.     Now  12  BerHn  quarts  yield  on  the  average  1  lb.  of  butter ;    therefore 
a  cow  w^ill  yield  93  J  lbs.  of  butter  per  annum. 

the  same  fodder  be  gathered  and  consumed  as  green-meat,  the  loss  is  quite  inconsiderable.  I  have  made, 
and  fikevvise  induced  my  friends  to  make,  certain  comparative  experiments  for  determining  the  advantage 
of  consuming  fodder  in  the  green  rather  than  in  the  dry  state,  and  have  always  found  a  difference  of  1-5  in 
favor  of  the  former;  that  is  to  say,  that  if  100  lbs.  of  gi-een  clover  were  sufHcientto  keep  a  cow,  125  lbs.  of  the 
same  clover  would  be  required  for  that  purpose  in  the  dry  state.  These  experiments  have  never  been  made 
with  the  accuracy  which  I  look  for  in  an  experiment  whose  results  are  to  be  considered  decisive  :  but  they 
have  been  sitlRciently  multiplied  in  various  places,  and  by  various  persons,  to  give  their  results  a  high  degi-ee 
of  probability.  [French  Trans. 

*  Long  experience  has  convinced  me  that  green  feeding  is  well  suited  to  beasts  of  labor,  both  horses  and 
oxen,  and  that  the  animals,  when  accustomed  to  such  food,  keep  up  their  strength  on  it  much  better  than  on 
dry  fodder.  In  general,  my  oxen  get  very  fat  upon  this  kind  of  food,  as  soon  as  the  spring-work  is  over,  and 
they  are  put  to  hghter  work  ;  and  during  the  laborious  interval  from  harvest-time  to  the  end  of  October, 
when  they  have  no  rest,  excepting  on  fete-days,  and  during  very  heavy  rain,  the  animals  sustain  their  labor 
with  perfect  vigor,  and  preserve  their  condition  ;  whereas,  when  1  was  in  the  habit  of  feeding  my  oxen  on 
dry  fodder,  they  used  to  enter  upon  the  winter  in  a  very  lean  and  jaded  condition. 

When  my  working  horses  are  fed  on  green-meat,  I  never  give  them  com,  excepting  at  the  time  of  their  so- 
veiest  labor,  and  tkey  nevertheless  perform  their  work  cheerfully  and  well. — 1815.  \Frevch  Trans. 

t  I  know  of  ir.star.tes,  rare,  it  is  true,  in  which  90  lbs.  of  milk  have  been  obtained  from  stall-fed  cows  ;  in 
addition,  howersr  to  ths  green-meat,  bran  was  put  into  their  broth.  Moreover,  these  cows  were  remark- 
able animals,  of  large  size  and  exceUe^i:  breed — altogether  a  kind  of  prodigy.  {French  Trans. 
(1188) 


A  pound  of  butter,  selling  for  six  groschen,  this  amounts  to , 23  r-d.  8  gr.  0  p. 

Cheese  and  the  refuse,  reckoned  at  two  groschen  for  12  quarts 7       18       8    " 


Seven  rix-dollars,  eight  groschen,  eight  pence,  constitute  about  the  ^vhole  expense  of  attend- 
ance, cleaning  and  the  dairy,  which  a  cow-keeper  will  have  to  pay.  Hence  24  rixdollars  is  the 
highest  price  that  should  be  given  for  the  produce  of  each  cow ;  but  this  price  would  leave  no 
profit,  and  is  therefore  realized  only  now  and  then  in  seasons  when  the  price  of  batter  rises  very 
high.  But  in  rural  establishments  distinguished  for  the  good  management  of  their  cows  and  the 
goodness  of  their  pastures,  the  net  profit  of  a  cow,  even  after  deducting  all  expenses  of  attendance, 
cleaning,  and  other  accessories,  may  perhaps  be  rai.sed  to  3.5  rix-dollars  ;  supposing,  however,  as 
already  observed,  that  butter  is  at  a  high  price. 

It  has  been  said  that  when  cows  are  better  fed  they  yield  a  larger  produce,  but  that  the  increase 
does  not  counterbalance  the  additional  expense;  that,  for  example,  it  is  not  profitable  to  buy  hay 
for  cows.  But  this  depends  upon  locality  ;  the  market  price  is  much  higher  than  that  for  which  I 
can  generally  procure  hay  or  fodder  to  supply  its  place.  When  the  growth  of  a  .scheflfel  of  pota- 
toes costs  me  at  the  most  two  groschen.  and  a  quarter  of  a  scheffel  given  daily  to  a  cow  increases 
the  daily  value  of  her  milk  by  one  groschen,  I  gain  two  groschen  per  scheflfei  by  this  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding. The  quantity  of  food  necessary  for  preserving  the  life  of  a  cow  ought  to  be  given  to  her 
under  all  circumstances,  and  independently  of  all  considerations  of  profit;  it  is  the  surplus  only 
that  produces  milk  or  increases  the  flesh  ;  and  consequently,  it  is  only  from  this  surplus  that  any 
profit  can  be  obtained.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  profit  resulting  from  fodder  is  greater  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quantity  consumed,  provided  always  that  this  quantity  be  not  greater  than  the  digest- 
ive powers  are  able  to  convert  into  blood  and  other  animal  matter.  We  may  also  conclude  from 
the  preceding  observations  that  it  is  not  advantageous  to  maintain  three  cov/son  the  fodder  which 
two  are  able  to  consume  and  digest ;  this,  however,  is  often  done,  and  will  continue  to  be  prac- 
ticed as  long  as  cultivators  persevere  in  reckoning  the  profit  of  their  cow-house  at  so  much  per 
head  of  cattle. 

The  quantity  and  quality  of  nourishment  best  adapted  for  a  milch  cow  cannot  be  determined 
by  general  rules,  but  must  be  varied  according  to  age,  breed,  and  individual  peculiarities.  For  a 
full-grown  cow  of  average  size,  the  most  appropriate  quantity  appears  to  be  either  18  lbs.  of  hay, 
half  of  which  may  be  replaced  by  roots,  or  80  lbs.  of  green  clover.  As  to  large  cows,  they  may 
advantageously  consume  from  25  lbs.  to  30  lbs.  of  dried  hay,  or  from  112  to  140  lbs.  of  green-meat. 
Besides  this,  as  much  straw  may  be  given  to  them  as  they  will  eat. 

Cows  are  most  abundant  in  milk  at  the  age  of  six  or  seven  years  ;  and.  if  they  have  not  calved 
before  their  thii-d  year,  may  be  maintained  in  the  same  state  till  the  twelfth.  I  do  not  think  it 
economical  to  get  rid  of  a  cow  which  is  free  from  defects  merely  because  she  is  ten  years  old. 

THE  DAIRY. 

The  produce  of  the  dairy  is,  in  this  country,  the  most  usual  mode  of  turning  horned-cattle  to  ac- 
count. Fattening  is  generally  regarded  as  an  accessory.  We  shall  speak  first  of  the  dairy,  and 
afterward  of  the  fattening  of  cattle. 

Milk  may  be  disposed  of  in  three  ways :  first,  by  selling  it  as  it  comes  from  the  cow  ;  secondly, 
bp  converting  it  into  butter ;  thirdly,  by  making  it  into  cheese. 

Tlie  desire  to  get  rid  of  the  trouble  of  inspecting  the  dairy  and  cow^-stalls.  and  to  ensure  a  cer- 
tain and  immediate,  though  smaller  profit,  has  in  many  countries  induced  the  majority  of  great 
farmers  to  let  their  dairies.  On  almost  all  the  estates  in  Mecklenburg  and  on  many  in  Marches, 
there  were  formerly  cattle-farmers  who  were  there  called  Hollanders,  just  as  dairies  in  these 
countries  are  called  Hollanderies.  The  farming  was  usually  arranged  according  to  heads  of  cat- 
tle, and  consequently  endeavors  were  solely  directed  to  increase  their  number,  even  though 
pasturage  and  fodder  were  continually  diminished  by  the  practice  ;  this  is,  perhaps,  the  chief 
cause  of  the  bad  state  of  cattle  in  those  countries.  The  cultivator  ceased  to  take  interest  in  his 
milch  cows,  and  there  is  notlwig  like  the  master' s  eye  for  fattening  cattle.  The  interest  of  the 
rural  establishment  became  divided  between  two  branches  of  economy,  the  cultivation  of  produce 
and  the  management  of  cattle,  which  can  never  thrive  unless  they  go  hand  in  hand.  Unless  the 
farmed  herd  were  very  numerous,  consistmg  of  100  bead  of  cattle  or  more,  the  advantages  which 
it  was  necessary  to  concede  to  the  farmers  swallowed  up  the  greater  part  of  the  rent. 

To  save  the  trouble  of  inspecting,  not  only  the  cows,  but  likewise  the  operations  of  the  dairy 
and  the  preparation  of  cheese,  which  can  never  well  be  executed  except  by  careful  women,  it  is 
much  better  to  sell  the  milk  just  as  it  comes  from  the  cow  at  a  reasonable  price  to  a  dairyman. 
In  this  way  both  parties  feel  a  certain  security,  and  take  interest  in  the  milch  cows  and  their  pro- 
duce ;  innumerable  difficulties  are  avoided,  and  the  contractors  no  longer  seek  to  take  advantage 
of  each  other,  as  they  always  do  with  regard  to  quantity  of  fodder  when  the  farming  is  aiTanged 
'  according  to  the  number  of  cattle.  I  look  upon  all  other  modes  of  farming  as  inconsistent  with  a  ' 
eood  system  of  economy.  ' 

Great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  cows  be  completely  and  properlj'  milked,  for  a  scanty  pro-    | 
'    duce  of  the  dairy  often  arises  from  neglect  of  this  matter.     It  requires  the  constant  attention  of  a   ! 

woman  capable  of  teaching  the  dairymaids  how  to  go  to  work.  She  must,  upon  the  least  possible 
'  suspicion  that  a  cow  has  not  been  well  milked,  put  her  own  hand  to  the  udder,  in  order  to  attest 
the  reality  of  her  doubts,  and  draw  off^'  any  milk  that  may  be  left  in  the  udder.  This  attention  is 
required,  not  for  the  sake  of  any  additional  quantity  of  milk  which  may  be  obtained  at  the  time, 
but  to  prevent  the  loss  which  would  result  from  diminished  lacteal  secretion,  and  to  check  the 
progress  which  carelessness  is  sure  to  make,  wten  not  promptly  corrected. 

The  four  teats  must  be  milked  one  after  the  other,  even  if  one  of  them  should  not  give  any 
milk. 

(1189) 


6!"  8  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

If  the  udJer  be  foul,  it  must  be  washed  before  milking,  because  the  slightest  foulness  gives  a 
bad  laste  to  the  milk,  and  may  thus  bring  discredit  on  the  dairy.  This  point  must  be  carefully  at- 
tended to,  cspeci-ally  when  the  cows  are  stall-fed  on  green-meat. 

The  water,  together  with  a  sponge,  or  cloth,  is  contained  in  covered  pails  which  the  dairymaids 
carry  with  them,  and  u.se  as  stool.s  to  sit  upon. 

When  the  dairymaids  say  that  a  cow  has  fallen  off  in  milk,  and  is  scarcely  worth  the  trouble 
of  milking,  the  milk  must  be  gently  warmed,  to  try  if  it  will  curdle  ;  if  not.  the  milking  must  be 
continued,  in  order  that  the  cow  may  not  become  accustomed  to  remain  long  without  giving  milk. 
Tiie  milking  of  every  cow  must,  however,  be  discontinued  about  a  month  before  she  calves,  even 
though  she  should  jield  a  quart  of  milk,  otherwise  she  will  be  too  much  exhausted. 

Some  persons  maintain  that  cows  yield  a  greater  quantity  the  oftener  they  are  milked  ;  but  this 
opinion  is  not  borne  out  by  careful  experiments.  On  the  contrary,  it  has  been  proved  that  as  much 
milk  is  obtained  when  the  cows  are  milked  twice,  as  when  the  milking  is  performed  three  or  four 
I  times  a  daj' ;  some  persons  have,  in  fact,  obtained  a  greater  quantity  of  milk,  but  not  of  such  quality 
I  as  to  yield  more  butter.  It  isonly  when  the  secretion  is  mo.st  rapid,  and  such  that  the  udder  cannot 
contain  all  the  milk,  but  allows  some  of  it  to  drop  out  spontaneously,  that  a  third  milking  becomes 
necessary. 

The  first  portion  obtained  at  each  milking  is  not  so  rich  as  the  last ;  but  I  have  never  observed  so' 
great  a  difference  between  the  two  portions  as  some  persons  pretend  to  have  remarked.  In  places 
where  one  part  of  the  milk  is  sold,  and  the  rest  made  into  butter,  these  two  portions  are  some- 
times separated,  the  latter  only  being  taken  to  make  butter.    . 

"When  milk  is  to  be  sold  fre.sh,  it  is  important  to  keep  it  at  a  low  temperature,  not,  however,  be- 
low the  freezing  point.  If  the  fre.sh  milk  be  carried  to  a  to%A-n  a  mile  or  two  off,  the  produce  of 
the  evening  milk  is  usually  devoted  to  this  purpose,  and  earned  awaj'  as  soon  as  drawn,  the  vessel 
containing  it  being  immersed  in  cold,  and  sometimes  iu  iced  water ;  the  carriage  is  performed 
during  the  night,  so  that  the  town  may  be  reached  early  in  the  morning.  At  short  distances  from 
town,  the  morning  milk  may  also  be  added. 

This  mode  of  disposing  of  milk  is  looked  upon  as  the  most  advantageous  of  all.  This  is,  in  fact, 
thecase.  though  not  without  limitation  ;  for  the  system  involves  expense,  details,  and  superintend- 
ence, which  are  not  in  the  power  of  every  farmer.  It  is  certainly  the  most  convenient  method,  for 
those  who  can  sell  their  milk  as  soon  as  drawn  to  a  retailer,  who  takes  it  away,  and  is  accord- 
ingly allowed  a  profit  to  recompense  him  for  his  trouble.  In  localyies  where  there  is  a  town- 
market  for  fresh  milk,  there  is  generally,  also,  an  opportunity  of  selling:  fresh  butter  for  the  table ; 
and  the  price  of  this  butter  is  such  as  to  yield  a  profit  at  least  equal  to  that  which  can  be  ob- 
tained by  selling  the  milk  directly.  In  the  country,  the  quantity  of  fresh  milk  which  can  be  sold 
is  but  trifling ;  but  there  is  sometimes  an  opportuuity  of  selling  skimmed  milk,  whey,  and  butter- 
milk, to  advantage. 

In  order  to  make  butter  perfectly  good  and  fit  for  keeping,  it  is  necessary  to  make  one's  self 
acquainted  with  the  pi-ocess  in  all  its  stages. 

A  good  milk-room  is  an  essential  condition.  It  is  u.suallj'  formed  under-ground,  for  the  sake  of 
maintaining  a  proper  and  equable  temperature.  The  ground  is  covered  with  stone  slabs,  and  the 
false  floor  thus  formed  is  made  to  incline  to  one  side,  so  that  the  water  with  which  it  is  continuallj' 
sprinkled,  and  that  used  for  cleaning,  may  drain  off  into  a  cistern,  and  be  earned  away.  The  cel- 
lar, or  milk-store,  .should  have  gratings,  or  apertures,  on  two  opposite  .sides,  .so  that  the  air  may 
circulate  freely  through  it.  These  apertures  are  generallj'  so  di.sposed  that  the  draught  of  air  may 
be  felt  not  only  in  the  upper  part  of  the  room,  but  also  near  the  ground.  The  lower  apertures 
must,  however,  admit  of  being  .shut  when  the  wind  i.s  so  high  as  to  occasion  risk  of  disturbing  the 
milk-pails  placed  on  the  floor.  The  milk-store  must  be  large  enough  to  admit  of  the  vessels  being 
placed  side  by  side,  and  not  one  upon  the  other;  at  all  events,  this  latter  arrangement  is  consid- 
ered disadvantageous  in  the  best  managed  dairies  of  Holstein.  It  is  best  to  place  the  milk-pails 
directly  on  the  floor,  for  it  is  there  that  the  temperature  is  most  uniform. 

A  proper  temperature  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  causing  the  milk  to  cream.  If  the  tem- 
perature be  too  high,  the  milk  turns  .sour  before  the  cream  collects  on  its  surface,  and  then  the 
cream  will  not  .separate.  When  the  temperature  is  too  low.  the  separation  of  the  cream  takes 
place  very  slowly.  The  most  suitable  temperature  is  between  12^  and  15°.  The  former  is  the 
proper  degree  of  heat  for  summer,  and  the  latter  for  winter.  To  obtain  perfectly  good  butter, 
we  mu.st  be  very  careful  not  onlj'tokeep  the  vessels  and  utensils,  but  also  the  air  of  the  room  per- 
fectly pure.  There  is  no  liquid  more  susceptible  in  this  respect  than  milk :  foreign  matter,  and 
exhalations  of  all  kinds,  may  impart  to  it  a  bad  taste,  an  unpleasant  smell,  and  various  other  de- 
fects. 

The  disposition  of  milk  to  become  glutinous  and  stringy  often  arises  from  nothing  but  a  vitiated 
state  of  the  atmosphere,  though  it  may  also  proceed  from  some  disease  in  the  cow,  which  may  be 
communicate.!  to  the  whole  mass  of  the  milk.  The  appearance  of  a  blue  color  in  the  milk,  or  of 
violet  spots  on  its  surface,  is  in  most  cases  produced  by  impurities  in  the  air.  It  is  probably  a  kind 
of  mouldiness,  developed  on  the  cream  as  soon  as  it  comes  to  the  surface.  This  evil  has,  after 
many  trials  which  have  come  to  my  knowledge,  been  cured  by  airing  the  cellar  well,  after  it  has 
been  fumig:ated  with  chlorine  or  burning  sulphur — the  various  utensils  of  the  dairj-  being  also  ex- 
posed to  this  fumigation. 

The  milk,  as  soon  as  drawn,  is  poured  through  a  sieve  into  the  pails,  in  order  that  the  cream 
may  collect  on  its  surface.  The  sieve  must  not  be  of  woolen  or  linen  cloth,  but  of  hair,  and  kept 
in  a  state  of  perfect  cleanliness. 

The  ves.sels  in  which  the  milk  is  put  to  cream  are  of  metal,  earthenware,  or  wood.  Those  of 
metal,  especially  tin,  appear  from  many  trials  to  be  decidedly  the  best  for  skimming  the  milk  ; 
but  they  are  too  co.stly  for  use  in  large  rural  establishments.  Ves.sels  of  clay  or  porcelain  are  more 
easily  kept  clean  than  wooden  ones,  but  they  are  too  fragile.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  case 
them  in  wood,  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  their  solidity.  They  should  be  well  glazed,  as  other- 
(1100 


wise  the  milk,  when  sonr.  will  penetrate  the  clay  :  but  glazes  containing  oxide  of  lead  must  be 
avoided,  because  sour  milk  would  dissolve  a  portion  of  the  lead  ;  the  quantity  thus  dissolved 
would,  however,  be  very  small.  According  to  Wistrumb's  experiments,  the  danger  arising  from 
this  cause  is  not  so  great  as  some  persons  suppose.  Glass  and  jjorcelain  vessels  are  too  costly, 
I  and  serve  only  to  make  a  show.  In  large  dairies,  wooden  vessels  are  most  commonly  used  ;  and 
when  care  is  taken  to  clean  them  properly,  and  not  expose  them  to  the  air,  they  are  unexception- 
able. Especial  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  their  being  contaminated  by  acid  fermentation  ;  for 
this  pui-pose  they  must  be  wa.shed,  from  time  to  time,  with  the  lye  of  wood-ashes,  and  always 
scoured  with  water  and  a  brush  after  being  used.  These  vesisels  are  usually  made  by  coopers  ; 
but  they  are  sometimes  formed  of  a  single  piece  of  light  wood,  and  flattened  at  the  bottom,  in 
order  that  they  may  stand  well.  The  latter  are  decidedly  preferable,  both  because  they  have  no 
joinings,  and  are  therefore  more  ea.sily  kept  clean,  and  likewise  becau.se  they  expose  a  lai-ger  sur- 
face of  liquid  to  the  action  of  the  air. 

In  all  cases,  the  milk- vessels  should  be  as  shallow  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  cream  may  rise 
quickly  to  the  surface,  and  be  more  easily  separated  from  the  milk.  Deep  vessels,  of  narrow  sur- 
face, are  altogether  disadvantageous  and  defective. 

Opinions  are  divided  respecting  the  proper  time  for. skimming  the  milk.  Some  persons  allow 
'  it  to  curdle  and  turn  sour,  laefore  they  skim,  thinking  to  obtain  a  larger  quantitj'  of  cream  by  so 
dohig.  But  in  Hol.stein,  where  the  art  of  making  butter  is  most  thoi-oughly  understood,  the  con- 
trai\y  opinion  is  entertained,  and  the  cream  is  taken  off  before  the  .slightest  acidity  is  developed. — 
The  cream  is  considered  ripe  -when  the  thrusting  of  a  knife  into  it  no  longer  causes  any  milk  to  ' 
rise  to  the  surfice. 

The  latter  method  is  decidedly  preferable ;  for  it  is  a  demonstrated  fact  that  acidity  not  only  does 
not  assi.st  the  separation  of  the  cream,  but,  on  the  contrary,  stops  it  when  once  begun ;  and  farther, 
that  butter  made  from  sweet  cream,  besides  having  a  more  agreeable  flavor  when  fresh,  is  better 
adapted  for  keeping,  and  less  expo.sed  to  become  bitter.    The  slightest  degree  of  acidity  causes 
the  mixture  of  cheesy  particles  in  the  cream  ;  the  layer  to  be  taken  ofl^  becomes  thicker  in  conse- 
'     quence,  but  the  quantity  of  cream  is  not  really  increased.     It  is  of  great  importance  to  .seize  the 
I     moment  when  all  the  cream  is  collected  on  the  surface,  but  no  acidity  is  yet  apparent.     The  time 
]     at  which  this  effect  takes  place  is  subject  to  considerable  variation,  according  to  the  state  of  the 
I    atmosphere.     At  a  temperature  of  ten  degrees  (centigrade)  it  may  be  expected  in  thirty-.six  hours ; 
, '    at  a  higher  temperature  it  takes  place  in  sixteen  hours ;  and,  during  stormy  weather,  in  twelve  or 
, '    even  ten  hours.     In  the  Holstein  dairies  careful  persons  are  set  to  watch  the  milk  during  the  night, 
in  order  that  they  may  ring  up  the  dairymaids  as  soon  as  the  precise  time  is  arrived  ,  this  they  as- 
certain by  the  signs  already  spoken  of 

The  cream  is  taken  off  by  means  of  a  -wooden  spoon  shaped  like  a  shovel.  \ 

The  butter  .should,  if  possible,  be  made  as  soon  as  the  cream  is  taken  off.     In  well-managed   / 
dairies,  only  the  portions  of  milk  obtained  in  one  day  are  mixed  together.     In  small  establish- 
ments, where  butter  is  made  only  once  in  two  or  three  days,  the  cream  must  be  kept  in  earthen 
vessels,  and  as  fre.sh  as  possible.  i 

Butter  is  separated  from  the  surplus  of  cream  with  which  it  is  mixed  by  a  mechanical  move- 
ment, produced  in  various  ways.  There  are  two  .sorts  of  churns  :  one  high,  narrow,  and  fixed  ; 
the  other  shaped  like  a  barrel.  The  latter  either  turns  upon  a  fixed  axis,  having  wooden  vanes 
attached  to  it;  or  the  barrel  is  fixed,  and  the  axis  with  its  vanes  turns  within  it,  being  moved  by  a 
handle.  Barrel  churns  have  been  extolled  above  their  real  merits.  In  order  to  estimate  their 
value  properly,  and  in  general  to  form  an  idea  of  the  points  to  be  attended  to  in  making  it,  it  is 
neces.sary  to  know  how  this  substance  is  formed  and  separated. 

The  fatty  part  of  milk  is  not  actual  butter;  the  latter  substance  is  formed  by  the  action  of  the  air 
upon  the  cream — in  fact,  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen.  For  this  reason,  the  air  must  have  free 
acce.ss  to  the  cream,  and  be  renewed  as  often  as  pos.sible  in  the  vessels  in  which  it  is  stirred.  It 
has  been  shown,  by  direct  experiment,  that  oxygen  is  the  principle  most  actively  concerned  hi 
producing  the  change  ;  for  it  has  been  found  that  the  butter  appears  more  quickly  in  proportion 
as  the  air  is  more  charged  with  oxygen,  and  that  when  that  substance  is  not  present  the  formation 
of  batter  does  not  take  place.  ', 

In  this  respect  the  high,  narrow,  fixed  churns  have  the  advantage  over  those  which  are  ban-el- 
shaped,  because  the  latter  must  be  closed,  and  the  oxycren  contained  in  the  confined  portion  of  air 
is  .soon  consumed;  whereas  fixed  churns  allow  ,1  sufficient  quantity  of  air  to  enter,  and  moreover 
the  air  is  constantly  renewed  in  them  by  the  agitation  wiiich  effects  the  seiiarution  of  the  butter. 

But  these  pump-churns  are  likewise  preferable  in  another  point  of  vifw;  the  oily  particles, 
hardened  by  the  air  and  transformed  into  butter,  still  swim  in  the  licjuid  in  a  statt^  of  minute  divis- 
ion, and  must  be  collected  by  agitation  into  larger  ma.sses.  Now.  in  churns  which  turn  upon  an 
axis,  the  motion  is  not  sufficiently  powerful;  for.  although  the  wliole  of  the  liquid  is  thrown  into  a 
revolvinir  motion,  it  is  not  beaten  and  stirred  up  thoroughly  as  it  ought  to  bo.  But  in  fixed  churns 
the  beating  up  and  down  produces  a  continual  displacement  of  the  milky  particles,  and  thus 
brings  the  buttery  portions  into  contact.  The  long,  fixed  churns  have  al-^o  the  advantage  of  being 
more  easily  cleaned  than  those  which  revolve. 

But  as  th^  beating   or  pumping  motion   is  laborious  when  pei-formed    by  unassisted  manual 

strength,  particularly  with  large  quantities  of  liquid,  various  mechanical  contrivances  have  been 

j    devised  for  diminishing  the  labor:  they  consist,  for  the  most  part,  in  attaching  the  rammer,  by  a 

}    movable  connection,  to  the  arm  of  a  lever.     The  butter  is  generally  stirred  in  two  churns  at  once, 

so  that  the  rod  descends  in  the  one  at  the  same  time  that  it  rises  in  the  other.     Motion  is  given  to 

the  beam  either  by  a  heavy  hammer,  which  is  moved  backward  and  forward  by  two  men,  and, 

■when  once  in  motion,  goes  on  without  difficulty,  or  by  means  of  a  wheel  who.se  circumference  is 

loaded.     In  the  very  largest  dairies!  the  machine  is  set  in  motion  by  horses  or  oxen.     This  method 

is,  moreover,  advantageous,  inasmuch  as  it  gives  regularity  to  the  motion,  and  then  the  butter  is 

formed  in  a  better  manner  than  when  the  motion  is  sometimes  fast  and  sometimes  slow. 

(1191) 


In  the  preparation  of  butter,  a  point  of  equal  importance  witli  the  preceding  is  the  maintenance 
of  a  proper  temperature.  When  the  cream  is  too  cold,  the  buttery  particles  become  too  hard, 
and  not  glutinous  enough  to  stick  together;  too  high  a  temperature,  on  the  contrary,  makes  the 
butter  very  soft,  and  then  the  clots  become  divided  during  agitation,  and  mix  again  with  the  milk. 
]f  the  cream  be  too  cold,  the  churn  must  be  heated  either  by  putting  it  in  a  warm  place,  or  mix- 
ing a  little  warm  water  with  the  cream  ;  Avhen.  on  the  other  hand,  the  temperature  is  too  high,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  cool  the  churn  by  phicing  it  in  cold  water,  or,  if  possible,  in  ice. 

There  are,  however,  other  causes  of  difficulty  in  the  preparation  of  butter.     The  milk  of  cows 
in  a  very  advanced  state  of  pregnancy  is  not  easily  converted  into  butter.    The  process  may  some- 
times be  facilitated  by  the  addition  of  a  little  salt ;  no  injury  will  be  done  by  the  slight  degree  of 
saliness  thus  imparted  to  the  buttermilk.     It  is  al.so  said  that  a  piece  of  alum  put  into  the  strainer 
produces  a  good  eflisct.     Much  praise  has  been  bestowed  upon  a  powder  composed  of  dried  sor- 
rcl-Ieavcs,  horehovnd.  yarrow,  and  ncttJe ;  three  handfuls  of  each,  and  half  a  pound  of  flo\\ers  of 
,    sulphur.     A  handful  mixed  with  a  pound  of  vinegar  made  from  beer  is  given  to  each  cow  three 
'i    times  a  day.     The  sulphur  and  beer- vinegar  are  the  really  useful  con-stituents  of  this  mixture. — 
i    Sugar,  ashes,  or  soap,  falling  into  the  cream,  prev(>nt  the  batter  from  forming.     The  common  peo- 
\^   pie  attribute  this  accident  to  witchcraft,  and  resor.  to  all  sorts  of  superstitious  ceremonies  to  obvi- 
'   ate  it  as  well  as  other  defects  in  the  milk. 

, '  When  butter  is  to  be  colored,  the  coloring  matter  must  be  placed  in  the  chum.  With  us,  the 
I  coloring  is  usually  given  with  carrot-juice.  In  Holland,  they  use  marigolds,  which  for  this  pur- 
po.se  the}-  gather  fresh  ;  they  then  put  them  into  a  stone  vessel,  press  them  together,  cover  them 
completely,  and  keep  them  in  celtars.  A  deeper  color  is  given  by  another  material ;  an  ounce  of 
which,  of  the  size  of  a  pea,  is  put  into  thirty  pounds  of  cream  the  evening  before  the  butter  is 
made. 

Butter,  as  soon  as  made,  should  be  .separated  from  its  milky  residue,  for  the  latter  being  much 
disposed  to  ferment,  would  infect  the  butter  and  give  it  a  bad  taste.  In  Holstein,  butter  is  not 
washed,  but  very  carefully  kneaded,  washing  being  considered  injurious.  For  my  part.  1  prefer 
washing,  provided  the  butter  be  well  worked  and  kneaded  afterward.  No  moisture  should  be  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  it :  the  portion  wnich  cannot  be  got  rid  of  is  absorbed  by  common  salt,  and  can 
no  longer  either  ferment  or  cause  fermentation.  It  is  probably  for  this  reason  that  butter  for  keep- 
ing must  alwaj's  be  salted  :  the  less  butter  is  cleaned  the  more  does  it  require  salting.  A  pound 
of  salt  is  added  to  five,  ten,  or  twenty  pounds  cf  butter. 

The  principal  cause  of  butter  acquiring  a  bad  taste  and  smell  after  a  while,  is  undoubtedly  that  a 
certain  portion  of  cheesy  matter  remains  in  it,  and  enters  into  a  kind  of  putrefaction.  The  le.ss  there 
is  of  this  matter,  the  longer  will  the  butter  keep.  In  many  places,  badly  cleaned  butter  is  melted 
to  make  it  keep  longer,  the  cheesy  parts  being  separated  by  this  fusion:  but  butter  thus  melted 
never  preserves  the  agreeable  flavor  of  fresh  butter,  and  can  only  be  u.sed  for  culinary  purposes. 

When  butter  is  kept  in  tubs  or  earthen  vessels,  it  must  be  packed  as  closely  as  possible,  and  no 
interstices  or  vacant  spaces  left,  for  the  butter  quickly  spoils  around  the.se  interstices,  and  the  evil 
spreads  through  the  whole  tub.  In  large  establishments,  it  is  considered  essential  that  a  tub  be 
filled  with  butter  made  all  in  one  day. 

Skimmed  milk  is  used  in  various  ways ;  it  is  .sometimes  mixed  with  buttermilk  for  human  food ; 
sometimes  u.sed  in  making  bread  ;  sometimes  to  make  cheese  ;  or,  lastly,  to  feed  pigs.  These  ani- 
mals, as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  are  also  fed  upon  whey 

Tlie  whole  of  the  milk  is  sometimes  used,  unskimmed,  in  making  butter ;  and  many  persons  con- 
eider  this  method  advantageous,  especially  when  only  the  richer  half  of  the  milk  is  u.sed.  But  such 
butter  will  not  keep  long,  and  it  is  much  less  rich  than  common  butter,  because  it  contains  a  larger 
quantity  of  cheesy  matter. 

Cheese-Making. 

The  preparation  of  cheese  of  first-rate  quality  involves  a  greater  number  of  details,  and  requires 
more  attention,  than  that  of  butter.  But  it  is  in  many  cases  much  more  profitable  ;  indeed,  the  jjrofit 
of  the  dairy  is  often  doubled  by  it.  In  former  times,  all  our  good  clieese  was  brought  from  foreign 
countries,  and  had  to  pass  through  several  hands,  so  that  we  were  obliged  to  purchase  it  at  a  price 
considerably  above  prime  co.st.  In  undertaking  the  making  of  cheese,  however,  we  mu.«t  not  for- 
get that  good,  sweet  cheese  requires  to  be  kept  for  a  year,  or  even  a  year  and  a  half,  before  it  be- 
comes fit  for  sale  ;  and  consequently  that  it  employs  a  capital,  the  interest  of  which  must  be  paid,  as 
well  as  the  rent  of  store-houses  for"  keeping  the  cheese  ;  moreover,  there  are  but  few  rural  estab- 
lishments which  have  this  capital  at  disposal. 

There  is  an  almost  endless  variety  in  the  modes  of  preparing  cheese,  and  this  variety  is  the  prin- 
cipal cause  of  the  differences  of  taste,  smell,  solidity  and  color,  which  cheese  exhibits.  It  is  true 
that  the  kind  of  pasturage  on  which  the  cattle  are  fed,  the  manner  in  which  they  live,  and  the  cli- 
mate, may  have  some  effect  on  the  quality  of  cheese,  so  that  they  may  vary  in  ta.ste,  even  when  pre- 
pared in  the  same  manner ;  indeed,  even  in  countries  where  cheese  is  made  in  large  quantities, 
one  locality  is  admitted  to  have  the  advantage  in  some  respects,  while  in  other.s,  the  superiority  is 
awarded  to  chee.se  made  elsewhere.  This  difference  is  almost  universally  attributed  to  the  nature 
of  the  pa.stures,  and  to  certain  plants  which  grow  upon  them.  But  it  is  also  certain  that  the  most 
trilling  difference  in  the  mode  of  preparation  will  give  character  which  connoisseurs  are  sure  to 
detect;  and  in  localities  famous  for  their  cheese,  the  women  who  make  it  have  peculiar  modes  of 
proceeding,  -which  they  refuse  to  communicate  to  others.  Such  differences  are,  hov^'ever,  inap- 
preciable, excepting  to  very  refined  palates. 

\Vhen  connoi.sseurs  in  chee.se  are  accustomed  to  particular  sorts,  and  require  that  all  imitations 
shall  have  exactly  the  same  flavor,  and  other  characters,  as  the  originals,  it  becomes  rlifficult  to  sat- 
i.sfy  them  :  but  such  preten.sions  are  founded  rather  on  obstinacy  than  on  real  superiority  of  taste. 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  we  are  capable  of  making  cheese  which,  even  if  not  pre- 
(1192) 


cisely  similar  to  the  best  Cheshire,  may  nevertheless  be  superior  to  it  in  flavor ;  and  if  we  can  on- 
ly succeed  in  giving  to  oar  cheese  a  quality  proportionate  to  its  price,  we  shall  not  fail  of  obtain- 
ing a  market  for  it.  We  must,  however,  especially  in  commencing  the  undertaking,  endeavor  to 
approach  as  closely  as  possible  to  some  kind  of  cheese  in  high  estimation,  either  for  taste,  lorm,  or 
internal  appearance. 

The  innumerable  varieties  of  cheese  are  classified  according  to  the  following  properties  : — 

1.  With  regard  to  richness,  we  have, 

(a).  Very  rich  cheese,  made  from  morning  milk  as  it  comes  from  the  cows,  and  the  cream  of  the 
evening  milking. 

(b).  Rick  cheese.,  made  from  milk  just  as  it  comes  from  the  cows. 

(c).  Poor  cheese,  made  with  skimmed  milk. 

But  there  are  degrees  of  richness  according  to  the  quantity  of  cream  used  for  the  first  variety, 
and  the  quantity  taken  oft'  the  milk  from  which  the  third  is  prepared. 

2.  A  distinction  is  made  between  sweet  and  sour-milk  cheese,  accordingly  as  the  milk  and 
cream  trom  which  they  are  made  are  used  fresh,  or  allowed  to  acquire  a  certain  degi-ee  of  acidity. 

3.  Another  distinction  is  between  pressed  and  unpressed  cheese.     It  is  only  by  pressure  that 

i    cheese  can  be  separated  from  all  the  whey  that  is  mixed  with  it.     Now  the  whej',  by  iermenting, 
imparts  to  the  cheese  a  peculiar  pungency,  and  a  disposition  to  alter  its  consistence,  and,  especial- 
ly in  a  damp  atmosphere,  to  melt,  and  be  converted  into  a  kind  of  viscous  liquid.     Hence,  the  more 
carefully  ibe  raw  material  is  worked,  and  the  oftener  the  cheese  is  pressed  to  get  rid  of  the  whey, 
i    the  sweeter  and  better  adapted  for  keeping  will  it  become.     The  sweetness  of  Gloucester  and 
I    Cheshire  cbeese  arises  chietiy  from  the  repeated  and  ca'-eful  working  bestowed  upon  it,  and  the 
I    strong  pressure  to  which  it  is  exposed  tor  expelling  the  whey.     But  cheese  thus   prepared  be- 
comes almost  as  tough  as  leather,  unless  it  contains  an  abundance  of  fatty  particles. 

Unpressed  cheese  must  be  consumed  soon  after  it  is  made,  or  it  will  quickly  attain  a  state  of  pu- 
trid fermentation.  When  this  happens,  the  cbeese  is  worked  anew,  put  under  the  press,  and 
mixed  with  cream  and  butter;  the  progress  of  putrefaction  is  checked  by  wrapping  it  m  cloths 
moistened  with  beer  containing  a  large  quantity  of  hops,  or  with  wine  ;  a  quantity  of  hops,  or  other 
aromatic  substances,  is  placed  between  two  of  the  cheeses,  and  the  drying  is  repeated.  It  is  in 
this  manner  that  the  strong,  pungent  cheeses  so  much  esteemed  by  some  persons  as  a  stimulus  to  the 
appetite,  are  prepared. 

4.  Cheese  is  also  distinguished  according  to  the  manner  in  which  the  milk  is  curdled,  and  the  sub- 
stances employed  for  producing  this  eifect. 

Milk  is  curdled  either  after  being  warmed,  or  at  its  natural  temperature  (26^  centigrade),  oraf 
ter  cooling. 

The  warmer  the  milk,  the  more  readily  does  it  curdle,  the  quantity  and  the  pressure  to  which 
it  is  sut)jected  being  the  same.  But  if  the  milk  be  too  warm,  and  curdle  too  quickly,  the  cheese 
'  will  be  hard.  The  Hneuess  and  delicacy  of  the  cheese-paste  are  greater  in  proportion  to  the  fresh- 
ness of  tUe  milk.  Cheese  made  from  milk  which  has  curdled  slowly,  does  not  become  ripe  enough 
',   for  sale  .so  quickly  as  that  which  has  been  made  to  curdle  rapidly. 

Coagalation  may  be  effected  by  simply  warming  the  milk  when  it  has  acquired  a  slight  degree 
of  acidity  ;  but  this  method  is  adopted  only  vi'itli  sour-milk  cheese.  It  is  known  that  all  acids  co- 
agulate milk.  Mineral  acids  are  often  used  for  this  purpose,  especially  the  hydrochloric;  the  ef- 
fect is  also  brought  about  by  means  of  vinegar,  and  different  vegetable  substances,  containing  an 
acid  principle,  or  tannin,  such  as  tamarinds,  sour  fruits,  oak,  willow,  and  alder  bark.  The  yellow 
bed-slraic,  or  cliee^e-reiinet  [Galium  veram),  has  been  long  recommended  as  an  excellent  substance 
for  curdling  milk:  this  property  has,  however,  been  lately  called  in  question. 

Bui  the  rennet  most  generally  used  is  the  stomach  of  a  sucking-calf,  and  the  s-ubstances  con- 
tained in  it,  after  it  has  been  well  cleaned.  The  last  of  the  four  stomachs  is  the  one  used  for  this 
pui-pose. 

The  modes  of  preparing  and  keeping  these  calf-stomachs  vaiy  to  a  great  extent;  many  persons 
maiuiaiu  that  the  slightest  difference  in  the  preparation  has  great  influence  on  the  nature  of  the 
cheese.  Celebrated  cheese-makers,  therefore,  often  make  a  secret  of  their  mode  of  preparing  the 
rennet.  Marshall,  in  his  description  of  the  rural  economy  of  Gloucestershire  and  the  southern  coun- 
ties, has  detailed  various  processes  adopted  for  preparing  the  rennets  in  those  counties  of  England 
most  celebrated  for  their  cheese,  viz.,  Gloucestershire  and  Cheshire,  in  which  he  prolonged  his 
stay,  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  these  processes:  this  part  of  his  writings  de- 
serves to  be  translated.  I  do  not  think,  however,  that  slight  ditfiarences  in  the  rennet  have  so  great 
an  influence  on  the  quality  of  cheese,  and  Marshall  himself  seems  to  have  come  round  to  this 
opinion. 

The  following  is  one  of  the  processes  most  frequently  adopted:  The  stomach  of  a  sucking-calf 
is  opened,  and  the  curdled  milk  taken  out:  the  latter  is  cieaned,  particularly  from  hairs  which 
may  be  found  in  it,  and  washed  with  cold  water  till  it  becomes  quite  white:  it  is  then  squeezed 
in  a  cloth  properly  adapted  for  drying  it,  spread  out,  and  carefully  rubbed  up  with  salt.  Then  the 
stomach  is  also  washed  in  cold  water,  rubbed  with  salt,  and  the  previous  preparation  enclosed  in 
it ;  the  whole,  is  put  into  a  pot,  and  covered  with  salt.  As  many  stomachs  as  can  be  collected  in  a 
month  are  put  together.  The  rennets  thus  prepared  must  remain  for  a  year  in  the  vessels  before 
they  are  used  ;  and  when  they  are  to  be  used,  one  of  the  vessels  is  opened,  and  emptied,  and  its 
contents  carefully  pounded.  The  yolks  of  three  fresh  eggs  and  a  small  glass  of  good  cream  are 
then  added.  It  is  usual,  after  mixing  the  %vhole  well  together,  to  throw  in  a  small  quantity  ot 
spice,  tiour,  and  seed  of  nutmeg,  a  clove,  and  a  little  powdered  saffron.  The  whole  is  then  again 
put  into  the  bag,  and  hung  up  in  a  proper  place.  Next  a  strong  mixture  is  prepared,  boiled,  and 
left  at  rest  as  long  as  required  ;  8^  oz.  of  rennet  taken  out  of  the  bag  are  put  into  it,  four  or  live  wal- 
nut leaves  are  also  put  into  it,  and  the  whole  left  at  rest  for  a  fortnight. 

Anotlier  mode  of  proceedmg  is  to  take  the  stomach  of  a  young  calf,  together  with  the  coagu- 
lated milk  contained  in  it,  and  carefully  wash  the  latter.  The  stomach  is  then  also  carefully  washed. 
(1193) 


522  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

and  left  in  salt  for  three  days.  Five  or  six  eggs  are  then  boiled  in  water  till  they  become  hard' 
cut  up  small,  and  mixed  with  the  curdled  milk:  the  whole  is  then  replaced  in  the  salted  stomach, 
hung  up  iu  the  smoke  for  three  weeks,  and  afterward  in  the  open  air.  When  it  is  to  he  used,  a 
piece  is  cut  off,  mixed  with  a  little  milk,  and  poured  into  that  which  is  to  be  curdled.  ' 

A  third  process  consists  in  taking  three  or  four  stomachs  of  calves,  removing  the  coagulated  | 
milk,  washing  and  kneading  it  with  a  handful  of  barley-meal  and  an  equal  quantity  of  new  bread  | 
and  salt.  The  stomachs  themselves  are  not  salted  :  they  are  merely  scraped  a  little,  and  the  mat-  ] 
ter  thus  separated  from  them  joined  with  the  mixture  just  described.  The  whole  is  hen  placed  in  a  ' 
stove  or  earthen-ware  vessel,  with  a  little  salt  above  and  below  it,  and  kept  in  a  cool  place."*  ' 

I  have  no  actual  experience  in  the  preparation  of  cheese,  but  on  the  other  hand,  I  have  the 
most  convincing  proofs  that  in  this  couutrj',  even  with  the  milk  of  stall-fed  cows,  and  during  win- 
ter, the  most  celebrated  cheese  may  be  imitated  so  closely,  that  the  difference  shall  be  inappre-    [ 
ciable  even  to  the  practiced  taste  of  a  connoisseur.     And  even  if  cheese  thus  prepared  should  be 
somewhat  different  from  that  which  we  seek  to  imitate,  it  would  not  on  that  account  be  necessa- 
rily worse  ;  it  might  indeed  be  superior.     But  we  mu.st  not  attempt  to  make  rich  cheese  with 
skimmed  milk,  sweet  cheese  without  pressing  out  the  whey,  soft  cheese  without  paying  great  at-     ^ 
tention  to  the  temperature,  or  generally  good  cheese  without  observing  the  stricte.ft  cleanliness.     , 
We  must  not  allow  ourselves  to  be  disgusted  with  a  single  failure ;  and  to  judge  of  all  the  cheeses 
that  are  fit  for  keeping,  it  is  necessary  to  wait  for  the  time  when  they  become  eatable,  and  mean-    ' 
while  to  adopt  the  best  possible  means  of  preserving  them,  and  among  these  an  airy  cheese-cellar 
is  absolutely  necessaiy.     As  all  these  matters  are  left  to  the  management  of  women,  it  is  necessa- 
ry that  the  superintendent  take  a  lively  interest  in  the  success  of  the  undertaking ;  without  this  it 
will  rarely  turn  outwell.t 

FATTENING  OF  HORNED-CATTLE. 

In  countries  wbere  grain  is  cultivated  in  large  quantities,  there  exists  a  deep-rooted  opinion 
that  the  fattening  of  horned-cattle  is  positively  disadvantageous  excepting  in  large  brandy  distil- 
leries. This  opinion  is.  however,  often  unfounded.  Local  circumstances  may  alter  the  relative 
value  of  i'atteuing,  according  to  the  j-esults  afforded  by  maintaining  cattle  for  other  purposes. 

In  calculations  which  profess  to  show  that  this  branch  of  economy  is  unprofitable,  the  question 
is  not  correctly  stated ;  the  food  given  to  cattle  being  estimated  at  the  market  price,  instead  of  at 
the  cost  of  production.  Every  one  knows  that  the  maintenance  of  cattle  is  indi.=pensable  to  srrain 
cultivation:  the  influence  of  this  maintenance  en  the  produce  of  grain  has,  indeed,  been  developed 
in  s  iveral  parts  of  this  work.  Moreover,  in  the  greater  number  of  cases,  we  cannot  dispense  with 
horned-cattle.  The  real  question  at  issue,  therefore,  is,  which  kind  of  cattle  is  to  be  preferred, 
and.  with  regard  to  horned-cattle  in  particular,  whether  the  quantity  of  fodder  and  pasturage  de- 
voted to  them  can  be  more  advantageously  consumed  by  milch  cows  or  fattened  oxen. 

This  (luestion  merges  into  the  two  following  : — 

{rij.  What  is  the  proportion  between  the  quantity  of  fodder  consumed  by  a  milch  cow  during 
the  whole  year,  and  that  which  an  ox  consumes  in  the  time  required  for  fattening  him  ? 

!'■).  What  is  the  profit  of  an  ox  during  the  time  that  he  is  fattening,  and  that  of  a  milch  cow 
during  the  whole  year  ? 

"We  have  already  spoken  of  the  quantity  of  fodder  consumed  by  a  milch  cow,  and  the  differ- 
ence's observed  v/ith  regard  to  this  matter.  That  required  for  an  ox  put  up  to  fatten  likewise 
varies  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  and  the  quantity  of  flesh  and  fat  which  we  wish  to  give 
him.     But  it  is  perhaps  easier  to  fix  a  tariff  for  each  particular  case  of  fattening  than  for  those 


*  Instructions  on  the  making  of  various  kinds  of  cheese  will  be  found  in  the  follovi^ing  viforks  ; — Of  Swiss 
cheese  in  the  third  part  of  Witte's  work  "  On  the  breed  of  German  Horned-Cattle  :  "  [see  also  the  excellent 
work  entitled,  '•  Des  Fruitigres,"  by  Ch.  LuUin. — French  Trans  ]  of  Cheshire  cheese  in  the  "  Arcbiv  der  Ag- 
ricultur  Chenie  ofHermbstadt :"  of  Lamburg  cheese  in  the  "  Annalen  des  Ackerbaues,"  bb.  xi.  s.  652:  of  va- 
rious kinds  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Knanitz,  vol.  xxsv. :  see  also  Voss,  "  Anweisung-Rahm-und-Fett-Kase 
welche  dem  besten  Engbshen  und  HoUandeschen  gleich  Kommen  zu  bereiter."  Altona,  1807.  ■'  Vollstand- 
it'e.  und  deutliche  Anweisung  zur  Bereitung  des  beruhmten  Englischen  Chester  Kases."  '  Pinna,  1803.— 
Twciniley — "Anweisnnff  Englische  Kase  zu  machen,  aus  dem  EngUschen  ubersetzt  mit  Anmerkunsen  " — 
Frankfurt  am  Main,  1787.     "  [Thner. 

In  Switzei-land  there  are  several  kinds  of  cheese  very  difierent  from  one  another.  The  most  esteemed 
of  all  is  certainly  the  Gruyeres  cheese  ;  most  of  the  others  resemble  it  moi-e  or  less,  the  differences  arising 
rather  from  the  nature  of  the  pasturage  than  the  mode  of  preparation.  The  Urseren  and  Bellelay  cheeses 
hiive  quite  a  ditFerent  taste.  In  the  canton  of  Glavis  they  make  a  kind  of  cheese  coniaining  aromatic  herbs  ; 
it  is  very  high-tlavored,  and  much  esteemed  by  some  persons.  Its  local  name  is  sliaapzigner ;  a  name  which 
implies  that  it  is  not  a  cheese  properly  so  called,  but  a  seret.  [French  Trnvs. 

f  Iu  Switzerland  and  Italy,  cheese-making  is  not  entrusted  to  women  ;  they  ai'e  rarely,  indeed,  employed 
to  milk  the  cows,  especially  for  large  dairies.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  they  would  be  vei7  well 
adapted  for  both  these  dunes  if  they  were  accustomed  from  their  youth  to  the  necessary  regularity  and  ex- 
actness. In  the  countries  just  mentioned,  the  cheese-maker  is  one  of  the  most  important  persons  on  the 
farm,  for  upon  his  skill  and  attention  mainly  depend  the  success  and  quality  of  the  cheese,  the  produce  of 
which  fonns  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of  income.  [French  Trans. 

Our  author  might  have  noticed  in  this  place,  that  another  product  called  serac  or  serct,  not  so  rich  as 
cheese,  but  nevertheless  constituting  a  useful  article  of  food,  is  obtained  after  the  fabrication  of  cheese,  by 
boilinsr  the  whey  and  adding  fresh  rennet.  In  the  neighborhood  of  towns,  this  substance  is  usually  sold 
fresh,  and  appears  in  various" forms  on  the  tables  of  the  rich.  When  salted  like  cheese  it  keeps  for  a  long 
time  ;  and  though  not.  perhaps,  so  good  as  cheese,  is  still  a  wholesome  kind  of  nutriment,  and  within  reach 
of  the  poor  people.  The  quantity  of  whey  is,  however,  diminished  by  this  preparation  ,  and  1  am  not  sure 
but  that  in  the  gi-eat.'' number  of  cases,  when  thecost  of  labor  and  other  expenses  have  been  deducted  from 
the  value  of  ferft,  it  may  not  be  more  advantageous  to  have  the  whey  consumed  by  pigs  just  as  it  is  ob- 
tained after  cheese-making. 

The  author  might  also  have  spoken  of  the  preparation  of  milk-sugar,  which,  by  the  reopening  of  maritime 
communication,  has  fortunately  been  reduced  to  the  small  quantities  required  for  pharmaceutical  purposes. 

[French  Trans. 
11194) 


which  relate  to  the  management  of  milch  cows.  In  localities  where  fattening  is  practiced  to  a 
considerable  extent,  the  daily  allowance  wliich  ought  to  be  given  to  an  ox  of  a  certain  breed  is 
determine:!  with  tolerable  accuracy.  Hence,  in  these  countries  it  is  usual  to  fix  the  weekly  price 
whioh  a  butcher  or  cattle-dealer  is  to  pay  for  the  feedinj^  of  an  ox :  this  price,  however,  is  subject 
to  certain  modifications  according  to  circumstances  of  place  and  time.  Thus  it  is  easy  to  calculate 
beforehand,  and  resolve  the  question  for  one's  self:  the  result  shows  that  fodder  is  often  better  re- 
paid by  fattened  oxen  than  by  milch  cows,  especially  when  the  short  time  of  fattening  is  com- 
pared with  the  maintenance  of  a  cow  for  the  whole  year,  and  the  care  of  the  dairy  ;  to  this  we 
must  add,  that  the  fattening  of  oxen  during  winter  takes  place  at  a  season  when  labor  is  abundant, 
while  the  maintenance  of  cows  continues  during  summer,  when  laborers  are  often  difficult  to  ob- 
tain. In  many  cases,  also,  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  the  capital  devoted  to  fatten  oxen  returns  in 
four  or  five  months,  while  that  expended  on  milch  cows  is  always  floating. 

On  the  average  we  may  reckon  that  an  ox,  while  fattening,  consumes  almost  as  much  fodder 
as  will  suffice  for  a  cow  during  the  wh  de  year;  but  at  the  same  time  the  dung  yielded  by  an  ox 
w^hile  fattening  is  equal  to  that  which  a  cow  furniishes  in  an  entire  year,  and  perhaps  of  better 
qualitj' ;  besides,  this  dung  is  obtained  at  a  time  when  it  can  be  easily  carted. 

Even  if  it  be  not  thought  advantageous  to  make  fattening  the  basis  of  the  econo.ny  of  live  stock, 
it  may,  nevertheless,  be  very  useful  as  an  accessory  branch.  When  the  whole  economy  of  fatten- 
ing is  once  thoroughly  understood  and  organized,  it  will  always  be  much  easier  to  regulate  the 
number  of  animal.?  put  up  to  fatten,  according  to  the  annual  quantity  of  fodder,  than  that  of  any 
other  description  of  cattle.  "We  must  be  careful  not  to  increase  the  number  of  animals  main- 
tained beyond  that  which  we  are  certain  of  being  able  to  support,  even  in  bad  years ;  the  excess 
of  fodder  obtained  in  good  years  may  be  employed  in  fattening  cattle,  which  are  always  easily 
procured  from  without,  even  if  we  have  none  of  oxr  own  that  we  wish  to  improve.  It  is  com- 
monly more  profitable  to  .sell  fat  than  lean  cattle. 

Whoever  \vould  undertake  the  fattening  of  a  large  number  of  cattle,  must  endeavor  to  acquire 
experience  in  the  knowledge  and  valuation  of  them,  and  of  all  that  relates  to  this  branch  of  com- 
merce, or  at  least  must  avail  himself  of  the  direction  of  a  well-informed  and  intelligent  man.  The 
choice  and  valuation  of  cattle  req_uii-e  a  certain  practice  of  eye,  and  .still  more  a  certain  tact  of 
hand,  which  cannot  well  be  acquired  without  long  practice.  It  would,  therefore,  be  useless  to 
describe  them  here.  They  can  only  be  obtained  by  actual  inspection  and  comparison  of  a  large 
number  of  cattle.  Great  facility  in  valuing  cattle,  and  certainly  in  buying  and  selling,  as  well  as 
in  the  whole  process  of  fattening,  are  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  machine  for  weighing  living  ani- 
mals. Such  an  instrument  is  neither  expensive  nor  complicated.  A  box,  formed  of  boards  joined 
together,  and  of  sufficient  length  and  breadth  to  allow  an  ox  to  stand  upright  in  it,  is  suspended 
by  a  chain  from  the  .shorter  arm  of  a  balance-beam.  There  is  a  door  for  the  animal  to  enter  ;  and 
on  the  other  side  a  rack,  in  which  a  little  hay  is  put  to  induce  him  to  go  in.  The  bo.x  rests  firmly 
on  the  ground.  The  other  arm  of  the  balance-beam,  which  may  be  of  wood,  is  ten  times  longer; 
a  dish  is  suspended  from  it  for  holding  weights.  The  equilibrium  should  be  established  by  means 
of  this  dish  in  such  a  manner  that  the  addition  of  the  smallest  weight  shall  raise  the  box  when 
empty.  The  longer  arm  of  the  beam  being  ten  times  as  long  as  the  shorter,  any  weight  placed  in 
the  dish  produces  a  tenfold  effect  upon  that  which  is  in  the  box  :  the  tenth  of  a  pound  "in  the  former 

ill  support  a  pound  in  the  latter,  and  one  pound  will  support  ten.  The  weight  of  the  beast  is 
ascertained  as  soon  as  the  box  begins  to  move  in  the  slightest  possible  degree ;  it  must  not  be 
lifted  for  fear  of  frightening  the  animal.  Such  an  instrument  may  be  placed  in  a  .stall,  the  pivots 
on  which  the  beam  turns  being  suspended  between  two  beams :  it  may  also  be  put  up  in  a  yard, 
but  it  will  then  require  a  stand  to  support  it.  A  machine  of  this  description  is  also  very  useful  for 
weighing  fodder. 

Some  persons  profess  to  determine  the  weight  of  a  beast  by  the  dimensions  of  particular  parts, 

id  the  use  of  certain  arithmetical  formulis.  But  even  supposing  this  method  to  be  applicable,  with 
tolei-able  certainty,  to  the  greater  number  of  ca.ses,  the  rules  in  question  can  be  adapted  to  a  particu- 
lar race  only,  and  one  that  is  well  fixed  ;  so  that  every  breed  must'require  distinct  formulae  practi- 
cally determined.  That  such  is  really  the  case  has  long  been  known  in  England.  In  the  actual 
slate  of  things  it  would  be  very  hazardous  to  rely  on  such  data. 

According  to  the  experience  of  the  English,  the  weight  of  an  animal  in  butchers'  meat  may  be 
estimated  with  tolerable  accuracy  by  its  weight  while  alive. 

"ly  weight  in  butchers'  meat,  vve  mean  that  which  a  beast  weighs  when  hung  up,  with  his 
head,  fore-legs,  entrails  and  .suet  removed— the  weight  in  net  fle.sh,  as  it  is  called.  But  for  this 
purpose  the  health  and  condition  of  the  animals  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  For  an  ox 
not  absolutely  lean,  but  still  not  fattened,  Procter  Anderdon  gives  the  following  rule: — Take 
half  the  weight  of  the  animal  while  alive,  add  to  it  four-sevenths  of  the  whole,  and  divide  the 
sum  by  two ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  weight  of  net  flesh.  For  example,  suppose  a  live  ox 
weigh  700  lbs. — 

Half  of  700  lbs 350  lbs. 

Four-sevenths  of  700  lbs 400 

750  lbs. 
Half  sum 375  lbs. 


In  this  case  20  lbs.  would  yield  10  5-7  lbs.  But  when  oxen  are  a  little  fatter  it  has  been 
found  that  20  lbs.  commonly  yield  11  Ib.s.  and  when  they  are  completely  fattened  12  or  12^  lbs  ; 
for,  as  an  ox  gets  fatter,  the  proportion  of  his  flesh  to  the  refuse  be^-omes  greater. 

Finally,  in  fattening  cattle,  the  greatest  regularity  must  be  observed  in  dfstribuling  the  food, 
cleanlines.s,  &c. ;  matters  of  which  I  shall  speak  under  the  head  of  each  description  of  fatten- 
ing. In  this  place  I  content  myself  with  recommending  that  no  one  undertake  the  fattening 
of  a  large  number  of  cattle,  unless  he  can  have  an  eye  to  them  himself;  or,  at  the  least,  unless 
(1195) 


524 


THAER  S   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


he  can  obtain  the  services  of  a  man  deserving  of  the  most  implicit  confidence,  and  thoroughly 
devoted  to  this  branch  of  economy. 

Summer  fattening  is  divided  into  pasturage  and  stall-feeding  on  green-meat.  The  former  sy.s- 
tem  requires  very  rich  pastures  ;  which,  for  this  reason,  are  called  faUeninfc-pastures.  There  ia 
a  dispute  in  England  respecting  these  pastures,  v^'hether  it  is  better  to  place  the  cattle  on  the  whole 
of  the  grazing  land  devoted  to  the  herd,  leaving  them  at  liberty  to  roam  over  it ;  or  to  divide  the 
pasturage  into  a  number  of  small  enclosures,  admit  only  a  few  animals  to  each,  and  use  them  alter- 
nately, so  as  to  leave  time  for  the  grass  to  grow  again.*  Most  persons  are  in  favor  of  the  latter 
method,  which  is  supported  by  the  strongest  reasons.  In  the  low  countries  of  the  Lower  Elbe,  it  is 
an  established  custom  in  most  localities  to  have  the  meadows  grazed  and  mown  alternately.  In 
spring,  one  enclosure  or  piece  of  meadow-land,  surrounded  by  ditches,  is  devoted  to  the  cattle, 
while  another  is  reserved  lor  hay-making.  After  the  crop  has  been  taken  from  the  latter,  cattle  are 
turned  in  upon  it ;  while  the  former  is  left  to  produce  grass  for  mowing.  In  other  ca.ses  one  piece 
of  land  is  used  exclusively  for  pasturage,  but  the  cattle  have  likewise  the  benefit  of  the  other  after 
the  hay-crop  ;  the  latter  then  serves  as  a  supplement  to  the  former  toward  the  end  of  summer, 
when  vegetation  begins  to  slacken. 

In  these  low  countries,  an  acre  per  day  is  the  estimated  quantity  of  land  for  a  large  ox  of  the 
native  breed  :  which  will  attain  the  weight  of  1000  lbs.,  net  flesh.  This  acre  contains  4.50  perches 
each.  16  feet  square,  and  is  equal  to  3^  of  our  acres  ;  but  the  same  extent  of  ground  suffices  for  IJ 
small  oxen  of  the  .Jutland  breed.  It  is  usually  reckoned  that  the  fattening  of  a  large  ox  yields  a 
profit  of  8  Frederics  d'or,  and  that  of  a  small  one  6  :  the  latter  is  regarded  as  the  more  advantage-  ' 
ous.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  one  or  two  horses  among  homed -cattle  ;  sometimes,  also,  sheep 
of  the  low  country  breed :  the  latter  crop  the  finer  herbage,  the  former  that  which  is  coarser  and 
grows  on  the  riche.st  spots.     This  method  is  considered  economical. 

Thistles  .soon  spring  up  vigo:  ou.sly  on  pastures  of  this  description  :  they  are  not  eaten  while 
young  by  the  cattle,  and  they  prevent  the  grass  which  grows  around  them  from  being  cropped. 
Every  careful  farmer  will,  therefore,  mow  them  down:  when  withered  and  half  dry,  cattle  will- 
ingly eat  them. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  remove  everything  which  can  disturb  the  cattle  while  I'razing.  No 
one  should  therefore  be  allowed  to  enter  the  enclosures  ;  and  particular  care  must  be  taken  to  keep 
dogs  out. 

When  there  are  no  trees  in  the  enclosures,  stakes  with  notched  edges  are  fixed  in  the  ground, 
for  the  cattle  to  rub  themselves  against.  Good  and  convenient  watering  places  must  be  provi- 
ded. Sometimes,  however,  it  becomes  necessary  to  draw  water  from  wells,  and  give  it  to  the 
cattle  in  troughs. 

Fattening  cattle  maj-  also  be  pastured  by  the  tether,  on  fields  where  fodder-plants  are  cultivated : 
the  mode  of  proceeding  is  the  same  as  that  already  described  for  cows. 

Green-feeding  in  the  stall  is  not  usually  adopted  for  fattening  cattle.  I  am,  however,  acquaint- 
ed with  various  cases  in  which  it  has  been  successfully  practiced.  Oxen  will  get  very  fat  on  green 
clover,  if  they  are  plentifully  supplied  with  it.  But  an  ox  eats  from  200  to  250  lbs.  of  grren  clover 
per  day,  in  addition  to  good  sir.. w.  which  he  will  readily  eat  between  his  meals.  Ifhecanbe 
partly  fed  on  hay  or  dry  clover,  the  green-feeding  will,  doubtless,  be  still  more  profitable  to  him  ; 
this  method  diminishes  the  excessive  relaxation  of  the  bowels  which  otherwise  ensues.  A  mash, 
containing  oil-cake  or  a  little  ground  corn,  has  been  found  particularly  useful,  especially  toward 
the  end  of  the  fattening. 

This  summer  fattening  on  green-meat  in  the  stall  can,  hovi^ever,  be  advantageous  in  a  small  number 
of  cases  only,  because  at  the  season  of  its  termination  there  are  usually  a  large  number  of  pasture- 
fattened  cattle  in  the  market.  The  clover  intended  for  fattening  the  cattle  may  be  more  advan- 
tageously made  into  hay,  and  used  for  winter  feeding^ 

One  method  of  fattening  cattle  in  the  stall,  both  in  summer  and  winter,  is  to  feed  them  on  the 
refise  of  the  brandy  di.stillery.  In  countries  where  the  quantity  of  meat  consumed  is  but  small, 
this  mode  of  fattening  is  almost  the  only  one  adopted  ;  it  nmders  the  distillation  of  brandy  a  rural 
rather  than  a  town  occupation ;  because  the  townsman  cannot  pursue  it  to  so  much  advantage,  for 
want  of  straw,  and  the  means  which  the  cultivator  possesses  of  employing  the  dung.  When  the 
cultivator  begins  to  devote  himself  to  this  branch  of  economy  with  the  same  degree  of  indu.stry  as 
the  townsman,  and  the  Government  permits  the  exerci.se  of  e^ch  description  of  indu.stry  in  the 
locality  best  adapted  to  it,  the  town  distilleries  are  unable  to  compete  with  those  in  the  country. 
It  is  said  that  the  refuse  of  10  metzen  of  grain  which  has  passed  through  the  still,  with  cut  straw 
and  a  little  hay.  affords,  on  the  average,  sufficient  daily  nourishment  for  fattening  an  ox.  Where 
the  quantity  distilled  amounts  to  6  schefFels  per  day,  9  3-5  or  even  10  oxen  per  day  may,  therefore, 
be  put  to  (atten.  If  the  oxen  be  sold  at  the  end  of  20  weeks  at  a  profit  of  20  rix-dollars  per  head, 
or  200  rix-dollars  for  the  whole,  and  the  quantity  of  food  consumed  in  this  time  is  840  scheffels. 
the  cost  of  the  brandy  is  diminished  by  5  groschen  8  deniers  per  schefFel.  The  famier  can 
very  well  give  the  hay  and  straw  for  the  -sake  of  the  dung:  but  the  townsman  cannot.  The  profit, 
however,  often  amounts  to  more  than  30  rix-dollars :  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  pay  from  1  rix-dol- 
lar  8  groschen  to  1  rix  dollar  12  groschen  per  week  for  the  feed  of  an  ox. 

The  refuse  of  the  still  is  usually  poured  upon  cut  straw,  to  be  given  to  the  oxen,  which 
therefore- receive  part  of  their  food  in  the  liquid  form.  They  are  said  to  fatten  most  quickly  when 
this  is  given  to  them  warm.  Oxen  thus  fed  are  in  a  constant  sweat,  and  hence  it  becomes 
necessary  to  protect  them  from  wind  coming  through  cracks,  which  would  check  the  perspira- 
tion. Cattle  would  not  long  preserve  their  health  on  such  diet :  but  they  can  support  it  during  the 
fattening  time. 

The  farther,  however,  the  production  of  alcohol  is  carried  by  complete  vinous  fermentation,  the 
more  does  the  refuse  of  the  distillation  lose  of  its  nutritive  principles  ;  so  that  cattle  often  fatten 
better,  the  less  completely  the  operations  of  the  still  are  conducted.     The  Brabaneons,  although 


■  See  the  "Annalen  des  Ackerbaues,"  No.  112,  A. 
(1196; 


I  they  know  the  superiority  of  distilleries  conducted  on  the  Dutch  system,  still  keep  to  their  old 
method,  notwithstanding  its  defects,  for  the  sake  of  their  cattle.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Rhine,  the  distillation  of  brandy  from  gram  is  no  longer  found  advantageous,  either  on  account  of 
the  rise  in  the  price  of  grain,  or  of  the  competition  of  brandy  made  from  wine-lees;  the  distillation 
fi-om  grain  is,  however,  continued,  because  the  manure  which  it  affords  renders  it  one  of  the  pillars 
of  Agriculture. 

The  residue  of  other  kinds  of  raw  material  ought  to  be  proportionate  to  the  quantity  of  brandy 
which  they  yield.  If,  for  example,  3 J  scheffels  of  potatoes  yield  as  much  brandy  as  1  scheffel  of 
rye,  the  residue  of  the  latter  preparation  will  contain  the  same  proportion  of  nutritive  matter.  Some 
peiions,  however,  say  that  they  have  found  it  less  substantial. 

In  fattening  on  distillers'  refuse,  as  well  as  in  every  other  mode  of  stall-fattening,  care  must  be 
taken  to  maintain  a  uniform,  and  in  winter  a  somewhat  high  temperature.     Light  may  and  must 
be  intercepted,  for  just  in  proportion  as  it  keeps  up  the  health  of  cattle  so  does  darkness  accelerate 
the  attainment  of  the  required  degree  of  fatness,  which  is  in  reality  a  kind  of  disease:  this  effect  is 
due  partly  to  physical  action,  and  partly  to  the  repose  and  inclination  to  sleep  which  darkness 
produces. 
'         Cleanliness  and  a  good  supply  of  litter  are  highly  beneficial.     The  cattle  then  lie  down  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  day,  only  rising  to  eat.     Keeping  the  skin  clean,  and  currying,  visibly  ac- 
celerate  fattening  ;  the  animals  plainly  manifest  the  agreeable  sensation  which  the  operation  af-    j 
/   fords  to  them.     The  old  hair  falls  off  as  soon  as  the  fat  begins  to  form,  and  new  is  produced.     At     ' 
this  time  in  particular,  currying  must  not  be  neglected  ;  the  trouble  which  it  occa.sions  will  be  am-     ' 
<    ply  repaid.     Though  the  advantage  of  this  treatment  to  milch  cows  may  yet  be  doubtful,  there  is 
no  question  about  the  benefit  which  it  confers  on  fatted  cattle.     The  instrument  used  for  the  pur- 
pose  is  a  wooden  comb,  fitted  with  a  handle  to  fiicilitate  its  use.  ' 

The  utmost  regularity  must  be  observed  in  the  hours  of  feeding,  and  the  quantity  of  food  given 
at  each  meal.  Animals  acquire  a  most  exact  knowledge  of  time.  This  is  remarkably  conspicuous 
in  old  beasts  of  draught,  which,  when  the  proper  hour  of  resr.  arrives,  refuse  to  work  and  want  to 
go  to  the  stall,  or  the  field  in  which  they  graze.  Stalled  cattle  become  restless  when  their  feedin°- 
time  is  not  punctually  observed,  though  very  quiet  before  the  time  arrives.  They  also  know  the 
quantity  usually  given  to  them  :  when  they  have  received  and  eaten  it,  tliey  go  to  rest ;  but  if  they  ' 
have  not  had  their  full  allowance,  they  continue  restless.  The  repose  and  contentment,  the  happy  ' ' 
freedom  From  anxiety,  arising  from  the  certainty  of  receiving  their  food  in  proper  time  and  mea- 
sure, contribute  so  much  to  the  fattening  of  cattle,  that  a  much  more  plentiful  supply,  given 
irregularly,  cannot  make  up  for  the  want  of  order.  The  hours  for  feeding  and  the  quantity  \, 
of  food  may  be  variously  regulated  :  but  a  system  once  adopted  should  be  steadily  adhered  to. 
In  countries  where  hay  is  abundant,  it  is  sometimes  used  as  the  sole  winter  food.  An  ox 
brought  to  the  weight  of  700  or  750  lbs,,  and  receiviui?  40  lbs.  of  good  hay  daily,  increases  in 
weight  2  lbs.  per  day,  or  14  lbs.  per  week.  If  a  pound  of  meat  be  worth  2  grosclien.  the  ox  in- 
creases in  value  at  the  rate  of  1  rix-dollar  8  groschen  per  week  :  hence,  1  quintal  (110  lbs.)  of  hay 
will  procure  a  return  of  12  groschen,  the  value  of  the  dung  being  set  against  that  of  straw  and  at- 
tendance. Hence,  in  all  cases  in  which  this  price  of  hay  is  such  as  to  satisfy  the  cultivator,  fatten- 
ing will  not  be  so  inconsistent  with  good  management  as  some  persons  assert. 

But  various  experiments  made  in  this  country  seem  to  show,  that  if  instead  of  30  lbs.  of  hay,  an 
ox  receive  60  lbs.  of  potatoes  and  10  pounds  of  hay  per  week,  he  will  improve  in  condition,  and 
increase  sensibly  in  weight  and  fatness.  As,  however,  he  will  eat  a  little  more  straw,  we  will 
suppose  that  the  profit  of  this  mode  of  fattening  is  not  greater  than  the  preceding.  The  value  of 
70  lbs.  of  hay  per  Aveek  amounts  to  7  groschen.  The  420  lbs.  of  potatoes  which  he  receives  per 
week  will,  therefore,  be  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  21  gro.schen  and  1  scheffel,  or  100  lbs.  of  potatoes 
will  be  consumed,  at  the  price  of  5  groschen.  The  potatoes  given  to  the  ox  are  watery,  and  of  in- 
ferior quality  :  the  price  put  upon  them  is  therefore  amply  sufficient. 

If  the  fattening  coutinue  for  sixteen  weeks,  an  ox  will  gain  224  lbs.  of  meat  and  fat,  and 
increase  in  value  by  18  rix-doUars.  If  this  ox  be  fattened  upon  hay  alone,  he  will'  con- 
sume 4,480  lbs.  ;  if  with  potatoes,  he  will  require  1,120  lbs.  of  hay,  and  67  scheffels  20  lbs.  of 
potatoes. 

If  the  fattening  continue  for  twenty  weeks,  the  ox  will  gain  280  lbs.  of  flesh  and  fat,  and  his 
value  will  be  increased  by  38  rix-dollars  8  groschen.  His  consumption  during  the  whole  time 
will  be  5,600  lbs.  of  hay,  if  he  be  fed  on  hay  alone  ;  or  84  scheffels  of  potatoes  and  1,400  lbs.  of  hay, 
if  potatoes  be  also  given  to  him. 

I  say  nothing  in  this  place  of  other  kinds  of  succulent  fodder,  such  as  cabbages,  wrnlps,  mangel-     ' 
wurzel,  and  can-ots.    These  plants,  though  common  in  E.^igland.  are  bat  rarely  used  for  fattening   \ ' 
cattle  in  this  country.     Cattle  are  never  fattened  in  England  on  mangel  wurzel ;  and  notwithstand-   \ ' 
ing  the  utility  of  this  plant  to  milch  cows,  I  doubt  whether  an  ox  could  bear  it  long  enough  in  the 
quantity  which  would  be  necessary  if  he  were  fattened  on  it  alone.     I  observed,  last  autumn,  that 
cows  fed  upon  this  vegetable,  without  any  addition  excepting  an  abundance  of  straw,  were  at- 
tacked with  indigestion,  and  ultimately  refused  it.    The  large  quantity  of  saccharine  matter  which 
beet  contains,  seems  to  be  advantageous  to  the  animal  body  in  certain  states  only  ;'  but  when  uni- 
ted with  the  more  farinaceous  potato,  it  is  wholesome.  Its  value,  relatively  to  that  of  other  produce.    '\ 
is  that  which  I  have  assigned  to  it  in  a  previous  portion  of  this  work. 

In  this  country,  raw  potatoes  intended  for  cattle  are  cut  into  .slices  with  the  root-cutting  machine.  ' 
I  am  not  acquainted  from  personal  observation  with  any  case  in  which  cattle  have  been  fattened 

*  I  have  observed  the  same  thing  to  happen  with  sheep  subjected  to  the  trial.   At  first  they  ate  the  mangel-  ■ 

wurzel  with  the  gi-eatest  avidity,  and  to  such  an  excess  that  they  were  attacked  with  indigestion  and  ultimately  ' ' 

refused  the  food.  I  then  put  another  lot  on  halt'-dry  fodder  and  half  mangel-wurzel,  and  they  certainly  fatten-  . 

ed  more  than  any  of  the  rest.     On  my  establishment  oxen  have  been  successfully  fattened  on  28  lbs.  (18  oz  r 

each)  of  aftergrass  aid  50  lbs.  of  mangel-wurzel  per  day.    As  a  fattening  diet,  I  consider  beet  of  higher  value  , 
than  our  author  here  assigns  to  it.                                                                                               [Fre/nch  Trans. 
(1197) 


526  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

on  potatoes,  either  boiled  or  steamed,  though  in  many  brandy  distilleries  there  are  arrangements 
for  preparing  tliem  in  the  last-mentioned  way,  and  they  are  used  ibr  fattening  pigs.  1  cannot, 
therefore,  decide  upon  the  comparative  advantages  of  boiling.  If  the  cattle  are  fed  with  10  lbs.  of 
hay  per  day,  in  addition  to  the  potatoes,  and  are  likewise  supplied  with  good  straw,  or  if  the  hay 
and  straw  be  cut  up  together,  there  will  be  no  danger  of  hurtful  diarrhoea  ;  but  when  they  aie  fed 
on  potatoes  alone,  1  think  that  diari'hoea  is  to  be  apprehended,  and  consequently  that  it  is  better  to 
boil  the  potatoes. 

As  matters  are  arranged  in  this  country,  it  can  rarely  be  advantageous  in  an  economical  point 
of  view  to  fatten  cattle  with  grain,  or  other  farinaceous  lood — such  for  example  as  linseed,  although 
it  greatly  accelerates  the  fattening  :  but  grain  may  be  used  with  advantage  as  an  extra  diet,  *nd 
to  complete  the  fattening  of  very  large  beasts.     The  addition  of  ametzen  of  ground  barley  doubt- 
less also  expedites  the  fattening,  and  may  be  advantageous  in  this  respect.     With  regard  lo  other 
kinds  of  fodder,  especially  those  which  remain  succulent,  we  must  not  at  first  venture  to  give   the 
cattle  the  full  allowance  ultimately  intended  for  them  :  they  must  be  gradually  accustomed  to  it,  or 
the}-  will  be  liable  to  indigestion  :  this  precaution  is  the  more  necessary  in  proportion  as  the  cat  le 
,     ai-e  leaner  when  first  stalled.     But  the  most  experienced  feeders  in  England  say  that  it  is  necessa-    ' 
,     ry  to  begin  with  the  most  substantial  kinds  of  food,  in  order  to  enlarge  the  secreting  vessels,  or    ' 
rather  to  stimulate  and  bring  them  to  a  higher  degree  of  activity.  This  is  effected  chiefly  by  means    , ' 
of  farinaceous  and  easily  digested  food  ;  a  mash  of  this  de.scription  is  very  useful  for  the  firtt  week 
or  fortnight,  during  which  time  a  smaller  quantity  of  other  food  is  given.     Afterward,  when  the  cat-   '  [ 
tie  have  attained  a  certain  degree  of  fatness,  they  become  gradually  less  inclined  to  eat,  and  do  not 
consume  so  much  as  before  :  they  therefore  continue  in  the  same  state.     If  it  be  desired  to  raise 
them  to  a  higlier  condition,  their  food  must  be  changed  to  something  of  a  more  succulent  character, 
containing  a  larger  quantity  of  nutriment  under  a  smaller  bulk;  and  if  very  fat  meat  be  required, 
grain  will  often  be  found  advantageous. 

Oil-cake,  especially  that  made  from  limseed,  may  also  be  profitably  used  in  fattening  cattle  :  it  may 
either  be  ground  and  spread  upon  the  fodder,  or  mixed  up  in  the  mash. 

When  a  single  beast  continues  sen.sibly  behind  the  rest,  it  will  not  be  advantageous  to  force  him 
into  condition.  The  attainment  of  this  object  might  doubtless  be  effected  in  some  instances  by  the 
use  of  very  substantial  and  easily  digested  fodder.  But  the  profit  would  rarely  pay  the  expense, 
and,  therefore,  it  is  better  to  get  rid  of  the  animal  as  soon  as  possible,  and  at  any  price. 

Horned-cattle  fatten  most  readily  at  the  age  of  7  or  8  years.  Younger  animals  not  arrived  at 
'i  their  full  growth  may  indeed  grow  very  fat,  and  furnish  delicate  and  savory  meat:  but  they  al- 
ways require  more  fodder  and  longer  time.  Old  beasts  do  not  fatten  so  easily:  if,  however,  their 
organs  of  mastication  are  strong  enough  to  chew  the  fodder  well,  their  fattening  may  still  be  pro- 
fitable, by  reason  of  tlie  low  price  at  which  they  may  be  had  :  they  also  thrive  very  well.  Many 
persons,  even  in  England,  are  of  opinion  that  cattle  fatten  better  the  more  they  have  been  previ- 
ously worked  :  it  is  certain  also  that  they  are  then  obtained  at  a  cheaper  rate.  According  to  these 
persons,  when  animals  thus  exhausted  and  reduced  in  condition  by  excessive  labor  are  fed  more 
abundantly,  they  acquire  new  flesh  of  more  delicate  fibre,  and  more  succulent,  even  if  already 
somewhat  advanced  in  age  :  their  fattening  must,  however,  he  carried  to  perfection. 

A  ca.strated  bull  should  not  be  put  up  to  fatten  till  he  has  lost  all  his  bull  fle-sh,  either  at  the  plow, 
or  other  labor.  He  must,  therefore,  be  worked  constantly  for  two  years.  His  flesh  will  then  be 
as  good  and  succulent  as  that  of  an  ox  castrated  while  young. 

Castrated  cows  are  rarely  seen  in  this  country.  W'hen,  however,  such  cows  are  made  to  work 
like  oxen,  they  are  particularly  well-adapted  for  fattening,  and  furnish  meat  as  delicate  as  that  of 
any  other  kind  of  cattle.  Where  skillful  operators  are  to  be  found,  the  castration  of  young  cows 
is  considered  quite  as  safe  as  that  of  bull-calves.  Instances  are  known  of  this  operation  having 
been  performed  with  perfect  success,  even  at  the  age  of  three  years.  Among  the  heifers  brought 
to  us  from  the  principality  of  Oldenburg,  we  occasionally  find  some  that  are  castrated. 

Whoever  vvould  pursue  the  fattening  of  cattle  continuously,  will  do  well  to  dispose  of  thera 
habitually  to  an  honest  and  experienced  cattle-dealer  at  such  a  price  as  to  allow  him  a  reasonable 
profit.  For  when  the  dealer  becomes  familiar  with  the  manner  in  which  cattle  are  fattened  on  a 
'  particular  farm,  and  the  meat  produced  upon  it  gets  into  favor  with  retailers  or  their  customers,  he 
'  will  not  fail  to  avail  himself  of  the  cattle  of  that  establishment,  and  even  though  the  cultivator  may 
occasionally  obtain  a  higher  price  by  taking  his  own  beasts  to  market,  he  will  probably,  in  other 
cases,  find  himnelf  embairassed  by  so  doing.  As  these  dealers  are  well  acquainted  witli  the  trade, 
and  know  at  what  time  and  under  what  circumstances  cattle  of  a  particular  degree  of  fatness  are 
most  in  request  at  certain  places,  the  cultivator  may  often  profit  by  following  their  ^iirections  in  the 
arrangement  of  this  system  of  fattening,  the  time  of  stalling  his  cattle,  and  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  most  esteemed  degree  of  fatness  is  to  be  produced. 

An  enormous  amount  of  fat,  artificially  produced,  and  increasing  the  weight  of  the  cattle  to  one- 
third  more  than  the  ordinary  standard,  can  be  advantageous  in  particular  cases  only  :  when,  for 
instance,  a  bia:h  price  is  set  on  that  which  is  u/ common.  Every  pound  of  flesh  which  a  beast  ac- 
quires beyond  the  usual  weight  costs  perhaps  a  third  more  than  when  the  animals  are  raised  only 
to  the  decree  of  fatness  common  to  their  breed.  The  price  obtained  for  it  should  therefore  be  pro- 
I  portionably  high.  This,  however,  cannot  be  depended  on,  unless  a  certain  degree  of  luxury  has  , 
iseen  induced  in  the  choice  of  provisions.  ', 

The  necessary  qualities  and  training  of  draught-oxen  have  been  treated  of  in  a  previous  portion 
of  this  work,  and  the  cost  of  their  maintenance. 

It  is  not  probable  that  the  use  of  cows  for  cuitivattng  land  may  be  established  and  generally  dif- 
fused :  sucli  a  practice  would  greatly  increase  their  profit.  See  Nate  Annalen,  bd.  iil.,  st.  1,  s.  181, 
and  the  following. 


(1198) 


SWINE. 

In  all  rural  establishments,  both  great  and  small,  the  keeping  of  pigs  is  almost  indispensable,  be- 
cause the  various  kinds  of  refuse  of  the  dairy,  kitchen,  and  garden  can  scarcely  be  used  in  any 
other  manr.8r.  This  part  of  the  management  must,  however,  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
breeding  of  swine  properly  so  called.  It  is  impossible  to  pronounce,  in  general  term.s,  on  the  ad- 
vaaiagcs  or  disadvantages  of  thid  last-mentioned  branch:  the  circumstances  under  which  it  will  be 
proHwble  or  not  must  be  carefully  considered  in  each  particular  case. 

If  all  things  ba  properly  taken  into  account,  it  will  be  tbuud  that  the  rearing  of  swine  is  rarely 
advantageous  in  localities  where  they  muist  be  fed  during  winter  on  good  grain,  and  there  is  not  a 
sufficient  supply  of  pasturage  or  green  food  tor  them  in  summer.  Small  profit  also  will  be  real- 
ized by  breeding  them  in  places  to  which  they  are  brought  in  large  numbers  trom  less  cultivated 
countries,  and  therefore  at  a  lower  price.  Equally  small  will  be  the  proHt  in  the  neighborhood 
of  large  towns,  where  not  only  the  milk  as  it  comes  from  the  cows,  but  likewise  the  re- 
fuse of  the  dairy,  the  potatoes,  and  other  fallow  crops,  can  be  readUy  and  advantageously  turned 
into  money 

On  the  other  nand,  the  rearing  oi  swine  :s  profitable  where  potatoes  and  turnips  are  grown  in 
large  quantities  for  feeding  cattle,  where  there  is  a  considerable  quantity  of  bad  and  light  grain 
among  the  corn,  or  where  the  pastures  are  damp  and  marshy  and  uniit  for  sheep.  Thi.s  branch 
of  economy  will  also  be  found  advantageous  in  rural  establishments  containing  large  dairies,  the 
refuse  of  which  cannot  be  more  prolitably  employed,  or  extensive  breweries  and  distilleries,  par- 
ticularly when  there  is  no  abundant  supply  of  low-priced  pigs  from  other  countries,  and  conse- 
quently those  which  are  reared  may  be  easily  disposed  of  either  fat  or  lean.  Or  again,  where  there 
is  a  good  trade  in  salt  meat,  and  facility  of  exporting  bacon  or  hams. 

Tliere  is,  perhaps,  no  branch  of  economy  the   profits  of  which  vary  so  much  from  j'ear  to  year 
as  the  rearing  of  swine,  particularly  in  certain  countries.     The  price  of  pigs  is  often  reduced  by    \ ' 
one-half  or  doubled,  in  the  course  of  two  years,  on  account  of  the  rapidity  with  which  these  ani-    [ ' 
mals  increase  and  diminish  in  nural)ers.     When  a  high  price  leads  to  increased  production,  and  the    i 
value  of  grain  subsequently  rises,  the  markets  become  glutted  with  swine,  because  every  one  en-    / 
deavors  to  get  rid  of  his  surplus  stock.  The  owners  begin  to  find  out  that  the  grain  required  for  feed-    i 
ing  their  pigs  will  scarcely  be  repaid  by  the  sale  of  them,  and  consequently  they  endeavor  to  get    ' 
rid  of  the  young  ones.     A  year  after,  the  number  of  pigs  becomes  considerably  reduced  in  all  the 
rural  establishments  in  the  country,  and  the  market-price  consequently  rises.     Every  one  then  be- 
comes anxious  to  keep  pigs  for  his  own  domestic  use,  and  each  consumer  endeavors  to  outbid  his 
neighbor,  so  that  frequently,  by  the  ne.x;t  year,  the  price  rises  enormously  high.     I  have  seen  pigs 
which,  two  years  before,  would  scarcely  fetch  three  rix-doUars,  sold  for  ten  or  twelve,  without  hav-    / 
ing  cost  much  to  the  breeder.  This  is  one  of  the  cases  in  which  a  cultivator  may  easily  be  alarmed    ', 
by  a  riise  or  fall  of  price,  and  allow  himself  to  bo  guided  by  general  opinion  without  examining  its 
foandation.     He  may  thus  be  induced  to  take  false  steps,  and  diminish  instead  of  increasing  the 
number  of  his  pigs,  v.'ithout  con.sidering  that  since  the  greater  number  of  breeders  are  dimiufshing 
theirs,  his  own  would,  in  tvv'o  years'  time,  be  likely  to  yield  a  large  profit.     When  ou  the  other 
hand,  the  generality  of  cultivators  are  tempted  by  a  high  price,  which,  contrary  to  all  experience, 
they  imagine  must  always  continue,  to  increase  the  number  of  their  pigs,  the  more  prudent  breeder 
will  see  in  this  very  circumstance  a  motive  for  diminishing  his  stock,  without,  however,  completely 
giving  up  this  branch  of  economy.  i 

The  breeds  of  swine  best  known  in  the  north  of  Germany,  but  nevertheless  crossed  in  various  / 
ways,  are  the  following : 

{a).  Moldavian,  Wallachian,  and  Bothnian  pigs;  distinguished  by  great  size,  dark  gray  color,  and 
very  large  ears. 

(6).  Polish,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  Podolian  pigs  ;  also  very  large,  but  of  a  yellowish  color,  ' 
and  having  a  broad  brown  stripe  along  the  spine.  ' 

These  two  races  furnish  very  large  pigs  for  fattening,  but  they  require  a  proportionably  large  '< 
quantity  of  food;  besides,  they  are  not  very  productive;  the  sows  seldom  have  more  than  three,  ' 
four,  or  five  young  ones  at  a  birth. 

(c).  Bavarian  pigs,  usually  marked  with  reddish-brown  spots.  They  are  much  esteemed  / 
lor  the  smallness  of  their  bone,  and  the  facility  with  which  they  fatten,  but  theirflesh  is  considered  , ' 
too  soft.  / 

{d).  Westphalian  pigs,  of  considerable  size  and  very  productive  ;  they  bring  forth  ten  or  twelve 
at  a  time. 

((?].  The  so-called  English  pigs.  I  do  not  know  whether  they  really  come  from  England,  but 
the  EnglLsh  certainly  pay  great  attention  to  the  management  of  swine,  and  possess  many  different 
breeds.  These  pigs  have  longer  and  deeper  bodies  than  the  Westphalia  variety,  but  they  require 
pasturage  and  food  in  general  of  a  very  substantial  quality. 

The  crossing  of  these  two  last-m.entioned  races  is  considered  advantageous. 

{fj.  The  common  Gei-man  pig.  This  breed  differs  in  its  characters  in  different  provinces,  and  is 
of  various  colors,  white,  gray,  black,  and  spotted.  It  does  not  attain  the  size  of  the  preceding, 
but  may  be  supported  on  a  smaller  quantity  of  nourishment,  and  is  more  easily  fattened.  This 
race  might  doubtless  be  improved  within  itself  by  the  use  of  better  nourishment,  and  the  preven- 
tion of  breeding  till  a  later  period.  Bnt  those  who  undertake  the  management  of  pigs  on  a  lar.'jer  » 
scale  than  usual,  generally  seek  to  obtain  another  breed,'  at  least  for  the  sake  of  crossing  it  with  \ 
the  native  race. 

(i'-j.  The  black,  fine-haired  African  pig  has  lately  been  brought  to  this  country  from  Spain  to- 
gether with  a  flock  of  merinos,  by  Baron  Vincke,  who  has  introduced  them  upon  his  estates  at 
Eriedland.    This  variety  does  not  grow  so  large  as  those  already  mentioned,  and  is  scarcely  adapt-     ' 
ed  for  fattening,  but  grows  rapidly  and  keeps  up  its  condition  even  when  poorly  fed.     It  is  there-     ' 
fore  very  valuable,  both  as  a  porker  and  for  its  ham.s.     The  cro.ssiug  of  this  breed  with  one  of  lar°- 
(1190) 


528  THAER  S   PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

er  size  has  produced  a  medium  variety,  which,  as  far  as  observation  has  hitherto  gone,  appears  to 
,     be  excellent  in  everj^  respect. 

(h).  The  Chinese  pig,  much  esteemed  in  England,  and  introduced  some  time  ago,  into  this  coun- 
try. It  is  distniguished  by  a  very  hollow  back,  a  belly  reaching  nearly  to  the  ground,  quietness  of 
disposition,  and  by  not  turning  up  the  ground  much.  It  does  not  attain  a  very  great  tize,  but 
grows  fast,  and  is  much  esteemed  in  England  as  a  porker. 

The  male  pig  is  called  a  boar ;  the  female  a  sow  ;  the  young  one,  ^vhile  it  feeds  on  its  mothei-'s 
milk,  a  sucking-pig. 

The  Germans  also  make  use  of  various  words  for  denoting  the  age  of  pigs,  hut  there  are  no  cor- 
responding terms  in  other  languages. 

In  the  breeding  of  swine,  as  much  as  in  that  of  any  other  live  stock,  it  is  important  to  pay  great 
attention,  not  only  to  the  race,  but  also  to  the  choice  of  individuals.  The  sow  should  produce  a 
great  number  of  young  ones,  and  she  must  be  well  fed  to  enable  her  to  support  them.  Some  sows 
bring  forth  ten,  twelve,  or  even  tifteen  pigs  at  a  birth,  but  eight  or  nine  is  the  usual  number,  and 
sows  which  produce  fewer  than  this  must  be  rejected.  It  is,  however,  probable  that  fecundity 
depends  also  on  the  boar ;  he  should  therefore  be  chosen  from  a  race  which  multiplies  quickly. 

Good  one-year  bacon-hogs  being  mucli  in  request,  we  must  do  all  we  can  to  obtain  a  breed  well 
adapted  for  producing  them.  Swine  of  such  a  breed  may  be  known  by  their  long  bodies,  low 
bellies,  and  short  legs.  Long,  pendulous  ears  are  usually  coupled  with  these  qualities,  and  attract 
purchasers.  If,  however,  as  is  often  advisable  in  large  dairies  and  cheese-factories,  hogs  ai-e  to  be 
sold  at  all  seasons  to  the  butchers,  greater  attention  u}ust  be  paid  to  quickness  ot  gi-owtli  and  facil- 
ity of  gaining  flesh,  so  that  the  animals  may  attain  their  full  growth  and  be  ready  tor  killing  before 
they  are  a  year  old.  This  quality  is  particularly  prominent  in  tlie  Chinese  and  African  breeds, 
but  among  our  ordinary  varieties,  hogs  are  often  met  with  which  are  better  adapted  for  this  pur- 
pose than  for  producing  large  quantities  of  bacon  and  lard. 

The  boar  should  be  selected  irom  a  race  well  suited  to  these  several  purposes ;  he  must  be  sound 
and  free  from  hereditary  blemishes,  fie  should  be  kept  separate  till  he  is  about  a  year  old,  and 
has  finished  his  growth,  otherwise  he  will  begin  to  leap  very  early.  He  is  usually  castrated  be- 
fore completing  Ids  third  year,  otherwise  his  tiesh  becomes  uneatable.  If,  however,  he  is  of  a  pe- 
cuharly  excellent  breed,  which  cannot  be  replaced,  his  tiesh  may  be  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  pre- 
serving him  for  breeding  a  few  years  longer. 

A  boar  left  on  the  pasture,  and  at  liberty  with  the  sows,  might  suffice  for  thirty  or  forty  of  them  : 
but  as  he  is  usually  shut  up,  and  allowed  to  leap  at  .stated  times  only,  so  that  the  young  ones  may 
be  boni  nearly  at  the  same  time,  it  is  usual  to  keep  one  boar  for  ten  or  twelve  sows.  Eull-gruwn 
boars  being  often  savage,  and  diificult  to  lame,  and  attacking  men  and  animals,  they  must  be  de- 
prived of  tiieir  tusks. 

The  sow  must  be  chosen  from  a  race  of  proper  size  and  shape,  sound  and  free  from  blemi.shes 
and  defects.  She  should  have  at  least  twelve  teats ;  for  it  is  observed  that  each  pig  selects  a  teat 
for  himself  and  keeps  to  it,  so  that  a  pig  not  having  one  belonging  to  him  would  be  starved.  A 
good  sow  should  produce  a  great  number  of  pigs,  all  of  equal  vigor.  She  must  be  very  careful  of 
them,  and  not  crush  them  by  her  weight ;  above  all,  she  must  not  be  addicted  to  eating  the  aher- 
birtb,  and  what  maj-  often  follow,  her  own  young  ones.  If  a  a  sow  is  tainted  with  these  bad  habits, 
or  if  she  bas  difficult  labor.?,  or  brings  forth  dead  pigs,  she  must  be  castrated  forthwith.  It  is  there- 
fore proper  to  bring  up  several  young  sows  at  once,  so  as  to  keep  those  only  which  are  free  from 
defects.     Sows  and  boars  must  not  be  raised  from  defective  animals. 

Sows  are  almost  always  in  heat  till  they  have  received  the  boar ;  they  get  into  this  state  even  at 
the  age  of  four  or  five  months ;  but  they  are  commonly  not  put  to  the  boar  before  the  end  of  their  first 
year.  It  is  indeed,  often  deferred  for  two  years,  when  it  is  desired  to  raise  a  large  breed  from  one 
of  middling  size. 

Sows  are  .sometimes  required  to  produce  only  one,  sometimes  two  litters  in  a  year.  When  highly 
fed,  they  may  be  covered  three  times  inthirteenmouths  ;  but  this  is  rarely  advisable.  If  two  litters  be 
wanted  in  the  year,  as  is  usually  the  case  in  establishments  where  this  branch  of  economy  is  pur- 
sued on  a  large  scale,  and  there  is  a  sufficiency  of  nourishment  for  the  purpose,  the  boar  is  put  to 
the  sow  at  the  beginning  of  October  and  the  end  of  March.  As  the  sow  goes  with  young  from 
four  months  to  eighteen  weeks  (some  persons  profess  to  have  met  with  examples  of  sows  going  for 
twenty,  or  even  t"weuty-oue  weeks,  and  to  have  remarked  that  old  sows  carry  longer  than  young 
ones),  she  brings  forth* in  March  and  August.  But  if  she  is  to  produce  only  one  litter,  she  should 
litter  in  April,  and  the  pigs  be  reared  on  pasturage.  The  arrangements  to  be  made  with  relation 
to  this  matter  will  be  determined  by  the  various  objects  contemplated,  and  the  general  circum- 
stances of  the  establishment.  Sucking-pigs  bom  in  August  or  the  beginning  of  March  require 
good  winter-feeding.  When  the  only  object  in  rearing  swine  is  to  turn  the  pasturage  to  account, 
and  then  sell  the  young  pigs,  it  may  be  preferable  to  have  but  one  litter,  in  April.  Badly  ar- 
ranged, cold  sties  may  also  afford  a  reason  for  not  having  more  than  one  litter  produced  in  a  year. 
But  when  the  management  of  swine  is  well  arranged,  and  winter-food  abundant,  it  is  always  ad- 
vantageous to  have  two  htters  in  the  year. 

Well  constructed  buildings  are  perhaps  of  greater  importance  in  the  economy  of  swine  than  in 

that  of  any  other  kind  of  live  stock.   Success,  indeed,  is  mainly  dependent  on  attention  to  this  point, 

'  \    all  other  care  being  useless  without  it.     The  pigs  should  be  separated  according  to  age,  sex.  and 

condition  :  a  particular  space,  or  sty,  is  therefore  required  for  each  of  the  following  descriptions 

of  animals : 

(a).  For  pigs  just  weaned  ; 

[b).  For  young  pigs,  which  might  otherwise  be  wounded  or  hunted  by  the  large  ones ; 

(c).  For  full-grown  pigs,  comprising  the  castrated  of  both  sexes,  sows  which  are  being  reared, 
and  th.ose  which  have  faiTowed  and  had  their  young  ones  weaned  ; 

[d).  Small  sties  for  each  sow  suckling  her  young ; 

(e).  Fattening-sties  ; 
(1200J 


(/).  Sties  for  the  boars. 

In  the  construction  of  these  habitations,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  animals  are  warmly  housed, 
and  the  sties  at  the  same  time  well  aired,  and  clean  ;  for  though  swine  will  roll  in  the  mire  to  re- 
fresh themselves,  a  clean  sty  is  nevertheless  of  primary  importance  to  them  ;  the  piggery  must  also 
be  provided  with  every  convenience  for  winter-feeding ;  and  if  the  food  is  to  be  ciiieiiy  derived  from  a 
dairy,  brewery,  or  distille/y.  the  piggery  should  communicate  with  this  building.  It  should  be 
exposed  to  the  sun,  and,  if  possible,  surrounded  with  a  yard,  in  which  the  pigs  may  be  allowed  to 
go  out  in  separate  divisions.  Lastly,  care  must  be  taken  to  preserve  the  dung  and  urine,  so  that 
no  manure  may  be  lost.  '  i 

For  the  rest,  the  construction  of  piggeries  belongs  to  rural  architecture.* 

The  sow  during  her  pregnancy  must  be  well  fed,  not  to  excess,  but  in  the  same  manner  as  a  fat 
tening  liog,  for  she  will  otherwise  be  liable  to  miscarry.     Above  all,  she  must  not  be  allowed  to 
sutler  from  hunger  when  her  delivery  is  approaching,  for  such  a  circumstance  might  induce  her 
to  eat  the  after-birth  and  her  young  ones.     It  is  well  to  be  acquainted  with  the  day  when  concep- 
tion has  taken  place,  because  the  time  of  delivery  may  then  be  calculated  beforehand,  and  the    i 
necessarj-  precautions  taken.     The  sow  must  then  be  carefully  watched:  when  she  is  likely  to    / 
farrow  in  the  night,  tlie  swine-herd,  or  the  female  servant  who  looks  after  the  pigs,  should  sit  up    •] 
with  her.     It  is  always  best  to  give  a  separate  sty  to  each  sow  ;  or,  at  most,  to  leave  together  only    ' 
two  which  are  accustomed  to  one  another  ;  otherwise  the  young  ones  will  be  in  danger  of  being 
crushed. 

The  sow  must  be  supplied  with  good  litter ;  but  not  in  very  great  quantity,  for  the  pigs  might 
bury  themselves  in  it,  and  be  crushed  to  death,  without  any  lault  on  the  part  of  the  mother.t     The 
young  ones,  as  they  are  born,  must  be  taken  away,  and  collected  together,  until  the  delivery  is 
over,  and  tiie  after-birth  has  come  away  ;  this  precaution  is  necessary,  to  obviate  the  risk  of  their   , 
being  crushed  by  the  mother  by  creeping  under  her  belly,  while  she  is  suffering  the  pains  of  labor.     | 

A  quarter  of  an  hour  after  delivery,  or  even  while  the  sow  is  ridding  herself  of  the  after-birth,  the  ^ 
swine-iierd  endeavors,  by  gently  scratching  her  belly  and  teats,  to  induce  her  to  lie  down,  and  then  , 
he  puts  the  young  ones  near  her.  It  has  been  observed  that  each  sucking  pig  has  its  own  pecu-  ', 
liar  teat,  and  does  not  willingly  go  to  another ;  and  likewise,  that  the  fore  teats  ahno.st  always  yield  i 
more  milk  than  the  hinder  ones,  for  the  pigs  which  suck  at  the  tbrmer  become  larger  than  the  rest,  i 
The  smallest  pigs  are  therefore  put  to  the  lore  teats,  so  that  they  may  attain  as  great  a  size  as  the 
rest.  _  . 

When  several  sows  farrow  at  once,  and  one  of  them  has  but  a  small  number  of  pigs,  she  may   / 

J    be  made  to  suckle  some  of  tiie  young  ones  belonging  to  tho.se  which  have  produced  too  many. —    ,' 

They  uius^t.  however,  be  put  to  her  before  she  gets  up,  that  she  may  not  be  aware  of  it.     The  num-    / 

' ,   her  of  young  ones  often  exceeds  that  of  the  teats  ;  in  such  a  case,  if  recourse  cannot  be  had  to  the    ' 

I   method  just  spoken  ot;  the  smallest  pigs  must  be  killed,  that  they  may  be  eaten  as  sucking  pigs 

I  by  those  wlio  like  that  dish. 

Sows,  at  their  first  farrowing,  usually  produce  but  few  young  ones;  a  sow  which  brings  forth  a 
great  number  the  first  time  is  highly  valued.  An  old  sow  which  brings  forth  fewer  than  eight 
pigs  at  a  birth  is  not  worth  much.  Those  which  have  very  low  bellies,  reaching  almost  to  the 
ground,  usually  produce  but  few  pigs  in  comparison  w^ith  the  number  which  might  be  expected 
trom  them. 
J  As  soon  as  the  sow  has  farrowed,  water  containing  ground  barley  is  given  to  her  :  she  must  be 
,  well  fed  while  suckling,  that  she  may  give  plenty  of  milk.  She  may  be  fed  upon  sour  milk  and 
ground  barley,  bran,  and  oil-cakes  well  soaked  in  water :  all  extraordinary  diet  likely  to  bring  on 
diarrhoea,  either  in  the  mother  or  the  young  ones,  must  be  avoided.  Good  dry  litter  must  be  giv- 
en to  her,  and  often  changed ;  the  quantity,  however,  must  not  be  very  great,  for  fear  of  the 
young  ones  hiding  themselves  in  it. 

Young  pigs  are  often  castrated  at  the  age  of  two  and  a  half  or  three  weeks  ;  but  they  then  grow 
up  weaker,  smaller,  and  higher  on  the  legs,  than  those  upon  which  the  operation  is  not  performed 
till  they  are  six  months  old.     It  is,  however,  less  dangerous  when  performed  early ;  if  it  be  de- 
ferred, the  males  and  females  must  be  .separated,  both  in  the  sty  and  on  the  pasture,  till  they  have   / 
been  subjected  to  it. 

Cruel  mistakes  are  often  committed  in  castrating  :  these  must  be  carefully  guarded  against,  es- 
pecially in  places  where  the  castrators  of  pigs  are  licensed.     Animals  of  both  sexes  are  sometimes 
I   imperfectly  castrated  :  the  effect  of  this  treatment  is  (Certainly  to  unfit  them  tor  breeding  ;  but  they 
I   nevertheless  retain  the  desire  of  copulation,  and  not  only  become  heated  themselves,  but  derange 
'   the  whole  herd. 

When  pigs  are  to  be  castrated,  they  should  for  four  and  twenty  hours  previously  be  supplied 
'   with  food  in  moderate  quantity,  and  such  as  will  not  swell  in  the  stomach.     Great  care  must  be 
, '   taken  in  clioosing  the  animals  to  be  retained  for  breeding. 
i|       The  pigs,  alter  castration,  must  be  left  quiet,  and  fed  on  clear  wash,  made  of  linseedcake  and 

I I  sour  milk,  till  they  get  well. 

\       it  is  not  difficult  to  wean  pigs,  because  they  begin  to  eat  as  soon  as  they  are  a  fortnight  old. — 

{    Separate  troughs,  lower  and  shallower  than  the  rest,  are  provided  for  the  young  pigs,  unless  they 

{   are  intended  to  eat  out  of  the  same  trough  with  the  old  ones. 

1       Each  sty  should  have  a  separate  egress  into  the  pig  yard,  so  that  the  old  and  young  pigs  may 

J   easily  be  let  out,  and  supplied  with  fresh  water. 

)       When  the  young  ones  have  sucked  for  four  weeks,  the  sow  is  let  out  without  them,  and  they 

)   without  the  sow,  alternately— the  young  pigs,  however,  only  in  fine  weather ;  in  this  manner  they 

/    get  accustomed  to  dispense  with  one  another's  society.     The  mother  is  also  scantily  fed,  that  her 

I   milk  may  diminish,  and  she  may  repulse  her  young  ones. 

j  *  A  description  of  this  branch  of  arcliitecture  will  be  found  in  Gilly— •'  Anweisung  zurlandwirthschaftUchen 

I  Biiukunsl  Herausyeeben  von  Fhederici."  Kd.  i.  Ablh  2,  s.  12,  u.  1.  A. 

<  i  For  this  reason,  the  straw  put  under  the  sow  should  be  more  or  less  cut.                            [French  Trans. 

I  (I'ioi) :i4 


Finally,  the  pis^s  are  fed  with  a  little  barley,  to  accustom  them  to  hard  food,  and  sharpen  th« 
teeth,  as  it  is  s 

Weaned  pi^s  are  at  first  supplied  with  five  meals  per  day ;  when  they  have  attained  the  ape  of  ' 
fsix  weeks,  this  number  is  reduced  to  four ;  after  nine  weeks  they  are  fed  but  three  times  per  day,  ' 
like  other  pigs.  [ 

They  are  easily  accustomed  to  take  their  food  cold  ;  this  is  for  the  most  part  advantageous,  as  ^ 
warm  food  might  injure  them.  A^'lien  they  do  not  eat  all  the  food  in  their  trough,  the  remainder  , 
must  be  taken'away  and  the  trough  well  cleaned.  A  fresh  supply  must  then  be  given  to  them,  , 
but  in  smaller  quantity.  < 

Sour  milk  is  undoubtedly  the  best  and  most  wholesome  noari.shment  for  young  pigs.    "When    i 
there  is  no  market  for  cheese,  the  most  profitable  mode  of  disposing  of  the  skimmed  milk  is  often    > 
to  give  it  to  these  animals.     A  pig  eighteen  weeks  old.  fed  on  a  suiEcient  quantity  of  sour  milk, 
will  be  larger  than  one  a  year  old'  fed  in  a  different  manner. 

After  having  attaized  the  age  of  nine  weeks,  the  young  pigs  must  be  accustomed  to  the  same    ' 
food  as  the  old  ones,  without,  however,  being  left  in  the  same  sty  with  them.     If  they  have  not   ' 
been  castrated  while  suckins,  the  sexes  must  be  separated  till  that  operation  has  been  performed.    ' 
The  weakest  of  the  young  pigs  mast,  if  possible,  be  kept  apart,  for  the  others  bite  and  keep  them 
from  their  food,  and  "thus  their  growth  is  stopped. 

In  summer,  .swine  are  fed  either  on  pasturage  or  in  the  .^ty. 

In  well  cultivated  countries  it  will  rarely  be  advantageous  to  have  gra.ss  land  fed  off  by  pigs; 
but  in  localities  where  there  are  hollows  covered  with  sour  grasses,  marshy  spots,  cold,  and  cov- 
ered with  bushes,  and  a  great  many  pond.s — or  where  .snails  are  numerous,  and  the  ground  con- 
tains a  larse  number  of  worms  and  roots  which  are  agreeable  to  these  animals — there  is  no  better 
mode  of  tuniing  the  pasturage  to  account.  Success  is.  however,  mainly  dependent  on  the  em- 
ployment of  a  eood  su'ine-herd,  who  will  take  care  to  select  a  proper  spot  for  the  animals  at  each 
moment  of  theday,  and  for  every  change  of  temperature.  At  noon  the\-  must  be  sheltered  from 
the  sun,  and  taken  home,  if  no  shelter  can  be  found  in  the  fields.  The  first  pasturage  on  the  stub- 
ble cannot  be  consumed  in  anv  manner  more  advantageously  than  by  pigs,  because  they  avail 
themselves  of  the  seed  which  has  fallen  on  the  ground.  Moreover,  they  crop  the  plants  which 
they  find,  and  tear  up  roots  not  easily  destroyed  by  the  plow— the  siwn  fnlcaria,  for  example, 
which  cannot  well  be  destroyed  by  any  other  means.  They  almost  cle-ir  the  soil  of  insects,  worms 
and  mice.  Where  root-crops  are  cultivated,  they  also  find  abundant  nourishment  on  the  field 
after  the  crop  has  boeu  taken :  there  is  no  better  way  of  disposing  of  the  residue. 

But  when  pa.sturnge  is  scanty,  they  always  require  a  little  additional  food  at  night  and  morning. 

In  establi.shmenls  possessini;  large  dairies,  .swiu.'  are  house  fed  during  summer.  This  method 
affords  a  means  of  disposing  of  the  sour  milk,  as  well  as  of  kitchen  and  garden  refuse,  tailing  com, 
and  similar  matters,  which  for  this  purpo.se  are  mixed,  and  allowed  to  turn  slightly  sour.  But  the 
best  nourishment  for  hou.«e-fed  pigs  in  summer  consists  of  green  lucerne  given  to  them  ju.st  as  it  is 
mown,  or  chopped  and  mixed  with  whey,  or  slightly  sour  milk.  But  pigs  thus  fed  must  have  the 
range  of  a  spacious  yard,  in  which  they  can  find  clean  water,  or  they  must  be  taken  to  a  place 
where  water  is  at  hand  for  them  to  drink  and  bathe  in. 

The  feeding  of  pigs  in  winter  may  be  found  advantageous  either  in  breweries,  distilleries,  and 
large  dairies. "or  where  root-crops  are  cultivated  in  large  quantities.  In  large  dairies  the  greatest 
deficiency  of  food  u-^nally  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  winter.  The  pigs  may  then  be  fed  on  sour 
milk  mixed  with  water;  and  supplementary  food  may  be  found  in  kitchen  refuse,  bran,  mill-dust, 
'  siftings,  and  the  seeds  of  weeds  which  have  been  separated  from  the  corn  :  these  are  given  to  the 
pigs  either  ground  or  soaked  in  warm  water.  If  cows  begin  to  calve  at  a  time  when  scarcely  any 
cheese  is  made,  a  portion  of  the  milk  may  be  disposed  of  in  this  manner.  Moreover,  when  fahow 
crops  are  cultivated,  there  can  be  no  deficiency  of  winter  food,  particularly  when  advantage  is 
taken  of  the  several  kinds  of  refuse  just  mentioned. 

Good  grain  is  usually  too  dear  to  be  given  to  pig.s.  These  animals  mu.st.  however,  be  well  fed, 
or  thev  will  yield  no  return.  By  good  feeding,  a  first  year's  pig  may  be  raised  to  the  value  of 
one  which  is  two  years  old  ;  and  we  have  only  to  consider,  farther,  whether  it  is  advantageous  to 
give  in  one  year  the  quantity  of  food  which  would  .sufliice  for  two. 

lu  an-angins  his  sv.stem  for  the  breedins:  and  fatteniner  of  pigs,  th.e  cultivator  should  determme 
beforehand  what  breed  he  can  most  easily  dispose  of  in  his  own  countrj^  and  what  market  he 
will  be  likely  to  find  for  each  variety.     The  followmg  kinds  may  be  disposed  of: 

('/).  Weaned  pigs,  in  countries  where  there  are  a  great  many  small  cultivators  and  gardeners 
who  keep  a  cow,  and  can  send  their  pigs  to  grass. 

[b)  After  harvest  picis,  which  have  attained  half  their  growth,  or  are  less  than  a  yearold.  may 
be  .sold  to  persons  who  fatter  a  pair  of  the.se  animals  for  their  own  use.  and  prefer  those  of  mid- 
dling size,  because  they  are  ( heaper.  _ 

(C).  Full-irrown  pigs,  either  to  brewers  and  brandy  distdlera  in  tov^-ns.  or  to  establishments 
which  have  a  large  quantity  of  refuse,  or  can  procure  it  in  their  own  neighborhood  ;  or  generally 
to  all  those  who  do  not  concern  themselves  with  the  breeding  of  swine,  but  yet  possess  the  means 
of  fattening  them. 

[d)    Half-fattened  pigs,  to  pork-butchers  at  all  seasons. 

(eV  Pigs  completely  "fattened,  to  household  establishments,  both  in  town  and  countrj-,  at  Christ- 

In  farmintr  establishments  for  the  breeding  and  fattening  of  swine,  great  additional  security  is 
obtained  by'determining  beforehand  which  of  the  five  preceding  classes,  and  how  many  of  each 
class,  are  to  be  maintained  and  sold.  These  pigs  must  then  be  sold  at  the  price  which  they  will 
fetch  By  keeping  the  voung  ones  longer  than  is  consistent  with  the  system  of  the  establishment 
because  vv-e  are  dissatisfied  with  the  price  offered  to  us.  we  shall  most  likely  be  embarrassed  for 
want  of  food,  and  ultimately  obliged  to  sell  them  at  a  still  lower  rate.  Indeed,  farmers,  after  keep- 
ing their  pigs  for  a  long  time  under  these  circumstances,  have  often  been  compelled  to  send  them 
(1202) 


to  market.  It  is,  doubtless,  unpleasant,  after  having  obtained  the  price  of  three  rix-dollars  for 
•weaned  pigs  in  one  year,  to  be  obliged  to  sell  them  for  eight  groschen  in  the  next — a  circum- 
stance which  I  have  known  to  occur  several  times ;  but  we  must,  nevertheless,  make  up  our 
minds  to  the  loss,  if  the  general  plan  of  our  establishment  require  it. 

When  suckiug-pigs  are  not  sold,  matters  are  usually  arranged  so  that  the  young  ones  bora  in 
spring  niay  be  kept  either  for  breeding  or  for  fattening  in  tlie  following  autumn,  and  those  bom  in 
April  to  be  sold  for  fattening  when  they  are  a  year  old. 

Full-grown  pigs  are  the  best  adapted  for  fattening.  A  pig  of  good  breed,  and  well  fed,  may 
reach  his  full  growth  in  a  year.  But,  generally  speaking,  they  do  not  arrive  at  this  stage  till  two 
or  even  three  years  old.  It  is  common  in  England,  though  not  in  this  country,  to  feed  pigs  in 
summer  on  fodder-plants,  such  as  clover,  lucerne,  tares,  buckwheat,  and  spurry.  For  this  pur- 
pose, the  pigs  are  either  turned  into  the  fields,  or  fed  in  the  sty  or  in  permanent  enclosures.  The 
green-meat  just  spoken  of  is  cut  up  like  cabbages,  and  mixed  with  varioiis  kinds  of  refuse  proper 
for  feeding  pigs:  the  whole  is  then  placed  in  large  walled  reservoirs,  salted,  pressed,  and  left  to 
turn  sour.     The  pigs  are  fed  on  it  in  autumn,  and  get  very  fat. 

In  large  dairies,  milk  may  be  used  for  feeding  pigs,  even  if  they  are  not  bred  on  the  farm. — 
These  animals  are  fed  either  on  sour  milk  or  whey:  many  farmers  are  of  opinion  that  the  former 
may  be  used  for  this  purpose  more  profitably  than  for  making  cheese.  It  is  certain  that  pigs  fed 
in  this  manner  soon  attain  considerable  weight,  provided  that,  toward  the  end  of  the  fattening,  a 
little  ground  barley  is  put  into  the  diluted  milk  to  thicken  it.  The  flesh  of  these  pigs  is  excellent. 
But  when  the  fattening  has  been  begun  in  this  manner,  it  must  be  continued  :  for  all  other  kinds 
of  food  would  diminish  instead  of  increasing  the  weight  of  the  animals.  Ground  com  can  be  used 
only  as  a  supplementary  aliment. 

When  large  quantities  of  root-crops  are  raised,  they  may  often  be  very  profitably  used  for  fat- 
toning  swine.  At  the  present  day,  potatoes  are  most  commonly  used  for  this  purpose  ;  they  are  ' 
usually  steamed,  mashed,  and  mixed  with  water.  Pigs  will  readily  eat  raw  potatoes  for  a  short 
I  time,  and  in  moderate  quantity  ;  but  soon  take  a  dislike  to  them  when  fattening.  When  the  fat- 
,  tening  is  nearly  finished,  a  little  ground  corn  is  added  to  the  potatoes  to  comt)lete  it.  Some  per- 
sons think  carrots  better  than  potatoes  for  fattening  ;  pigs  willingly  eat  them  raw,  and  thrive  well 
upon  them".     The  flesh  of  hogs  thus  fed  is  said  to  be  particularlj-  firm. 

If  pigs  are  to  be  fattened  entirely  on  the  refuse  nf  the  brewery,  it  must  be  given  to  them  in  very 
large  quantities.     They  gain  flesh  rapidly  at  first,  but  do  not  become  good  bacon-hogs  unless  sup- 
plied with  more  substantial  food  toward  the  end  of  the  fattening.     This  refuse  is  of  better  quality 
when  small  beer  is  not  extracted  from  it.     It  must  be  kept  under  water  to  prevent  it  from  heating. 
The  refu.se  of  the  brandy-distillery  is  more  substantial,  and  better  adapted  for  fattening,  than 
that  of  the  brew-house.     According  to  Nenenhahn,  eight  Nordhausen  schefTels  (equal  to  about  six 
of  Berlin),  u.sed  daily  in  the  still,  will  supply  food  for  fifty  hogs:  this  author  remarks,  however, 
\    that  it  is  better  to  keep  below  than  above  the  full  number — the  loss  occasioned  by  leaving  a  por- 
S    tion  uuconsumed  not  being  nearly  so  great  as  that  which  arises  from  a  deficiency  in  the  supply. — 
S    At  first  this  refuse  must  be  mixed  with  water,  as  the  hogs  will  otherwise  refuse  it ;  in  fact,  it  makes 
5    them  giddy  and  unable  to  keep  their  feet ;  afterward,  the  quantity  of  the  food  is  gradually  in- 
\    creased,  till  they  are  completely  accustomed  to  it     Neuenhahn  says  that  the  refuse  of  the  brandy- 
)    distillery  cannot  be  given  to  the  pigs  too  warm,  or  too  soon  after  its  removal  from  the  still ;  and 
?    that  it  never  makes  them  hot ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  when  allowed  to  get  cold  and  stale,  it  is  rather 
/    injurious  than  beneficial  to  them.     On  the  other  hand,  I  have  been  assured  by  many  experienced 
I    di.stillers  who  fatten  large  numbers  of  hogs,  that  it  requires  great  attention,  and  the  employment 
(    of  a  man  on  whose  care  we  can  rely,  to  prevent  the  refuse  being  given  to  the  animals  wliile  too 
(    warm,  for  it  then  injures  and  retards  them  to  a  great  extent.     It  must  be  given  sometimes  thick, 
\    sometimes  thinned  with  water,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  appetite  of  the  animals. 
)        The  residue  of  the  manufacture  of  starch,  the  products  of  the  various  washings  which  this  prep- 
)    aration  involves,  and  the  refuse  of  wheat,  are  far  superior  to  brewers'  and  distillers'  refuse.     Hogs 
)    fed  upon  these  articles  fatten  more  quickly,  produce  finiier  flesh,  more  substantial  bacon,  and  a 
^    greater  quantity  of  lard.     At  first  the  animals  eat  these  matters  with  great  avidity,  and  often  to 
/    excess ;  in  that  case,  they  refuse  them  after  a  time.     The  quantity  must  therefore  be  carefully  reg- 
?    ulated,  and  the.troughs  kept  very  clean.     If  this  mode  of  feeding  be  used  alternately  with  one  of  a   > 
f    different  nature,  the  fattening  will  be  effected  with  greater  certainty.     The  quantity  of  this  refuse   ' 
I    collected  at  once  is  often  greater  than  can  be  consumed  at  the  time:  it  is  difficult  to  preserve,  be-   ' 
(    cause  its  animal  portions  soon  putrefy.     The  only  mode  of  preservation  is  to  dry  it,  make  it  into   ' 
(    cakes,  and  bake  it. 

S        Corn-feeding  cannot  be  really  advantageous,  excepting  in  a  limited  number  of  cases.     It  is, 
\    however,  frequently  resorted  to.  and  in  various  ways.     According  to  observations  of  the  English,    J 
>    a  good  hog  increases  in  flesh  from  9  to  10  lbs.  for  every  bushel  of  grain,  half  laarley,  half  peas,  that   ! 
)    he  eats;  or  from  14  to  15  lbs.  per  Berlin  .schefFel;  hence  we  may  calculate  how  far  corn-fattening 
}    can  be  profitable.     Grain  is  given  to  pigs  in  the  following  ways : 

(  (a).  Crude  and  dry.  The  animals  chew  and  braise  it  very  well ;  but  they  must  be  well  sup- 
(  plied  with  water.  Pigs  have  sometimes  had  their  stomachs  burst  after  eating  to  excess  of  this 
1    food  ;  it  must,  therefore,  be  given  with  great  caution. 

S  (h).  Grain  soaked  in  water  cannot  well  be  injurious  ;  but  it  has  been  often  remarked  that  swine 
\  will  not  eat  much  of  this  food.  If  it  can  be  dried  again,  after  germinating,  or  made  into  malt,  it 
J  will  be  improved.  It  may  also  be  left  to  turn  sour,  and  will  then  be  more  useful  and  agreeable 
)    to  the  animals. 

)  [c].  Grain  burst,  by  boiling,  is  particularly  usefiil  for  fattening :  this  method  saves  the  expense 
)  which  would  otherwise  be  requisite  for  grinding  the  com  :  it  w^ill  not,  however,  effect  any  saving, 
'    unless  fuel  be  cheaper. 

[        (d)._  Ground  corn  is,  however,  the  best  and  most  trustworthy  food.     Swdne  are  rarely  cloyed 

[    with  it  when  properly  given  to  them.    It  should  be  soaked  in  water  eome  time  before,  then  mixed 

(120.3) 


with  a  larsfer  quantity  of  water,  and  well  mashed,  so  tliat  none  of  it  may  remain  in  lumps,  for  that  \ 
would  probably  bring  on  indigestion  and  other  disorders.  The  corn  should  not  be  soaked  in  boil-  > 
ing,  but  in  tepid  or  cold  water.  When  pigs  are  fed  on  ground  corn,  it  is  usual  to  give  them  to-  S 
ward  evening  a  little  grain  in  its  natural  state ;  this  is  said  to  keep  up  their  appetite.  J 

Of  grain,  properly  so  called,  barley  is  by  most  persons  considered  as  the  most  advantageous  for  ) 
swine";  others  prefer  oats;  but  pulse,  such  as  peas,  tares,  and  beans,  are  much  more  efficacious;  ) 
only  when  pigs  are  to  be  fattened  on  them,  they  must  not  previou.sly  be  fed  ground  barley  alone,  } 
for  they  will  then  refuse  the  pulse.  If  the  latter  are  to  be  afterward  given  alone,  small  quantities  I 
of  them  must  from  the  beginning  be  mixed  with  the  barley  ;  but  pigs  not  yet  accustomed  to  bar-  < 
lej  willingly  eat  pulse,  whether  hard,  soaked,  boiled,  or  ground.  According  to  experiments  made  < 
in  England,  pulse,  especially  peas,  fatten  much  more  easily,  and  are  more  agreeable  to  swine,  J 
when  slightly  sour  i 

In  general,  fattening  with  sour  dough  is  commonly  extolled  as  cheaper  and  quicker  than  that  ] 
produced  by  grain.  Ground  com,  or  coarse  meal,  is  mixed  with  warm  water  in  a  pail,  and  made  5 
into  a  paste  ;  yeast  is  then  added,  and  the  whole  kept  at  a  somewhat  high  temperature  :  in  twelve  ) 
hours  it  becomes  sour.  A  portion  of  this  sour  dough  is  then  mixed  with  water,  to  form  a  thick  / 
mash  for  the  pigs.  When  the  dough  is  nearly  finished,  a  fresh  portion  of  meal  or  ground  corn  is  J 
added  to  the  remainder.  This  mash,  made  of  sour  dough,  is  much  relished  by  the  pigs;  it  is  like-  J 
wise  wholesome  and  refreshing  to  them.  But,  when  given  alone,  it  serves  only  to  fill  them  up  :  I 
it  causes  them  to  gain  rapidly  in  flesh  ;  but  the  meat  is  light  and  flabby,  and  ihe  quantity  of  lard  i 
and  bacon  .small.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  add  to  it  every  day  a  quantity  of  unground  grain,  espe-  i 
cially  peas.  j 

Some  persons  profess  to  have  been  vi'enderfully  successful  in  fattening  their  pigs  on  bread —  ] 
The  bread  for  this  purpose  is  made  of  coarse  barley  or  rye  flour;  it  is  cut  into  pieces,  dried  in  the  ] 
oven,  then  soaked  in  water,  and  given  in  the  form  of  a  "thick  mash.  When  soaked  in  sour  milk  ^ 
or  whey  instead  of  water,  it  is  said  to  surpass  all  other  kinds  of  food  in  the  quickness  and  efficacy  , 
witli  which  it  fattens.  ^ 

I  consider  maize  as  superior  to  all  other  kinds  of  grain  for  fattening.  It  produces  very  solid  ( 
flesh,  and  gives  firmness  to  the  bacon.  Swine  are  very  fond  of  it.  With  us  it  is  seldom  used  ex-  ( 
cepting  to  "complete  the  fattening,  each  pig  being  .supplied  night  and  moniing  with  a  handful  or  ( 
so  of  maize-seed :  the  quantity  of  fat  is  thereby  "greatly  increased.  Whole  ears  of  maize  may,  ( 
however,  be  thrown  to  the  pigs :  they  know  very  well  how  to  extract  the  seed.  This  practice  is  < 
very  general  in  Hungary,  where  large  numbers  of  Moldavian  pigs  are  thus  brought  to  the  highest  ' 
state  of  fatne.ss,  and  afterward  sold  in  Vienna.  ' 

In  fattening  pigs,  the  following  rules  must  also  be  observed  : 

These  animals  are  more  inclined  than  any  others  to  over-eat  themselves,  and  then  they  are  ^ 
much  retarded.  Hence,  it  is  always  better,  if  one  extreme  must  be  incurred,  to  give  them  too  lit-  , 
tie  than  too  much.  If  they  are  attacked  with  indigestion,  they  must  be  kept  without  food  for  four  , 
and  twenty  hours,  and  then  a  few  handfuls  of  unground  com,  with  a  little  salt,  must  be  given  to  i 
them  six  hours  before  resuming  the  ordinaiy  food.  i 

Swine  eat  a  great  deal  when  first  put  to  fatten,  but  much  less  when  fat.  The  most  nutritious  i 
and  substantial  food  is,  therefore,  commonly  reserved  for  the  end  of  the  process.  Many  farmers,  ' 
however,  particularly  in  England,  think  that  these  animals  should  at  first  be  supplied  with  very  ' 
substantial  food,  in  order  to  increase  their  vital  energies ;  then  with  a  larger  quantity  of  some  less  ' 
nutritious  kind  of  aliment ;  and,  finally,  with  that  in  which  the  nutritive  power  is  most  concen-  | 
trated.  , 

It  has  generally  been  found  useful  to  give  pigs,  from  time  to  time,  half  an  ounce  of  pounded  an-  , 
timony,  either  upon  their  solid  food  or  in  sour  milk.  This  medicine  not  only  maintains  their  appe-  , 
tite  and  facilitates  digestion,  but  also  pre.sei-ves  them  from  lepro.?}'.  It  may  be  given  every  week  , 
or  fortnight,  especially  -when  the  pigs  appear  dull  and  lose  their  appetite. 

The  space  in  which  pigs  are  shut  up  should  be  rather  small ;  they  will  De  more  quiet  and  peace- 
able in  consequence.  If,  however,  there  should  be  among  them  one  that  is  weak,  sickly,  and  ill- 
treated  by  the  rest,  he  must  be  immediately  removed  from  them,  or  thej'  will  kill  him.  When 
pigs  are  hungry,  they  are  apt  to  bite  one  another  ;  but,  when  well  fed,  they  are  quiet  enough.  It 
is  best,  however,  to  "divide  the  troughs  into  separate  portions,  placing  before  each  a  board  with 
notches  in  it  just  large  enough  for  a  pig  to  put  his  head  through. 

The  strictest  regularity  should  also  be  observed  in  the  hours  of  iieeding. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  keep  pigs  as  clean  as  pos.sible,  and  give  them  dry  litter.  Bathing 
twice  a  week  accelerates  their  fattening  and  makes  them  more  quiet. 

It  only  remains  to  speak  of  fattening  in  the  wood.s.  Swine  thus  fed  never  attain  the  highest  de- 
gree of  fatness  ;  acom.?,  however,  make  their  flesh  and  bacon  very  firm  ;  beech-mast,  on  the  con- 
trary, produces  flabby  muscle  and  unsound  fat,  which  runs  when  'heated. 

Swine  should  be  kept  in  the  woods  day  and  night,  and  be  provided  with  proper  covering  or 
shelter.  If  brought  home  at  night,  or  at  liberty  to  return,  they  get  heated  and  lose  all  that  they 
,  have  gained  in  the  day.  Fattening  in  the  woods  is  doubtless  the  cheapest  of  all  methods,  but  there 
18  not  always  a  sufficient  quantity  of  food.  If  the  pigs  do  not  quickly  arrive  at  a  certain  degree  of 
fatness,  they  derive  but  small  advantage  from  this  mode  of  feeding,  for  want  of  rest  and  warmth. 
When  pigs  are  accustomed  to  pasturage,  that  of  the  woods  is  always  preferred  by  them.  It  is 
indispensable,  however,  that  they  have  a  proper  supply  of  water. 

siiep:p. 

The  management  of  sheep  has  sometimes  been  too  much  decried,  sometimes  too  much  extolled. 
in  comparison  with  that  of  other  domestic  animals.     Leaving  out  of  consideration  those  peculiari- 
ties of  situation  which  must  always  affect  the  profit  to  be  derived  from  one  species  or  the  other,  it 
i   will  be  found  that  their  profit  has  always  been,  in  a  great  measure,  determined  hy  circnrm^lmices 
and  the  mercantile  circumstances  resulting  from  them.     Farther,  it  is  undeniable  that  the  partic 
(1204) 


'} 


r\ 


SHEEP.  533 


ular  care  and  atientioD  devoted  to  one  kind  of  live  stock  or  another,  have  also  greatly  coiitribated 
to  the  profit  derived  from  it.     It  is  generally  aciiiiovrledged  that  cattle  of  any  kind,  when  well  fed 
and  looked  after,  repay  much  more  fully  the  judicious  outlay  incurred  for  their  maintenance,  than 
ill-kept  animals  repay  the  niggardly  expenditure  which  the  owner  is  obliged  to  bestow  upon 
them.     Profit  is  derived  only  from  the  excess  above  that  which  is  absolutely  necessary  ;  the  quan- 
tity of  nourishment  which  just  keeps  an  animal  alive  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  lost.     It  is  for  this  rea- 
'    soil  that  the  flocks  of  sheep,  formerly  so  badly  fed,  yielded  no  profit ;  and  that,  in  the  opinion  of 
I    most  farmers,  fodder  and  pasturage,  notwithstanding  their  trilling  value,  were  absolutely  lost  upon 
I    these  animals,  which  consequently  owed  their  preservation  to  nothing  but  the  urgent  demand  for 
the  manure  oljtained  by  folding  them  on  the  land.     But  when  attention  was  aroused  to  the  profit 
yielded  by  improved  sheep,  and  greater  care  and  better  food  were  bestowed  upon  them,  larger 
returns  were  soon  obtained,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  breed  was  improved.     The  profit  c^grived 
from  sheep  then  became  so  great  that  they  were  soon  more  highly  prized  than  horned-cattle  aci 
'  I    the  dairy — which,  in  fact,  were  decried.     Unfortunately,  there  were  but  few  rural  establishments 
capable  of  properly  maintaining  these  two  kinds  of  live  stock  at  once  ;  so  that  one  was  sure  to 
suffer  by  the  preference  given  to  the  other,  and  the  breed  declined  more  and  more. 

Commercial  circumstances,  which  themselves  depend  on  politics,  have  for  some  years  favored 

the  rearing  of  sheep   by  raising  considerabh'  the   price  of  wool.     Hence,   throughout  almost  all 

\    Europe,  animals  of  this  kind  are  more  highly  prized  by  farmers  than  horned-cattle  ;  and,  though 

,    this  high  estimation  has  been  excited  by  the  merino  breed  alone,  it  nevertheless  exerts  more  or 

'     less  infiueuce  on  the  ordinary  races,  and  causes  them  to  rise  in  price. 

It  is  almost  universally  admitted  that  ten  aheep  cost  as  much  as  one  cow,  whether  pastured  or 
stall  fed.     This  proportion  was  originally  based  on  the  kinds  of  .sheep  and  cows  maintained  in  the 
north  of  Germany,  both  of  which  were  "in  the  most  miserable  state.     The  same  proportion  seems, 
/   however,  to  hold  good  when  both  races  are  improved  together;  for  good  sheejj,  as  well  as  good 
,     cows,  require  twice  as  much  food  as  bad  ones,  whether  at  pasturage  or  in  the  stall.     Even  if  the 
quantity  of  food  consumed  by  sheep  does  increa.se  with  the  improvement  of  the  breed  at  the  same 
rate  as  with  cows,  the  proportion  is,  nevertheless,  kept  up  by  accessory  expenses  and  additional  risk. 
If  then,  in  localities  where  these  two  species  of  Hve  stock  can  be  equally  well  maintained,  it  be 
asked,  '■  Which  kind  ought  the  farmer  to  increase  or  diminish,  to  the  detriment  of  the  one  or  the 
'     advantage  of  the  other  ?"  the  question  will  usually  be  answered  by  the  reply  given  to  the  foDow- 
'    ing  :  "  Which  will  yield  the  greater  profit,  ten  sheep  or  one  cow  ?"     This  question  cannot  be  an- 
swered in  general  terms,  but  is  easily  resolved  in  each  particular  case,  even  by  a  very  supei-ficial 
'   calculation.     Among  other  considerations,  temporary  occurrences  have,  at  the  present  day,  con- 
siderable influence  on  this  matter ;  their  indications  must,  undoulatedly,  be  attended  to,  though 
not  to  such  an  extent  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  altering  the  proportions  between  our  several 
kinds  of  live  stock  according  to  the  manner  which  circumstances  may  render  advisable. 

The  proportion  which  for  the  last  ten  years  has  subsisted  between  the  price  of  meat  and  butter 
on  the  one  hand,  and  that  of  wool  on  the  other,  though  both  have  been  very  high,  has  decidedly 
'     given  the  advantage  to  tke  sheep  over  the  dairy,  when  both  sheep  and  horned-cattle  have  been 
fed  upon  pastures  equally  well  adapted  to  either.     But  this  is  not  the  case  when  cows  are  stall-fed, 
for  this  mode  of  feeding  saves  so  large  an  extent  of  ground,  which  must  otherwise  be  used  for    i 
pasturage,  that  the  equality  in  the  net  produce  of  the  soil  is  reestablished  by  it.     But  though  stall-    ' 
feeding^  which  is  much  better  adapted  for  horned-cattle  than  for  sheep,  should  even  strike  the 
balance  in  favor  of  the  fonner,  it  would  still  not  follow  that,  under  existing  circumstances,  the 
'    number  of  sheep  should  be  diminished  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  ought  rather  to  be  ivcrcascd,  because 
'    the  stall-feeding  of  horned-cattle  saves  a  quantity  of  pasturage  which  cannot  be  turned  to  account 
n  any  other  manner. 
An  acquaintance  with  the  various  and  beautiful  breeds  of  sheep  to  be  found  in  various  pai-ts  of 
I    the  world  is  an  interesting  subject  of  natural  history,  but  does  not  belong  to  the  science  of  Agri- 
I    culture.     I  shall  not,  tlierefore,  speak  of  the  races  met  with  in  the  distant  parts  of  Europe.     The 
several  breeds  pecuhar  to  Great  Britain  are  mentioned  in  ray  •'  English  Agriculture."     On  this 
matter  the  reader  may  also  consult  CuUey's  "  Ob.servations  on  Live  Stock,  containing  Hints  for 
choosing  and  improving  the  best  Breeds  of  the  most  useful  kinds  of  Domestic  Animals."     Lon- 
don, 1786  ;  8vo. 

I  shall  here  content  myself  with  speaking  of  those  which  are  found  in  Germany,  whether  es- 
tabli.whed  there  from  the  remotest  times  or  lately  introduced. 
There  are  four  principal  varieties,  viz. : — 
[a).  The  sheep  of  the  landes  or  heaths. 
(b).  The  breed  of  the  marches  or  low  countries. 
(c).  The  ordinary  native  breed. 
{d).  The  merinoes. 
The  sheep  of  the  landes  are  small ;  they  are  scarcely  found  anywhere  excepting  on  the  landes 
of  Luneburg  and  Bremen.     They  would'not  be  profitable  in  other  countries;  indeed,  they  ^'^■ould 
,    scarcely  be  able  to  live  elsewhere,  for  they  feed  almost  wholly  on  furze,  and  soon  become  excess-    i 

ively  fat,  and  lose  their  health  when  put  upon  richer  pasturage.  Ail  sheep  of  this  breed  have 
'  horns ;  they  are  seldom  quite  white,  but  gray,  brown,  or  black.  Their  wool  is  generally  coarse 
and  harsh  to  the  touch  ;  some,  however,  have  finer  wool,  and  others,  among  their  long,  coarse  : 
wool,  have  also  a  short,  fine  sort,  which,  however,  is  diificult  to  separate.  They  are  usually  shorn 
twice  in  the  year :  first,  toward  St.  John's  day,  when  a  ram  will  give  from  2  lbs.  to  3  lbs.  of  wool. 
a  wether  from  2  lbs.  to  2|  lbs.  and  a  ewe  from  1  lb.  to  1|  lb.;  and  secondly,  about  Michaelmas; 
at  this  time,  however,  they  are  not  shorn  so  close  to  the  body,  and  the  quantity  of  wool  obtained 
is  scarcely  a  third  of  that  cut  off  at  the  first  shearing.  This  wool,  especially  the  short  kind,  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  common  hats  ;  coarse  stuffs  are  also  made  of  it,  particularly  a  tissue  of  wool 
and  other  articles  mixed  together.  Frequently  also  there  is  a  large  demand  tor  it  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, for  the  manufacture  of  sailors'  coats  and  cloth  list. 


(1205) 


Sheep  of  this  breed  yield  a  very  small  return  ;    but  in  their  native  countries  they  cost  scarcely 
anything,  living:  almost  wholly  on  furze  both  in  winter  and  summer.      They  scratch  away  the 
snow  to  get  at  this  plant,  and  "when  it  is  too  deep  to  enable  them  to  do  this,  the  snow-plow  is  used 
to  clear  a  passage  for  them  to  obtain  their  food.      Dry  furze  is  also  given  to  them  in  the  stall  or   < 
under  sheds,  where  it  is  usually  spread  out  for  them,  together  with  a  little  hor.se-dung.     If  a  little    ' 
buckwheat-sD-aw  be  given  to  them  from  time  to  time,  it  is  only  as  a  relish.     Some  farmers,  how-    ' 
ever,  give  a  little  buckwheat-seed  to  the  ewes  at  lambing  time,  and  a  little  bay  to  the  lambs.    Not-   ' 
withstanding  the  hardiness  of  this  race  of  sheep,  they  cannot  endure  passing  the  night  in  open 
pens. 

Their  weight  is  very  small ;    a  tolerably  good  wether  yields  only  about  30  lbs.  of  net  flesh. 
.   Their  flesh  is  rich,  of  delicate  fibre,  savory,  and  pleasant  to  the  smell. 

Tim  race  of  sheep  has  been  crossed  with  the  ordinary  native  breed,  and  has  produced  an  inter- 
mediHe  variety  called  half  bred  :  this  mixed  breed  presents  no  advantage ;  it  requires  better 
feeding  both  in  the  stall  and  at  pasturage  ;  without  this  it  will  degenerate  ;  and,  nevertheless,  it 
yields  very  little  more  than  the  pure  breed  of  the  landes. 

The  sheep  of  the  marches,  or  low  countries,  otherwise  called  the  FriesJand  breed,  include  .sev- 
eral varieties,  all  of  which  seem,  however,  to  spring  from  a  common  stock,  and  to  have  been 
merely  changed  by  the  care  and  food  bestowed  upon  them,  and  the  choice  of  individuals  for  breed- 
ing. Those  of  the  most  fertile  districts  are  verj^  large  and  fat ;  they  may  be  raised  to  a  weight  of 
120  lbs.  net  flesh,  or  even  more.  Their  wool  is  thick,  of  various  degrees  of  delicacy  and  softness, 
never  frizzled,  but  smooth,  and  fit  for  combing.  They  yield  on  the  average  10  lbs.  of  wool  when 
fed  on  very  rich  pastures  ;  the  smallest,  however,  give  but  6  lbs.  or  7  lbs.  This  wool  is  very  use- 
flil  for  the  "manufacture  of  certain  kinds  of  stuft)  especially  stockings,  whether  knit  or  woven  ;  but 
it  is  not  good  for  cloth-making. 
#  The  ewes  of  this  breed  bring  forth  sometimes  two,  sometimes  three,  lambs  at  a  birth  ;  some 
have  been  known  to  produce  even  more.  The  variety  of  smaller  .size  and  bone  fatten  easily  , 
they  are  fit  for  killing  at  the  age  of  two  years.  They  give  plenty  of  milk,  which  is  often  drawn 
from  them.  I  have  known  ewes  of  this  breed,  not  even  of  the  larger  variety,  to  yield  every  day 
a  quart  of  milk,  which  was  pronounced  by  judges  to  be  of  excellent  quality. 

These  sheep  then  might  be  expected  to  be  very  profitable  ;  all  things  considered,  however, 
they  are  not  .'■o,  in  reality ;  for  in  proportion  to  their  produce  they  require  very  substantial  pas- 
turage and  feeding.  But  few  of  them  are  therefore  maintained,  and  those  only  in  countries 
where  they  can  be  fed  on  pastures  of  which  no  other  use  can  be  made.  In  lowlands  protected  by 
'  dikes,  these  animals  graze  on  the  dikes  and  beyond  them.  When  they  are  to  be  fattened  they 
are  allowed  to  go  among  the  other  cattle  on  fattening  pastures,  or  placed  in  grass  fields  which  are 
not  fit  for  other  animals,  but  are  used  as  meadows,  and  require  to  be  left  at  rest  for  a  year,  and 
improved  by  sheep-folding.  The  sheep  eat  off'the  old  grass,  though  it  may  be  mixed  with  rushes  j 
the  meadow  is  greatlv  improved  by  this  treatment.  The  animals  are  seldom  attacked  with  watery 
cachexia  while  on  the  pasture  ;  if  they  are,  they  must  immediately  be  sent  to  the  slaughter- 
Sheep  of  this  breed  may  be  everywhere  maintained  by  good  stall-feeding  on  clover  :  but  from 
various  trials  which  have  come  to  my  knowledge,  this  mode  of  feeding  appears  to  be  too  costly 
in  proportion  to  the  return.  The  only  variety  of  the  race  which  seems  to  be  profitable  is  a  small 
kind,  with  very  thin  bones,  fed  on  very  rich  and  upland  pastures.  This  variety  has  perhaps  been 
produced  by  crossing.  The  others  are  met  with  in  almost  all  low  countries,  and  are  thought  by 
some  persons  to  have  sprung  from  the  ordinary  native  breed,  gradually  improved  by  rich  pa.stur- 
i  age.  To  me  this  opinion  appears  totally  unfounded.  I  rather  think  that  they  came  originally 
from  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  and  Elbe,  and  have  thence  been  transplanted  into  the  countries  where 
they  are  at  present  found. 

The  ordinary  German  sheep  exhibit  several  varieties,  but  nevertheless  appear  to  have  a  com- 
mon origin.  The  various  degrees  of  attention  bestowed  on  their  breeding  and  maintenance,  ap- 
pear to  be  the  sole  cause  of  the  obiserved  differences,  which,  though  now  hereditary,  would  soon 
change  if  the  animals  were  otherwise  fed.  In  all  parts  of  Germany  where  sheep  have  for  some 
time  been  treated  with  care  and  fed  on  good  pasturage,  especially  on  the  mountains,  the  breed  is 
found  to  be  superior,  even  in  quality  of  wool,  to  that  of  places  where  they  are  scantily  fed,  and 
treated  as  mere  occasional  accessories. 

In  Lower  Saxony  there  is  a  particular  variety  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  Flemish  or 
Rhine  breed.  But'this  variety  has  preserved  its  peculiar  characteristics  in  those  places  only  where 
it  has  received  the  very  best  food  and  most  unremitting  attention  ;  where  this  bas  not  been  the 
case.  I  do  not  think  that  it  differs  perceptibly  from  our  Pomeranean  and  Prussian  breed.  It  would  i 
be  worth  while  to  examine  the  various  gradations  of  fineness  and  quality  of  wool  in  the  several 
provinces  of  Germany  For  a  long  time,  however,  we  have  concerned  ourselves  least  in  the  pur- 
suit of  the  very  inquiry  most  within  our  reach  ;  and  now  that  the  merino  breed  is  introduced 
among  us,  the  ordinarj'  Gennan  races  are  scarcely  thought  worthy  of  closer  investigation.  The 
introduction  of  a  German  breed  of  peculiar  excellence,  and  the  perfecting  of  it  within  itself, 
might,  however,  and  probably  would,  repay  the  trouble  bestowed  upon  it ;  and  such  a  breed 
might,  by  the  weight  of  its  wool,  by  greater  vigor  of  constitution  and  facility  of  fattening,  counter- 
balance the  hitjher  value  of  the  merinoes.  The  wool  of  the  country  varies  infinitely  m  fineness, 
elasticity  and  thickness.  There  is  a  race  of  German  sheep  whose  wool  serves  for  the  manufac- 
ure  of  cloth  of  average  fineness  and  great  durability.  There  are  others,  on  the  contrary,  whose 
wool  is  so  coarse,  that  it  can  only  be  used  for  stuffs  of  the  most  ordinary  description.  Our  sheep 
likewi.se  differ  greatly  both  in  the  thickness  and  quantity  of  their  wool:  superior  fineness  and 
elasticity  are  almost  always  united  with  great  thickness  of  fleece. 

Our  native  sheep  are  certainly  more  capable  than  the  Spanish  breed  of  enduring  bad  pasture 

and  stall-feeding ;  they  are  likewise  more  robust  and  exposed  to  fewer  diseases.      If,  therefore. 

the  general  circumstances  of  a  raral  establishment  are  inconsistent  with  the  maintenance  of  sheep 

(1206) 


on  pasturage  and  foddci-  of  the  quality  i-equired  for  enabling  the  merino  breed  to  yield  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  wool,  the  farmers  nm.st  not  be  visited  with  unqualified  ceusu're  for  keeping  to  the  na- 
tive breed.  If,  however,  it  be  asked  why  the  management  is  not  such  as  to  allow  the  maintenance 
of  merinoes  rather  than  of  the  native  sheep,  the  question  assumes  another  aspect,  under  which  we 
do  not  pro[)ose  to  examine  it  in  this  place.  I  think,  however,  that  in  localities  where  economical 
arrangemsnis  cannot  be  altered,  and  pastures  cannot  be  improved,  many  rural  establishments  will 
finil  no  advantage  in  substituting  merinces  for  a  good  native  breed,  especially  .since  the  universal 
multiplication  of  the  former  will  raise  tiie  price  of  good  coarse  wool  in  proportion  to  that  of  the 
liner  sorts.  I  know  that  many  assidious  farmers  in  several  countries  have  for  a  long  time  been  en- 
gaged in  trials  to  improve  the  native  breed  by  itself;  but  they  have  probably  by  this  time  fallen 
into  the  method  of  crossing  with  merinoes.  For  slaughtering,  the  native  breeds,  especially  cer-  i 
tain  varieties,,  are,  undoubtedly,  better  than  pure  merinoes,  which  can  never  be  brought  to  the 
si^me  degree  of  size  and  fatness,  or  made  to  yield  meat  of  so  rich  a  quality. 

The  merino  breed,  which  we  may  consider  as  naturalized  in  Germany,  though  not  yet  very  nu- 
merous in  its  pure  state,  must,  I  think,  he  ver^'  well  known  to  all  who  will  read  this  work.  In 
It'll  I  published,'by  order  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  a  "Manual  of  the  Economy  of  fine- 
%  ■ooled  Sheep  "  (Handbiich,fur  die  feiiiwollige  schaafzncht),  which  maj'  be  found  also  in  the 
"  AniLfileii  dcr  Fort^ichritte  der  Landwirthxchaft;'  ^d.\.  &.\.  In  this  work  I  think  I  have  said 
all  that  it  is  mcst  important  to  say  on  the  subject  If  to  this  be  added  the  woiks  of  Tessier,  that  of  ' 
Gb.  Puiet,  and  the  treatise  by  Poylere  de  Cere,  inserted  in  the  "  Annalcn  des  Ackcrbaur.H,"  Bd.  ' 
s.  641,  a  complete  course  of  instruction  on  the  economy  of  this  improved  breed  of  sheep  will  be 
obta'ned.  To  avoid  copying  my  own  ob.servations  and  those  of  other  authors,  I  shall  here  say  but 
little  on  the  subject.* 

Tl^At  excellent  writer,  Ch.  Putet.  has  shown  in  the  clearest  manner  the  necessity  of  having  pure 
breeds,  free  from  foreign  blood  on  the  mother's  as  well  as  the  father's  side,  and  to  take  the  rams 
from  them  not  only  when  we  v/ish  to  introd  uce  the  pure  breed,  but  likewise  when  our  object  is  to 
perfect  that  which  we  already  possess.  Not  only  does  improvement  proceed  faster  by  means  of 
such  rams,  but,  moreover,  the  breed  cannot  be  preserved  from  degenerating  without  the  use  of  rams 
of  unmixed  race.  Hitherto  it  has  not  been  positively  ascertained,  whether,  or  how  long,  a  ram  of 
improved  breed,  but  descended  by  his  mother's. side  from  sheep  of  this  country,  will  retain  liis  supe- 
rior (jualilies,  so  far  as  to  obviate  the  fear  of  degeneracy  when  fresh  crossing  is  notresorted  to. 

Some  Englishmou,  particularly  Dr.  Parry,  think  that  by  crossing  their  own  Ryeland  and  South- 
Dowu  breeds,  they  have  obtained  a  race,  not  only  equal  to  the  true  merinoes  in  fineness  of  wool, 
but  superior  to  them  in  shape  of  body,  and  firmness  and  quality  of  flesh  :  they  are  likewise  so  con- 
fident of  the  permanence  of  this  race,  that  they  endeavor  to  perfect  it  within  itself  without  having 
recourse  to  new  merino  rams.  They  say  that,  just  as  their  noblest  breed  of  horses,  though  origin 
ally  obtained  by  crossing  with  Arab  stallions,  is  at  the  present  day  possessed  of  qualities  which 
render  it  much  more  valuable  than  the  Arab  race  itself,  so  it  will  also  be  with  their  sheep.  The  facts 
which  they  adduce  do  indeed  powerfully  support  this  opinion  ;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  Ryeland  breed  was  before  possessed  of  considerable  fineness,  and  that  the  price  of  their  wool 
in  England  was  only  one  third  lower  than  that  of  the  finest  Spanish  wool :  so  that,  in  fact,  this  Rye- 
land  breed  was  for  a  long  time  considered  as  of  common  origin  with  the  merinoes  ;  and  some  per- 
sons were  even  of  opinion  that  the  merinoes  were  descended  from  individuals  belonging  to  it, 
which  had  been  taken  over  to  Spain.  But  even  though  the  English  have  attained  their  object  in 
so  short  a  time,  we  are  not  wan-anted  in  anticipating  the  same  result  with  our  native  breed. 

In  Spain  the  merinoes  are  n*  all  alike;  they  are  divided  into  two  principal  classes,  the  Leon 
and  Suria  breeds.  The  sevei'al  flocks  of  the  former  oftbe.se  also  difl^er  from  one  another  in  quali- 
ties; and  tliough  each  may  possess  certain  advantages  over  the  rest,  it  must  nevertheless  yield  to 
them  iu  otl.  ers.  These  finer  varieties  are  also  observed  among  the  flocks  of  pure  merinoes  in  Ger- 
many, and  owe  their  quality  either  to  their  origin  in  Spain,  or  to  choice  of  individuals,  particular- 
ly oi  tlie  rams.  The  fineness  and  other  qualities  of  the  wool  may  be  equal  in  these  several  varie- 
ties :  but  s<"insible  differences  are  observed  among  them  in  the" quantity  wJiich  they  yield  upon  an  i 
equal  amount  of  food,  and  in  their  size,  strength,  and  fitness  for  particular  kinds  of"pasturage.  Up  i 
to  the  pre&ent  time,  howevei",  nothing  positive  has  been  established  respecting  this  matter:  for 
there  has  b oen  too  much  design  in  the  observations  made  upon  it.  As.  however,  in  the  selection  of 
rams,  every  one  endeavors  to  obtain  the  particular  qualities  which  he  has  in  view,  these  varieties 
will  probably  in  time  become  more  permanent  and  better  characterized. 

The  varieties  will  probably  become  much  more  strongly  marked  in  this  country  than  even  in 
Spain  :  for  with  us  the  classing  of  the  male  and  female  is  much  better  arranged  than  it  can  be  in 
the  latter  country,  where  it  generally  takes  place  promiscuously.  The  English  havp  .shown  how 
much  the  form  and  qualities  of  aoimals,  particularly  of  sheep,  are  influenced  by  the  .selection  of  in- 
dividuals for  breeding.  "  Bakewell,"  says  Lord  Somei-ville,  "  seemed  to  have  the  power  of  mod- 
eling a  sheep  just  as  he  liked,  and  then  giving  it  life."  ' 

It  is  thus  that  .some  of  our  principal  breeders  of  sheep  work  upon  size  of  body,  con.sidering  that 
a  greater  extent  of  surface  will,  under  given  circumstances,  yield  a  larger  quantity  of  wool.  Oth- 
ers prefer  siraller  animals  whose  wool  being  of  closer  texture  equals  in  quantity  that  of  the  larger 
sheep  ;  such  sheep,  even  though  inferior  in  quantity  oi'  wool,  may,  nevertheless  be  satisfied  with 
a  smaller  quantity  of  food,  and  thus  a  larger  number  of  them  may  be  maintained  for  the  same  cost. 

*  Severn  merino  sheep  have  this  winter  been  killed  on  my  estate  at  Genthad,  on  the  borders  of  the  Lake 
of  Geneva,  and  their  tlesh  has  been  pronounced  by  all  who  have  eaten  it,  equal  to  that  of  the  best  sheep  that 
our  butchers  import  from  trance.  The  kind  of  food  seems  to  have  an  essential  intiuence  on  the  quality  of 
the  meat.  I  have  known  Swiss  wethers,  of  breeds  whose  flesh  had  but  very  little  taste  in  their  native  coun- 
try, to  yield  excellent  meat  after  feeding  for  a  year  or  two  on  our  pastures.  On  the  other  hand,  I  am  of  > 
opinion  that  the  p-oportion  of  the  quantity  of  meat  and  fat  to  the  weight  of  the  animal  when  alive,  is  essen-  i 
tially  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  breed :  and  in  this  respect  I  consider  the  merinoes  as  inferior  to  the  German 
breeds  mentioned  b>  our  author,  and  likewise  to  the  Swiss.     1815.  [French  Trans. 

(1207) 


J36  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

Some  cultivators  prefer  short,  others  long,  legs;  and  these  points  are  really  not  so  immaterial  as 
some  persons  think.  Short-legged  sheep  are  more  quiet  while  grazing ;  they  are  preferable  for 
pastm-es  situated  at  a  small  distance  and  close  together.  Long  legs,  on  the  other  hand,  enable  the 
animals  to  walk  more  easily  either  to  the  pasture,  or  thence  to  the  fold  or  sheep  house.  There  is  a 
variety  distinguished  by  a  triple  collar  of  wool  round  the  neck,  and  usually  by  a  large  dewlap  i 
hangiBg  in  front  of  the  chest :  some  persons  set  great  value  on  this  dewlap  ;  others  do  not  like  it, 
because  the  wool  which  grows  on  it  is  of  third-rate  quality  only.  In  some  sheep,  the  wool  .grows  ]' 
down  to  til  e  hoofs  of  the  hind  feet,  and  even  to  those  of  the  fore  feet;  in  other.s,  only  to  the  knees. 
Some  persons  regard  this  as  an  excellent  quality,  inasmuch  as  it  indicates  a  disposition  to  produce 
abundance  of  wool;  others,  on  the  contrary,  do  not  approve  of  it,  because  the  wool  which  grows 
on  these  parts  is  of  bad  quality.  But  all  breeders  are  agreed  that  these  qualities  are  hereditary. 
It  remains  to  be  determined,  bj-  more  accurate  observations,  the  relation  which  they  bear  to 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  wool.  Hitherto  we  liave  not,  in  this  country,  been  able  to  appre- 
ciate the  foi-m  and  constitution  of  the  body  in  the  merino  breed,  or  their  disposition  to  produce 
meat  and  fat,  since  it  has  not  been  much  the  practice  to  castrate  male  lambs,  but  only  ewes  no 
longer  fit  for  breeding,  duahty  and  quantity  of  wool  are  undoubtedly  the  principal  points  i'j  be 
attended  to ;  it  remains  only  to  ascertain  how  far  these  qualities  are  consistent  wiili  the  characters 
just  mentioned.  It  is  easy  to  agree  in  considering  such  and  such  a  shape  as  excellent,  without  as- 
signing to  it  any  particular  utility  ;  but  this  is  an  affair  of  fashion,  and  therefore  ephemeral. 

The  merino  breed  is  distinguished  from  others  by  slower  development,  shedding  its  teeth  later, 
not  so  soon  coming  to  maturity,  and  being  longer  in  attaining  its  full  growth  :  its  progress  may, 
however,  be  accelerated  by  more  nourishing  food.  On  the  other  hand,  sheep  of  this  race  live  to 
a  greater  age,  and  become  stronger  than  others.  Merino  ewes  have  been  known  to  retain  all 
their  teeth  till  their  fifteenth  year,  and  produce  healthy  lambs  at  that  age.  This  is  certainly  a  rare 
occuiTence  ;  but  these  ewes  may  easily  be  kept  till  ten  years  old.  Meiinoes  are  also  distinguished 
by  a  peculiar  laziness  of  disposition  ;  feven  the  lambs  are  less  frisky  than  those  of  other  breeds. — 
'  These  sheep  are  said  also  to  be  more  stupid  than  others,  because  the  ewes  will  sufi'er  their  milk 
to  be  drained  by  strauge  lambs,  whereas  those  of  our  country  will  not  readily  allow  any  but  their 
own  lambs  to  milk  them.  This  is  by  no  means  an  unimportant  matter  ;  for  the  stronger  and  live- 
lier lambs  are  apt  to  rob  the  weaker  ones  of  their  food.  It  is  therefore  very  important  in  this  breed 
'     that  the  lambs  be  all  brought  forth  nearly  at  the  same  time,  and  possessed  of  equal  strength. 

For  the  rest  I  must,  as  already  observed,  refer  to  my  Manual  of  the  Economy  of  Jine-wooled 
Sheep,  lately  published. 

Some  persons  are  of  opinion,  that  ewes  may  be  covered  without  injury  at  the  age  of  two  ^'ears, 
or  even  a  year  and  a  half:  others  maintain  that  it  should  be  deferred  a  year  longer,  especially  for 
merinoe.s  whose  development  is  comparatively  slow.  The  majority  are  of  the  former  opinion  ;  and 
it  is  certain  that  well  fed  ewes  may,  at  the  age  of  two  years,  produce  fine  lambs  without  injury  to 
their  health.  In  Spain,  this  is  the  usual  mode  of  proceeding.  If  any  breeder  in  this  country  should 
wish  to  multiply  a  good  breed  quickly,  or  proceed  rapidly  with  the  improvement  of  his  own,  he 
would  certainly  do  well  to  follow  this  method.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  undeniable  that  ewes 
which  do  not  bear  till  their  third  year,  grow  larger  and  acquire  stronger  constitutions ;  it  is  proba- 
ble, also,  that  they  live  longer.  Whoever,  therefore,  would  obtain  a  large  and  vigorous  race, 
should  keep  his  ewes  from  the  rams  till  they  are  three  years  old. 
Rams  are  usually  not  allowed  to  leap  till  three  years  of  age. 

In  the  managetijent  of  sheep,  it  is  very  desirable  to  have  all  the  lambs  bom  at  the  same  .season, 
'    and  within  an  interval  of  four  weeks,  with  merinoes  this  is  absolutely  necessary.     The  number  of 
'    rams  in  a  flock  must  not,  therefore  be  too  much  restricted  :  the  best  proportion  is  that  of  one  ram 
to  twenty  ewe.s. 

The  tmie  of  putting  the  ram  to  the  ewes  is  determined  by  that  at  which  we  wish  the  lambs  to 
be  brought  forth  :  sheep  generally  bear  for  twenty-one  weeks  and  a  few  days. 

Ewes  generally  get  into  heat  for  the  first  time  in  the  sixth  month  after  lambing.  Certain  late  ob- 
servers, especially  Putet.  recommend  that  this  fir.st  inclination  be  taken  advantage  of ;  fir.st.  be- 
cau.se  impregnation  may  then  be  most  safely  relied  upon;  and  secondly,  because  the  healthiest 
lambs  are  obtained  from  the  connection  which  takes  place  on  this  first  indication  of  rutting.  Oth- 
ers maintain  the  opposite  opinion,  considering  it  better  to  defer  it  till  the  second  time  that  the  ewe 
comes  info  heat;  that  is  to  say,  till  three  weeks  later,  in  order  to  give  her  time  to  recover  her 
strength  after  suckling. 

The  former  method  would  accelerate  the  lambing  season  by  a  month  in  every  year ;  moreover 
the  rams  would  be  too  much  excited  in  the  hot  season. 

It  is  doubtless  advantageous  to  have  all  the  lambs  bom  early,  especially  when  we  have  in  view^ 
the  rapid  multiplication  of  a  a  breed,  and  intend  the  young  ewes  to  be  covered  at  the  end  of  their 
second  summer.  But  for  this  purpose,  an  abundant  supply  of  good  fodder  must  be  laid  up  for  the 
winter,  in  order  to  keep  the  ewes  rich  in  milk  till  they  can  obtain  pasturage,  and  to  supply  the 
lambs  with  the  food  best  adapted  for  them.  The  fear  of  not  having  sufficient  fodder  is,  perhaps, 
the  principal  reason  why  some  cultivators  like  their  ewes  to  lamb  in  March ;  for  experience  has 
I  quite  removed  the  fear  that  lambs  will  be  hurt  by  the  cold  of  winter.  Many  experienced  breed- 
ers have  advanced  the  lambing-season  to  the  month  of  December. 

The  rams  are  kept  apart  from  the  ewes,  and  among  the  lambs,  till  the  season  amves.  When 
the  time  is  at  hand,  the  rams  are  more  sub.stantially  fed,  before  they  are  let  in  among  the  fiock  of 
ewes.  Unless  it  be  desired  to  make  a  selection  in  the  individuals,  I  do  not  tliink  it  necessary  to  . 
remove  the  rams  during  the  day.  and  admit  them  only  at  night.  If,  however,  we  wish  certain  ', 
ewes  to  be  covered  by  particular  rams,  we  must  adopt  the  method  de.scribed  at  p.  47  and  the  fol-  , 
lowing,  of  my  Manual  of  the  Economy  of  Improved  Breeds  of  Sheep,  (Handbnchfur  Ven-  ^ 
delle  SchaafzuchtJ.  When  the  time,  vvhich  lasts  about  four  weeks,  is.over,  it  is  best  to  remove  > 
the  rams.  i 

At  the  beginning  of  her  pregnancy,  the  ewe  is  satisfied  with  somewhat  scanty  fodder  and  pas-     ' 
(1208)  "  '\ 


537 

tnrage  :  but  as  she  advances  in  that  state,  she  must  be  better  fed.  The  more  nearly  ewes  approach 
their  lambinijtime,  the  more  gently  must  tbey  be  treated :  they  must  on  no  account  be  hunted  by 
dogs  ;  and  care  must  be  observe'  In  taking  them  into  and  out  of  the  fold,  that  they  are  not  squeezed 
in  passing  through  the  doorvs'ay. 

Ewes  require  the  greatest  attention  at  the  time  of  delivery.  The  signs  which  announce  this 
event  are,  swelling  of  the  generative  organs,  swelling  of  the  udder,  and  formation  of  milk.  They 
generally  lamb  without  difficulty  ;  but  sometimes  the  labor  is  rather  protracted.  We  must  not, 
however,  seek  to  anticipate  Nature  by  giving  premature  assistance  :  this  can  only  be  required 
when  the  lamb,  or  some  one  of  its  members,  is  badly  placed  in  the  womb,  an  accident  which  rare- 
'  ly  happens  when  the  ewes  have  been  properly  tended.  B  ut  if  assistance  must  be  given,  ihe  per- 
i'  son  who  renders  it  should  be  well  acquainted  both  with  the  actual  and  the  required  position  of  the 
lamb,  as  well  as  with  the  manner  in  which  he  ought  to  proceed  to  rectify  it ;  all  assistance  given 
without  this  knowledge  is  likely  to  do  more  harm  than  good. 

The  chief  source  of  trouble,  in  many  instances,  is  to  induce  the  ewe  to  take  to  her  lamb  after 

,    delivery.     This  difficulty,  however,  only  arises  when  the  ewes  have  been  badly  fed  ;  if  they  have 

been  abundantly  supplied  with  food,  the  superahundaiice  of  their  milk  induces  them  to  push  the 

lamb  to  then-  teats.     In  the  contrary  case,  the  ewe  and  lamb  must  be  lodged  in  separate  pens,  and 

I     the  lamb  allowed  to  suck,  from  time  to  time,  while  the  mother  is  held  by  her  feet. 

The  success  of  the  lambs  cannot  be  better  ensured  than  by  supplying  the  ewe,  while  suckling,    i 
with  good  and  abundant  food.     It  is  said,  however,  that  untoward  results  have  sometimes  arisen 
from  over-feeding;  this,  however,  has,  in  all  probability,  happened  when  the  animals  have  previ- 
ousli  been  badly  fed. 

After  three  or  four  weeks  the  lambs  may  receive  .some  additional  nourishment,  such  as  a  mash 
of  meal,  or  oil-cake,  and  a  little  soft  hay  ;  the  place  where  they  feed  is  to  be  parted  off  with  h'lr- 
dles,  -w\d°.  enough  to  allow  the  ingiess  of  the  lambs,  but  not  of  their  mothers;  or  the  lambs  may 
be  fed  when  the  ewes  are  away.  The  lambs  should  suck  for  eighteen  or  twenty  week.s.  Those 
whinh  are  weaned  earlier,  for  the  sake  of  their  mothers'  milk,  remain  poor  and  sickly  for  the  rest 
of  their  lives.  Lambs  should  be  weaned  by  degrees;  for  this  purpo.se  they  are  supplied  daily 
with  a  larger  and  larger  quantity  of  good  fodder,  or  rich  pasturage,  and  kept  more  and  more  from 
their  dams.  As  soon  as  a  lamb  is  completely  weaned,  it. must  be  kept  as  far  as  possible  from  its 
mother,  that  they  may  not  disturb  one  another  by  their  bleating.  A  month  will  probably  elapse 
before  they  forget  one  another  completely,  and  the  lambs  lose  the  recollection  of  the  teat ;  lambs 
have  even  been  known  to  begin  sucking  again  after  a  month's  separation. 

Male  lambs  are  usually  castrated  at  the  end  of  three  or  four  weeks  ;  the  younger  they  are,  the 
more  easily  is  the  operation  performed.  When  the  females  are  six  weeks  old,  their  tails  are  cut 
at  four  or  five  inches  from  the  root,  to  prevent  them  from  soiling  themselves. 

The  age  of  the  sheep  is  known  by  their  teeth ;  the  same  organs  are  likewise  used  to  designate 
them. 

Besides  the  molar-teeth,  sheep  have  eight  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw,  but  none  in  the  upper ; 
this  number  they  usually  bring  with  them  into  the  world  :  these  first  teeth  are  more  rounded  and 
pointed  than  those  by  which  they  are  afterward  replaced. 

At  the  age  o""  a  year,  or  a  year  and  a  half  the  two  middle  teeth  are  shed  and  replaced  by  two 
new  ones  of  larger  size.  The  animal  is  then  called  a  two-toothed  sheep,  or  yearling.  The  latter 
name  is  also  given  to  it  when  a  year  old. 

After  the  age  of  two  or  two  and  a  half  years,  the  two  teeth  next  to  those  just  mentioned  are 
dropped,  and  larger  ones  come  in  their  place.     The  animal  is  then  called  a  four-toothed  sheep. 

At  three  or  three  and  a  half  years,  the  third  pair  of  teeth  drop  out,  and  are  also  replaced  by 
larger  ones,  so  that  there  remain  but  two  of  the  original  teeth,  one  on  each  side.  The  sheep  is 
then  said  to  be  six-toothed. 

In  the  following  year  the  two  last  teeth  are  also  shed,  and  the  animal  is  then  said  to  have  a  per- 
fect mouth.     The  formation  is  then  complete. 

In  the  sixth  year  the  teeth  begin  to  wear  away,  the  two  in  the  middle  bocoming  blunter  and 
shorter.  The  teeth  appear,  however,  to  be  longer,  because  the  gums  retract ;  but,  when  examined 
closely,  they  are  easily  seen  to  be  worn  at  the  top.  As  soon  as  the  teeth  are  completely  worn 
away,  and  begin  to  decay  and  fall  out  in  pieces,  the  useful  age  of  the  animal  is  past,  and  it  must 
be  got  rid  of  If  we  would  preserve  it  longer  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  more  lambs  from  it,  we 
must  feed  it  upon  particularly  tender  fodder :  by  this  treatment  .sheep  may  be  sometimes  brought 
to  a  very  advanced  age.  The  teeth  then  no  longer  continue  close  together,  but  have  vacant  spaces 
between  them:  the  upper  lip  increases  in  size,  and  falls  over  the  lowei*. 

This  mode  of  designating  sheep  by  their  teeth  must  be  well  borne  in  mind  when  we  are  talking 
to  a  shepherd  :  we  must  not,  for  example,  confound  a  sheep  of  four  teeth  with  one  of  four  years. 

A  sheep  less  than  a  year  old  is  called  a  lamb.  A  male  of  this  age,  which  has  not  been  castrated, 
is  called  a  ram  lamb ;  one  which  has  undere:one  that  operation  a  gelded  lamb. 

After  the  first  or  .second  year  they  are  called  yearling  rams  and  yearling  wethers. 

Those  which  are  .set  aside,  not  to  be  used  for  breeding,  are  called  refuse  sheep.  ', 

_  The  feeding  of  sheep  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  afford  them,  as  far  as  possible,  equally  subslan-     , 
tial  nourishment  throughout  the  year. 

The  ewes  must,  however,  be  somewhat  better  fed  during  the  last  stage  of  their  pregnancy,  and     ' 
likewisic  while  they  are  suckling  lambs  which  are  not  fed  in  any  other  way.     Nothing  is  more  in- 
jurious to  pregnant  or  suckling  ewes  than  to  be  overfed  at  one  time  and  half-starved  at  another. —   , 
In  the  latter  case,  all  food  of  a  highly  nutritive  character  brings  on  disease.     The  observation  of 
this  fact  has  led  to  the  recommendation  of  avoiding  particular  kinds  of  fodder  and  pasture-plants    ' 
of  very  substantial  quality;  in  reality,  however,  these  plants  are  not  injurious,  exceptinsr  when    I 
the  sheep  are  led  by  hunger  to  eat  them  with  too  great  avidity.     Good  naurishment  bestowed  up- 
on suckling  ewes  is  almo.st  always  repaid  by  the  produce  of  l;he  flock;  more,  however,  in  the  case 
of  fine  than  of  coarse-wooled  sheep. 
(1209) 


538        .        thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

The  proportion  between  the  winter  ami  summer  feeding  of  sheep  varies  according  to  warmth  i 
of  the  pastures  and  the  temperature  of  the  year.  In  our  climate  it  is  usual  to  allow  seven-twelfths  ' 
for  Slimmer,  and  tive-twelfths  for  winter:  matters  are,  therefore,  so  disposed  as  to  provide  a  sulfi 
ciency  of  fodder  for  150  days.  If  the  least  use  can  be  made  of  winter  pasturage,  especially  on  the 
autumn  so\\ings,  this  quantity  will  usually  be  found  sufficient.  But  as  the  spring  temperature  is 
veiy  uncertain  in  this  country,  and  we  might  find  ourselves  troubled  to  provide  nourislunent  for 
the  ewes  and  lambs,  it  is  proper  to  reckon  upon  at  least  160  days.  Any  surplus  that  may  remain 
will  not  be  lost:  if  the  prolongation  of  pasturage  in  autumn,  or  its  anticipation  in  spring,  allow  of 
any  saving  of  fodder,  the  quantity  thus  saved  will  form  a  commencement  of  provision  for  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

Pastures  for  sheep  may  be  divided  into  natural  and  cultivated,  or  artificial  pastures.  ' 

By  natural  pastures  we  mean  tho.se  which  have  been  fonned  by  natural  causes,  and  not  inten- 
tionally disposed  for  the  feeding  of  sheep  :  by  artilicial  pastures,  on  the  contrary,  those  which 
have  been  purjiosel^-  formed  and  arranged  for  sheep  to  graze  on. 

The  former  class  includes — 

(rr).  Natural  open  pastures  usually  found  in  dry,  elevated  and  mountainous  situations. 
[b).  Pasturagi;  in  the  woods.  |' 

{(■).  Pasturage  on  fallow  and  stubble  land.s.  | 

(rf|.  Pa.-tnragc  on  meadows,  in  spring  before  the  first  crop  springs  up,  and  also  in  autumn. 
((').  Pasturage  on  the  .sowings. 

((7).  Natural  open  jiastnres  are  graduallj'  diminishing  in  extent,  in  consequence  of  the  progress 
of  cultivation  ;  only  the  driest  and  poorest  parts  are  devoted   to  slieep,  the  richer  portions  being 
reserved  lor  horned-cattle,  which  cannot  find  nourishment  on  the  former.     Sheep  are  never  pas-    ( 
tured   on  the  richer  spots,  excepting  at  the  end  of  winter  and  in  autumn,     ^^'"hen  the  sheep  can 
be  removed  early  enough  in  the  spring  to  allow  a  month  to  elapse  before  the  horned-cattle  are  ad- 
(    mitted,  the  pasture  is  not  injured,  but  rather  improved,  because  the  sheep  lower  the  gras-ses  which 
shoot  up  before  the  rest.     Their  dung  fully  makes  up  for  what  they  take  from  the  .soil,  and  the    ; 
smell  of  it,  which  is  so  disgusting  to  horned-cattle,  is  dis.sipated  before  thegrass  springs  up.    Even    \ 
a  low,  damp  pasture  does  not  injure  sheep  in  their  first  year,  provided  it  be  free  from  stagnant     ' 
water,  and  they  are  not  left  upon  it  for  too  long  a  time. 

Dry  and  upland  pastures,  particularly  on  mountain.s,  which,  on  account  of  their  steepness  and 
the  thinness  of  the  layer  of  earth  upon  the  rocks,  are  not  fit  either  for  plowing  or  the  feeding  of  i 
horned-cattle,  are  commonly  devoted  exclusively  to  sheep.  They  are,  moreover,  particularly 
beneficial  to  these  animals,  whose  nourishment  upon  them  often  affords  the  most  profitable  means  i 
of  turning  the  land  to  account.  On  these  elevated  grounds,  however,  we  sometimes  meet  with 
marshy  spots,  beds  of  springs,  ponds,  or  waters  running  on  the  flats  between  hills  and  mountains  ; 
such  spots  are  very  dangerous  to  sheep.  Places  on  which  marsh-plants  grow  should  be  carefully 
avoided,  even  when  deprived  of  their  moisture  by  the  greatest  heat  of  .summer.  Particular  dan- 
ger is  to  be  apprehended  from  localities  where  a  layer  of  dried  mud  conceals  a  marshy  siibstra- 
tam  from  which  thero  arise  mephitic  gases  affecting  animals  of  all  kinds  with  various  disea.ses, 
men  with  fever,  and  sheep  almo.st  instantaneously  either  with  a  disposition  to  the  watery  cache.Kia, 
or  rot,  very  diificult  to  cure,  or  with  other  maladies  more  quickly  fatal.  It  is  not  in  the  rainy  sea- 
son that  tiiis  danger  is  most  to  be  feared,  for  sheep  then  find  sufficient  nourishment  on  dry  soil.s, 
and  avoid  places  of  this  description.  But  when  the  herbage  on  dry  soils  is  withered,  the  animals 
are  driven  by  hunger  to  damp  spots;  and  shepherds,  apprehensive  le.st  their  sheep  should  suffer 
t09  much  from  hunger,  are  too  much  inclined  to  allow  them  to  gothere.  Merinoes  are  decidedly 
more  subject  to  tliis  disea.se  than  our  ordinary  German  sheep  ;  it  is,  therefore,  an  indispensable 
condition  in  the  maintenance  of  a  flock  of  high-bred  sheep  to  have  all  the  damp  places  on  these 
pastures  drained  by  digging  trenches  and  drainage  furrows,  or  at  least  to  keep  the  waters  within 
their  proper  bounds,  and  not  allow  them  to  cover  the  neighboring  lands  with  mud. 

(/;).  Pfj^hiirrsre  in  the  wood>;  varies  greatly  in  quality  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the 
kind  and  tliickness  of  the  trees  composing  the  wood.  A  thin  wood  is  almost  equal  to  an  open 
pasture  ;  but  the  more  thickly  it  is  planted,  the  worse  does  the  pasturage  become.  When  the 
soil  is  fertile,  and  the  grass  not  choked,  but  only  shaded  bythe  trees,  the  pasturage  is  sometimes 
abundant ;  but  its  nutritive  power  is  but  weak,  and  thence  it  does  little  good  to  the  sheep.  More- 
over, there  are  often  marshy  spots  in  woods.  With  the  exception  of  primroses  nothing  but  huTd, 
dry  herbage  will  gi-ow  under  pine  trecK  :  sheep  find,  therefore,  but  scanty  food  where  these  trees 
gi-ow.  Such  pasturage  is,  however,  considered  wholesome  and  capable  of  correcting  the  bad  ef 
feet  of  damp  places.  "Pasturage  in  thick  voods  i.s,  however,  very  injurious  to  the  wool,  and,  there- 
fore, the  owners  of  fine-wooled  sheep  do  not  allow  their  flocks  to  go  into  them. 

(c).  In  ordinary  rural  estabhshments  the  principal  food  of  sheep  is  derived  from  pasturage  on    ,' 
the  fallou-- field :  the  profit  of  sheep  is,  therefore,  much  diminished  by  all  arrangements  which  pro-    , 
hibit  fallowing.     Hence  almost  all  .shepherds  and  amateurs  of  sheep  are  opposed  to  a  system  of  ' 
cropping,  from  which  fallowing  is  excluded,  and  particularly  to  the  introduction  of  this  system  on 
the  land  of  the  peasant.     It  is  for  this  reason  that  in  almost  all  countries  where  the  management  of 
sheep  forms  a  leading  branch  of  rural  economy,  there  exists  an  established  usage,  and  even  an 
obligation,  of  not  plowing  up  the  stubbles  till  the  latest  moment— an  arrangement  by  which  the 
real  object  of  fallowing  is  completely  frustrated. 

Pastiirage  on  the  fallow-field  is  distinguished  into  that  which  takes  place  before  the  stubble  is 
plowed  up,  and  that  obtained  between  the  first  and  second  plowing  on  the  weeds  and  grasses 
which  then  spring  up.  The  former  is  undoub'edly  the  more  abundant  of  the  two  :  the  latter  is 
agreeable  to  sheep,  but  lasts  for  a  short  time  only ";  the  thin  shoots  are  soon  devoured  by  the  ani- 
mals. Some  persons  think  that  this  description  of  pasturage  is  likely  to  be  injurious,  especially  in 
wet  weather ;  hut  I  do  not  think  that  anv  such  danger  need  be  apprehended,  provided  only  that 
we  do  not  turn  half-starved  sheep  on  a  fallow-field  richly  covered  with  grass,  for  then,  especially 
in  wet  weather,  they  would  probably  eat  to  excess. 
(1210) 


Sheep  generally  find  plent}'  of  food  as  long  as  the  stubble  is  not  plowed  up  ;  but  after  this  op- 
eration, the  season  of  scarcity  for  these  animals  comes  on.  At  this  time  most  of  the  pastures  ri-a 
dry,  because  the  greater  number  of  grasses  stop  growing  toward  the  middle  of  summer.  TLe 
sheep  must  then  depend  on  pasturage  in  the  woods,  the  best  places  in  which  are  therefore  re- 
served tor  this  part  of  the  season.  The  ewes,  however,  gain  but  little  strength  on  these  pastures; 
it  is,  therefore,  desirable  to  remove  their  lambs,  reserving  good  pasturage  in  some  spot  or  other  for 
the  latter. 

After  harvest  comes  pasturage  on  the  stubbles,  which  is  more  or  less  nutritious  according  to  the 
quantity  of  grass  upon  the  field,  and  the  number  of  ears  which  have  fallen  on  the  ground  during 
harvest. 

[d).  Pasturage  on  meadows,  sweet  and  well  drained,  is  the  most  beneficial  nourishment  that 
can  be  given  in  spring  to  suckling  ewes.  The  meadows  used  for  this  purpose  are  chiefly  tho.se 
which  are  irrigated  with  spring-water,  because  they  soon  become  green,  and  the  grass  begins  to 
grow  by  the  end  of  March  :  the  sheep  are  turned  upon  them  as  soon  as  they  are  sufficiently  dry. 
Pasturage  on  such  meadows,  continued  till  the  middle  of  April  in  a  warm  sea.son,  and  the  begin- 
ning of  May  in  a  cold  one,  is  beneficial  both  to  the  sheep  and  the  meadows,  though  some  persons 
think  that  both  are  injured  by  it.*  But  marshy,  sour  meadows  may  undoubtedly  be  hurtful  to 
sheep  even  in  spring.  In  autumn,  it  is  rarely  beneficial,,  and  often  dangerous,  to  turn  sheep  on 
the  meadows  :  but  such  pasturage  is  then  very  useful  for  horned-cattle. 

(e).  Pasturage  on  the  autumn  sowings  is  never  injurious  to  sheep,  provided  that  it  takes  place 
in  dry  weather:  in  winter  during  a  dry  frost,  and  in  spring  on  very  rich  sowings  and  a  fertile  soil. 
But  on  a  well-managed  sheep  farm,  such  pasturage  should  hardly  be  reckoned  upon>  becau.se  i: 
may  fail.  Moreover,  it  should  always  be  but  moderately  used,  in  order  that  the  sheep  may  not  be 
too  much  accustomed  to  it,  for  they  will  then  refuse  dry  fodder,  and  suifer  from  hunger  when  they 
cannot  get  pasturage  of  this  description.  In  many  sheep  establishments  which  are  but  ill  supplied 
with  fiidder,  this  circumstance  is  not  regarded  as  inconvenient;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  thought  ad- 
vantageous to  let  the  animals  eat  their  fill  for  a  few  days,  and  save  fodder  afterward.  But  this  pe- 
riodical scarcity  is  very  injurious  to  the  wool,  especially  that  of  merinoes.  and  still  more  to  the 
lambs.  Sadden  change  of  diet  may  also  injure  the  health  of  the  sheep.  They  should,  therefore, 
be  well  fed  in  the  morning  (but  not  upon  straw  alone,  as  some  persons  feed  them),  and  allowed  to 
eat  but  moderately  of  the  pa.sture  as  a  reli.sh.  This  pasturage  must  be  no  less  sparingly  used  in 
spring,  when  very  thick  sowing  can  be  afforded,  such  as  will  not  be  injured  by  this  mode  of  crop- 
ping, and  appear  adequate  to  form  the  chief  support  of  the  sheep  till  the  other  pastures  are  availa- 
ble. In  this  re.spect  it  is  particularly  necessary  to  exercise  careful  .superintendence  over  the  shep- 
herd, and  give  him  precise  instraclions ;  for  these  people  are  much  inclined  to  use  such  pasturage 
to  exces.s. 

In  rural  establishments,  in  which  various  descriptions  of  pasture  must  be  used  in  succession,  ac- 
cording to  time  and  circumstances,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  be  well  acquainted  with  them,     ' 
and  to  lay  down  a  plan  of  the  manner  in  which  they  rtrc  to  be  uised  for  the  sheep,  according  to 
seasons  and  the  weather,  unless,  indeed,  we  are  content  to  be  ab.?olutely  guided  by  the  shepherd. 
Under  such  circumstances,  shepherd.s  iriakc-  great  bo^st  of  their  local  knowledge,  knowing  that 
ojVier.s,  not  possessing  this  knowledge,  may  ea»ily  .li  a  frbT.ttii^'d  of  harm  ;  and  if,  by  chance,  they 
Jicd  out  that  the  ma,ster  appreciates  their  merits,  ;;ijn  .Wery  thing  must  be  conducted  according 
to  their  fancies.      Whenever,  therefore,  a  proprietor  wishes  to  make  any  change  in  the  manage- 
,    niout  of  his  sheep,  or  any  other  part  of  his  rural  economy,  liirA  at  the  sanie  time  render  himself  in- 
dt  pendent  of  the  shepherd,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  him  to  examine  carefully  all  his  herbage 
and  pastures,  especially  those  of  which  he  has  the  use  on  his  neighbors'  grounds  by  virtue  of  some 
rit;l;t  or  privilege,  and,  moreover,  to  make  this  examination  at  all  seasons  and  in  all  weathers,  in 
order  to  know  the  state  of  moifsture  of  the  land,  and  the  unhealthy  spots  to  be  found  on  it.     At  the    ? 
sa:;ie  tiiiie.  he  may  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  strength  of  vegetation  of  these  pastures,  the    } 
I     ki/jds  of  icrass  that  grow  on  them,  and  lastly,  with  their  situation  and  distance  from  the  homestead,    ( 
sheep-fold  and  watering-place.     All  this  should  be  noted  on  the  spot,  and  inscribed  in  the  estate-    ( 
bo(;k,  with  ?.  reference  to  the  plan.  *  ( 

The  rights  and  privileges  which  the  proprietor  enjoys  on  other  persons'  lauds,  together  with   j 
their  extent  and  duration,  must  also  be  particularly  noted.  > 

A  plan  may  then  be  drawn  up  for  regulating  the  use  of  the  pastures  in  such  a  manner  as    ) 
to  give  the  greatest  security  for  the  maintenance  of  the  sheep,  and  to  admit  of  alteration  ao-    '^ 
cording-  to  circumstances,  in  case  of  its  complete  adoption  being  hindered  by  very  bad  weather,    / 
but  alway.")  so  as  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  submitting  entirely  to  the  will  of  the  shepherd.         \ 
The  best  pasturage  must  be  reserved  for  the  lambs,  the  second-best  for  the  suckling  ewes,   ( 
\    and  the  worst  given  to  the  barren  sheep.  i 

,       Under  such  circv  nistances,  pastures  of  varied  nature  and  considerable  ext  nt,  present  unde-    ^ 
,    niable  advantages,  for  they  allow  the  animals  to  go  from  low  situations,  where  the  grass  is  rich. 
to  dry,  poor  hights,  and  even  into  pine  woods,  to  correct  the  bad  effect  of  the  rich  herbage. 
I    Shepherds  Who  insist  on  the  necessity  of  great  extent  of  pasturage  are  right,  even  though  the 
pasi.ures  should  be  faulty  in  some  respects. 

Artificial  or  cultivated  pastures  are  formed  in  the  places  assigned  to  them  in  the  system  of  al- 
I    ternate  calmre.     It  is  only  on  these  pastures  that  sheep  can  be  grown  with  certain  and  complete 
I    succors.     When  those  kinds  of  grass  and  clover  best  adapted  for  pasturage  are  sown  on  these 
\    fields,  ail  leos  uaeful  plants  plowed  up,  and  the  soil  properly  drained,  sheep  find  on  them,  at  all    ' 
'    seaDons  and  in  all  weathers,  a  wholesome  nutriment,  which  they  cat  quietly,  without  going  lar    [ 

'  In  our  climate  I  have  continually  seen  the  first  crop  of  sweet  meadows  greatly  diminished  when  sheep 
hav.,^  g/uzed  upon  them  from  the  time  of  the  latest  frosts,  that  is  to  say,  the  beginning  of  April.  Many  es- 
amplo.^  likewise  make  me  apprehensive  lest,  in  this  country,  pasturage  on  watered  meadows  of  this  descrip- 
tion, i^'ciig  continued,  even  in  dry  weather,  and  after  the  meadows  have  been  well  drained,  may  yet  in- 
volve some  danger  of  the  rot.  {French  frajia.  ', 
._(1211) ^^.^.^^^ 


to  seek.  it.     The  fertility  of  these  pastures  and  their  culture  have  been  previously  considered. 

According  to  the  extent  of  pasture  requii-ed  for  a  cow,  the  number  of  sheep  which  can  be 
fed  on  a  given  extent  of  land  may  be  determined,  ten  sht;ep  being  reckoned  for  one  govt.  This 
proportion  may  be  safely  relied  upon  if  the  sheep  have  also  the  use  of  pasturage  on  the  stub- 
ble and  fallow  fields.  As,  however,  the  produce  of  the  pastures  is  not  the  same  every  year, 
great  certainty  will  be  attained  by  reckoning  upon  a  larger  extent  of  ground,  and  reserving  for 
cases  of  necessity  a  certain  portion,  which  may  be  mown  if  not  required  for  grazing.  I  have 
known  an  acre  of  paxtnrage  to  suffice  s.epeti  sheep  dwring  the  whole  summer. 

Sheep  may  be  stall-fed  in  eummcr  :  this  has  been  proved  by  unexceptionable  trials.  Such  a 
mode  of  feeding  is,  however,  attended  with  difficulties  which  most  people  would  consider  insu- 
perable ;  difficulties,  indeed,  ix)  which  one  would  scarcely  be  warranted  in  exposing  one's  self 
without  having,  from  year  to  year,  a  supply  of  hay  and  straw  enough  for  six  months  at  the 
least. 

There  is  another  mode  of  making  the  sheep  consume  a  crop  of  clover,  tares,  &c.  on  the  ground  : 
it  consists  in  placing  hurdles  before  them  just  high  enough  to  allow  them  to  crop  the  herbage  to  a 
certain  distance  by  stretching  tlieir  heads  over.  The  hurdles  are  moved  forward  as  the  sheep  go 
on  grazing. 

The  winter  food  of  sheep  consists  of  hay  and  straw.  The  straw  contains  very  little  nutriment, 
and  is.  moreover,  less  substantial  in  proportion  to  its  greater  freedom  from  weeds,  its  ripeness,  and 
the  care  with  which  it  has  been  threslied.  The  value  of  ihis  pure  straw  is  greatly  exaggerated 
when  it  is  said  to  be  equal  to  half  that  of  hay  ;  this  can  never  be  the  case  excepting  when  the 
straw  contains  a  large  quantity  of  grain.  It,  however,  fills  the  stomach  and  dulls  the  sensation  of 
hunger  when  nothing  of  a  more  nutritious  character  can  be  given  ;  indeed,  there  are  manj-  slieep- 
folds  in  which,  from  autumn  to  the  sianewhat  advanced  period  of  lambing,  the  animals  are  obliged 
to  content  themselves  with  pure  straw,  and  such  winter  pasturage  as  chance  may  afford  then 
but  they  come  out  from  the  winter  season  in  a  miserable  state,  yield  but  a  very  small  quantity  of 
wool,  and  that  of  coai'se  quality — fine-wooled  sheep  could  nqt  stand  such  diet.  The  straw  of  le- 
gvminons  vegetables  and  biickwheat  is  more  nourishing,  especially  when  the  crops  have  been 
taken  while  part  of  their  leaves  nmained  green.  This  straw  may,  therefore,  be  used  as  a  help 
in  establishments  which  are  short  of  fodder:  in  such  concerns  it  is  frequently  given  to  sheep  as  a 
relish,  and  reserved  for  the  lambing  season  :  whereas,  in  rich  establishments,  it  is  used  only  at  the 
beginning  of  winter  in  place  of  hay. 

Sheep  are,  however,  mostly  fed  upon  hay  in  winter;  and,  when  a  choice  can  be  had,  this  hay 
is  of  the  most  nutritious  quality,  kept  as  green  as  possible,  harveste<l  in  dry  weather,  and  well 
preserved  from  mouldiness  and  all  unpleasant  smells.  The  hay  of  cultivated  fodder-plants  is  also 
better  for  sheep  than  that  of  most  natural  meadows. 

Th-^re  is  a  great  diversity  in  the  quantity  of  hay  given  to  sheep.  In  bad  sheep-folds,  30  or  40 
quintals  are  considered  sufTKieni  for  tlie  winter  food  of  100  sheep.  But,  in  establishments  whore 
sheep  of  superior  breed  are  kept,  75  quintals  is  regarded  as  the  minimum  of  winter  provision  for 
this  number  of  animals— making,  for  the  15C  days  during  which  the  sheep  are  almost  wholly  stall- 
fed,  55  lbs.  per  day  for  100  sheep,  or  rather  more  than  \  lb.  for  each.* 

But  experience  .shows  that  wh^Li  Iho  vcol  has  acquired  a  great  degree  of  fineness,  and  risti-a 
in  price,  it  is  profitable  to  give  tiio  Jit-fp  a  more  abundant  supply  of  food,  even  if  hay  should  r>e 
worth  12  groschen  per  quintai.  A  re ii??'!! able  comparative  essay  on  this  subject  is  described  m 
the  second  volume  of  the  "  Neue  Anniien  der  Landwirthschaft,"  s.  123,  in  which  fifty-one  s.Heop, 
fed  on  a  quantity  of  hay  greater  by  17f  quintals  than  that  given  to  fifty-one  other  sheep,  yieldtfd 
75  lbs.  of  fine  wool  more"  than  the  kiter  ;t  but  this  hay,  at  the  rate  of  12  gro.schen  per  quinjal, 
would  amount  to  only  8  rix-dollars.  21  groschen.  It  is  worth  while  to  try.  by  exact  experiments, 
up  to  what  point  it  may  be  found  profitable  to  increa.se  the  food  of  sheep,  and  whether  there  is  a 
maximum  beyond  which  this  amelioration  of  food  ceases  to  be  profitable.  If  the  latter  supposition 
be  correct,  any  suridus  food  will,  of  course,  be  more  advantageously  divided  among  a  larger  num- 
ber of  animals.  Some  great  amateurs  of  sheep  regulate  the  quantity  of  food  to  be  givf-n  to  iht-m 
only  by  their  appetites — which,  however,  in  animals  that  are  always  properly  .satisfied  with  food, 
is  not  so  great  as  in  those  which  are  poorly  fed.  Oth-rs  think  that  greater  advantage  is  gained 
by  keeping  a  larger  number  of  .sheep  ;  this,  however,  may  easily  degenerate  in^^  a  systf^ni  of 
starvation."  In  determining  this  matter,  regard  should  be  had  not  on!}'  to  the  quantity  of  wool,  but 
also  to  the  size  and  quick  growth  of  the  lambs,  and  the  increase  of  flesh  and  fat  ia  those  whi.?h  are 
not  intended  for  breeding. 

Two  quintals  of  hay  per  head  is  usually  regarded  as  the  most  advantageous  quanrily  for  fioe- 
■wooled  sheep  of  ordinary  size,  which  are  not  supplied  with  any  other  food;  some  farmers,  how- 
ever, consider  this  quantity  too  large,  and  think  that  it  may  be  more  profitably  civided  among  a 
larger  number  of  animals':  they  even  look  upon  1|  quintals  per  head  as  vergbg  on  extravagance. 
But  it  should  be  remembered  that,  by  giving  more  hay,  we  save  straw;  and  iherelbre,  when  the 
latter  is  scarce,  it  may  be  economical  to  increi^se  the  quantity  of  the  former. 

It  is  also  agreed  that  a  sheep  requires  3  lbs.  of  dry  fodder  per  day :  if  its  food  be  reduced  be- 
low this  quantity,  it  suffers  from  hunger,  which  is  always  injurious.  But  a  ewe  will  eat  3^  lbs.  of 
dried  hay,  with  good  appetite.  The  larger  the  proportion  of  nutritions  hay  to  stray/  in  this  allow- 
ance, the  more  will  the  animals  thrive. 

In  valuations,  the  feeding  of  sheep  is  sometimes  put  down  at  a  price  much  lower  than  chat 
which  it  really  costs :  but  this  is  not  easily  discovered  till  more  exact  inforaaaiioa  has  b-seu  ob- 
tained ;  ifor,  at" all  events,  when  the  shepherd  receives  part  of  the  produce  of  the  sheep-fold,  only 
the  amount  of  the  valuation  is  put  down  :  whatever  is  to  be  added  to  it  is  reckoned  apart,  pjid  the 


A  Berlin  quintal  contains  110  lbs.  \^French  Trans. 

"  have  here  omitted  the  calculation  of  the  produce  of  wool,  in  which  I  think  there  is  a  misprin  :r,  the 
oriinnal.     It  was  estimated  at  70  rix-dollars,  10  groschen.  [French  Trans. 


shepherd  pays  his  portion  of  it:  no  shepherd  who  understands  his  business  will  object  to  this  ap- 
parent sacrifice. 

Where  a  sufficiency  of  hay  cannot  be  obtained,  grain-feeding  is  usually  adopted,  to  makeup 
the  full  quantity  of  food.  Oats  are  usually  preferred  ;  but  rye  and  barley,  in  proper  proportions, 
are  no  less  advantageous  to  sheep.  In  places  where  large  quantities  of  peas,  tares,  beans  or  buck- 
wheat are  cultivated,  they  constitute  the  most  usual  kind  of  grain-food  for  these  animals.  Mashes 
of  oil-cake  are  of  great  service,  especially  for  lambs  and  suckling  ewes :  the  refuse  of  the  brandy 
di.stillery  is  also  useful ;  but  it  must  be  given  with  caution,  and  before  it  turns  sour.  Many  farm- 
ers have  found  that,  when  acid,  it  produces  a  bad  effect-  upon  the  milk. 

Corn  is  sometimes  given  to  sheep  in  bundles,  either  unthreshed  or  only  half  threshed ;  but  the 
quantity  cannot  then  be  accurately  measured.  The  grain  is,  however,  more  commonly  given  in 
the  naked  state,  but  mixed  with  chaff  and  slightly  moistened.  Sometimes,  also,  it  is  a  little 
swelled  by  soaking  in  water;  this  method  is  particularly  adopted  with  the  seed  of  pulse.  Other 
persons  prefer  giving  it  in  the  ground  state,  mixed  with  cut  straw,  or  in  a  mash.  Provender  con- 
sisting of  chaff  and  refuse  corn  is  sometimes  given  to  sheep. 

If  the  price  of  grain  be  somewhat  high,  this  mode  of  feeding  will  be  among  the  most  expensive 
that  can  bs  adopted  :  it  is,  therefore,  resorted  to  only  at  lambing  time,  or  in  cases  of  necessity,  or, 
as  .some  persons  recommend,  for  curing  sheep  attacked  with  the  rot. 

Instead  of  depending  on  grain,  it  is  undoubtedly  better  lo  cultivate  root-crops  of  various  hinds, 
and  use  them  to  supply  the  place  of  a  portion  of  tlie  hay  (m  which  sheep  are  to  be  fed  ;  perhaps 
even  half  Numerous  experiments  have  shown  tliat  all  the  ordinary  root  crops  are  particularly 
beneficia'  to  sheep,  and  preferable  to  all  kinds  of  dry  fodder,  especially  during  suckling  time. — 
Sheep  are  never  injured  in  health  by  these  roots,  but  digest  them  easily,  as  is  proved  by  the  readi- 
ness with  wnich  they  eat  them,  especially  potatoes,  when  once  accustomed  to  them.  When 
tliese  vegetables  are  usedin  place  of  hay.  their  quantity  nmst  be  proportioned  to  their  nutritive 
powers,  as  already  explained.  _  It  has  been  abundaiitly  [iroved,  indeed,  that  they  may  be  used 
altogether  instead  of  hay  ;  but,  if  so,  the  sheep  must  be  plentifully  supplied  with  straw  ;  and,  after 
all  they  thrive  better  when  fed  on  roots  and  hay  alternately.  Sheep  fed  daily  on  \\  lb.  of  hay 
and  :if  of  jiotatoes,  or  1  lb.  of  hay  and  2  lbs.  of  potatoes,  together  with  a  good  supplj-  of  straw, 
bav3  beeij  /i^nn'.  to  thrive  particularly  well,  and  give  plenty  of  wool  and  milk. 

Good  >e4  •  re,  or  lentil-straw  may,  however,  be  used  instead  of  hay  when  the  sheep  are  fed  on 
n  ots. 

Acorw,  aca  norsc-chestnuts  afford  nourishing  food  to  sheep  ;  they  are  particularly  recommended 
for  those  whicli  are  attacked  with  the  rot  or  watery  cachexia.  They  are  given  in  the  quantity  of 
about  a  pound  per  day,  either  in  their  natural  .state,  or  after  being  soaked  for  some  days  in  water, 
and  then  dried  in  the  oven  :  this  treatment  causes  the  husk  to  separate,  and  removes  the  rousrh  taste. 

In  .some  countries,  sheep  are  fed  in  a  great  measure  on  the  leaves  of  the  elm,  lime,  poplar,  ma- 
ple, ash  and  alder  trees,  the  relative  utility  of  which  varies  in  the  order  here  mentioned.  The 
branches  are  cut  in  July,  tied  up  in  bundles,  dried,  and  collected  in  heaps;  they  are  then  housed 
in  a  barn,  to  be  given  to  the  sheep  as  a  supplementary  food,  particularly  at  lambing  time.  In 
places  where  this  kind  of  food  is  regularly  used,  the  trees  which  furnish  it  are  arranged  in  three 
divisions,  from  one  of  which  the  leaves  are  gathered  every  year.  When  the  sheep  have  eaten 
the  leaves,  the  wood  is  used  for  burning. 

Salt  is  undoubtedly  useful  to  sheep  at  times,  but  should  be  regarded  rather  as  a  medicine  than 
an  article  of  food.  The  desire  of  licking  salt  is  manifested  by  sheep  precisely  at  the  time  when 
they  require  it.  The  opportunity  of  doing  so  is  afforded  to  them  without  spreading  salt  upon 
their  food,  by  suspending  a  lump  of  rock-salt  in  the  fold,  or  making  cakes  of  dissolved  salt  and 
meal,  baking  them,  and  either  hangmg  them  up  in  the  same  manner  or  putting  them  in  the  man- 
gers. Brine  is  also  made  of  a  solution  of  salt  and  an  infusion  of  aromatic  herbs,  viz.  wormwood, 
buckbean,  gentian,  holy  thistle,  camomile,  marjoram,  rue,  balm-mint,  thyme,  and  feverfew.  This 
liquid  is  placed  in  a  wooden  porringer;  a  pound  of  it  will  suffice  a  sheep  for  a  year. 

These  animals  require  drink  as  much  as  solid  food,  and  should  have  the  opportunity  of  drinking 
often.  It  is  only  when,  according  to  old  fashioned  custom,  they  have  been  allowed  to  suffer  from 
thirst,  that  they  are"-likely  to  injure  themselves  by  drinking  to  excess;  such  injury  would  be  most 
likely  to  result  from  their  drinking  stagnant  or  marshy  water.  When  fed  on  succulent  vegetables 
they  are  less  inclined  to  drink  than  when  they  live  on  dry  fodder.  In  winter,  they  are  much  dis- 
posed to  eat  snow ;  it  agrees  with  them  very  well. 

Dark,  confined,  damp  stalls,  such  as  have  been  too  Ions:  used  for  sheep  for  fear  of  their  suffering 
from  cold,  are  highly  injurious  to  their  health.  Sheep  are  naturally  protected  from  cold,  and  they 
enjoy  fresh  air  and  light  more  than  any  other  domestic  animals.  It  is  only  when  weakened  by 
lona;  confinement  in  a  wann,  damp  atmosphere,  which  throws  them  into  a  state  of  perspiration, 
that  they  are  injured  by  sudden  exposure  to  cold.  All  intelligent  persons  are  now  convinced  that 
light,  airy,  spacious  sheep-folds  are  absolutely  neccs.sary,  and  that  nothing  need  be  apprehended 
from  their  coolness.  Well  fed  sheep  may  safely  be  exposed  to  a  temperature  considerably  below 
the  freezing  point. 

The  experiment  of  keeping  sheep  out  in  the  open  air  at  night,  according  to  the  English  custom, 
has  been  tried  both  in  France  and  Germany.  M.  de  Trembieki,  of  Lomna,  near  Warsaw,  partic- 
ularly deserves  the  thanks  of  the  public  for  his  attention  to  this  matter  ("  Annalen  des  Acker- 
baues."  1805.  I.  721).  An  experiment  of  the  same  kind  is  recorded  in  the  "  Annalen  des  Acker- 
baues,"  bd.  xi.  s.  452.  But  notwithstanding  the  possibility  of  keeping  sheep  out  at  night,  a  well- 
aired  fold  is  much  more  advantageous  to  them  ;  this  has  been  shown  in  the  ninth  volume  of  the 
"  Annalen,"  s.  83,  by  his  Highness  the  Duke  of  Holstein  Becq.  Such  a  covering  forms  a  useful 
protection  to  the  newly-dropped  lambs,  especially  in  the  very  cold  season  :  it  likewise  keeps  off 
-  rain  and  snow,  and  prevents  succulent  fodder  from  being  spoiled  by  frost.  In  rainy  weather  a 
gmaller  quantity  of  Utter,  also,  serves  for  sheep  in  the  fold,  and  tlieir  dung  retains  its  moisture 
better. 

(1213; 


The  priacipal  requisites  of  a  good  sheep-fold  are  sufficiency  of  room,  currents  of  air  so  directfid 
as  to  afford  perfect  ventilation  without  exactly  coming  in  contact  with  the  sheep,  and  a  space  or 
yard  in  fiont  in  which  they  can  enjoy  the  open  air  as  often  and  as  long  as  they  like.  Some  per- 
sons have  built  magnificent  sheep-tolds,  with  wide  and  numerous  windows.  There  is  certainly 
no  objection  to  such  folds;  but  sheep  may  be  just  as  well  kept  in  ordinary  folds,  built  according 
to  the  old  plan,  provided  the  necessary  ventilation  be  supplied,  the  doors  be  left  open,  and  the 
sheep  have  liberty  of  going  in  and  out  at  their  pleasure.  In  large  sheep-folds  it  is  very  convenient 
to  have  separate  stalls  or  compartments  for  the  several  descriptions  of  animals.  The  fullest  direc- 
tions, in  an  agricultural  point  of  view,  respecting  the  construction  of  sheep-folds,  will  be  found  in 
Gilly's  "  Auweisung  zur  landwirthschaftlichen  Bau  Kunst  von  Friedrici." 

Sheep  Mangers  and  Racks. 

Among  the  various  modes  of  construct!  g  mangers,  the  following  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  most 
suitable  :  A  board,  about  sixteen  inches  wide,  is  supported  on  four  Iressels,  and  bordered  with  a 
lath  about  two  inches  deep.  This  board  serves  to  retain  the  iiaj-  dust,  and  to  feed  the  sheep  with 
short  fodder  and  roots.  Double  racks,  joined  together,  and  placed  upon  it.  These  racks  are  about 
12  inches  asunder  at  the  bottom,  and  10  at  the  top,  so  that  they  incline  toward  each  other,  and  not 
outward,  according  to  the  old  construction.  This  arrangement  not  only  obviates  the  inconvenience 
of  anything  falling  into  the  wool  of  the  sheep  when  they  pull  the  fodder  out  of  the  rack,  but  also 
prevents  them  from  leaning  overone  another  to  eat,  and  thereby  soiling  each  other's  fleece.  By  this 
arraii^rtment.  also,  the  animals  are  prevented  from  jumping  into  the  mangers,  as  they  are  veiy 
much  inclined  to  do.  The  double  rack  is  suspended  by  cords  passing  over  a  pulley  attached  to  the 
rafters,  or  else  to  two  cross-bars,  by  means  of  which  it  is  raised  above  the  board  when  uie  sheep  are 
to  be  fed  on  short  fodder. 

I  have  elsewhere  spoken  of  the  advantages  and  inconveniences  of  night-penning  as  a  means  of 
improving  land.  That  this  treatment  may  not  injure  the  health  of  the  sheep,  it  must  be  adopted 
in  the  warmest  part  of  the  year  only  and  in  dry  weather;  moreover,  the  sheep  must  not  be  too 
crowded  in  the  pens,  but  each  must  have  a  space  often  square  feet.  It  is  advisable  not  to  expose 
them  to  a  tlmnder-storm,  but  to  take  them  back  to  the  fold  when  such  a  shower  h  neroeived  to  be 
coming  on  :  but  a  sudden  heavy  rain  does  not  hurt  them  nearly  so  much  as  a  lott^  e.'.iiinuan'^r;  of 
cold,  damp  weather.  Sheep  must  never  be  penned  on  damp  ground  :  the  drl  v  5JiJ  Jiore  sau-../ 
the  soil,  the  less  is  it  likely  to  injure  them. 

A  Hock  of  sheep  includes  the  following  divisions: 

1.  Breeding  ewes. 

'2.  W"ethers,  with  which  also  the  rams  are  usually  kept. 

'.i.  Year-olds. 

4.  Lambs — these  are  kept  separate  during  the  summer  only,  because  at  the  beginning  of  wintsr 
the  lambs  of  the  previous  winter  are  taken  into  the  division  of  the  yearlings. 

5.  Fatted  sheep,  where  fattening  is  attended  to,  and  there  are  pastures  fit  for  that  purpose. 

1.  The  ewes  of  the  first  division  are  distinguished  according  to  age,  and  entered  upon  the  register   ' , 
'  accordingly.   The  distinctions  are  as  follows : 

(cr).  Old  or  superannuated  ewes. 

(//).  Full  mouthed  ewes  which  have  got  their  eight  large  incisors, 

ir).  Six-toothed  ewes. 

(/).  Four  toothed  ewes. 

For  the  winter  the  animals  are  put  in  the  division  to  which  they  properly  belong  in  the  ensuing 
.spring  only.  Thus,  the  lambs  born  after  the  winter  of  1809  are  regarded  as  year-olds  of  the  follow- 
ing antumn.  and  placed  in  the  corresponding  division  for  1809-10.  In  the  winter  of  1810  they  are 
classed  (snch  at  least  is  the  custom)  among  those  fit  to  receive  the  ram  ;  that  is  to  say,  among  the 
four-tooth  ewes,  though  in  reality  they  have  yet  but  two  teeth.  A  similar  method  is  pursued  with 
the  other  classes.  Moreover,  in  a  sheep-fold  where  improvement  of  breed  is  attended  to,  the  ewes 
are  distinguished  according  to  their  generations,  which  are  distinguished  by  peculiar  marks  ;  viz., 
those  of  pure  breed,  and  those  of  the  fifth,  fourtli,  ihird,  second,  and  first  generations.  They  are 
distinguished  as  follows : 

OLD   OR   SUPEKANNtTATED   SIIEEP. 

Pure 10 

Of  the  fifth  generation  8 


Pnre   

Of  the  fifth  generation 
"     fourth    "  


FULL-MOUTHED   SHEEP,   WITH   EIGHT   TEETH. 

20  Of  the  third  generation 


second 

fii-st 


The  six  and  and  four-toothed  sheep  are  similarly  distinguished. 
Sheep  are  usually  marked  and  counted  three  times  a  year : 

1.  At  the  beginning  of  winter,  when  those  which  are  to  be  drafted  are  separated  from  the 
rest. 

2.  In  spring,  when  winter-feeding  is  nearly  over :  the  sheep  to  be  dr^ed  after  shearing  ore 
then  marked. 

3.  At  shearing-time. 

The  register  is  consequently  revised,  or  the  number  of  sheep  in  each  class  and  division  noted, 
three  times  a  year.     Some  persons  perform  this  revision  every  month,  bat  this  is  unnecessary,  pro- 
vided that  care  be  taken  to  note  once  a  month  all  ckanges  which  happen  in  the  fold,  and  every  in- 
crease or  dimiautjou  of  numbers. 
(1214; 


TREATMENT   OF     SHEEP.  643 


The  state  of  a  flock  during  winter  is  considered  permanent.  In  summer,  the  number  is  increased 
by  ihat  of  the  lambs,  but  it  is  also  diminished  by  losses  and  removals  which  have  taken  place  dur- 
ing the  spring.     If  the  flock  consist  of  1,000  sheep  during  winter,  pasturage  must  be  provided  for 
I   at  least  1,300. 

Wether,?,  or  sheep  for  fattening,  are  regarded  in  this  country  but  as  an  accessory  though  neces- 
sary branch  of  sheep-hu.sbandry.  It  is  true  that  we  sometimes  meet  with  fattening  flocks,  consist- 
ing entirely  of  wethers  and  drafted  sheep,  bought  for  the  purpose  from  owners  of  flocks,  and  fatten- 
ed either  for  summer  or  winter;  but  sheep-husbandry  is  rarely  undertaken  with  fattening  for  its 
principal  object,  as  it  is  in  England.  The  principal  object  with  us  is  the  wool :  breeding  and  fat- 
tening are  resorted  to  only  from  necessity.  The  multiplication  of  sheep  for  the  former  of  these 
purposes  is  so  rapid  that  our  markets  are  glutted  with  drafted  sheep  ;  but  the  flesh  of  these  ani- 
mals being  of  indifferent  quality,  the  taste  for  it  has  been  lost ;  and  the  low  price  of  bad  mutton 
causes  a  depression  also  in  that  of  good,  at  least  in  the  Government  duties  hitherto  in  use.  Hence 
it  can  rarely  be  profitable  in  this  country  to  rear  sheep  especially  adapted  for  fattening,  and  devote 
to  that  object  the  care  which  we  bestow  upon  the  wool,  or  pursue  it,  as  the  English  do,  to  the  de- 
triment of  the  latter. 

There  is  great  diversity  in  the  disposition  to  fatten  and  tlie  goodness  of  the  flesh  in  the  several 
races  of  sheep.  In  England  there  are  breeds  of  which  ewes  produce  one  or  even  two  lambs  in 
their  second  year,  suckle  them,  and  become  fat  either  by  autumn  or  during  the  following  winter 
without  being  covered  a  second  time.  Such  sheep  are  considered  the  most  profitable  of  all ;  for  the 
price  of  thej-  meat  wefl  repays  the  cost  of  both  winter  feeding  and  pasturage  ;  the  wool  is  regard- 
ed as  oiily  of  secondary  importance.  This  property  does  not,  however,  belong  to  all  the  English 
races  :  there  are  some  which  cannot  be  profitably  fattened  till  the  third  or  fourth  year.  There  is 
also  great  diversity  in  the  quality  of  the  meat.  (Jood  mutton  should  not  be  spongy  or  very  porous, 
but  soft,  of  delicate  fibre,  and  succulent.  A  moderate  quantity  of  fat,  mixed  with  muscular  fibre,  is 
much  esteemed:  but  the  excess  of  that  substance,  which  shows  itself  on  the  outside  sometimes  in 
layers  five  or  six  inches  thick,  is  fit  only  for  the  poorer  class  of  people,  who  use  this  fat  to  eat  with 
the  leguminous  vegetables  on  which  they  live. 

Many  Englishmen  consider  goodness  of  flesh  and  disposition  to  fatten  incompatible  with  fine- 
ness of  wool.  This  opinion  is  not,  however,  universal :  some  persons  in  England  think  that  good- 
ness of  flesh  and  wool  may  be  united.  They  have,  however,  seen  abundant  proof  that  the  merino 
breed  is  very  defective  in  these  respects,  and  upon  a  given  quantity  of  food  produce  flesh  inferior, 
both  in  weight  and  quality,  to  that  of  any  other  breed.  It  is  commonly  considered  that  the  great- 
er value  of  the  wool  does  not  compensate  for  these  disadvantages,  at  least  in  the  .system  of  English 
husbandry.  Many  farmers,  therefore,  without  directly  opposing  the  introduction  of  the  merino 
breed  into  England,  think  that  an  intermediate  race,  possessing  both  qualities,  might  be  formed  by 
crossing,  and  a  proper  selection  of  individuals. 

With  us,  in  Germany,  the  production  of  meat  is  but  a  secondary  consideration  :  generally  speak- 
ing, we  have  no  breed  particularly  famous  in  this  respect.  We  must,  however,  remember,  that 
upon  a  given  quantity  of  food  the  pure  merino  race  does  not  gain  .so  much  flesh,  or  produce  meat 
ot  so  good  a  quality,  as  the  larger  variety  of  our  native  breed.  The  wethers  of  the  former  race  evi- 
dently make  less  progress  than  those  of  the  latter;  and  when  a  butcher  is  permitted  to  make  a 
selection  among  a  flock  of  mixed  sheep,  he  will  reject  all  the  merinoes,  unless  they  have  already 
gained  a  large  quantity  of  wool,  a  circumstance  which  he  very  well  knows  how  to  appreciate. 

_  Considering  t'he  great  advantage  which  the  merinoes  present  by  the  quantity  of  wool  which  they 
yield,  we  shall  scarcely  be  prevented  by  the  circumstance  just  mentioned  from  introducing  the 
breed  into  our  establishments,  unless,  indeed,  a  change  of  circumstances  should  greatly  increase 
the  price  of  mutton  as  compared  with  that  of  wool. 

If  however,  peculiar  circumstances  of  husbandry  should  induce  cultivators  to  direct  their  at- 
tention to  the  fattening  of  sheep,  and  to  turn  the  milk  of  tlieir  ewes  to  account,  it  would  be  no  less 
advantageous  to  have  a  good  native  breed,  perfected  within  itself.  When  our  only  object  is  to 
kee,;;  wethers  for  fattening,  and  buy  them  for  this  purpose  of  breeders,  we  shall  undoubtedly  find 
t\e  naJive  breed  the  most  advantageous,  especially  when  we  intend  to  fatten  quicklj',  and  there- 
fo-'e  reckon  but  little  on  the  wool  which  the  sheep  may  gain  during  fattening. 

It  lUf.y  also  be  found  advantageous  to  keep  sheep  for  fattening  in  localities  where  the  pastures  are 
rich  i  It  not  very  healthy,  such  indeed  as  to  cause  some  danger  of  the  rot  or  watery  cachexia  or 
on  e,  :<ioist,  rich  soil,  where  the  stubble-lands  and  meadows  yield  abundant  second  crops,  and  at 
the  same  time  lean  sheep  can  be  purcha.sed  at  low  prices,  and  sold  at  a  good  profit  when  fattened. 
Whi::  large  quantities  of  root  crops  are  cultivated,  it  may  be  found  advantageous  to  fatten  sheep 
durLig  winter  and  sell  them  in  May,  lor  at  that  season  there  will  seldom  be  any  difficulty  in  find- 
ing a  market  for  fatted  sheep,  particularly  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  rich  towns,  in  which,  at  this 
time,  good  mutton  is  highly  prized. 

V/hen  the  fattening  of  sheep  is  undertaken,  it  is  best  to  bring  it  to  perfection  as  soon  as  possible, 

and  frequently  to  renew  the  flock.    Wethers  kept  for  a  whole  year  will  rarely  pay  for  their  food, 

Ty"--.fttier  th^y  are  stall-fed  or  pastured.     If,  therefore,  we  possess  fattening  pastures,  they  :i!ust  be 

!ihc>.',liy  used,  that  is  to  say,  we  must  not  put  too  many  sheep  upon  them.     A  portion  of  the  pa.s- 

,   lu'-'^s  must  he  reserved  in  order  that  the  shov'p  may  be  placed  upon  them  when  the  grass  begins 

I   to  get  low  on  those  which  they  have  previously  occupied  :  drafted  ewes  may  then  be  put  upon  the 

I   latter  to  consume  the  reist  of  the  grass.     If  this  pasturage  be  not  sufficient,  additional  food  must  be 

given  in  the  fold,  so  that  the  fattening  may  be  complete  in  eight  or  at  most  in  ten  weeks.     If  the 

'   fattening  take  place  in  winter,  the  sheep  must  from  the  first  be  supplied  with  as  much  food  as  they 

,     will  eat ;  it  is  astonishing  to  observe  the  quantity  that  one  of  these  anunals  will  consume  when  in 

'   the  middle  of  fattening.     But  fodder  thus  given  will  pay  its  expenses  much  better  than  that  which 

is  parsimoniously  applied,  so  as  not  even  in  four  months  to  bring  the  sheep  to  the  degree  of  fatness 

which  they  might  attain  in  two.     Twelve  wethers,  of  the  native  breed,  which  I  once  put  upon 

trial  in  my  sheep-fold,  intending  them  ibr  use  in  my  own  hoi  se,  were  fed  with  a  .sclieffel  of  pota- 

(1215; 


544  thaer's  principles  of  agriculture. 

toes  and  a  quarter  quintal  of  hay  per  day  :  in  six  or  eight  weeks  they  became  so  fat  and  produced 
meat  of  so  good  a  quality,  that  all  who  ate  of  it  at  my  table  declared  that  they  had  never  eaten  uieu 
more  succulent  or  of  more  agreeable  flavor  ;  they  found  out,  in  short,  how  it  ie  that  the  Engli.sh  sot 
so  high  a  value  on  good  mutton. 

Wethers  which  are  to  be  fattened  at  home  should,  while  they  are  lambs  and  j-ear-olds.  be  kept 
in  such  a  manner  that  they  may  attahi.  during  the  time,  to  their  full  size  and  strength.     The  belter 
sort  of  our  native  sheep  may,  by  good  feeding,  be  raised  to  an  extraordinaiy  degree  of  size  acd 
weight.     This  is  proved  by  the  wethers  sometimes  kept  alone  in  stables  from  their  first  year  to  the    i 
I    time  when  they  are  put  up  to  fatten  ;  they  may  then  be  more  sparingly  fed.     When' sheep  are    i 
'    bought  exclusively  for  fattening,  success  depends  chiefly  on  the  selection  and  price  of  the  animals    ' 
purchased.     In  general,  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to  buy  the  largest  sheep  that  we  can  feed,    ' 
even  if  we  pay  a  higher  price  for  them.  ' 

On  large  sheep-farms  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  master-sbecberd  to  overlook  the  whole  ;  he  usa-    ' 
ally  receives  a  part  of  the  produce,  and  is  considered  respo/isible  for  the  success  of  the  whole  con- 
cern     He  has  under  him  .shepherds  to  look  after  the  suckluig  ewe.?  a  shepherd  for  the  wethers,    , 
one  for  the  year-olds,  and  another  for  the  lambs — the  last  is  usually  a  boy. 

The  shepherd's  occupation  is  in  some  respects  a  kind  of  trade,  but  it  is  often  hereditary.  The 
children  of  shepherds  acquire  from  their  youth  a  certain  affection  for  sheep,  and  a  peculiar  tact  in 
overlooking  them  ;  they  become  early  and  practically  accustomed  to  the  shephevd's  life,  olten,  in- 
deed, so  far  as  to  unfit  them  for  all  other  occupations.  A  good  shejdierd  of  this  kind  is  certainly 
preferable  to  one  who  takes  up  the  occupation  at  a  later  period  of  Jiis  life,  and  has  to  acquire  the 
tact  of  watching  sheep.  The  only  thing  to  be  regretted  is,  that  certain  prejudices  and  s-ipersti- 
*  tions  become  inherited  from  father  to  sou,  and  can  scarcely  be  eradicated  by  the  UiO."*  jalf  able 
'  demoustrauon.  Frequently  there  reigns  among  them  a  certain  esprit  de  corps  which  induces 
them  to  combine  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  and  injuring  their  masters.  A  man  possessing  the 
qualities  of  an  intelligent  master-shepherd,  but  free  from  these  prejudices  and  this  party  spirit,  is  a 
most  valuable  acquisition,  especially  where  the  cultivator  cannot  exercise  a  minute  inspection  over 
his  sheep-fold,  and  direct  his  shepherds  in  the  minute  details  of  their  duly. 

In  some  countries  the  master-,shep herds  are  so  con-upted  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  select 

young  persons  of  good  cbaracter,  and  either  train  them  up  oue's-self  to  the  employment,  or  appren- 

.    tice  them  in  a  well-conducted  establishment  in  some  other  country.     It  is  much  to  be  wi.shed  that 

'    the  schools  of  shepherds,  so  long  wanted,  and  so  often  proposed,  were  actually  established  and  or- 

\ '    ganized.     As  thepherds  have,  from  the  earliest  times,  possessed  the  confidence  of  the  people  tor 

treating  the  diseases  of  animals  and  even  of  men,  and  as  they  make  use  of  various  superstitious 

remedies,  and  even  perform  operations,  this  confidence  might  be  turned  to  account  by  furnishing 

the  pupils  with  some  instruction  in  the  veterinary  art.     They  might  then  to  a  certain  extent  follow 

the  occupation  of  a  veterinary  surgeon,  which  can  never,  except  in  certain  countries,  furnish  full 

employment  for  any  one. 

At  the  present  day,  the  inconvenience  of  allowing  the  head-shepherd,  as  well  as  the  other  ser-    ^ 
vants,  to  keep  sheep  in  the  flock  on  their  own  account,  is  generally  admitted.     When  such  a  prac-    ' 
tice  was  permitted,  it  was  perfectly  natural  that  the  sheep  belonging  to  the  shepherd  should  be 
'i    always  the  best,  his  lambs  the  finest,  and  that  all  the  animals  that  died  were  not  his.  but  the  mas- 
I     ter's:  all  control,  in  short,  was  impossible.     The  custom  was,  however,  not  easily  aboh.shed.  be- 
j'    cause  all  qualified  shepherds  insisted  on  its  preservation,  and  it  was  consequently  diflicult  to  ob- 
tain one  on  any  other  terms.     It  was  finally  prohibited  by  law  in  the  Pnassian  and  several  other 
States  any  proprietor,  who  should  establish  or  perpetuate  the  practice  being  made  liable  to  heavy 
penalties.     The  shepherds  were  therefore  obliged  to  submit,  and  accept  other  conditions. 

It  was  then  determined  what  proportion  they  should  receive  of  the  total  produce  of  the  flock,  a 
portion  which  they  were  consequently  obliged  to  purchase  without  having  sheep  especially  be- 
longing to  them.  They  were  also  obliged  to  bear  their  part  of  the  accessory  expenses,  and  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  hay  was  appointed  to  be  supplied  to  the  flock  without  payment.  Everything  be- 
yond this,  such  as  salt,  grain,  &c.,  as  well  as  all  incidental  expenses,  were  to  be  borne  in  comiiioa, 
so  that  the  shepherd  paid  his  proportion  of  them.  This  arrangement  binds  the  interest  of  the  pro- 
prietor to  that  of  the  shepherd  ;  it  amalgamates  these  two  interests  as  it  were,  and  prevents  fraud, 
or  at  least  throws  obstacles  in  its  way.  It  however  occasions  some  difficulties  in  the  appoir  tment 
or  dismissal  of  the  shepherd,  particularly  when  the  establishment  is  considerable,  and  has  fo-  its 
objects  the  increase  and  improvement  of  the  breed  ;  for  in  either  case  a  valuation  will  be  nT.essa- 
ry,  and  the  shepherd  who  leaves  has  a  right  to  claim  his  part  in  the  increased  value  of  tne  flock, 
since  he  has  contributed  to  the  expenses  by  which  this  increase  has  been  produced. 

Some  persons  allow  the  shepherd  a  certain  portion  of  the  produce,  without  obliging  him  to  pur- 
chase part  of  the  stock,  sometimes  even  without  requiring  him  to  pay  his  portion  of  the  incidcr.ita" 
expense.?. 

If  the  proprietor  be  willing  to  exercise  a  very  careful  superintendence  over  his  sheep-fold,  p  -i 
in  some  measure  to  take  upon  himself  the  office  of  director,  or  if  he  employ  a  clever  assiptai-  ,  he 
may  engage  men  at  fixed  wages,  and  feed  them  or  allow  them  a  certain  quantity  of  provi.sior.  lor 
their  maintenance.  In  order  to  interest  them  in  the  success  of  the  sheep-husbandry,  it  is  a  good  jjIhu 
to  allow  them  a  specified  gratuity  for  every  latab  that  they  rear  in  health  to  the  beginning  of 
winter. 

It  is  oi  great  importance  that  the  shepherd  train  his  dog  well,  and  have  him  perfectly  mider  com- 
mand ;  for  a  dog  which  disturbs  a  flock  at  improper  times  may  completely  derange  it 

The  wa.shing  of  wool  on  the  sheep's  back  is  always  very  imperfect,  and  is,  therefore,  adopted 
only  to  take  off  the  grosser  part  of  the  dirt,  which  in  well  tended  flocks  of  fine-wooled  sheep  ought 
not  to  be  tolerated.  Wool  is  more  or  less  clean.sed  by  this  washing.  This  circumstance  raises  or  - 
lowers  the  value  of  the  wool  in  the  eyes  of  experienced  connoisseurs  ;  but  more  complete  washijig 
diminishes  the  weight,  and  the  loss  which  thence  results  is  often  more  than  an  equivalent  to  the  in- 
creased value  of  the  wool.  The  chief  inconvenience  of  washing  on  the  back  is  the  injury  which 
(1216) 


it  does  to  the  animal's  health  in  bad  weather ;  a  circumstance  which  it  is  not  always  possible 
avoid,  if  the  time  for  taking  wool  to  market  should  not  admit  of  delay  in  shearing.  Frequently 
when  perspiration  cannot  be  completely  reestablished  before  shearing,  its  suspension  throws  back 
the  natural  and  even  the  internal  grease  of  the  wool.  But  the  use  of  this  washing  is  so  complete 
ly  established  in  Germany,  and  so  generally  recognized  in  the  trade,  that  it  would  be  diiEcult  for  a 
private  individual  to  dispense  with  it.  Our  wool  is  not  purchased  unless  it  has  undergone  this 
washing,  and  we  have  not  the  necessary  establishments  for  cleansing  it  thoroughly ;  moreover,  if 
we  even  attempt  this  complete  washing,  purchasers  will  not  usually  pay  the  price  which  it  is  re- 
ally ■worth,  according  to  its  actual  v/eight,  because  they  prefer  to  perform  this  last  ■washing  them- 
selves when  they  sort  their  wool.  An  cpport'inity  should  be  taken  at  a  time  when  wool  is  much 
in  request,  for  the  proprietors  of  the  best  flocks  to  unite  for  the  purpose  of  selhng  their  wool  either 
in  the  unwashed  state  or  when  thoroughly  washed  after  shearing,  and  of  establishing  in  every 
country  where  sheep  are  abundant  the  aiTangements  required  for  complete  washing;  these  ar- 
rangements are  nov/  well  kno^wn.  It  has  been  found  that  wool,  when  thoroughly  washed  after 
earing,  loses  in  weight  about  54  per  cent.,  provided  it  has  not  been  previously  washed  on  the 
back.  In  the  latter  process,  the  wool  pi-obably  loses  about  25  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  the  un 
'   washed  state.* 

The  success  of  washing  on  the  back  depends  partly  on  the  method  adopted,  which  is  variable — 
partly  on  the  care  bestowed  upon  the  operation,  and  partly  upon  the  water.  Hard  water  has  but 
little  effect  on  the  grease  and  dirt  contained  in  the  wool.  Soft  water,  on  the  contrary,  especially  If 
it  be  soapy,  renders  the  wool  much  whiter  and  cleaner  ;  this  is  also  the  case  with  the  water  of  the 
well  at  Moglin,  of  which  I  have  had  occasion  to  speak  in  the  Annaleti  des  Ackerbaiies,  bd. 
s.  390. 

To  diminish  the  ill  effects  of  washing  on  the  back  with  regard  to  the  checldng  of  perspiration,  it 
is  of  great  importance  for  the  health  of  the  animal,  as  well  as  the  quality  of  the  wool,  to  endeavor  to 
restore  perspiration  before  shearing,  by  keeping  the  animals  warmer  and  feeding  them  better  than 
usual ;  if  possible,  also,  an  interval  of  a  week  should  elapse  between  washing  and  shearing,  par- 
ticular care  being  taken  to  prevent  the  sheep  from  getting  dirty  again. 

Opinions  are  much  divided  respecting  the  comparative  advantages  of  shearing  twice  or  only 
once  a  year.  With  merinoes,  and  sheep  of  improved  breeds,  the  practice  of  shearing  twice  a  year 
has  been  generally  abandoned ;  latelj-,  however,  some  persons,  who  are  in  the  habit  of  feeding 
sheep  very  plentifully  and  on  very  substantial  food,  have  resumed  it,be  cause  the  wool  of  their  sheep 
grows  so  fast  and  becomes  so  thick,  that  the  animals  are  less  inconvenienced  by  the  double  shear- 
ing than  by  the  length  of  their  ■wool.  With  well  fed  native  sheep  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of 
wool  has  been  obtained  by  two  shearings,  estimated  by  some  persons  at  one-tenth,  and  by  othei-s 
at  one-twelfth  of  the  whole.  In  some  countries  it  is  thought  that  the  wool  obtained  by  two  shear- 
ings is  inferior  to  that  of  one  year's  growth  ;  in  others,  on  the  contrary,  this  is  denied  :  the  differ 
ence  of  opinion  arises,  no  doubt,  from  the  various  kinds  of  manufacture  in  which  the  wool  is  used 
Hatters  prefer  short  wool.  Sheep  accustomed  to  be  shorn  twice  a  year  often  lose  their  wool  in 
the  spring  following  the  autumn  in  which  the  shearing  has  for  the  first  time  been  omitted ;  it  must 
then  be  pulled  off  by  hand.  This  inconvenience  is  much  more  perceptible  when  the  sheep  graze 
in  woods  or  among  bushes.  Shearing  too  early  or  too  late  always  produces  a  bad  effect  on  the  an- 
imal's health  ;  the  only  remedy  for  the  mischief  is  a  supply  of  very  succulent  food. 

To  obtain  the  proper  quantity  of  wool,  it  is  proper  that  the  sheep  be  shorn  close  to  the  skin,  and 
as  carefully  as  possible,  so  that  no  wool  may  be  left  on  the  body  in  stripes.  Skillful  and  practiced 
shearers  must  be  employed,  and  well  looked  after  ;  this  the  shepherd  will  aways  do  if  he  is  to 
have  part  of  the  produce  of  the  wool.  The  form  of  the  shears  and  the  equality  of  their  blades  is  al 
60  of  considerable  importance.t 

The  shearer  is  usually  paid  so  much  per  head,  four  or  six  pfennings.^  A  moderate  addition  to 
this  sum  will  be  well  expended,  if  we  can  ensure  by  it  that  the  sheep  will  be  completely  shorn. 
Shearing  executed  by  statute-laborers  is,  as  may  be  conceived,  rarely  performed  with  care. 

When  a  flock  contains  sheep  of  various  degrees  of  fineness,  they  must  be  separated.     The  rams, 
wethers,  ewes,  and  year-olds  are  also  separately  shorn,  and  the  wool  of  each  class  is  kept 
rate. 

In  this  country  it  is  not  usual  to  pick  the  wool,  and  put  by  itself  that  which  belongs  to  each  part 
of  the  body.  A  few  fleeces  are  commonly  placed  one  upon  the  other,  so  as  to  form  a  heap  weigh 
ing  about  twenty  pounds ;  they  are  then  folded  into  bundles,  the  short,  clean  wool  being  placed  in 
the  middle.  Each  bundle  is  tied  with  thin  pack-thread  ;  or  else  the  wool  is  put,  without  tying, 
into  sacks. 

In  flocks  of  high-bred  sheep  an  exact  account  is  taken  of  the  weight  of  wool  of  each  animal, 
order  to  determine  its  value  accordingly,  and  make  a  proper  selection  of  individuals  for  breedim 
for  richness  of  wool  is  probably  an  hereditary  quality.    This  opinion  is  in  reality  supported  by  e 
perience,  so  far  at  least  as  weight  depends  on  thickness  (that  is,  on  the  number  of  fibres).      The 
length  of  the  wool,  by  which  its  weight  is  no  less  essentially  influenced,  depends  on  the  food  and 
health  of  the  animal. 

Merino  wool  is  heavier  in  proportion  to  its  bulk  than  that  of  our  native  sheep.  But  if  a  sheep 
of  our  country  give  less  weight  of  wool  than  a  merino,  the  deficiency  will  doubtless  be  found  to 
arise  from  its  having  been  less  substantially  fed.  Upon  equal  food,  our  best  native  sheep  seem 
always  to  yield  a  larger  quantity  of  wool. 

For  the  particular  care  required  for  merinoes,  and  the  mode  of  estimating  the  value  of  these 
animals,  and  of  their  wool,  I  must  refer  my  readers  to  the  works  already  cited. 

v-'?\^™°"°''  °'^*^'^  ^°^^  varies  according  to  race,  country,  kind  of  food,  and  the  degree  of  cleanliness  in 
which  the  sheep  are  kept.  Merino  wool  sometimes  loses  five-eighths  or  three-quarters  of  its  weight  by  com- 
plete washing,  when  the  animals  are  well  fed  and  the  veool  is  very  greasy.  \French  Trans. 

t  Excellent  shears  are  now  made  at  the  manufactory  of  Schickler,  in  front  of  the  Eberswold  at  Neustadt,  A. 

J  About  three  farthings  or  a  penny. 
(1217 


All  that  relates  to  the  breeding,  trainina^,  and  management  of  horses,  has  been  fully  treated  by- 
many  learned  and  intelligent  men  who  have  devoted  themselves  to  this  branch  of  knowledge. 
We  are,  however,  still  in  want  of  a  fundamental  and  scientific  development  of  this  branch  of  ni- 
ral  economy — a  treatise  which  shall  furnish  a  clear  and  exact  summary  of  it,  and  distinguish  that 
which  is  conformable  to  Nature  from  that  which  is  founded  on  prejudice  ;  for  in  this  branch  of 
husbandry  we  meet  with  prejudices  no  less  deeply  rooted  than  those  which  beset  us  in  others.  I 
have  not  the  presumption  to  attempt  such  a  summary ;  and  this  is  certainly  not  the  place  for  a 
treatise  of  sufficient  extent  to  include  all  that  is  necessary,  I  shall  therefore  content  myself  with 
noticing  what  the  farmer,  in  his  individual  capacity,  requires  to  know  of  the  breeding  and  feeding 
of  horses.*  ' 

I  cannot,  therefore,  undertake  to  give  a  description  of  the  breeds  of  different  countries,  or  of  ' 
those  which  have  been  formed  from  them  by  selection  of  individuals,  or  by  crossing.  ' 

The  farmer  s horse  should  be  thickset,  short,  with  broad  chest  and  nimp,  roand,  muscular,  and  nerv-  ' 
ous  ;  but  not.  as  some  persons  think,  large-boned.  He  should  be  not  fiery,  but  rather  lively  ;  and  ' 
above  all  he  must  be  persevering  and  hardy,  so  that  even  when  subjected  to  extraordinary  fatigue, 
or  badly  attended  to  and  poorly  fed  for  a  time,  he  may  be  able  to  put  up  with  these  inconveniences 
without  being  weakened  or  losing  his  health.  A  good  foot  is  an  indispensable  quahfication.  The 
horse's  strength  must  be  proportioned  to  the  loads  which  he  has  to  draw,  or  the  kind  of  soil  on 
which  he  works,  ^.-engih.  however,  does  not  always  depend  upon  size  :  there  are  many  small 
horses  -which,  when  harnessed  with  others  of  larger  stature,  will  beat  them,  and  compel  them  to 
give  way  ;  but,  as  it  is  said,  a  large  horse  fills  his  harness  hotter,  and  when  free  from  blemish,  is 
usually  stronger,'  and  takes  longer  steps.  Large  horses,  however,  require  more  food  ;  and,  on  this 
account,  tho.se  which  are  smaller,  not  from  poor  feeding,  but  by  nature,  are  preferable,  provided 
they  are  not  to  be  ordinarily  employed  in  very  heavy  work. 

There  is  greater  difficulty  in  finding  a  breed  of  horses  perfectly  well  adapted  to  Agriculture  than 
one  of  higher  character;  becauf:^e  attention  hns  everywhere  been  directed  to  the  latter,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  former.  A  good  hardy  race  of  plow-horses  has  been  too  often  mixed  with  one  alto- 
gether unfit  for  the  pnrpos'e,  even  by  those  who  are  most  zealous  in  the  breeding  of  horses.  In 
the  national  studs  which  many  sovereigns  have  established,  to  the  great  advantage  of  their  subjects, 
the  object  usually  aimed  at  has  been  the  production  of  good  riding-horses  ;  and  in  most  cases  the 
choice  of  stallion's  has  been  made  with  too  little  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  breed  already  existing 
in  each  district,  the  mode  in  which  the  animals  were  treated,  and  the  nature  of  the  pastures. 

id, 


The  very  sturdy  race  of  horses  once  common  in  Meckleiiberg  is  no  longer  found,  excepting  on 
particular  estatesand  rural  establishments  of  that  country;  and  perhaps,  also,  in  Pomerania.  In 
the  former  country  it  is  sometimes  found  in  a  state  of  higher  breeding,  without,  however,  having 
lost  those  qualities  which  render  it  fit  for  agricultural  purposes.  The  Holstein  horses,  often  called 
Mecklenberg.  rarely  possess  the  qualities  which  the  former  looks  for  ;  but  there  is  a  race  of  Danish 
horses,  known  by  the  name  of  Wasserdenen,  which  is  perhaps  stronger  and  hardier  than  any 
other.  Lithuanian  horses  are  strong  and  robust,  in  proportion  to  their  size  ;  but,  for  the  inostpart, 
too  small.  I  am  not  in  a  position  to  form  a  judgment  on  the  ordinary  race  of  agricultural  horses 
to  be  found  in  other  parts  of  Gennany. 

In  the  fore  jiart  of  this  work  I  have  considered  the  question,  ho-w  far  the  breeding  and  training   ' 
of  horses  can  be  an  advantageous  occupation  for  the  farmer.     When  once  a  race  -well  adapted  to 
Asriculture  has  been  obtained  with  a  stallion  who  goes  quietly  with  the  mares  that  he  serves,  and 
covers  the  workina:-mares  at  the  proper  time,  I  am  persuaded,  from  the  considerations  adduced  in  the 
g  of  '    "  ■      " 


samo  paragraph,  that  the  rearing  of  foals  on  pasturage  proper  f(Ti-  the  purpose,  or  even  in  the 
ble,  will  be  found  profitable — if,  at  least,  the  advantages  of  a  uniform  and  well-known  breed  be 
taken  into  account.  It  is  this  system  of  breeding,  and  not  the  formation  of  a  stud,  that  we  here 
consider.  The  mares  and  stallion  are  to  be  kept  as  working-horses,  breeding  being  regarded 
merely  as  a  secondary  object. 

A  mare  may  receive  the  stallion  when  she  has  completed  her  third  year,  so  that  she  may  foal  at 
the  age  of  four  years.  But  for  a  working-mare,  it  is  better  to  defei-  it  till  the  fifth  and  sixth  year, 
so  as  not  to  try  her  strength  too  early,  and  in  two  ways  at  once.  Mares  may  very  well  produce  a 
foal  every  year  ;  but  once  in  two  ye'ars  is  often  e::ough  for  those  which  work.  They  are  covered 
early  in  the  season — in  Februar7,%  if  possible — so  that  they  may  foal  at  a  time  of  year  when  their 
-work  can  be  dispensed  with,  and  they  can  be  properly  treated.  They  must  then  be  fed  in  the 
stable,  and  on  very  substantial  food.  'The  practice  of  making  mares  foal  in  May,  so  that  they  may 
have  the  advantage  of  green  grass,  cannot  be  adopted  with  plow-horses. 

The  time  when  the  mare  is  in  her  greatest  heat  must  be  carefully  observed  and  taken  advan- 
tage of,  as  with  cows :  this  can  be  done  only  when  there  is  a  stallion  on  the  spot.  This  usually 
shows  itself  from  the  eleventh  day  after  parturition,  and  the  mare  is  then  particularly  disposed  to 
take  the  stallion.  It  is  from  this  cause  that  mares,  though  they  go  with  young  nearly  a  year,  are 
capable  of  producing  a  colt  every  year  at  the  same  time. 

It  is  a  very  bad  plan  to  have  a  mare  covered  twice  in  the  day,  or  generally  even  during  the 
same  heat,  provided  she  has  been  already  well  covered. 

The  pnncipal  sign  which  indicates  that  a  mare  has  conceived  is,  that  she  rejects  the  stallion, 
even  while  still  showing  some  sign  of  heat.  A  mare  in  foal  usually  exhibits  a  certain  degree  of 
laziness:  she  stales  frequently,  or  at  least  shows  a  desire  to  do  so.  After  the  lapse  of  a  fortnight, 
the  udder  and  veins  leading  to  the  teats  usually  swell :  this  symptom  lasts  for  a  week,  and  then 
disappears.     At  the  end  of  the  sixth  month,  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  enlarges,  so  that  the  cir- 

*The  best  work  hitherto  published  on  this  subject  is  undoubtedly  that  of  "Naumann  tiber  did  vorztig- 
Uchsten  Thelle  der  Pferdwissenschaft."     3  Theile.    Berlin,  1800-1802.  A.    This  want  has  been  supplied  by- 
Mr.  Youatt's  book  on  "  The  Horse." 
(1218) 


cumference  of  the  part  near  the  hind-legs  becomes  as  large  as  that  immediately  behind  the  fore- 
legs :  this,  however,  is  not  always  the  case. 

In  the  eighth  month  the  pulsation  of  the  foal  may  be  sometimes  felt  on  applying  the  hand  against 
the  flank  of  the  mother  while  watering  her. 

A  mare  in  foal  may  be  used  for  all  ordinai-y  kinds  of  work — cai-e  being  taken  not  to  let  her  get 
overheated,  and  never  to  give  her  bad  food.  After  the  tenth  month,  however,  she  must  be  more 
cautiously  worked — particular  care  being  taken  that  she  be  never  struck,  jerked  or  made  to  take 
violent  eftorts  ;  her  food  must  also  be  nourishing,  and  not  inclined  to  swell.  Finally,  toward  the 
end  of  the  month,  she  should  have  ground  com  in  her  water,  to  favor  the  secretion  of  milk. 

\Vhea  milk  appears  in  the  udder,  and  hollows  are  formed  on  both  sides  of  the  tail,  we  may 
know  that  delivery  is  at  hand  :  its  approach  is  also  manifested  by  the  restlessness  of  the  mare. 
She  is  then  usually  taken  to  another  stable,  where  she  is  provided  with  soft  litter,  and  coaxed  to 
lie  down  :  this,  however,  must  never  be  effected  by  force.  Without  actual  acquaintance  with  the 
art  of  delivery,  no  one  should  attempt  to  assist  her,  still  less  to  use  violent  means,  such  as  pinching 
her  nose  daring  the  efforts  of  parturition.  If  the  head  of  the  foal  has  made  its  appearance,  the  ex- 
trication of  the  other  parts  may,  if  nacessary,  be  facilitated  by  stroking  gently  from  above  down- 
"ward. 

If  the  umbilical  cord  do  not  separate  spontaneously,  a  ligature  is  passed  round  it,  at  two  inches 
from  the  foal's  body,  and  it  is  cut  at  an  equal  distance  bejond  the  ligature.  No  attention  is  paid 
to  the  after-birth,  even  if  it  should  be  a  long  time  coming  away. 

The  foal  is  usually  sprinkled  with  salt,  to  induce  the  mother  to  lick  it. 

A  warm  wash,  made  of  bran,  is  then  immediately  given  to  the  mare ;  she  is  supplied  with  it 
in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  and  often. 

The  mare  while  suckling  must  be  fed  with  fodder  of  excellent  qualitj',  and  a  mash  composed  of 
ground  rye,  and  well  mixed.  After  a  fortnight  .she  may  be  put  to  work  again,  provided  it  be  done 
with  moderation,  and  only  for  half  the  day.  She  must  not  be  allowed  to  overheat  herself;  but  if 
this  should  happen,  in  spite  of  the  precautions  taken  against  it,  she  must  be  milked  before  the  foal 
is  allowed  to  go  to  her.  When  the  foal  is  hungry,  after  a  long  absence  from  the  mother,  it  must 
not  be  permitted  to  suck  for  a  long  time  at  once,  but  removed  now  and  then  from  the  teat. 

A  small  quantity  of  very  good  hay  is  then  given  to  the  foal,  and  he  is  also  allowed  to  drink 
of  the  mash  provided  for  the  mother.  After  eight  or  ten  weeks  tlie  foal  may  be  permitted  to  ac- 
l  company  its  mother  to  the  plow,  and  when  she  is  employed  in  carting  to  small  distances.  Foals 
are  weaned  at  the  end  of  twelve  weeks:  some  persons  profess  to  have  remarked,  that  those  which 
are  allowed  to  suck  for  a  longer  time,  though  they  really  grow  larger  and  fatter,  are  nevertheless 
weaker  when  they  grow  up. 

After  the  foal  is  weaned,  the  mai-e  is  no  longer  supplied  with  the  sub.stantial  food  that  she  had 
while  suckling.  If  the  udder  appears  to  harden,  or  is  painful  to  the  mare,  a  hot  stone  should  be 
placed  in  a  vessel,  and  the  milk  made  to  run  upon  it,  so  that  the  vapor  may  come  in  contact  with 
the  uddei".  hi  this  case,  also,  the  udder  should  be  washed  and  bathed  in  warm  soap  and  watei-, 
and  if  it  becomes  very  hard,  it  should  be  rubbed  with  burnt  butter,  or  volatile  camphorated  oint-  ' 
ment,  pi-ocured  from  the  druggist. 

Foals  are  usually  reared  in  a  close  pasture  where  there  is  abundant  food  for  them,  and  this  is 
certainly  the  best  and  most  convenient  method.  Where,  however,  this"  convenience  is  not  availa- 
ble, they  may  be  reared  in  the  stable. 

When  foals  are  to  be  brought  up  in  the  stable,  they  are  tied  up  with  a  halter  having  a  broad 
nose-band.  They  should,  however,  be  let  out  twice  a  day,  if  it  be  only  into  the  yard  :  but  this 
mast  be  done  early,  before  they  become  too  lively,  or  they  will  hurt  themselves  with  all  sorts  of 
things.  They  should  be  tamed  as  soon  as  possible,  by  being  accustomed  to  eat  out  of  the  hand. 
It  is  very  useful  to  brush  and  curry  foals  from  their  first  year.  They  should  be  early  accustomed 
to  allow  their  feet  to  be  lifted  up  and  struck ;  after  the  second  year,  the  feet  should  be  trimmed. 
At  the  same  time  a  small  quantity  of  oats  should  be  given  to  them,  and  the  supply  of  hay  dimin- 
ished ;  bat  they  thrive  very  well  when  fed  on  green  clover  and  tares. 

The  horse  has  twelve  cutting  teeth  or  nippers,  six  in  each  jaw,  four  canine  teeth  or  tushes,  and 
twenty-four  molar  teeth  or  grinders. 

The  nippers  are  subject  to  change,  and  afford  the  chief  indication  of  the  horse's  age.  The  young 
animal  is  called  a  foal  so  long  as  he  retains  all  his  first  teeth,  that  is  to  say,  till  the  age  of  two  years 
and  a  half 

In  the  third  year  the  two  front  teeth  fall  out ;  those  of  the  lower  jaw  are  usually  shed  fii-st ;  the 
space  which  they  leave  is  filled  up  with  an  equal  number  of  new  teeth.  These  teeth  are  at  first 
distinguished  by  a  dirty  yellow  color ;  in  their  upperpart  they  have  a  black  cavity  called  the  mark; 
the  animal  is  then  called  a  colt. 

In  the  fourth  year  the  next  two  teeth  in  both  jaws  are  changed  in  a  similar  manner.  The  first 
teeth  of  the  second  growth  are  by  this  time  partially  filled  up  ;  they  are  also  whiter,  and  the  mark 
has  assumed  a  pale  brown  color. 

In  the  fiffli  year,  the  two  outer  teeth  change  in  the  same  manner,  and  from  that  time  the  animal 
is  a  full  grown  horse. 

The  three  pair  of  nippers  lose  their  marks  in  the  same  order  as  they  gained  them.  In  the  sev- 
enth year  the  mark  in  the  center  teeth  is  effaced,  in  the  eighth  that  "in  the  next  two,  and  in  the 
ninth  those  of  the  outer  teeth  also  disappear 

Such  is  the  usual  order ;  there  are,  however  exceptions,  especially  in  certain  races.  Some 
horses,  particularly  the  best,  shed  their  teeth  later ;  they  also  retain  the  mark  longer.  Such  horses 
are  always  more  robust,  and  obtain  a  more  advanced  age  :  hence  a  horse  which  retains  his  marks 
long  fetches  a  high  price.  . 

But  horse  dealers  try  to  imitate  these  marks  in  their  old  horses,  by  piercing  or  burning  the  up-     J 

per  part  of  the  teeth,  and  sometimes  do  it  so  cleverly,  that  only  the  practiced  eye  of  a  connoisseur     I 

can  detect  the  imposition.      But  they  can  rarely  imitate  the  order  in  which  the  marks  fill  up  and    ' 

(1219)  ' 


lose  their  color.     The  step  of  the  foot  in  the  foal  and  colt  is  hroader  than  it  is  long  ;   but  there  is 
often  trickery  in  this — clever  enough  to  deceive  any  one  on  casual  inspection. 

After  the  tenth  year,  the  first  vertebra  of  the  tail  separates  from  the  last  of  the  spine,  and  the 
separation  increases  with  the  horse's  age.  Tlie  gums  also  contract  as  the  animal  grows  older,  so 
that  the  teeth  appear  longer :  these  organs  also  assume  a  whiteness  more  like  that  of  lime  than  be- 
fore. The  cavities  above  the  eyes  deepen,  the  hairs  surrounding  them  grow  white,  the  hind  quarters 
sink,  and  the  lips  no  longer  close.  When  these  signs  appear  the  hor.se  is  old,  and  his  value,  as 
far  as  regards  the  time  that  he  may  be  expected  to  last,  depends  much  more  upon  them  than  upon 
his  actual  age  ;  for  there  are  many  horses  whicli  become  unfit  for  use  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  while 
others  continue  useful  till  they  are  twenty  or  even  twenty-one  years  old.  I  knew  a  horse  which  , 
carried  the  post  at  the  age  of  four-and-tv^cnty.  , 

Grain  is  generally  the  principal  food  of  horses  ;  most  persons  give  the  preterence  to  oats.      But 
when  any  other  kind  of  grain  is  substituted  for  oats  in  quantity  proportioned  to  its  nutritive  power, 
and  mixed  with  straw  of  finer  quality  and  greater  quantity  than  usual,  the  most  attentive  observers 
are  unable  to  discover  the  slightest  ditTereuce.      Rye  is  the  grain  most  generally  substituted  for 
oats.     The  use  of  unground  barley  is  disapproved  by  some  persons,  because,  they  say,  a  large    ' 
portion  of  it  passes  through  the  body  undigested  ;  others,  on  the  contrary,  strongly  recommend  its    'i 
use.     Wheat  is  rarely  used  as  food'for  horses  :    some  persons  who  have  been  obliged  to  resort  to   'i 
it  have  found  it  veiV injurious  ;    but  various  reasons  induce  me  to  believe  that  this  evil  entirely    ; 
arose  from  not  mixing  the  wheat  with  a  proper  quantity  of  cut  straw  ;    without  this  addition  it  is    / 
very  apt  to  clog  the  stomach.     At  one  time,  when  this  kind  of  grain  was  very  cheap  as  compared 
with  others,  I  gave  it  to  my  horses  with  verj'  good  efJect,  but  always  mixed  with  a  considerable 
quantity  of  cut  straw. 

The  food  of  a  horse  is  usually  measured  in  oats,  this  being  the  most  usual  food.     There  is,  how- 
ever, no  kind  of  food  which  varies  so  much  in  nutritive  power  as  oats  given  by  measure.     Many 
persons  have,  therefore,  very  judiciously  resorted  to  the  expedient  of  giving  their  oats  by  weight, 
or  at  least  of  modifying  the  quantity  according  to  this  method.     Of  some  kinds  of  oats  the  scbeffel    ', 
weighs  but  36  lbs."  while  of  others  it  amounts  to  54  lbs.      In  such  a  case  the_ light  oats  will  not   ' 
fully  supply  the  place  of  the  heavier,  even  if  the  quantity  he  regulated  by  weight :    nine  metzen    ', 


of  the  former  are  not  equivalent  to  six  metzen  of  the  latter,  because  a  given  weight  of  the  former   'i 
contains  more  husk  and  less  farina.      Ten  metzen  of  the  36  lbs.  variety  would  probably  be  re- 
quired to  supply  the  place  of  six  metzen  of  the  .54  lbs.     Taking  the  48  lbs.  oats,  which  may  be 
considered  ver3'  good,  as  the  basis  of  the  calculation,  we  may  reckon  three  metzen  or  9  lbs.  for  a    , 
horse  of  average  ^ize  employed  in  ordinary  work  ;  it  is  understood,  however,  that  the  same  hor.se    ' 
is  to  have  8  lbs.  of  hay.     With  such  food  horses  of  this  description  usually  keep  up  their  strength 
vers-  well ;  but  when  they  are  put  to  extraordinary  work,  it  is  proper  to  give  them  an  additional 
quantity  of  food.      Smaller  hoi'ses,  which  are  not  put  to  forced  labor,  seldom  have  more  than  two    ( 
metzen  even  of  light  oats.      The  large  horses  of  Saxony,  Westphalia,  Bavaria,  and  Austria,  are 
supplied  with  at  least  four  metzen,  and  .sometimes  five.     Wagon-horses  frequently  have  eight 
metzen,  especially  when  but  little  hay  and  no  cut  straw  is  given  to  them.     The  difference  of  three 
and  five  metzen,  "the  former  for  small,  the  latter  for  large  horses,  is  often  made  without  producing 
any  great  difference  in  the  size  and  strength  of  the  animals,  or  the  manner  in  which  they  perform 
their  ordinary  work.      Horses  of  the  smaller  races  are,  therefore,  preferable,  where  they  are  not 
continually  wanted  to  draw  heavy  loads — especially  since,  even  in  the  latter  case,  the  work  may 
be  performed  by  increasing  the  number  of  the  horses  employed. 

Rye,  which  is  mo.st  frequently  used  as  a  substitute  for  oats,  produces  the  same  effect  when  given 
in  half  the  quantity  of  the  latter"  by  measure,  or  still  better  by  weight.  Some  persons  reckon  the 
proportion  of  rye  to  oats  for  feeding  horses  only  as  7  to  12 ;  thej-  admit,  however,  that  their  horses 
thrive  better  on  the  former  tlian  on  the  latter. 

The  seed  of  pulse,  such  as  peas,  beans  and  tares,  the  last  of  which  is  considered  the  best  for 
horses,  is  not  reckoned  of  greater  value  than  rye.  They  are,  however,  decidedly  more  substan- 
tial, as  appears  fi-om  the  observations  alreadymade  on  their  nutritive  properties  ;  and  likewise 
from  the  testimony  of  those  who  are  acquainted  with  this  mode  of  feeding.  In  many  countries  - 
these  pulse  constitute  almost  the  sole  nourishment  of  horses  ;  they  do  not,  as  some  persons  assert,  / 
disorder  the  respiration  of  the  animal.  The  English  give  them  without  reserve  to  their  race  ' 
horses.  The  prejudice  in  favor  of  oats  in  preference  to  all  other  kinds  of  grain  chiefly  arises 
from  this  cause,  that  all  diseases  which  may  attack  horses  fed  upon  oats,  in  a  country  where  this 
mode  of  feeding  is  not  customary,  are  Imputed  to  the  oats,  and  the  matter  is  talked  of  for  years ; 
whereas,  if  the  same  diseases  had  attacked  horses  habitually  fed  upon  this  kind  of  grain,  some 
other  cause  would  have  been  sought  for  and  discovered.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  very  sub- 
stantial food  should  he  cautiously  given,  or  it  will  be  likely  to  bring  on  indigestion.  Eor  example, 
mi.schief  may  easily  arise  when  the  servants,  in  the  midst  of  the  heavy  harvest  work,  secretly  put 
aside  a  certain  number  of  sheaves  of  new  i-ye,  and  give  them  to  the  horses  without  measuring  the 
quantity  ;  and  yet  many  farmers  who  are  perfectly  aware  of  this  trick  shut  their  eyes  to  it,  and 
regard  it  as  a  kind  of  established  custom.  Grain  of  the  more  substantial  kinds  likewise  requires 
to  "be  mixed  with  more  or  less  of  finely  cut  straw;  with  oats  this  is  not  absolutely  nece.=sary, 
though  always  useful.  To  prevent  the  horses  from  blowing  away  the  chaff,  and  separating  the 
grain  from  it",  the  mixture  should  be  wetted.  This  wet  fodder,  though  it  can  never  do  any  injury 
when  cautiously  given,  will  be  likely  to  act  as  a  cause  of  disorder  if  the  horses  are  heated  and  eat 
it  with  avidity  ;  an  occurrence  which  will  not  unfrequently  happen,  especially  when  they  have 
been  taken  to  the  field  before  they  have  finished  their  meal,  and  find  the  rest  of  it  in  the  manager 
on  their  return.     There  are  many  reasons  for  never  leaving  moist  food  in  the  mangers. 

Grain  given  to  horses  should  have  undergone  fermentation;    it  should  be  dry  but  not  heated. 
In  some  seasons,  badly  gathered  and  healed  oats  occasion  fatal  epidemics  among  horses.     Sprout- 
ed grain  does  not  injure  them,  orovided  it  has  been  housed  in  a  perfectly  dry  state,  and  has  not 
contracted  a  smell  of  fermentation.     Malted  grain,  particularly  barley,  mixed  with  the  food  is  con- 
(1220) 


aidered  very  beneficial  to  horses,  especially  when  given  in  the  proportion  of  a.  third  of  the  total 
qnantity. 

Some  persons  have  effected  great  saving  by  having  their  com  crushed  before  giving  it  to  the 
horses,  for  without  this  preparation  a  great  part  of  it  passes  unchanged  through  their  bodies.  This 
may  easily  be  done  if  we  have  a  mill  at  our  disposal ;  but  there  will  then  be  still  greater  neces- 
sity for  mixing  the  corn  with  cut  straw. 

The  grain  must  always  be  sifted  to  remove  the  dust,  unless  it  has  been  subjected  to  the  more 
effectual  process  of  fanning  a  short  time  before. 

Most  horses  are  fed  upon  hay  in  addition  to  their  com,  and  some  have  nothing  else. 
Where  a  choice  can  be  had  between  the  hay  of  poor,  dry,  arid  meadows,  and  that  of  rich,  fer- 
tile lands,  a  question  arises  as  to  which  of  the  two  is  the  more  proper  for  horses.  This  is  a  point 
upon  which  opinions  are  divided.  It  appears,  however,  that  when  hay  is  mixed  with  a  large 
quantity  of  corn,  as  an  accessory  kind  of  food,  the  hard,  poor  sort  should  be  given  ;  but  whei-e  it 
is  to  constitute  the  principal  part  of  the  horse's  food,  the  richer  and  more  substantial  kind  is  de- 
cidedly to  be  preferred. 

It  is  certain  that  hay  may  be  substituted  for  corn-feeding,  but  opinions  are  divided  respecting 
the  extent  to  which  this  substitution  ought  to  be  carried  ;  and  likewise  with  regard  to  its  econom- 
ical expediency ;  in  fact,  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  geneial  rule  on  the  subject.  Eight 
pounds  of  hay  are  generally  regarded  as  equivalent  to  a  me'tzen  of  oits  ;  and  when  estimated  by 
weight,  hay  is  said  to  bear  to  oats  the  ratio  of  eight  to  three.  Very  nutritious  hay,  grown  on  low 
meadows,  or  fodder  made  from  clover,  lucerne,  or  sainfoin,  is  undoubtedly  more  substantial,  and 
may  be  estimated  in  the  proportion  of  seven  to  three  ;  whereas  the  .same  kinds  of  fodder,  when 
coarse  and  poor,  do  not  exceed  the  ratio  of  nine  to  three.  But.  generally  speaking,  it  is  found 
that  when  the  quantity  of  hay  is  increased  and  that  of  corn  diminished,  the  horses  gain  more  ile.sh 
and  are  better  able  to  perform  slow  work,  but  do  not  t^tand  lon:^  journeys  or  great  exertion  so  '  [ 
well.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  hay  is  diminished,  and  the  corn  increased  in  quantiiy.  the  horses 
grow  lean,  but  become  stronger  and  more  lively  ;  provided,  how  ever,  that  their  supply  of  straw  i 
is  increa.sed.  An  increase  in  the  quantity  of  one  or  the  other  kind  of  food  will  be  found  adv 
tageous  according  to  the  particular  circumstances  in  which  we  may  be  placed,  and  the  prices  of  i 
various  kinds  of  fodder.  i 

Some  farmers  think  that  the  aftermath  or  second  hay  crop  is  decidedly  injurious  to  horses  ;  but  ' 
this  is  not  the  case  when  the  hay  is  harvested  dry  and  green,  and  grown  on  upland  meadows, 
even  though  they  are  somewhat  arid.  The  aftermath  of  rich  meadows  may  perhaps  be  le.ss  fit 
for  horses  than  for  horned-cattle.  Many  experienced  formers,  however,  do  not  like  to  have  the 
aftermath  consumed  till  February  or  March.  The  longer  the  hay  is  left  in  cocks,  the  better  is  it 
adapted  for  hor.ses  :  the  best  hay  for  tliem  is  that  which  is  more  than  a  year  old.  Hay  for  horses 
must  be  well  made,  and  dried  as  quickly  as  possible,  in  order  to  preserve  its  green  color  and  pe- 
culiar smell ;  brown  hay  is  not  proper  for  these  animals. 

Beside  the  cut  straw,  other  straw  is  likewise  given  to  horse.s,  particularly  that  w^hich  has  been 
most  broken  in  threshing  ;  this  is  put  into  the  rack.  Contrary  to  general  opinion,  wheat  straw  is 
the  best ;  it  is  the  most  proper  substitute  for  hay  when  that  kind  of  fodder  is  deficient,  and  is  like- 
wise the  kind  of  straw  which  horses  eat  most  willingly.  The  haulm  of  tares,  lentils  and  beans  are. 
doubtless,  still  more  nntritous,  especially  when  part  of  their  leaves  are  left  on  them  in  the  green  , 
state.  Some  farmers  are  afraid  to  give  pea  straw  ;  they  say  that  it  sometimes  brings  on  colic  ; 
but  this  opinion  is  founded  on  mere  prejudice. 

Opinions  are  divided  respecting  the  propriety  of  feeding  horses  in  the  stable  on  clover  and  other 
kinds  of  green-meat.  For  my  own  part  I  am  persuaded  that  horses  may  be  kept  in  this  manner 
in  good  health  and  full  vigor;  at  least  when  a  proper  system  is  pursued.  It  is,  however,  the  quan- 
tity of  this  fodder,  and  the  price  current  of  gi-ain,  which  determine  the  amount  of  saving  that  may 
be  obtained  by  this  mode  of  feeding.  I  kept  my  horses  in  this  way  for  several  years,  when  corn 
■wa.s  high-priced,  and  always  with  advantage  :  they  improved  in  condition  without  losing  strength 
even  when  they  are  not  spared  in  respect  of  work.  In  the  following  winter,  also,  they  were  in  , 
surprisingly  good  condition.  The  transition  from_  dry  to  green  fodder  must,  however,  be  e:ra  lual- 
ly  made.  At  first,  the  clover  must  be  cut  up  with  straw  ;  and  first  one  portion  of  it,  then  two  : 
given  daily  in  place  of  oats  ;  afterward,  when  the  clover  is  in  flower  it  is  given  to  them  in  as  great 
a  quantity  as  they  like  ;  but  then  the  corn  is  stopped.  It  is  not  good  to  give  com  with  green-meat, 
because  the  former  then  pa.sses  through  the  body  undigested.  If  com  and  green  feeding  are  to  be 
united,  the  corn  must  then  be  given  in  the  moming,  and  the  horses  not  allowed  any  green  fodder 
before  noon,  or  any  com  in  the  after  part  of  the  day.  G-reen  lucerne  and  tares  (especially  the  lat- 
ter) which  have  begun  to  form  their  pods,  are  better  for  horses  than  clover.  The  same  gradual 
change  must  be  observed  in  passing  from  green  to  dry  feeding. 

Horses  are  sometimes  turned  out  to  grass  in  summer,  either  with  the  other  cattle,  or  in  fields  by 
themselves.  If  they  are  properly  attended  to,  and  left  completely  at  rest,  this  removal  to  their  na- 
tural state  agrees  with  them  perfectly  well.  But  horses  cannot  often  be  left  unemployed,  and 
therefore  it  is  rarely  possible  to  have  them  turned  out  to  grass.  For  a  horse  to  thrive  when  fed  in 
this  manner,  the  pasturage  must  be  abundant,  but  he  will  then  spoil  a  great  deal  of  it  with  his  feet ; 
hence  two  cow-pastures  are  reckoned  for  one  horse-pasture. 

"We  cannot  here  treat  of  the  pasturage  of  horses  on  marshes  or  commons.  These  can  rarely  be 
used  for  working  horses,  especially  when  they  are  at  a  considerable  distance.  They  are  more  use- 
ful for  brood-mares  and  colts.  • 

It  is  certain  that  plow-horses  may  be  fed  from  autumn  till  the  time  when  young  green  fod- 
der  can   be  procured,  without  the   aid  of  com,  by  means  of  roots  and    a   large    quantity  of  , 
hay  and  straw^ ;    upon  such  food   horses  may  be  maintained    in  full  vigor  and    perfect  health. 
They  will  not,  however,  be  fit  for  long  journeys,  such  as  are  required  in  winter  for  the  transport 
of  produce 

The  most  suitable  and  profitable  food  for  horses  consists  of  carrots,  washed  and  coarsely  mash- 
(1221) 


ed,  orcut.     Twelve  metzen  of  these  vegetables  are  given -with  eight  pounds  of  hay  and  a  due 
proportion  of  straw,  when  the  horses  are  to  be  put  to  laborious  work.     This  plan  of  feeding  is  nni- 
versallj'  adopted  iu  some  counties  of  England,  and  found  highly  successful.     In  this  counti'y,  also, 
it  is  well  known  that,  when  horses  know  the  taste  of  carrots,  they  eat  them  with  avidity,  and  thrive    . 
upon  them.  ' 

As  to  potatoes,  many  farmers  who  have  tried  them  have  been  very  well  satisfied  with  the  result ; 
otliers  have  not  been  able  to  accustom  their  horses  to  these  vegetables,  or  have  found  that  the  ani- 
mals lost  strength  when  thus  fed.  I  am  net  able  to  decide  whether  in  the  latter  case  the  food  was 
properly  given.  1  have  never  tried  this  mode  of  feeding  with  my  own  horses,  because  it  has  nev- 
er been  consistent  with  my  system  of  managemert.  The  potatoes  should  first  be  carefully  wa.shed, 
and  then  coarsely  broken  up.  The  horses  may  be  accustomed  to  these  vegetables  by  playing  with 
th^m,  making  them  eat  out  of  the  hand,  then  putting  a  few  pieces  on  their  food,  and  gradually  in 
creasing  the  quantity.  If  it  be  desired  to  substitute  potatoes  entirely  for  com  in  feeding  horses,  each 
animal  must  have  half  a  schellel  ;.5U  lbs.)  per  day.  But  perhaps  it  is  better  to  take  away  only  half 
the  com  and  give  four  metzen  of  potatoes,  in  place  of  one  and  a  half  metzen  of  oats.  The  horse  ' 
must  likewise  be  supplied  with  hay  and  straw  as  usual.  Some  persons  steam  the  potatoes.  In  a 
large  factory  in  England  eighty  horses  are  kept  on  food  thus  prepared  ;  when  the  same  method 
has  been  tried  in  this  country,  the  horses  have  absolutely  refused  to  eat  the  potatoes.* 

Turnips  of  the  kind  admitting  of  transplantation,  and  ruta-bagas.  have  also  been  tried  as  food  for 
horses,  and  eaten  by  them  as  greedily  as  canots.  The  animals  must,  however,  be  gradually  accus- 
tomed to  them  in  tlie  same  manner  as  to  bread. 

Some  farmers  feed  their  hordes  on  nothing  but  the  refuse  of  the  threshing-floor  mixed  with    ' 
hay  and    cut   stj-aw  :    \\hen,  however,  the    hoises    are   required   to  work,  they  are  allowed  a 
feed  of  corn.     In  estalilLsliments  where  horses  are  but  little  used  iu  winter,  this  plan  of  feeding 
may  be  sufficient.     Brood-mares  are  often  kept  in  this  manner  in  studs,  where  they  are  not  re- 
quired io  work. 

All  food  should  be  given  to  horses  in  small  portions.  A  horse  should  commonly  be  allowed 
three  hours  to  eat ;  the  attendants  must,  therefore,  get  up  three  hours  before  work  begins,  to  give 
them  their  first  feed.     The  hours  of  feeding  should  be  regularly  observed. 

Horses  should  be  watered  with  great  care  in  the  stable  and  when  quite  cool.  Water  may  in- 
deed be  given  to  them  on  the  road,  but  they  must  be  made  to  go  on  immediately  afterward.  It  is 
imi)roper  to  give  them  drink  immediately  after  they  have  eaten  corn  ;  they  should  have  f^ome  hay 
first.  Some  persons  think  that  hard  water  is  best  for  horses  ;  but  they  prefer  soft  water,  and  drink 
more  willingh'  from  ponds  than  from  clear  .springs.  Hard  spring-water  should  therefore  be  ex- 
posed to  the  air  for  some  time  before  it  is  given  to  horses. 

Cleanliness  is  of  great  importance  to  the  health  of  the  horses;  if  it  be  neglected,  a  crust  of  sweat 
and  dust  collects  on  the  .skin,  and  gives  rise  to  mange  and  other  disea.ses.  Agricultural  horses  can- 
not, indeed,  be  treated  with  all  the  minute  attention  bestowed  on  plea.'^ure  horses;  such  as  curry- 
lug,  brushing,  dusting,  and  washing  every  time  ihey  return  to  the  stable  ;  but,  at  all  events,  they 
should  be  curried  every  morning,  and  have  their  hams,  knce.s  and  feet  washed  every  evening, 
when  they  have  got  dirty.  A  smooth  shining  coat,  which  lazy  grooms  can  produce  by  waishing 
the  horses  entrusted  to  their  care,  often  conceals  a  great  deal  of  dirt  attached  to  the  skin  :  but  this  \ 
is  easily  discovered  by  passing  the  finger  forcibly  tlie  wrong  way  of  the  h;iir.  As  plow-horses 
cannotWell  be  perfectly  cleaned  every  morning,  the  operation  should  be  performed  at  least  once 
a  week,  on  Sunday  morning.  Bathing  is  doubtless  very  beneficial  to  horses  :  not  in  the  evening, 
when  they  return  from  work  heated  and  tired,  but  in  the  morning. 

The  shoeing  of  the  fore-feet  is  indispensable,  excepting  for  horses  which  either  work  on  sandy  soils, 
or  have  peculiarly  solid  hoofs,  a  very  valuable  property,  hereditary  in  certain  breeds.  The  .shoe- 
ing of  the  hind  feet  is  often  dispensed  with  where  the  roads  are  not  very  stony.  In  rural  districts, 
where  there  is  not  much  choice  of  farriers,  shoeing  i.*  often  very  badly  performed.  The  farmer 
should,  therefore,  take  an  opportunity  of  acquiring  a  t.'ood  prMctical  knowledge  of  the  art  of  shoe- 
ing, that  he  may  be  able  to  direct  and  control  the  farrier.  The  shoe  should  fit  the  hoof  exactly, 
after  the  latter  "has  been  properly  pared.  ,  Particular  care  nmst  be  taken  to  guard  against  pricks, 
which  result  from  a  horse  running  a  nail  into  his  foot  as  he  walks,  or  from  a  nail  taking  the  wrong 
direction  in  shoeing:  when  this  happens,  the  nail  m.ust  be  immediately  extracted. 

Colts  must  be  accustomed  at  an  early  age  to  allow  their  feet  to  be  lifted  up  and  struck  :  they  are  not 
however,  shod  till  wanted  for  tolerably  regular  work.  Broken  or  damaged  shoes  must  never  be  lelt 
on  the  feet :  they  must  be  taken  off  as  soon  as  the  hoofs  project  beyond  them  ;  but  may  be  replaced, 
if  strong  enough  to  be  used  again.  For  this  purpose,  horses  should  be  sent  to  the  forge  about  once 
a  month. 

Airricultural  hor-ses  which  are  almost  always  out  of  doors  do  not  require  stables  so  spacious,  lofty 
and  light  as  others  which  are  at  rest  for  the  greater  part  of  their  time ;  nevertheless,  the  stable 
should  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  moderately  warm  in  winter,  and  cool  in  summer.  Ventilation 
should  be  effected  by  means  of  windows ;  but  above  all  things,  atTangements  must  be  made 
for  completely  can-yinu:  off  the  urine.  The  stalls  should  be  so  formed  as  to  allow  the  horses 
to  lie  down,  which,  from  the  little  sleep  that  they  have,  is  very  beneficial  to  them.  Some 
horses  never  lie  down ;  it  is  chiefly  by  constantly  remaining  in  narrow  stalls,  that  they  acquire  the 
habit  of  always  standing  upright.  For  instructions  as  to  the  mode  of  building  stables  for  horses,  I 
,   refer  to  the  work  of  Gilly,  already  cited.  ■  .  i 

Young  horses  must  be  gradually  accustomed  to  labor:    the  surest  mode  of  effecting  this  ob-   i 

*  Probably  because  they  were  too  watery  and  too  much  mashed  :  perhaps  also  because  they  had  been 
allowed  to  Uim  .»nur.  When  boiled  potatoes  are  to  be  given  to  horses,  they  must  be  prepared  with  great 
care,  and  day  by  day  ;  they  should  also  be  boiled  in  steam,  and  not  in  water.  I  think,  however,  that  boiled 
potatoes  make  the  stomachs  of  animals  sluggish  ;  I  therefore  give  them  only  to  those  which  are  to  be  fatteu- 
ed.  Horses  fed  on  them  grow  sensibly  fatter,  but  do  not  become  spirited :  they  seem,  indeed,  rather  to  grow 
lazy.  [French  Trans. 


I  ject  is  to  attach  them  to  a  plow  on  a  light  soil.  At  first,  they  should  be  entrasted  only  to  very 
[  intelligent  men.  and  constantly  watched.  Under  these  conditions,  a  colt  may  be  used  from  the  age 
'  of  21  years,  but  only  with  moderation,  and  never  for  a  whole  day  together:  for  this  he  will 
not  be  able  to  bear  till  he  is  four  years  old.  He  must  be  gradually  accustomed  to  work  for  a 
longer  time,  and  drag  heavier  loads.  By  this  treatment  he  will  gain  strength,  and  not  be  injured, 
provided  he  be  made  to  walk  gently  and  regularly.  A  horse  is  rarely  injured,  even  at  hard  work, 
when  made  to  go  slowly ;  it  is  by  being  forced  to  travel  with  excessive  speed  that  he  becomes 
heated  and  worn  out. 

Great  regularity  should  be  observed  in  the  hours  of  labor.  A  plow-horse  may,  without  ex- 
hau^;tion,  be  worked  for  six  hours  every  day  at  ordinary  work  ;  if  the  time  be  divided  into  two  equal 
portions,  by  a  meal  in  the  middle  of  the  day:  but  they  must  not  be  taxed  to  the  utmost,  except  in 
ca:^es  of  necessity.  In  the  winter  season,  when  these  periods  are  too  short,  the  honses  may  be  al- 
lowed to  work  for  six  or  seven  hours  together  :  this  may  even  be  necessaiy  when  they  are  employ- 
ed to  draw  loads  to  considerable  distances. 

As  the  feed  of  horses  is  increased  when  they  are  very  hard  worked,  so  also  it  may  be  diminish- 
ed when  they  are  unemployed,  by  taking  away  part  of  the  ordinary  allowance  of  corn:  the  diminu- 
tion, however,  should  never  exceed  a  third  of  the  whole  allowance. 

A  hor.se  being  an  expensive  animal,  and  very  liable  to  injury,  he  should  never  be  entrusted  to  any 
driver  but  one  who  is  very  steady  and  trustworthy.  If  it  be  necessary  to  employ  drivers  in  whom 
we  cannot  place  entire  confidence,  they  should  never  be  trusted  out  of  sight :  above  all,  they  must 
not  be  sent  upon  journeys,  excepting  under  careful  .superintendence. 

The  director  of  a  rural  establishment  should  frequently  examines  the  harness  of  his  horses,  to  see 
that  it  fits  well,  diat  all  injuries  are  promptly  repaired,  and  that  it  is  grea.sed  and  cleaned  as  often 
as  required  :  servants  seldom  take  any  interest  in  these  matters.  I  should  recommend  particularly 
in  establishments  which  often  change  their  servants,  that  no  mode  of  harnessing  be  adopted  differ- 
ent from  that  which  is  commonly  practiced  in  the  country,  even  though  a  more  advantageous 
method  should  be  known. 

There  is  some  advantage  in  yoking  four  horses  two  by  two,  rather  than  in  single  file  :  but  the 
former  method  requires  the  employment  of  men  who  perfectly  understand  driving  and  riding,  and 
will  take  a  liking  to  the  horse  which  they  mount,  and  spare  him  as  much  labor  as  possible  ;  other- 
wise, the  horse  so  used  will  certainly  be  exhausted  and  quickly  worn  out.  There  is  some  difficulty 
in  changing  the  carrier  in  a  team. 


INDEX  TO  THAER'S  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Acid,  in  soil,  149 ;  theory  of  the  use  of, 
253. 

Agriculture,  what  it  is,  11,  200 ;  as  an  oc- 
cupation, 11;  as  an  art,  11;  science  of 
rests  on  experience,  12;  basis  of  the 
science  of,  12.. 

Agricultural  enterprise,  14. 

Alumina,  properties  and  value  of,  140 ; 
its  affinity  for  water,  141. 

Analysis,  of  grains,  71. 

Anise,  468. 

Ai-giUaceous,  land,  179. 

Animal  substances  as  manure,  224 ;  repro- 
duction of,  396. 

Ashes,  an  active  manure,  253;  refuse  of 
bleachers  and  soap-boilers,  253;  not  to 
be  thrown  on  dung-hill,  254 ;  peat,  254. 


Barley,  species  of,  424  ;  kind  of  land  for, 

tillering,  424 ;  common  or  spring,  424  ; 

weight  of,  425  ;  two  rowed  or  flat,  425  ; 

Siberian,  or  naked,  425 ;  naked  flat,  426  ; 

six-rowed,  426  ;  rice,  426. 
Beets,  compared  with  hay,  90  ;  the  field, 

475. 
Beans,   varieties   of,    438;    kidney,    438; 

sowed  in  rows,  438  ;  soil  for  them,  438  ; 

varieties,  modes  of  culture,  nutriment, 

&c.,  476. 
Buckwheat  as  manure,  248  ;  soils  for,  441 ; 

time  for  sowing,  441 ;  straw  of,  as  fodder, 

442 ;  Siberian,  442. 
Butter,  518,  119. 


Cabbage,  red  and  white,  480 ;  varieties, 
soils  for,  cultivation  of,  gathering  and 
preservation  of,  480-1. 

Carraway,  soil  for,  gathering,  &c.,  467. 

Calcium,  phosphuret  of,  154. 

Capital,  kind  and  importance  of,  17,  130. 

Cattle,  horned  varieties  of,  500 ;  breeding 
of,  502;  feeding  of,  507  ;  grain,  oil-cake 
and  roots  for,  508 ;  cooking  food  t'v.T, 
509 ;  drink  for,  in  winter,  510 ;  litter 
for,  510 ;  food  to  be  changed  gradually, 
510;  mode  of  stall-feeding,  513  ;  fatten- 
ing, 522 ;  machine  for  weighing,  523 ; 
cleanliness  and  litter  for,  525  ;  regularity 
in  feeding,  525. 

Calf,  modes  of  rearing  the,  504 ;  teaching 
the,  to  drink,  505 ;  how  to  fatten  the,  506. 


Carrots,  compared  with  hay,  91 ;  soil  for» 
varieties,  sovping,  cultivation,  harvesting) 
nutriment  of,  &c.,  481-2. 

Chiccoiy,  root  of,  used  as  cofiee,  466. 

Chalk  described,  157. 

Clover  benefitted  by  gypsum,  250 ;  land 
best  for  wheat,  415;  harvesting,  &c., 
487 ;  saving  the  seed  of,  490 ;  white, 
491  ;  common  purple,  485;  time  of  sow- 
ing seed,  &c.,  486. 

Clay,  a  compound,  143 ;  of  different  colors, 
144 ;  acted  on  slightly  by  acids,  149 ; 
different  kinds  of,  150,  151;  how  it  in- 
creases the  fertility  of  the  land,  177 ; 
excess  of,  injurious,  178 ;  what  per  cent 
necessary  for  grass  land,  324 ;  land  best 
for  wheat,  414. 

Clearing  land,  313. 

Composting,  215. 

Cow,'  for  the  yoke,  41 ;  houses,  arrange- 
ment of,  219 ;  heat  in,  502 ;  abortion  in, 
504 ;  signs  of  approaching  calving  in, 
504  ;  relative  of  tethering  and  stall-feed- 
ing, 513. 

Corn,  Indian,  varieties,  mode  of  cultiva- 
tion, harvesting,  &c.,  483-4. 

Crops,  benefit  of  rotation,  119 ;  legumi- 
nous, 433  ;  culture  of  hoed  or  weeded, 
443  ;  general  modes  and  care  in  cultiva- 
tion of  hoed,  445. 

Colza  and  rape,  449;  distinguishing  cha- 
racteristics, 450 ;  soil  for,  and  time  for 
sowing  each,  450  ;  spring,  454. 

Cream,  when  to  be  used,  519. 

Cheese,  making,  520. 

Churns,  various  kinds,  519. 


Dairy,  the,  517, 

Draining,  332;  object  of,  335;  causes  of 
superabundant  water,  336;  materials  used 
in,  339  ;  of  marshes,  343  ;  aquatic  plants 
destroyed  by,  377. 

Drill,  sowhig.  advantages  of,  431 ;  dis- 
tances of  the,  431 ;  adapted  to  vegeta- 
bles, 432  ;  amount  of  product  increased 
by  the,  432. 


Earth  and  humus,  distinction  between, 
133 ;  elementary,  133 ;  attraction  of,  for 
atmospheric  moisture,  146  ;  difl'erent 
species  of,  173. 

pa;.] 


554 


INDEX   TO   THAER  S   PKINCIPLES    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


Earthing  and  warping,  355 ;  principles  of, 
358,  359 ;  crops  produced  on  laud  made 
by,  3(J0. 

Estate,  plan  of,  199. 

Experimeuts,  importance  of,  12. 


Fallow  kind  explained,  103;  benefit  from, 
103  ;  advantages  of,  307. 

Feunel,  common,  468. 

Felspar,  composition  of  (note),  139. 

Fences,  hedges,  euclosm-es,  325. 

Flax,  soil  tor,  457  ;  exhausts  the  soil,  458  ; 
varieties  of,  459 ;  seed  improves  by  keep- 
ing, 459. 

Food  for  cattle,  to  be  changed  gradually, 
510  ;  best  for  autumn  feed,  514  ;  alter- 
nate dry  and  green,  beneficial  for  cattle, 
515. 


Granite,  composition  of,  139  ;  difierent  spe- 
cies of,  413. 

Grain,  weight  per  bushel,  405 ;  cultivation 
of,  in  rows,  429. 

Grasses,  best  meadow,  364;  for  pasture 
lands,  389;  ray  grass,  common  oat-like 
grass,  tall  fescue  grass,  498  ;  cock's-tbot 
grass,  dog's-tail,  Timothy,  woody,  soft, 
meadow  fox-tail,  and  meadow  grasses, 
499. 

Gold,  of,  pleasure  cultivated,  755. 

Gypsum,  or  sulphate  of  lime,  158 ;  how  it 
acts  on  the  soil,  248. 

Guano  '^note),  226. 


Harrow,  description  and  use  of,  284. 

Hay,  nutritive  matter  in,  90 ;  harvest, 
379;  two  kinds  of,  380;  how  to  make 
green,  .381 ;  to  make  brown,  382 ;  impie- 
meuts  u.sed  in  making,  383;  storing, 
381 ;  stacking,  .385. 

Hedges,  fences,  enclosures,  325  ;  plants 
for,  330. 

Hemp,  varieties,  time  for  sowing,  soil, 
&c.,  459. 

Hoes,  uses  of,  282. 

Horse  and  oxen,  their  labor  compared,  41 
to  44,  51 ;  description  of  farm,  45  ;  how 
to  feed,  47  ;  description  of,  .546  ;  breed- 
ing and  training  of,  by  the  farmer,  546 ; 
use  of  the  mare  in  foal,  547  ;  care  of  the 
young  foal,  547  ;  food  for,  548  ;  and  how 
given,  549  ;  regularity  i«  feeding  the, 
550  ;  and  in  labor,  ,551. 

Hop,  the,  463  ;  description  of,  species,  soil 
for,  how  cultivated  and  harvested,  463  ; 
drying,  packing,  &c.,  464-5. 

Huuius  and  earth,  distinction  between, 
133  ;  described,  166 ;  proportion  neces- 
sary iu  the  soil,  176, 1.-7,  178. 


[mplements,   agriculturd.    233  ;    di"Med 
into  classes,  -^61 . 


Iron  described,  166. 

irrigation,  346 ;  ditches,  or  canals,  classi- 
fied, 350 ;  difierent  ways  of,  351 ;  of 
meadows,  375. 


Journal,  farm-,  59. 


Labor,  general  principles  of,  36. 

Land  called  argillaceous,  179  ;  when  called 
clay,  179  ;  when  called  sandy,  ]81 ;  the 
best,  how  composed,  182  ;  different  me- 
chanical texture  of,  185;  form  of  sur- 
face aflects  value  of  the,  190  ;  clearing, 
313 ;  meadows,  management  of,  362 ; 
clay,  best  for  wheat,  414. 

Lime,  (36,)  51 ;  carbonate  of,  152;  calcined, 
153  ;  its  affinity  for  acids,  155 ;  stone, 
156 ;  pulverulent,  157  ;  shell,  158  ;  sulph- 
ate of,  or  gypsum,  158  ;  must  not  come 
in  contact  with  dung,  215  ;  to  be  used 
in  decomposing  vegetable  matter,  230 ; 
its  action  on  soils,  236  ;  how  to  mix  with 
the  soil,  237-8-9,  322 ;  applied  to  wheat 
land,  421. 

Leaves,  as  a  manure,  217. 

Leguminous  (pod-bearing)  plants,  nutri- 
ment of,  433. 

Lentil,  varieties  of,  437 ;  better  than  peas, 
437 ;  straw  of  the,  value  of,  437. 

Litter  advantageous  for  cattle,  510. 

Lucerne,  how  to  cultivate,  492 ;  used  green, 
or  as  hay,  494. 


Madder,  dyer's,  461  ;  soil  for,  how  propa- 
gated and  cultivated,  461. 

Magnesia  described,  164 ;  fossils  which 
contain,  165. 

Manure  and  fodder,  70;  quantity  of,  pro- 
duced by  a  certain  weight  of  fodder, 
89;  dropped  by  cow. at  pasture  in  24 
hours,  95  ;  produced  by  lean  cattle,  95 ; 
how  it  acts,  201 ;  stable  described,  203, 
207 ;  of  the  horse,  203 ;  of  horned  cattle, 
294;  of  sheep,  205;  of  pigs,  205;  of 
poultry,  235 ;  night-soil,  206 ;  how  to 
store  up  and  preserve,  237,  208,  209, 
210  ;  wlieu  to  apply  and  in  what  state, 
211 ;  leaving  in  small  heaps,  212;  time 
for  carting,  212  ;  on  heavy  and  light 
land,  213;  modes  of  composting,  215; 
by  top-dressing  with  coarse  materials, 
215  ;  leaves,  as  a,  217  ;  liquid  (note),  220  ; 
vegetable,  227  ;  mineral,  234  ;  burying, 
26'3  ;  for  meado'.\-s, '373. 

M.ui  cl.;.~'.c;-iijed,  1(33;  different  kinds  of, 
16 ')  ;  utility  of,  241;  varieties,  242: 
qiiautity  to'be  applied,  244;  operatiou 
of,  245. 

Mi'dic,  yellow  sickle,  496  ;  black,  496. 

Iilni-.low  laiiil,  management  of,  362;  sand 
ui-  <.-ji;-tti  for,  374;  irrigation  of,  375; 
p:if>turiige,  378. 

Mji.srure,  how  attracted,  193. 


INDEX   TO  THAERS   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


ooo 


Milk  from  green  fodder  better  than  from 
dry,  516 ;  how  to  dispose  of,  517  ;  room, 
essential,  518 ;  vessels  for,  518 ;  skim- 
ming, 518. 

Mole-hills,  369  ;  how  to  level,  370. 

Mineral  manures,  234. 

Muck,  peat,  described,  171 ;  how  formed 
(note),  172;  how  to  compost,  232,  233. 

Millet,  kinds  of,  428 ;  kind  of  soil  for,  429  ; 
securing  the  seed  of,  429 ;  straw  of,  as 
fodder,  429.  ' 

Meslin,  mixtures  of  different  kinds  of 
grain,  443 

Mustard,  cultivation  of,  455. 


Nettle,  common,  460. 


Oats,  426;  common,  white,  and  heavy, 
426;  early  oat,  black,  glossy,  acorn, 
Hungarian,  hairy,  and  naked,  427  ;  suit- 
able soil  for,  427  ;  seed,  428 ;  straw  of, 
428. 

Observation,  importance  of,  12  ;  best  food 
for,  in  winter,  48. 

Oxygen,  the  principle  chiefly  concerned 
in  changing  cream,  219. 

Oxen  and  horses,  their  labor  compared,  41 
to  44,  51 ;  description  of,  46 ;  feed  re- 
quired, 47. 


Pasture,  various  kinds  of,  386;  amount  re- 
quired by  different  animals,  387 ;  change 
of,  394 ;  watering-places  in,  396 ;  for 
cows,  511 ;  some  calculated  to  produce 
milk,  others  fat,  511. 

Peat  described,  171 ;  how  formed  (note), 
172  ;  for  litter,  218;  muck,  how  to  com- 
post, 232. 

Plants,  constituents  of,  113;  aquatic,  how 
destroyed,  377 ;  liguminous  (pod-bear- 
ing)  nutriment  of,  433  ;  oil,  449  ;  fodder, 
468;  herbage,  485. 

Parsnip,  soil  for,  &c.,  483. 

Plough,  ploughing  the,  49,  262 ;  qualities 
which  constitute  a  good,  263;  trenching- 
ploughs,  278 ;  requisites  in,  289  ;  deep, 
303 ;  subsoil,  305. 

Pea,  the  varieties  of,  434 ;  soil  suited  to 
the,  434  ;  manuring  the,  435 ;  time  fin- 
sowing  the,  435  ;  sticking  the,  435;  time 
of  gathering,  436;  value  of  the  pea 
haulm,  437. 

Potatoes,  compared  with  hay,  90 ;  intro- 
duction and  culture  of,  438  ;  soil  for, 
469  ;  for  planting,  470  ;  preparation  of 
soil,  &c.,  471  ;  preservation  of,  473;  for 
cattle,  473  ;  boiled  for  cattle,  509. 

Potash,  decomposing  power  of,  253. 

Pondrette,  how  made,  206. 

Poppy,  common,  456 ;  oil  and  profits  of 
the,  457. 


Radish,  oily,  455. 

Rape  and  colza,  449 ;  distinguishing  cha- 
racters, 450  ;  soil  and  time  for  sowing, 
450 ;  spring,  454. 

Rennet,  mode  of  preparing,  521. 

Ridging,  291. 

Roller,"the  object  of  287. 

Roots,  cutting,  for  cattle,  509. 

Rocks,  primary,  how  composed  (note),  133. 

Rye,  sandy  laud  for,  414 ;  description  of 
spring  and  autumnal,  421  ;  laud  best 
adapted  to,  421 ;  preparatory  crops  for, 
422 ;  time  of  sowing,  422 ;  harrowing  in 
the  spring,  422 ;  ergot  in,  how  engen- 
dered, 423 ;  when  ripe,  423 ;  weight  per 
bushel,  423;  spring,  only  a  variety  of 
autumnal  rye,  433 ;  spring,  when  sown. 
423. 


Salt,  common  (muriate  of  soda),  as  a 
manure,  250 ;  works,  sediment  of,  255. 

Saltpetre  (nitrate  of  potassa,  or  nitre), 
as  a  manure,  251. 

Sand,  composition  of,  139  ;  its  importance 
in  the  soil,  178,  179;  when  injurious  to 
land,  190. 

Saffron,  bastard,  soil  for,  and  mode  of  ga- 
thering, 463. 

Seed,  burying  the,  260 ;  interesting  notice 
of,  d96 ;  may  be  kept  long,  399 ;  soak- 
ing, 400 ;  attention  required  in  sowing 
small,  401 ;  depth  of  sowing,  4u2  ;  how 
to  determine  amount  per  acre,  402. 

Sea-weed.  231. 

Silica,  explained,  137. 

Sheep,  folding,  222;  pastured  on  wheat 
fields,  417  ;  eating  to  excess,  525  ;  ma- 
nagement of,  532 ;  varieties  of,  533 ; 
attention  to  ewes  in  lambing,  537  ;  age 
known  by  their  teeth,  537  ;  pasture  for, 
538 ;  winter  food  for,  540  ;  salt  for,  541 ; 
barns  or  rooms  for,  541 ;  mangers  or 
racks,  542 ;  treatment  of,  543 ;  dog  for, 
544 ;  washing,  545. 

Sainfoin,  kind  of  soil  for,  495 ;  valuable 
as  fodder,  496. 

Stable,  arrangement  of,  219. 

Stones,  remarks  on,  198 ;  blasting  and  re- 
moving, 322. 

Spelt  (wheat),  419. 

Spade,  husbandry,  261. 

Spurry,  corn,  496 ;  varieties,  seed  per  acre, 
when  cut,  &c.,  497. 

Stock,  live,  economy  of,  500. 

Swine,  profits  vary  in,  527  ;  various  breeds 
of,  527  ;  breeding  and  rearing  of,  528 ; 
pasture  and  sty  feeding  of,  530 ;  modes 
of  feeding,  531 ;  fattening  of,  532. 

Soil,  three  ways  of  repairing  exhausted, 
71 ;  exhausted  by  the  formation  of  grains 
and  seeds,  115 ;  how  exhausted  by  se- 
veral roots,  116 ;  its  relations  to  agricul- 
tural industry,  131 ;  constituent  parts  of 
the,    132;    relative    value   of    different 


556 


INDEX  TO   THAERS   PRINCIPLES   OF    AGRICULTURE. 


depths,  187;  stony,  how  treated,  198; 
mechanical  amelioration  of  the,  256; 
loosening  and  pulverization  of  the,  256  ; 
mixture  of  the  parts  of  the,  258 ;  how 
to  preserve  moistui-e  in  the,  259 ;  how 
formed,  333. 
Sub-soiling,  258. 


Table,  showing  equal  proportions  of  hay, 
potatoes,  beets,  carrots,  &c.,  91. 

Tanks  or  resei-voirs,  220. 

Temperature,  increase  of  the,  below  the 
surface,  189. 

Thaer,  Albrecht  Daniel,  3. 

Thread,  plants,  flax,  457. 

Teasel,  fullers,  460. 

Trench,  trenching,  261 ;  principle  of,  262. 

Trefoil,  strawbeiry,  492. 

Turf,  value  of,  as  a  fertilizer,  228. 

Tobacco,  465. 

Turnip,  the,  477 ;  which  will  not  bear 
transplanting,  478 ;  admitting  of  trans- 
planting, 479  ;  cabbage,  479. 


Vegetable,  green,  value  of,  228  ;  proper- 
ties of  those  to  be  buried,  229 ;  sub- 
stances, reproduction  of,  396 ;  for  the 
market,  profits  of,  447  ;  why  the  cultiva- 
tion of,  is  neglected,  448  ;  soil  for,  448  ; 
an  exact  knowledge  in  the  cultivation  of, 
necessary,  448 ;  importance  of,  to  the 
agriculturist,  449. 


Vitriol,  green  (sulphate  of  iron),  as  a  ma- 
nure, 252. 

Vetches,  kinds  of,  440 ;  soil  for,  440  ;  mode 
of  cultivation,  440;  as  green  fodder, 
440 ;  may  be  cut  twice  on  rich  land, 
440  ;  do  not  exhaust  the  soil  when  cut 
green,  441 ;  value  of  the  straw  of,  441 . 


Warping  and  earthing,  355 ;  principles  of, 
358 ,  359 ;  crops  produced  on  land  made 
by,  360. 

Wall,  for  fence,  326. 

Water,  causes  of  superabundant,  836. 

Weeds,  how  to  destroy,  117,  259 ;  varie- 
ties, how  produced,  194;  annual  and 
biennial,  195,  228 ;  sea  and  pond,  231 ; 
to  be  destroyed,  372. 

Wheat,  constituents  of,  404 ;  eiiects  of 
winter  on,  406 ;  harrowing  it  in  spring, 
407;  abortion  in  crop,  408;  jaildew, 
409;  harvesting,  410;  threshing,  411; 
storing  and  preserving,  413 ;  lands  best 
suited  to,  414  ;  depth  of  covering,  416  ; 
weeding  and  hoeing,  417  ;  average  crop 
of,  418 ;  spring  description  of,  418 ;  one- 
grained,  419  ;  carries  in,  419. 

Wort,  Syrian  swallow,  or  Virginian  silk, 
460. 

Woad,  dyer's,  soil  for,  how  cultivated, 
mode  of  gathering,  &c.,  462. 

Weld,  dyer's,  463. 

Wool,  545. 


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